Sociology Text Book

PRAGATHI COLLEGE OF PHYSIOTHERAPY
GANDHI NAGAR THANDA

MALLARAM, NIZAMABAD
SOCIOLOGY TEXT BOOK
Note: Please observe the notes has minor grammer and spelling mistakes
PRINTED FROM DIGITAL LIBRARY OF PRAGATHI COLLEGE OF PHYSIOTHERAPY, NIZAMABAD Page 1 of 69

CHAPTER 1 UNIT-1
SOCIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Sociology has emerged as a new subject it study. It has occupied an important place in the
family of social sciences. It is the youngest of all social sciences. It came to be established as a
separate discipline in 19th century due to the efforts of French philosopher, August Comte (1798-
1857). He is called the founding father of Sociology. Comte invented the term SOCIOLOGY and
introduced it in his book "Positive Philosophy" in 1839 He was the first man to distinguish sociology
from all other sciences. Comte proposed sociology to be studied in two main parts.
1. The social statistics and
2. The social dynamics
Social statistics, examine how the parts of society are inter related. It refers to the problem of order and
stability- Social dynamics reveals how the societies develop and change through time
DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY:
The term Sociology finds its origin from Latin Word Sociatas meaning society Word, meaning
study or science. Thus Sociology is the study of society. It is difficult to give a comprehensive
definition of Sociology. It has been defined in many ways by many sociologists. No single definition
has been accepted as completely satisfactory. Kingslay Davis says that Sociology is a general science
of society. M. Johnson opines t the science that deals with group behavior. According Emile Duekheim
Sociology is the science of social institutions. H.P. Fair Child says that-Sociology is the study of
relationships between man and his human environment.
The common idea underlying all the definitions is that:
1. Sociology is a science of society.
2. It is a science of social relationships.
3. It is the study of social life.
4. It is the study of human behavior in groups
5. It is the study of social action
Hence, we can conclude that Sociology is concerned with the study of society, the social interaction
and social relationships.

UNIT 2
SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF SOCIETY
Sociology is the science society. No other sciences try to study society completely
ECONOMICS: It studies man how he acquires and disposes wealth and enquires into the relation of
Wealth and Welfare.
POLITICAL SCIENCE: It studies man as a citizen as a ruler and as being ruled.
HISTORY: It deals with the past events of man.
CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY: It studies the primitive man and primitive communities and their
culture.
PSYCHOLOGY: It studies man as a behaving individual.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: It studies the behavior of the individuals and analyses mental processes.
It is concerned with the ways in which the individual reacts to s his social conditions.
SOCIOLOGY: Sociology as a science of society is interested in the present social phenomena. It
alone studies social relations and society itself.
SOCIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL SCICENCE: Sociology is one of the social sciences. It is concerned

with life and activity of man. It studies the nature and character of human society, its origin and
development, structure and functions. It analyses the group life of man and examine the bonds of
social unity. It analyses the influence of economic, political technological, cultural and other factors on
man and his life. It throws more light on various social problems like poverty beggary, over
population, unemployment, crime etc.
IS SOCIOLOGY A SCIENCE?
Sciences are of two kinds 1. Natural Sciences and 2. Social Sciences
NATURAL SCIENCES They are physics, chemistry, geology, geography, astronomy etc. In these,
scientific methods are used to acquire knowledge. Experiments are conducted to verity the facts.
Theories and laws of universal validity are established accurately. They provide less scope for doubt
and uncertainty. Prediction is possible and accurate.
SOCIAL SCIENCES They are Sociology, Economics, History, Political Science, and Psychology etc.
Sociology cannot be regarded as a science because experiments are difficult to be arranged in the
social field and conclusions may not be exact.
In another sense Sociology is a science because it makes use of scientific methods like
observation and inference in studying the social relationships. Sociology frames laws and tries to
predict. Sociologist is concerned with actual facts. The whole society is the laboratory to the social
scientist.

Thus Sociology has the qualities of both pure as well as applied sciences and we can say that it
is partly pure and partly an applied science
IS SOCIOLOGY AN APPLIED SCIENCE?

A distinction is often made between pure science and applied science. The aim of pure science
is the acquisition of knowledge. The aim of applied science is to apply the acquired knowledge in to
life and put the same into some use. Each pure science may have its own applied field. For example
Chemistry is a pure science and Pharmacy is its applied field. Similarly Economics and History have
their applied such as Business and Journalism. Sociology as a pure science has its applied field such as
social work, social welfare, social reforms etc. Thus Sociology has two parts.
1. Theoretical sociology and practical sociology
2. Practical sociology itself is applied sociology. Sociology is concerned with human betterment.
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UNIT-3
USES OF THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is the youngest of all the social sciences. It is gradually developing. Still it has made
remarkable Progress
USES:
1. Sociology studies society in a scientific way. Scientific knowledge is necessary to achieve
progress in various fields.
2. It throws more light on the social nature of man.
a. It tells us why man is a social animal,
b. Why he lives in groups, communities and societies;
c. It examines the relationship between individual and society.
d. It studies the impact of society on man and other matters.
3. It improves our understanding of Society
a. It assists an individual to understand himself, his capacities, talents and limitations.
b. It enables him to adjust himself to the environment
c Knowledge of society, social groups, institutions, associations etc. helps us to lead an
effective social life
4 Sociology helps us to know our society and man and also other their motives, aspirations,
status, occupations

UNIT 4
SOCIOLOGY IN RELATION TO PHYSIOTHERAPY
Sociology is related to Physiotherapy. Knowledge of sociology helps the Physiotherapist to

understand, religious patient's background, his family, caste, culture beliefs and values, his socio
economic status, the housing and environmental conditions, his socio economic status like drugs,
alcohol, smoking etc. The problems of the physically handicapped in India cannot be studied without
c-considering the socio-economic background of Indian society. Factors like poverty, literacy,
malnutrition, unemployment and fatalism must be evaluated in relation to their impact on the problems
of the physically handicapped.
Disease and death constitute an excessive drain on the limited resources. The physically
handicapped is more concerned about the relations of his family and friends than the attitude of his
community if he is rich, he need not worry for his maintenance. If not, he is worried with the fear of
destitution. Nobody gives him work. He is forced to live an idle life/He may become deviant. The
disabled who were looked after earlier in joint family are now place in institutions for help. Poverty
leads to disablement and disablement leads to poverty. The other causes responsible for the
aggravation of physical disabilities are: illiteracy shortage of medical personnel, want of required
institutions and fatalism.
The new social approach towards the handicapped is REHABILITATION. It implies the
restoration of handicapped to the fullest physical, mental, socials. Vocational and economic usefulness
of which they are capable Hence all aspects of the person's personality have to be considered
PHYSIOTHERAPY plays a vital role in the process of rehabilitation Physiotherapy is the physical
rehabilitation of a patient for achieving optimum rehabilitative power.
Physiotherapist employs different techniques to achieve the results. He should have daily
contact with the patient and thereby Learns the patient's motivations, psychological hang ups, beliefs
and values, socio economic status, social habits, background of' the family, housing and environmental
conditions etc. I is for this the Physiotherapist need to learn Sociology
USES OF SOCIOLOGY IN PHYSIOTHERAPY:

