MODULE IV

SOLID MODELS AND

REPRESENTATION SCHEME
Solid models and representation scheme, boundary representation,
constructive solid geometry. Sweep representation, cell decomposition, spatial
occupancy enumeration, coordinate systems for solid modeling.

4.1 SOLID MODELLING

Solid modelling is one of the most effective geometric modelling
method. In this approach, models are displayed as solids to viewer, thereby
eliminating any chance of misinterpretation. In solid modelling, to make the
object more realistic, Xnof the object are cut and different colours are given.
For example the colour pages in magazines and animation in pictures.
Solid Modeling also allows mass property determination and helps in
interference checking of moving parts. Alternate concepts for parts and
assemblies can be developed using solid modelling.
However, solid modelling requires a great deal of computational work
and it requires powerful computers.
The various methods by which solid models are represented are:
1. Half-space Method.
2. Boundary representation Method,
3. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG),
4. Analytical Solid Modelling (ASM),
5. Primitive instancing, and
6. Sweep representation.
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4.2 BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION METHOD (B-REP):

This method of solid modelling is concerned about drawing an outline
(or) boundary of the object on screen with the help of light pen. In this
method, front view, top view, bottom view, side view of an object are
sketched and connected by means of lines to create a relationship. The
boundary of an object includes faces, vertices and edges.
The data base for boundary model has topology and geometry. Euler
operations are utilised for creating topology i.e. to create, manipulate and edit
the faces, edges and vertices. Geometry is created by euclidean calculations.
However, boolean operations are employed for manipulating and editing the
model. Fig.4.1. Computation of the volumetric properties is possible in B-rep.
The primitives of B-rep include the following:
(a) Edge (b) Vertix
(c) Face (d) Loop
(e) Body (shell)

=
C

Fig (a) Fig (b)

Fig.4.1 Fig. (a) B oolean O peratio ns (A+B )-C Perform ed

and w e G et F ig (b)

The solid geometry will represent the rigid motion, transformation and
other metric informations such as angles, volumes, distances.
Boundary representation system require explicit representation of
boundary of solid.
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.3

(a) Rig ht Side View (b) Front View ( c ) Left Side View

(d) Top View

Fig. 4.2. B - Rep Ap proach for So lid M odelling.

The translation object can be created by three types of operations.

 Linear  Rotational  Compound

The major operations carried out in B - rep system are:

 Extrusion  Chamfer  Blending

 Revolution  Tweaking  Swaging

EXTRUSION and REVOLUTION are two commands used in software

for typical solid modelling.
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Inp ut / O utp ut O perato r Inp ut / O utp ut

(R e fe r Pa ge 4 .5)

MEV
M ake Ed ge , Vertex

MEF
M ake Ed ge , F ace

MEKBFL

MM E

ESPLIT
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.5

Operator Euler operations Description of operator

MBFV  Make Body Face Vertex
MEV  Make Edge, Vertex
MEKL  Make Edge, Kill Loop
MEF  Make Edge, Face
MEKBFL  Make Edge, Kill Body, Face, Loop
MFKLG  Make Face Kill Loop, Genus
MME  Make Multiple Edges
KVE  Kill Vertex, Edge

Creating gear blank using command

Command : SOLREV
Select object by picking the
Polyline  enter
Axis of revolution by picking two points
on centre line
include angle (full circle) :
 press enter
Object displayed on screen
Command : V point : <view point> : 1, 1, 1.

4.2.1 The Advantage of B-rep are:

(a) This method is very powerful for creating complex shapes solid models.
(b) B-rep model can be easily converted into wire frame model system.
(c) B-rep system stores an explicit definition of the model boundaries.
(d) B-rep system is very much compatible with other systems.
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4.2.2 Disadvantages of B-rep are:

(a) This requires more storage space.
(b) This concept cannot be applied for tool path generation.

4.3 CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG)

This method is also known as C-rep. In this method, solid graphic
primitives are employed for constructing the model. The solid primitives
include cubes, spheres, cylinders, rectangular blocks and pyramids. The shapes
of primitive are depicted in Fig.4.3.

W edge
Pyram id

Cylinder

Torus Hemisphere

Sphere
Block Cone
Fig. 4.3. S olid M odelling Primitivies.

This method is also known as building block approach. In this method,

Boolean operations like union, intersection and difference are carried out to
create new objects as well as for any other complex objects.
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.7

A B A UB

Prim itives U nion

U
A -B A B

In tersec tio n

D iffere nce (S ubtraction )

T he B oo lean O pera to rs and the ir E ffect o n M o del C on stru ction
Fig. 4.4. B oolea n O p eration on (2D ) M od el .

In some implementations, it is enough to use simple primitives’

combination for creating simple solids. But however in some cases, primitives
like half-spaces (unbounded solids) may be used. But this is quite complicated
and unreliable.
Fig.4.5 illustrates the use of boolean operators on solid models to create
new solid shapes.