With the knowledge of sociology the Physiotherapist may be helpful to the disabled at the
hospital and rehabilitation centers. He may handle the patients based on their family background, caste
and cultural values. In his study about the family and the social life of the physically handicapped the
Physiotherapist learns:

a. The employment, size, earning members and total income of the family
b. The family acceptance,-attitude and treatment of disabled
c. Disabled and is routine, leisure time activities and hobbies
d. Friends and sociality of the disabled
e. Belief in the theory of 'Karma
f. Attitudes of friends, neighbors and Caste People.
g. Reactions disabled
h. Personality problems i.e. type of disability, cause degree and age of onset and duration of
disability, treatment by the family
The Physiotherapist can help in changing the attitudes of the handicapped and his family
members, friends, neighbors, employers and co workers.
*****
CHAPTER -2 UNIT- 5
SOCIOLOGY AND HEALTH
CONCEPT OF HEALTH:
INTRODUCTION: The concept of Health is somewhat difficult to understand. All communities have
their concept of health as part of their culture. From the history of medicine we know that there have
been various systems of medicine or healing arts evolved in different parts of the world during
different civilizations. But no systems has there been a clear-cut definition of health. The oldest
definition of health is the “absence of disease." In the Oxford dictionary, health means 'the state of
being free from Sickness, injury or disease, bodily conditions, something indicating good bodily
condition The determinants of health is not clear. There is no single yardstick to measure health.
CHANGING CONCEPT: Health is not perceived the same way by all. New concepts emerge due to
social change. Changing concepts are given below:
A. BIO-MEDICAL CONCEPT: Traditionally health has been viewed as an "absence of disease".

This concept is known as Bio-Medical Concept and this has the begin in the
"Germ Theory of Disease." In this, the role of environment, social, psychological and cultural
determinants of health is not mentioned. This concept is inadequate to solve some of the major
problems like malnutrition, drug abuse, accidents population exposition, environmental problems,
mental illness.

B. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT: Health is also influenced by social, Psychological, cultural and
political factors. These factors have to be considered in defining and measuring health. Thus health is a
biological and social phenomenon.
C. HOLISTIC CONCEPT: It is a synthesis of the above concepts. It recognizes the social, economic,
political and environmental influences of health. It is a multi-dimensional process. The emphasis is on
promotion and protection of health
DEFINITION OF HEALTH: It is difficult to define health Many definitions have been offered from
time to time. The World Health Organization has considered it necessary to give a direction towards
the achievement of a strong and happy and active bodily and mental condition capable of continuous
productive ability. They have defined health as follows:
"Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely an
absence of Disease or infirmity"(WHO 1948)
Recently this statement has been elaborated to include "the ability to lead a socially and
economically productive life".
The term health is not an abstract thing but a relative concept. In this we see a continuous of
freedom from sickness to better health and positive health. Positive health refer to a condition in which
the body has sufficient reserve nutrition and resistant factors to prevent the invasion of the body by any
micro-organism or by the deprivation of any nutritional factors causing a deficiency pathology and
therefore, completely free from disease.
CONCEPT OF DISEASE:
Disease is the disorder of the body. It literally means uneasiness. Disease is a little less difficult
to define than health. The World Health Organization has defined health but not disease. There have
been many attempts to define disease. The simplest is that disease is just the opposite of health.
Disease has social causes.
SUPER NATURAL THEORYOF DISEASE: The primitive man believed that disease was due to
supernatural causes i.e., evil spirits. In the prehistoric period, the practice of medicine was based on
religion, magic and witchcraft. The supernatural theory is still current in many parts of India.
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE: This was proposed by Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). The Concept of
Supernatural Theory of Disease is changed to Germ Theory of Disease. It is recognized that bacteria
and microbes are the cause of disease.

THEORY OF MULTIPLE CAUSES: According to this concept disease is due to multiple causes
such as social, economic, cultural, psychological and environment.
As in health, in disease also there is a continuum from a predisposition of illness, which may
or may not be noticed, to a definite condition of illness manifested by signs and symptoms and
impairment of body functions hi continuum may extend from mild sickness to severe sickness and
death or recovery from sickness to a normal condition.
ICE-BURG PHENOMENON OF DISEASE:
Disease in a community may be compared with an ice-burg (large floating mass of ice). The
floating tip represents what the physician sees in the community i.e., the clinical cases. The submerged
portion represents the hidden mass of disease i.e., unapparent, presymptomatic and undiagnosed cases
and carriers in the community. The water line represents the separation between apparent and in
apparent cases and carriers. The hidden portion of the ice-burg thus constitutes an undiagnosed
reservoir of infection in the community. In spreading the disease the sub clinical mild cases may be
dangerous than clinical cases.
*****
UNIT-6
SOCIAL FACTORS AFFECTING HEALTH STATUS
Health is multi-factorial. The factors which influence Health lie both within the individual and
externally in the society.
Health status is determined by the following:
a) Economic status
b) Education
c) Occupation
d) Political system
e Life styles or culture
f) Environment
g) Heredity
h) Psychological factors
The human and social factors are predominant determinants in any society or community.

ECONOMIC STATUS: It determines pattern of disease and in seeking health care. In affluent
countries, many of the disease like pollution are on the increase due to social customs. In the poor
countries the Large number of communicable disease and nutritional deficiencies are due to poor
sanitation, poor hygiene and low and faulty intake of food. These are again in turn due to economic
and social factors
EDUCATION: Illiteracy leads to poverty, malnutrition, ill-health and high infant mortality rates.
Education compensates the effects of poverty on health.
OCCUPATION: It promotes health because unemployed show a higher incidence of ill health and
death. For many loss of work may mean loss of income and status. Obesity, heart diseases, diseases
due to air psychological and social damage
POLTICAL SYSTEM: Political can shape community health services. Changes must be made in
socio political system, if poor health patterns are to be changed.
LIFE STYLES: They are composed of cultural and behavior patterns and personal habits like
smoking, Alcoholism etc. They are learnt through social interaction Health requires promotion of
healthy life styles. Health is largely the result of human behavior. All life style factors are not harmful.
Many can promote health e.g., adequate nutrition, enough sleep, sufficient physical activity etc.
Achievement of optimum health requires adoption of healthy life styles.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS: They can also affect health e.g.: Stressful situation such as loss of
employment, birth of handicapped child etc. Those emotional status produce psychosomatic disorders
like hypertension, mental disorders, bronchial asthma etc.
ENVIRONMENT: The impact of social environment has both positive and negative aspects on the
health. A favorable social environment can improve health. Therefore customs and traditions favoring
health ‘must be preserved.