B lo ck A and C ylin der B

A B

P rim itive s A U B A B A -B B -A

Fig. 4.5 . B oolean O p eration on 3-D So lid s (B lock an d C ylin der)

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CSG model
 The Constructive Solid Geometry model uses building block
approach.
 The physical objects can be divided into set of elements and
combined in order to form an object.
4.3.1 The Advantages of CSG or C-rep are:
(a) This requires less storage space
(b) This method is advantageous in the initial creation of solid models.
Using basic boolean operations, it is easy to construct solid models
precisely.

4.3.2 Disadvantages of CSG

(a) This method involves more computational work for creating a solid
model
(b) For complicated solid geometry, this method is not appropriate.

4.4 SWEEP REPRESENTATION

In creating solid models of two and half dimensional objects, this
sweep representation is very useful. The class of two and half dimensional
objects includes both axisymmetric solid and solid of uniform thickness in
a given direction. The former are the solids of revolutions which can be
created by rotational sweep and the later are extruded solids and are created
by linear or transnational sweep.

Fig. 4 .8 - Ro tational Sw ee p
Fig. 4.9 - Tran slatio n S w eep
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.9

4.5 CELL DECOMPOSITION

This is another form of solid modelling in which the objects are
represented as a collection of arbitrarily shaped 3D primitives. The individual
cells can be defined as a set of parameterised cell types which can even have
curved boundary surfaces. It consists of a single operation, ‘glue’, which
restricts the cells to be nonintersecting, which means adjoining cells may touch
each other but must not share any interior points. By joining the simple cells
using the glue operator, complex solids can be modelled easily. This
modelling process is easy, but due to single operator, sometimes it is tedious.
Cell decomposition is not as versatile as Constructive Solid Geometry. For
finite element mesh generation, this process is generally used.

4.6 THE SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELLING PACKAGE

INCLUDES
(a) Feature-based design
(b) Modelling tools

4.6.1 Feature based design

This is very much important concept, which is essential for
understanding about creation of solid. In CAD, for 2-dimensional objects, the
sketch is drawn using some basic Auto-CAD commands such as lines, arcs,

Fig. 4.1 0. R otatio nal R ibbed Struc ture.

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splines, circles, rectangles etc. However

for drawing a 3-dimensional object, one
should create the features one by one R ib
accurately and thereby obtain
comprehensive part geometry.
Features include, cut, rib, hole,
chamfer, pipe, offset and so on. Features
are the building blocks for a design. If
Fig. 4.11. Straigh t Rib .
any change is encountered in the design
of the object, features adapt and get
adjusted automatically according to these design changes.This in turn saves
time for the designer. Another important aspect of features is that they refer
other features. Fig.4.10 shows the various features like rib, holes on a
component.
Another type of rib is straight rib which is shown in the Fig. 4.11.

Note:
Rib is a special type of protrusion designed to create a thin wall to
support the surfaces. Rib increases the strength. Features can basically be
created by the following two methods:
(a) Sketched Feature Method
(b) Pick and place feature.
4.6.2 Sketched Feature Method:

Axis Sketch
Line

Section w ith A xis R evo lved Feature

Fig. 4.12. Feature C reated u sin g R evolve Op tio n.

 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.11

In this method, a section of a particular shape is sketched and later

using extrude, revolve and sweep options, the necessary shape is generated.
This concept is illustrated using revolve option in Fig.4.12.

4.6.3 Pick-and place Feature:

Under this technique, features such as hole, fillet (rounding of edges),
chamfer and shell are generated. This concept is illustrated in Fig.4.14.

B efore Filleting A fter Filletin g

Fig. 4.13. R ou nd Fillated Featu re.

(b) Shell w ith Varying

(a) Sh ell Feature (before and After)
Th ickness

Fig. 4.14. Sh ell Option

Next feature is dimensioning. There is an in-built feature in the design

software like CAD and Pro-E, where the design gets automatically regenerated
based on any change in dimensions.
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The protrusion drawn in the beginning is referred to as base feature.

Then any number of features can be added to the base feature.
Let us discuss about some features which are available for solid
modelling.
(a) Extrude:
This is a method of defining a volume by extruding the sketched
cross-section along the axis normal to section plane. (Fig. 4.15)

(b) Sweep:
The method of defining a volume by sweeping a sketched cross section
along a trajectory is called sweep. (Fig. 4.16)
(i) Linear Sweep: Used for plane surface creation.

Extruded Solid

Sketch
Topolog y

M odel P roduced U sing Lin ear Sw eep (E xtrusion)

Fig. 4.15. Linear S w eep

(ii) Rotational sweep: In this technique, lines (or) rectangles (or) any planes
are revolved around a central reference line to generate cylinders, cones etc.
If a rectangle is swept, cylinder is generated. If a triangle is swept, cone is
generated.
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.13

A x is o f
R e vo lu tio n

G en e rated
p art
G en e rator
curv e

M o de l P rod uc e d b y th e R ota tion al S w e ep Tech niqu e

Fig. 4.16. R otatio na l S weep.