UNIT-7
SOCIAL CONCIOUSNESS AND PERCEPTION OF ILLNESS
Illness is a psychological crisis to the individual and a social crisis to his family. In a traditional
society the roots of illness are traced in the human conduct.
For a physician, physical weakness signifies malnutrition and an anemia and he prescribes iron
tonics and vitamin concentrates. but for the local people of traditional society, weakness is connected
with moral weakness and violation of ethical code for which the ideal remedy would be pilgrimages,
ritual baths to wash away one's sins rather than tonics. Marriot says that the doctor is perceived as an
outsider and regarded with suspicion and his prescriptions are ignored whereas indigenous folk
medicine flourishes in the community
Though socio-economic and demographic factors affect health, they do not directly influence
the treatment. Treatment is determined by one's readiness about perception of vulnerability to illness,
severity of illness or it’s after effects which may trigger a response.
Perception of disease, its interpretation and treatment differ with age, sex, race, class, level of
education etc. The health habits and perceptions are deeply fixed in one's personality and cannot be
altered early. The use of traditional healers is widely prevalent among the people. The unfavorable
attitude towards hospitals is more among the illiterate communities.
There is need to reeducate the community to accept the new health values and practices. There
is need to secure the cooperation of the community groups. Community participations are essential.
*****
UNIT 8
DECISION MAKING IN TAKING TREATMENT
Decision making is a skill:-It depends on the intelligence of the individual. It is concerned with
psychology. It must be developed by our own efforts.
Decision making may be fast or slow. It must be made quickly in taking treatment. Therefore
the individual must possess the skill of making decision faster. Decision must always be made
positively. Hasty decision should not be made. One must think well before taking a decision. In case of
emergency or surgery decision must be made quickly for survival of the patient. A patient has to take
the advice of a doctor but he should not himself decide what type of treatment he has to be given.
When a person cannot take a decision he should get advice from others.
URBAN-RURAL DIFFERENCE IN DECISION MAKING: In Urban areas many people are

educated. They know more about the inner and outer world better than rural people. They take
decisions early and fast in taking treatment. The rural people are illiterates and traditional oriented.
They don't utilize better service. In many occasions they take wrong decisions in taking treatment. For
example if a person suffers from fever even after a week, he continues taking treatment from Quacks.

DECISION MAKING IN RELATION TO CLASS AND OCCUPATION: People are classified as
upper class, lower and middle class. The upper class people do not have financial problem. They make
decisions faster to get better treatment. The middle class people also get better treatment but they have
to face financial problems. Their decision- concerned with treatment may not be good. The lower class
may not get good treatment. They take wrong decisions and go to quacks
OCCUPATION: It plays a vital role in decision making an employed person will be financially sound
and he can take right decisions quickly in taking treatment.
DECISION MAKING BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS: Rural and tribal people believe that
diseases are caused due to wrath of god. They take wrong decisions in treating the sick due to their
beliefs
DECISION MAKING-FEAR, SELFISHNESS AND MOTIVATION: Fear and selfishness also

play a major role in decision making. For example a person decides to limit his family with two
children. The rural medical practitioner or local guy who is his family doctor discourages him not to
undergo family planning operation by saying so many things, He or she lives by conducting deliveries
by which he or she earns. If the person limits his family, he loses the income. Hence, out of selfishness
he discourages the individual, results a change in the decision already made.
Another example - A person who has decided to undergo major surgery changes his decision as
the neighbors convinced him by saying that the surgery may take away his life. Due to fear the person
changes his decision.
In the above examples the individual requires motivation for limiting his family and also to
undergo surgery. Hence decision making is closely related to fear, selfishness and motivation.
*****
CHAPTER-2 UNIT-9
SOCIALIZATION
MEANING OF SOCIALIZATION: Socialization is the process of learning group norms, habits
and ideals. Every society prescribes its own ways and means of giving social training to its new
born members so that they may develop their own personality. This social training is called
socialization. It is a continuous process in which the child and elders are socialized. In the process
family has an important role to play. Learning plays an important part in socialization.
Socialization teaches habits, ideas, attitudes and values. Through socialization culture is
transmitted from one generation to the next. Without socialization human beings cannot properly
behave and pull on in the society.
PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION: In the process of socialization family plays an important role.
From the family children learn basic functions such as speaking, toilet management and eating
properly. They also learn basic values, beliefs and goals of the family. Much socialization is
unconscious. Children learn many basic values and attitudes by observing other people especially
their parents or older brothers or sisters
In most societies, socialization begins in infancy and continues throughout maturity, old age
and till the death of a person. Other agencies, especially the school, have taken over some of the
socialization function of the family.
Friends and co workers, religious institutions, T.V, films reading material etc. also influence
the behaviour of the individual. While the family and other institutions have a strong impact on the
child, the individual also influences these institutions in important ways. Thus socialization should
not be viewed as a one way process.
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UNIT 10
INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL FACTORS ON PERSONALITY
Personality implies certain physical and mental traits of an individual. These traits determine
out behaviour. Personality and human behaviour are interrelated. Personalities are mounded
through the process of socialization. The chief agencies of socialization are (a) Family (b) School
(C) Friends or play-mates (d) Religion (e) State (f) Culture (g) Mass Media.
(a) The Family: The Family is the first to socialize the child. The child is taught societal
morality. The environment of a family influences the growth of the child. In a bad family the child
learns bad habits where' as in a good family he acquires good habits. Bad family environment is the
cause of Juvenile Delinquency. Ai the time of mate choice the parents also try to find out the
family history of the boy and girl in order to know their good and bad points The parents have the
power to command obedience In of the child. Does not follow the rules he may be compelled to do
so. The family continues to exercise its influence throughout life.
(b) The School: In the school the child gets his education which moulds his ideas and attitudes.
Good education makes the child a good citizen while bad education can turn him into a criminal.
Education is of great importance in moulding the personality. In the school the child learns to obey
rules and regulation and the commands and to be neat and punctual. The school socializes the child
through organized activities such as cultural programs, sports, debates, elocution etc. The child

learns what is expected of a student in the class room, as members of an organized group as well as
citizens of the nation.
(c) The Friends or Playmates: The child requires something from his friends which he cannot
acquire from his parents. He acquires co-operative mortality, fashions and forbidden knowledge etc
(d) Religion: It moulds our beliefs and ways of life. The child sees his parents going to temple
and performing religious ceremonies. He listen religious sermons which may determine his course
of life and shapes his ideas.
(e) Culture: Man lives in a group. He has to conform to the traditions, beliefs and ideas of the
group. Through group life personality is developed. He has no chance of following wishes which
are opposed to those of the groups. Thus group influences also determine the growth of human
personality
(f) The Mass Media: The radio, television, news papers movies etc. are known as Mass Media.
They transmit news beliefs, mores values and traditions of the society Radio and movies are
closely linked with family, school and peer TELEVISON provides children information about and
imaginary world. They learn about different people places and events, Psychologists have found
that the children try to imitate the behaviour of the people around them. Some of the researchers
have pointed out that adolescents become aggressive by watching violent television content.
*****
UNIT 11
TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
(OR)
Define Socialization and discuss the process of Socialization which occurs throughout the life of
an individual.
Socialization process starts with the child and ends with the adult. It is a continuous process.
According to Ogburn "Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the
norms of the group". Soon after the child is born he feels that breast of his mother is the world around
him. The child completely depends upon its family for the satisfaction of physical needs. During the
infancy the mother provides every comfort with love and affection. The child learns to walk, eat, and
sleep. By interacting with family members the child learns to speak and communicate. The process of
learning the skills continues throughout the life de develops attitudes. Values, likes and dislikes etc.
Socialization is of four types:

1) Primary Socialization
2) Anticipatory Socialization

3) Developmental Socialization and
4) Desocialization and Resocialization.
1). PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION:

It takes place in the early years of an individual’s life. The child internalizes many of the
socially approved values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviour patterns of his culture.
2). ANTICIPATOREY SOCIALIZATION: (IMITATION):
It occurs when people anticipate their own participation in a situation imagining how others
would feel, think and behave. This is assumption of another role. For example children while playing
take-up their parent’s role thinking of themselves as adults.
3). DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIALIZATION:
During the socialization process the individual is exposed to family school, peer groups,
religious organization etc, who transmits the basic skills, knowledge and values.
4). DESOCIALIZATION and RESOCIALIZATION:
It involves the learning of new ways of behaviour that are completely different from previous ways
of life. For example: when people convert of Desocialzation and then Resocialization.
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UNIT 12
SOCIALIZATION IN HOSPITALS
In the process of socialization the individual learn and perform behaviour expected of them in
hospitals. IN every hospital there are norms to be observed both by the patient as well as by the
hospital staff like doctors, nurses, social workers and other members of the hospital. A patient admitted
in a hospital requires a good society for the quick recovery of the patient. Through the process of
socialization social relationship between the patient and members of the hospital is strengthened.
If socialization should attain the full fledged meaning certain therapeutic principles (norms)
should be followed while working with the patient in the hospital setting. The doctor plays an
important role. The principles followed are: Acceptance, Nonjudgmental attitude, Confidentiality, self
determination, purposeful professional relationship and empathy.
ACCEPTANCE: The doctor should accept the patient in whatever condition the patient may be. At
times the disfigured patients are brought to the hospital. Some doctors are afraid of touching and
treating the patient. He has to admit the patient and give required treatment.
NON JUDGEMENTAL ATTITUDE: Before taking the right decision, the doctor should examine
the patient carefully, consider his views from all aspects and finally come to a conclusion.

CONFIDENTIALITY: If the patient gives any confidential information to the doctor, he has to
maintain secrecy. He should not reveal it to others. Further the doctor should create confidence in the
patient for his recovery by hearing his stories
SELF DETERMINATION: A good doctor – patient relationship is necessary for the speedy recovery
of the patient. First of all, the doctor should have self confidence that he would be able to cure the
disease and encourage the patient to have trust in him.
PURPOSEFUL PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIP: The medical staff should lay a strong

foundation for the purposeful professional relationship. Doctor and staff should take their profession
seriously and treat the patient for speedy recovery.
EMPATHY: It means the ability to imagine and share the feeling of others. The doctor while showing
love and affection towards the patient should also differentiate the empathy from sympathy. He has to
understand the patient's thoughts, feelings and behaviour and then treat.
CONCLUSION: The Doctor and staff should build up good rapport with the patient. Their perception
towards the patients should be impartial. All the above principles lay a strong foundation in the process
of socialization between the doctor and patient in the hospital setting.
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UNIT-13
SOCIALIZATION IN THE REHABILITATION OF PATIENTS
Rehabilitation is a process in which the patient is brought back to normal health. Rehabilitation
centres are set up for the handicapped. They are regarded as incapable of doing anything. Hence they
are rejected by the society. In the rehabilitation centres, the handicapped are trained to be social. This
requires proper inter personal relationships. This helps to understand the individual and group
behaviour, family background etc. for socialization. This knowledge helps in treating the patient in a
better way
RAPPORT BUILDING: It is necessary communication and treatment. For rapport building language
is essential and it must be common. Through language counselling is done.
PERCEPTION: It must be equal and social. There must not be any difference of caste, creed and
religion. For example charitable institutions give preference to the patient of the same caste. It should
not be the case. Perception should be impartial. Socialization helps to know each other better.

CHAPTER - V UNIT-14
SOCIAL GROUPS
CONCEPT OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Society consists of groups. A social group exists when two or more individuals are on direct
contact and communication. Individuals live in social groups to achieve special purposes. They
interact with each other and establish relationships. Thus social groups emerge from such interactions.
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL GROUPS

According to Mac Iver social groups are "any collection of human beings who are brought into
social relationships with one another". Bogardus has said that "a social group may be two or more
persons who have some common objects and who are stimulating to each other, who have common
loyalty and participate in similar activities".
CHARACTERSTICS OF SOCIAL GROUPS
1. COLLECTION OF INDIVIDUALS: Social groups consist of people. There can be no group
without individuals.
2. INTER-ACTION AMONG MEMBERS: Mere collection of individuals does not make a social
group. The members must have interaction and reciprocal, relations
3. MUTUAL AWARENESS: Group life involves mutual awareness and their behavior is determined
by this mutual recognition
4. WE FEELING: It represents group unity. We feeling create sympathy and fosters cooperation
among members.
5. GROUP UNITY AND SOLIDARITYTY: Group members are tied up by a sense of unity.
Members are related by several common interests and have frequent social contacts with one another.
6 COMMON INTERESTS: Groups are formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. E. g: Political
groups, Religious groups etc.
7. SIMILAR BEHAVIOUR: The members behave in a similar way for the pursuit of common
interest.
8. GROUP NORMS: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed to
follow.
9. SIZE OF GROUP: Social groups vary in size. It may be big or small.
10. GROUPS ARE DYNAMIC: They are subject to changes. Old members die and new are born.
I1. STABILITY: Groups may be permanent or temporary.

UNIT 15
CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL GROUPS
Groups have been classified differently by different sociologists.
1. FORMAL ANDINFORMAL GROUPS:
FORMAL GROUPS: They are organized and regulated by norms to realize a specific goal. E.
g Hospital Members must follow the rules. Recruitment is based on special training, Members are
culturally heterogeneous
INFORMAL GROUPS: They are unconsciously with no specific goals. They have no
established normal. They are maintained by unwritten rules. E.g., Family.
2. IN GROUPS AND OUT GROUPS: Sumner classified the groups as In groups and Out groups. An
In group is the ‘We' group, and Out group is the ‘they group’. The tendency to love one's own group
and discard other is called ethnocentrism.
3. VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY GROUPS: This is Ward's classifications
VOLUNTARY GROUPS: involuntary-groups membership is at the option of the members. E.
g: Political participation
INVOLUNTARY GROUPS: In this there is no option but to join with the group. E. g: Family
4. HORIZENTAL AND VERTICAL GROUPS: This is Miller's classification
HORIZENTAL GROUPS: In this members have equal status. E.g.: Clerks, Daughters-in-law,
etc.
VERTICAL GROUPS: In this members are from different classes and different income levels.
E.g.: Unions.
5. GENETIC AND CONGREGATE GROUPS: Bogardus classified groups into
(a) Genetic and Congregate
(b) Disjunctive and Overlapping
GENETIC GROUP: In this man is born and required to join involuntarily
CONGREGATE GROUPS: In this the individual moves voluntarily and joins or withdraws
of his own.
6. DISJUNCTIVE AND OVER LAPPING GROUPS: Disjunctive groups does not allow a person
to join similar other group at the same time. E.g.: College. In Overlapping group members can join
similar groups as many.
7. GEMEIN SCHAFT AND GESSEL SCHAFT: Ferdinand Tonnies classified this. In Game in
Schaft groups, intimate, friendly and personal relations ate maintained. E.g. Village. In Gessesl Schaft
groups the individuals are not wholly involved in the group life. E.g.: City.

8. REFERENCE GROUP: It serves as a model. The individual compares himself with the Reference
model for the development of his image. Therefore a reference group is any group whose values and
norms are adopted by the individuals
9. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS: This is Charles H. Cooley's classification
PRIMARY GROUP: It is a small group in which members come into close contact with each
other. There is intimate, face to face association. Members have fellow feelings and bonds of
affection. E.g.: Family.
SECONDARY GROUP: It is a, bigger group relations are indirect. There is absence of
intimacy among members. It is an organized group. Contacts and communications are indirect.
E. g: City. Members are goal oriented.
************************
UNIT-16
INFLUENCE OF FORMALAND INFORMAL GROUPS
ON HEALTH AND SICKNESS
Hospitals come under formal groups and families under in formal groups. In the hospital the
doctor’s function as doctors and counselors of the patient care, the other hospital staffs carry out the
doctors' orders.
In the informal group the problems of the patient are shared and solved by the group members.
Here common interest is predominant than the self interest. In the informal groups the attitude of
kindness, sympathy, love, tolerance, mutual help and sacrifice provide a psychological support to the
patients. The sharing of expenses improves the quality of treatment. The informal groups help in
taking unanimous decisions. The decisions for hospitalization, treatment, discharge etc are made with
mutual understanding.
The formal group in the hospital facilitates the treatment and provides harmonious support to
the patient.
The informal group continues to be near the patient who is now free from sickness, but
difficulties in mobility. Hence the role of family shifts from providing emotional support to supporting
the patient in his movement. The patient requires help to move around, to go to toilet, to bathe and for
his other essential needs.
The groups involved in the rehabilitation centers are mainly for the tertiary prevention i.e.
disability limitation and rehabilitation. The formal groups consisting of hospital staff like
Physiotherapist, Social workers etc. help to rehabilitate the patient in terms of providing aids and
appliances such as tricycles, wheel chair, etc. Their role stops at once the patient leaves the unit but
continues whenever the patient visits the unit.

The informal group will be with the patient always whereas the formal group will visit off and
on. Thus the formal and informal groups play a major role in the treatment of the patient at the hospital
and rehabilitation.
*************************************
UNIT -17
ROLE OF PRIMARY GROUPS AND SECONDARY GROUPS IN THE HOSPITAL AND
REHABILITATION SETTINGS
Family stands for the primary group, Hospital and Rehabilitation centers for the secondary
group.
PRIMARY GROUP: It is a small group. The members come in to direct contact with one
another. They meet face to face for mutual help. Interaction in the primary group is direct and they
have warm, intimate and emotional relationships.
In the primary group the problems of the patient are shared and solved by the group members.
Here common interest is predominant than self interest. The attitudes of kindness, sympathy, love,
tolerance, mutual help and sacrifice provide a psychological support to the patient. The Sharing of
expenses improves quality of treatment the primary group helps in taking unanimous decisions the
decisions for hospitalization, treatment and discharge are made with mutual understanding. Thus the
primary group in the hospital setting facilitates the treatment and provides a harmonious support to the
patient.
SECONDARY GROUPS: Hospital and rehabilitation centers come under secondary groups. In the
hospital the doctors function as doctors and counselors o the patient care. The other staff carry out the
doctors' orders Rehabilitation is a tertiary prevention i.e. disability limitation and rehabilitation. The
secondary group consisting of rehabilitation staff like Physiotherapist, social workers etc help the
patient in providing aid and appliances such as tricycles, wheel chair etc. Their role stops at once the
patient leaves the unit but continues whenever the patient visits the unit.
The primary group will always be with the patient where as the secondary group off and on.
The primary group continues to be near the patient who is now free sickness but with difficulties in
mobility. Hence the role of family i.e., primary group shifts from providing emotional support to
supporting the patient in his movement. The patient requires help to move around, to go to toilet, to
bathe and for his other essential needs.
Thus the primary and secondary groups play a major role in the treatment of patients at the
hospital and rehabilitation centers.

PROBLEMS OF THE PATIENT: The rotational nature of hospital staff, training programmers etc.
poses difficulties in providing continuity of care to the patients this will be confusing the hospitalized
patient who may see a number of residents, and come and go during the course of treatment. All too
obvious is the confusion that may be experienced by the ward patient trying to figure out who is his
primary physician. Medical students in the ward further confuse patients in trying to figure out just
who is who. A further problem posed by the rotation of house staff is the matter of physician
commitment. An intern or resident who tries to relax his grip on difficult situations, waiting for the
time when he can hand them on to his successor
******************
UNIT-18
FAMILY
MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:-

The word family is taken over from Latin word ‘Famulus’. Family is the important group in
society. Every one grows up in a family. The child is first exposed to the family. It is a universal
institution found in every society. All societies have some form of a family began. There are different
theories about its origin.
DEFINITION AND MEANING: According Mac Iyer ‘Family’ is a group defined by a sex
relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and up brining of children.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:
1. MATING RELATIONSHIP:-A family is formed through the establishment of mating relationship
between a man and women. Without that no family can come into existence.
2. A FORM OF MARRIAGE: A family presupposes institution of marriage. Mating relation is
established through it.
3. A SYSTEM OF NOMENCLATURE: Every family has some nomenclature which reckons its
descent.
4. AN ECONOMIC PROVISION: Head of the family is supposed to satisfy the economic needs of
the members.
5. A COMMON HABITATION: Each family must have a home for living, child bearing and child
rearing.
6. SELECTION OF MATES: Boy or girl may be selected by parents or by the wishes of the
individual concerned.

UNIT-19
DISTINCTIVE FEATURE OF FAMILY
1. UNIVERSAL: Family is a universal institution. All societies have some form of family.
2. EMOTIONAL BASIS: The family is built upon sentiments of love and affection, sympathy and
cooperation.
3. LIMITED SIZE: The family is smaller in size.
4. SOCIALIZATION: The family socializes the child. It shapes the personality and mould the
character of its members.
5. SOCIAL REGULATIONS: The family is guarded by taboos and legal regulations.
6. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MEMBERS: The family members have certain responsibilities,
duties and obligation.
UNIT-20
TYPES OF FAMILY
There are different types of families based on composition, authority, residence, relationship and
marriage.
1. BASED ON COMPOSITION: On the basis of composition of members families are divided into
nuclear, extended and joint families.
Nuclear Family: In nuclear family- husband, wife and children are the members.
Extended family: It is the extension of nuclear family in which not only husband and wife but also
other relatives of the family live.
Joint Family: It is known as ‘Undivided Family’. It consists of members belonging to three generations
- Husband and wife, their married and un married children and their married as well as un married
grand children.
2. BASED ON AUTHIRITY: There are two types (a) patriarchal and (b) Matriarchal. In patriarchal
Family authority of the male member is supreme. In Matriarchal family authority is vested in the eldest
female member or maternal uncle.
3. BASED ON DESCENT: Families may be either MATRILINEAL OR PATRILINEAL: When

descent is traced through the mother it is known as Matrilineal decent. Families are in general
patrilineal. They are regarded as the descendents of the father’s family.
4. BASED ON RESIDENCE: Families may be patrilocal or matrilocal. In Patrilocal the wife lives in
the residence of the husband. In Matrilocal, the husband lives in the residence of the wife.