(c) Blend:
The method of defining a volume by connecting planar sections at
their edges.
(d) Cut:
The method of removing solid material from a component. CUT can
be done using the following ways:

 Extrude  Sweep  Revolve  Blend

(e) Hole:
This method is used to create the types of axially revolved cut out
geometries.
(f) Round
(g) Shaft
(h) Chamber
(i) Draft
(j) Pipe
(k) Shell
(l) Dome
(m) Flange-are the other available features.
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4.6.4 Modelling Tools:

Modelling tools include:
(a) Sketching
(b) Part creation
(c) Assembling
(d) Documentation

(a) Sketching:
Any 3-Dimensional geometry involving a complex definition and
individual shape requires a 2-D sketch. Sketches are required for all types of
protrusion and cuts.

(b) Parts Creation:

Using the features such as cuts, protrusion, chamfer, rounding, holes
and other features, parts are created. Any information regarding the part can
be obtained in sketcher mode.
Similary the sketched features can be modified and the relationship can
be set between features.

(c) Assembling
After the sketch for individual parts of a complex geometry is
completed, the solid modeller combines the parts for making an assembly.
(d) Documentation of design
Finally, the design of the assembly is taken print out using printer
/plotter. While documenting, suitable tolerances could also be provided.
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.15

4.7 SPATIAL OCCUPANCY ENUMERATION

It is a special case of cell decomposition in which the solid is
decomposed into identical cells arranged in a fixed, regular grid. These cells
are known as voxels which means volume elements. Cubic types of cells are
most common and these representation of space as a regular array of cubes
is called as cuberille. When an object is represented by using
spatial-occupancy enumeration, only the presence or absence of a single cell
at each position in the grid is controlled by us. We need only to decide which
cells are occupied and which are not to represent an object. Thus, by a unique
and unambiguous list of occupied cell, the object can be encoded. Finding
out whether a cell is inside or outside of the solid and determining whether
two objects are adjacent or not is very simple. In biomedical applications to
represent volumetric data obtained from source such as Computerized Axial
Tomography (CAT) scans, this spatial occupancy enumeration is often used.

Fig. 4.17. Toru s represented by sp atial-occup an cy enum eratio n

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4.8 Coordinate Systems for Solid Modelling

Most CAD systems Z
allow us to create own
coordinate systems to aid
in creating drawing
geometry. These are often
termed as local coordinate
systems or user coordinate
systems (in Auto CAD, for Y

example), in contrast with X

the default coordinate
system that is used to store
Fig. 4.18 C ylind er C o nstruction , T he C ylind er
the model in the drawing is C re ated w ith th e C ircular B ase on the X -Y P lan e
and the H e igh t in Z
database. To use the CAD
commands effectively, it is
very essential to know how Y
to orient a user coordinate
system.
Most of the CAD
systems create primitive
shapes the same way each
time with respect to the
current X, Y, and Z
directions. For example a
cylinder created in the
current X  Y plane is
shown in Fig. 4.18.
Z X
To create the Fig. 4.19 C ylind er C o nstructio n,
cylinder oriented differently, Th e Cylinder is C reated w ith
C ircular B ase o n X -Y Plan e and the
a user coordinate system in H eigh t Z in D ifferen t O rientation
the desired orientation has
to be created.
 Solid Models and Representation Scheme 4.17

Y
F ig . 4 .2 0 T his C y lin de r is C reated after th e X -Y
P lan e o f th e C o ordin a te S ys tem is R eo rie n te d

To create hole perpendicular to the oblique surface shown in Fig. 4.21,

a new local coordinate system aligned with the inclined surface has to be
created. After the location of the hole has been specified, the CAD software
translates the location of the hole to the world (default) coordinate system.

In d icate s
D e fa ult x
y

C o o rd in a te
S yste m
y x

In d icate U se r C oo rd in ate
S yste m / A ctive S ke tch P la ne
F ig . 4.21 D raw ing o n an In clin ed P lan e, A N ew C o ordin ate
S ystem is D efined R elative to th e
Sain ted Surface to m ake it E asy to C reate th e H ole

Most of the CAD systems have a command for defining the plane for
the user coordinate system by specifying three points which is an easy way
to orient a new coordinate system, especially when it needs to align with an
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oblique or inclined surface. In other solid modeling systems, they allow the
user to select an existing part surface on which to draw the new shape. This
is analogous to setting the X  Y plane of the user coordinate system to
coincide with the already selected surface. A “sketch plane” often is selected
with constraint-based modelers on which a basic shape is drawn that will be
used to form a part feature. It defines a coordinate system for the sketch
plane.