5. BASED ON RELATIONSHIP: According to Linton families may be conjugal basis (non blood
relationship) or consanguine basis (blood relationship).In Conjugal family there is nucleus of spouses
and their children surrounded by a fringe of relatives. In Consanguine family there is a nucleus of
blood relatives surrounded by a fringe of spouses.
6. BASED ON MARRIAGE: Families may be monogamous or polygamous. In monogamous family

one man has only one wife, similarly one woman has one husband at a time.
If the family consists of one man with several wives it is polygamous family. If a woman has
more than one husband at a time, it is polyandrous family.
UNIT-21
BASIC NEEDS OF FAMILY
Some of the basic needs of the family are:
1) Physical Needs 2) Biological Needs 3) Psychological Needs
1. PHYSICAL NEEDS: Food, clothing, shelter, safe physical environment such as safe water,
safe disposal of wastes etc.
2. BIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Freedom from communicable diseases, control of insects and
vectors, control of rodents, Planned Parenthood.
3.PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS: A happy home, a safe working environment, freedom from
poverty, adequate medical care, care of mothers, children, aged and handicapped, social security.
FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
Different sociologists have classified the functions of family differently. Functions of the
family are of two types (A) Basic and universal (B) Traditional functions.
A. BASIC AND UNIVERSIAL FUNCTIONS :
1. BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS.
a. REPRODUCTION: Every society depends primarily on the family for the production of children.
b. PROCURING OF FOOD, HOUSING AND CLOTHING: The earning members of the family
provide food, clothing and shelter for the rest.
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS: People need intimate human response. Affection and

intimate relations provide security. Children need attention and love. An all round development of the
individual is not possible in the absence of family love.

3. SATISFACTION OF SEXUAL NEEDS : Family is the principal institution which organize
and regulate the sexual desires of its members.
4. PROTECTION AND CARE OF THE YOUNG: Family offers physical , economic and
psychological protection to its members .The child is the most helpless and weak being .A family
is needed to maintain its existence and to ensure its coordinated and balanced development.
A. TRADITIONAL FUNCTIONS :
1. ECONOMIC FUCNTIONS:
a. DIVISION OF LABOUR: The work is divided among the members. The male earns a
living and support the family. The female take care of the children and run the
household
b. PROVISION FOR INCOME : The family makes arrangements for income to fulfill the
needs of the family members.
c. CARE OF PROPERTY: The family looks after its property is handed down to the
children.
2. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS:
a. STATUS FUNCTION: In a family every individuals has a status. The child absorbs
from its family a set of interests , values and life habits which make it to remain in the class
status of the family.
b. SOCIALIZATION : The family imparts learning to the family members whereby they
can become an ideal members of society . Learning plays an important part socialization
teaches habits, ideas, attitudes and values .
c. SOCIAL CONTROL: The family exercises social control over the members. In the
family the antisocial tendencies of its members are watched.
d. TRANSMISSION OF SOCIAL HERITAGE : The family hands over the socials
traditions , customs and ideals to the next generation .
e. IN THE CHOICE OF LIFE PARTNER: ASSITANCE: The family renders assistance
to the individual in his choice of a life partner. Now a day’s personal choice is preferred.
3. RELIGIOUS FUNCTION: According to the Hindu shastras, religious rituals are considered
incomplete in the absence of wife son has to perform religious activities in the family the members
fulfill their religious duties.
4. CULTURE FUNCTIONS: The family keeps the culture of society alive. The children are educated
in the various aspects of culture. The elder of the family impart education to the children.

5. RECREATIONAL FUNCTIONS: The family provides entertainment for its members. The love
between husband and wife, the halting utterances of the children, the scolding and preaching’s of the
elders etc. Create an atmosphere which can interest him or her.
6. HEALTH FUNCTIONS: Deliveries are conducted at home. The family takes care of the sick
person in the family.
CHANGES IN THE FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY

In the past family was performing many functions. Today many of the functions have now been
taken over by other agencies.
EDUCATION: Today family is not required to educate the children. This function has now been
taken over by school.
SOCIAL CONTROL: Hitherto head of the family exercised control over the members. Intervention
of head of the family is not tolerated now.
HEALTH: The family is required to take care of the health of the family members. Nursing homes
and hospitals have taken over the functions.
RECREATION: For recreational facilities there are clubs, association etc.
REPRODUCTION: With the practice of birth control methods the function of child procreation is
now being given up by modern families.
SEXUAL NEEDS: The modern family satisfies in greater degree than the tradition family. In the old
family sexual act was combined with reproduction and the fear of pregnancy. The modern family is in
a better position to satisfy sex instinct without any fear of conception.
ECONOMIC: Economic decency is vanishing. Today women are working.
RELIGIOUS: Secular outlook has reduced the importance of religious function.
RELIGIOUS SANCITY: Religious sancity was attached to marriage. None of the spouse thought of
breaking the bonds. Today it can be broken at any time. A little disharmony now results in divorce.

TECHNICAL ADVANCEMENT: Hitherto family used to cook food, wash clothes, clean houses etc.
Today these things are done with the help of machine.
CONCLUSION: In spite of the above changes still the essential and basic functions of the
family remain unchanged. Family is still the legal agency for satisfying sexual urges. Reproduction of
children still remains the responsibility of the family. So also the burden of taking care of health,
education and recreation remains the responsibility of family. Still the cultural and social functions are
performed. The children still get love and affection in the family. There may be slight changes in the
nonessential functions but family remains its basic characteristics.
PROBLEM OF MODREN FAMILY:

Some of the important problems are:
1. The husband and wife do not have perfect adjustment between them. The husband wants to
maintain supremacy; wife demands equal rights and privileges.
2. The modern families are getting disorganized with the problem of sexual disharmony.
3. Leading a happy life is another problem. Love marriages are mainly responsible for this.
Before the marriage boys and girls meets with each and have high hopes. After marriage, instead of
happy life there are family quarrels which lead to divorces.
4. Rearing of children is another problem. Modern family is a nuclear family. Today both men
and women are taking to employment and return to the house completely exhausted. By this the
children are neglected.
5. Another problem is proper administration of family. Unlike the past members of the family
do not obey each other. Administration of family becomes a problem.
UNIT-22
INFLUENCE OF THE FAMILY ON HUMAN PERSONALTY
Personality and human behavior are interrelated. Personalities are moulded

through the process of socialization. Family is one of the agencies of socialization. The cultural
development of the child is very much influenced by the behavior of the parents. The Indian parents do
not sufficiently love and sympathize with the child. In such circumstances the child becomes are
introvert and often enjoy in his dreams and imagination things which are denied to him by his parents.
The influence of the presence of the parental love is not the same in the case
of all children. A child may become aggressive while another may become extremist and excessively
depended upon parents. A child excessively ignored shows different types of conflicts in his

personality. According to Sigmund Freud the tendency to depend upon the parents in childhood is
manifested in the tendency to depend upon the leader in the adult age.
If the child is allowed freedom in the matters concerning his belonging like food, clothes,
books etc. he will develop a habit of free will. If all these are decided by his parents he will not get an
opportunity to utilize his judgment and so becomes over dependent or submissive.Wants to become
like his parents. He tries to follow the manners, way and behavior of his parents. The child also fulfils
his frustrated desire through this identification. E.g. the little boy wears the big shirt of his father and
walks proudly like him with a stick in his hand. The identification with the leader.
In the absence of affection and sympathy, the child turns criminal. The child has a natural
curiosity towards sex tendency. Parents try to suppress it. The child tries to enquire from the servant or
friends.
BIRTH ORDER: The youngest child is treated with affection. Hence he become over dependent. The
eldest child being the only child for sometime does not share his rights and things with others. The
birth of another child takes away his monopoly in affection. Sometimes he is neglected altogether. He
feels jealous with the younger child and tries to regain his rights. In short, the behavior of parents and
the circumstance in the family affect the personality of the child.
UNIT-23
THE EFFECTS OF SICKNESS ON FAMILY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISEASES:-
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISEASES: Psychological medicine is the use of the methods and principles of
psychology in the treatment of physical ailments. The term is taken from the Greek word “PSYCHE”
means mind and “SOMA” refers to the body. Emotional disturbances such as stress affect a person’s
body. E.g. when a person is afraid or angry, adrenaline flows into the blood increasing the action of the
heart. Certain mental conflict may make a person more susceptible to disease.
Disorders that have been related to emotional disturbance include asthma, peptic ulcer
(stomach ulcer), Rheumatoid arthritis (inflammation and stiffness of the joints), neurodermatitis
(chronic skin disorders), impaired resistance to infection and hypertension.
Psychosomatic medicine is not considered a special field of medicine. Some patients need
help from doctors who specialize in psychiatry. The diseases involved with both medicine and physical
is called Psychosomatic disease. Changes in SOMA (body) results in somatic (body) functions’
retardation.
E.g.1.Traponema virus first attacks our body, Later it attacks the brain resulting psychosomatic
disease.

E.g.2.Mental retardation: The intelligence of those patients is very low.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES:

1. Emotional changes may increase the security of an attack.
2. A correlation is observable between the occurrence of successful life experience and the onset of
these disorders.
3. They exhibit a differential sex interest.
4. Psychosomatic disorders often run a phasic course.
SOME COMMON PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES:

1. Respiratory disorders E.g.Asthma hay fever.
2. Gastro-intestinal disorders. E.g. peptic ulcer.
3. Skin disorders.
4. Disorder of muscle and joints. E.g. Rheaumatoid arthritis (stiffness of the joints)
5. Endocrine disorders. E.g. Hyper thyroidism, diabetes mellitus.
6. Cardio vascular disorders. E.g. Hypertension, coronary disease, cerebrovascular diseases.
7. Disorders associated with reproductive system.
8. Migraine.
9. Acute back ache.
THEORIES FOR PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASE PRODUCTION: PSYCHOLOGICAL

THEORIES:
1. Stress 2.Emotion (chronic) 3.Mladaptive habitual response (Family problems and environment)
PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORIES: Neuro-physiological and Neuro-endocrinal regulation disturbance

are known in psychosomatic disorders. Stress is the main triggering factor. Stress is perceived by the
cerebral cortex. The cortex stimulates hypothalamus and the vegetative centre of the brain stem via the
limbic system.
Catacholamine disturbance are known in emotional disorders. The catacolamines are also
present in the peripheral autonomic nervous system which may be disturbed producing psychosomatic
disorders.
THEORIES FOR ORGAN SELECTION: These theories try to explain way a particular organ is
affected. Some believes that each psychosomatic illness is one to a particular personality profile. E.g.
peptic ulcer type. Emotions like love and dependency increase psychosomatic activity and may cause
peptic ulcer, bronchial asthma.

TREATMENT FOR PSCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS:
1. Medical treatment.
2. Psychiatric treatment (psychotherapy)
PSYCHOTHERAPY:
1. Find out the dynamics underlying the disorders.
2. Relaxation and biofeed back techniques to control autonomic nervous system.
3. Hyprosha (a state resembling sleep)
4. May Drugs be helpful in acute stages of illness yoga and meditation?
THE EFFECTS OF SICKNESS ON FAMILY:
Every individual should be cared by the family. If there is no proper care the individual may be
affected psychologically. In the family some may be illiterates they do not know to maintain good
health. Poverty makes people not to go for better treatment family may have many problems. Other
members forget the disease of one prostitution cause venerial diseases and aids. These abnormal affairs
are usually untold. Family may not know about this. In some cases, though the family knows the
disease they don’t reveal it as their social status would be affected.
Due to family problems members may develop stress, fear and anxiety. Later they may
develop psychosomatic disorders. The members of family who are away due to education or job may
develop bad habits. If it is chronic it may cause psychosomatic disorder people are compelled to live in
BAD ENVIRONMENT. It may cause many disorders.
REMEDIES:
1. Family must have healthy surroundings.
2. Problems of the family may be discussed by the members and get solutions.
3. Love and affection must be shared by all the family members.
CHAPTER-6 UNIT-24
COMMUNITY
DEFINITION AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY:

CONCEPT OF COMMUNITY: The term community is used in different ways to mean different
things. People use the term to refer to a religious community, caste community or professional
community. But community means an association or group and in wider sense it is used to the entire
humanity. In every society there are urban as well as rural communities.

DEFINITIONS: Various definitions of community are given. According to Bogardus “community as
a social group with some degree of ‘we feeling and living in a geographical area”. Kingsley Davis
defines community as “community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of
social life”. The definition accepted by W.H.O. Expert committee is “A community is a social group
determined by geographical boundaries and or common values and interests. Its members know and
interact with each other. It functions within a particular social structure and exhibits and create
certain norms, values and social institutions. The individual belongs to the broader society through his
family and community”. Community is therefore a group living in a geographical area having common
interests and activities.
1. Community is a group of people living together

2. It occupies a territorial area.
3. There are community sentiments i.e., a feeling of g belonging together.
4. Community is not temporary. It has a permanent life.
5. Communities are natural. They are not created.
6. In a community there is likeness in language, customs, mores etc.
7. The ends of the community are wide.
8. Every community has a particular name.
9. A community has no legal status.
10. A community may be big or small.
UNIT -25
ROLE OF RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES IN PUBLIC HEALTH
The term “public health” came into use around 1840. W .H. O. Expert committee on public
Health administration defined it as “the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life
and promoting health and efficiency through organized community efforts ……..”
Terms like preventive medicine, social medicine community medicine are used as
synonyms for public health community medicine focuses on the health needs of the
community .
ROLE OF RURAL COMMUNITY IN PUBLIC HEALTH: When compared with the urban
communities Rural communities are lagging behind in the matters connected with health . In
the villages We can observe lack of medical facilities , non availability of essential energizing
food. Insanitation and ill health. In many village s people follow the traditional methods for
curing the disease . Hence the rural health programs suffered.

DELIVERY OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE: Health care is defined as “ multitude of services
rendered to individuals , families or communities by the agents of health services for the purposes
of promoting , maintaining or restoring health “ In 1977 Government of India launched a Rural
Health scheme based on the principle of “placing people’s health in peoples, hands “. It is a 3
tire system of health care delivery in rural areas I .e . Village level, sub center level and
primary health center level.
VILLAGE LEVEL: At the village level the following schemes are operation (a) village Health
guide scheme (b)Training of local dais and (c) I .C .D .S .scheme (Integrated child development
services).
a. VILLAGE HEALTH GUIDE SCHEME : It is introduce d on 2-10-77 with the

idea of securing peoples participation in the care of their own health . The health guides are
now mostly women selected from the community. In the beginning the status or the health guide
was community health worker. Later on it was changed to community Health volunteer .Now it
is changed community health Guide (C .H . G.) .Their duties are treatment of minor ailments ,
activities in first aid , mother and child health , health education and sanitation. There will be
one C .H. g. for 1000 population. They are free to attend to their normal vocation they have to spare
two to three hours in a day for health care delivery .They are part time workers.
b. TRAINING OF LOCAL DAIS: IN rural areas most deliveries are still conducted by
untrained dais. These dais are given training now to improve their knowledge and skills. The training
is for 30 working days and it is given at the primary health centre or MCH centre. During training each
dais has to conduct at least 2 deliveries under guidance. After training each dai is provided with a
delivery kit. She is entitled to receive Rs.10/- per delivery provided the case is registered in sub centre.
For each infant registration she receive Rs.3/-.
c. I.C.D.S. SCHEME: Under this scheme there is an Anganwadi worker for 1000
population. She is selected from the community. She undergoes training in various aspects of health,
nutrition and child development she is a part time worker paid a honororium every month for the
services rendered i.e. health check up, immunization, supplementary nutrition, health education, and
non formal pre-school education and referral services. The beneficiaries are nursing mothers, other
woman (15-45 years) and children below the age of 6 years.

SUB CENTRE: There is one sub centre for every 5000 population in plain and one for every 3000
population in hilly, tribal and backward areas. Each sub centre is manned by one Multipurpose Health
Worker (MHW) and one (MPHW) Female. At present the functions of the sub centre are limited to
Mother and child Health Care, Family Planning and Immunization. The works at sub centre s
supervised by Health Assistant (male) and health Assistant (female).They are all Government
employees.
PRIMARY HEALTH CENTRE LEVELS: It provides health services to the rural population. It
covers 30000 rural population in plains and 20000 in hilly, tribal and backward areas.
The functions of primary health centre are
1. Medical care.
2. Mother & child health including family planning.
3. Control of communicable diseases.
4. Environmental sanitation.
5. Registration of Vital statistics (births and deaths)
6. Health education
7. Nutrition and immunization
8. Training of CHGs, local dais, health workers etc.
9. Referrals
10. School health services.
ROLE OF URBAN COMMUNITY IN PUBLIC HEALTH

In the Urban areas community health centre and hospitals undertake the activities of health &
medical.
COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTRES: They are upgraded primary health centre covering a
population of 80,000 to 1.20 lakh with 30 beds and specialists in surgery. Medicine, Obstetrics and
Gynecology and pediatrics with X-rays and laboratory facilities. At each community health centre a
non-medical post called community health officer (CHO) has been created for strengthening
preventive and promotive aspects. The CHO is selected from among the supervisory category of staff
with 7 years of experience in rural health programmes. Some state has opted for a second Medical
Officer instead of C.H.O. There is advisory committee with local persons. These centers provide
preventive, promotive and curative services.
HOSPITALS: At present there are Taluk hospitals, District hospitals, Specialist hospitals and
Teaching institution. In the hospital only curative services are provided. There is an advisory
committee with local people. In cities the Municipal Health Officer will look after the health activities.

UNIT-26
ROLE OF COMMUNITY IN DETERMING BELIEF, PRACTICES AND HOME
REMEDIES IN TREATMENTS
Maintenance of health is very important for the well-being of society. Poor hygienic
conditions, poor ventilation, poor sanitation, poor nutritional status of the individual and other social
economic factors increase the incidence of diseases. Any community living in groups within a
geographical area following the similar customs and culture, sharing the common sentiments leads an
interdependent social life.
Community has its own norms, belief and values for its functioning. Their beliefs which are put
into practice may have an impact on health of the members. The members of the community also
readily accept these practices like any other habits, beliefs and practices shared by them. For example
when a person is affected with small pox, the practice of the community is to insert a branch of neem
leaves on the top of the entrance .The community members will identify that house easily by seeing the
neem leaves inserted. The patient is isolated and prevented from going out. This practice prevents
further spread of disease and isolating the patient leads to required bed rest. But at the same time there
are some unfavorable health practices in the treatment of many diseases.
BELIEF AND HOME REMEDIES: In any community there are some remedial methods with
reference to health based on the culture and community beliefs. In India home remedies are related to
the traditional practices of medical and health care.
E.g1.During the time of child birth the common practice in rural communities is the
application of cow dung as the cutoff point of the umbilical cord. This leads to tetanus.
E.g.2.When a person is affected with diarrhea the common home remedy is to take
sugar salt solution to replace the lost fluids and minerals which reduces the number of deaths.
The home remedies can be seen in medical care in treating skin diseases, childhood diseases, women
related problems, pregnancy etc.
E.g.1.Home remedies are practiced even with betel leaves when there are boils.
People apply castor oil to the betel leaf and keep it on the stomach to reduce the suffering.
E.g.2. Juice of betel leaves is taken to prevent cough and cold.
E.g.3. Though chewing pan helps in digestion process, too much of its chewing may
lead to heart problems. When it is chewed with tobacco it may lead to cancer.

CHAPTER-7 UNIT-27
CULTURE
MEANING: Culture is a unique possession of man which separated him from animals. Culture is the
product of human society. It includes all that men have acquired in his life. It includes all our walks of
life, our modes of behavior, our customs and traditions, our morals and manners, our religious,
political, economic etc. Types of activities. Every society has a culture. Every man is a representative
of his culture. In short culture implies the whole way of life.
DEFINITION: Edward B.Tylor, a famous English Anthropologist has defined culture as “that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by a man as a member of society”. Taylor’s definition is widely quoted and used
today.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Culture is learnt. It is often called learned ways of behavior.
E.g. Wearing clothes, drinking from a glass etc are culturally learnt.
2. Culture is social. It develops through social interactions.
3. Culture is communicated from one generation to the other.
4. Culture is shared. Customs, traditions, beliefs, values etc are all shared by people.
5. Culture is continuous .It flows down from one generation to the other.
6. Culture is dynamic .It is always changing.
7. Culture varies from society to society.
UNIT-28
MATERIAL CULTURE AND NON MATERIAL CULTURE
Culture may be divided into two parts namely (a) Material Culture and (b) Non Material
Culture
Ogburn has used this distinction as a basis for a theory of cultural change.
MATERIAL CULTURE: It consists of material and physical objects such as houses, roads,
vehicles etc.
NON MATERIAL CULTURE: In this non material objects are included .It consists of
beliefs, values, habits, rituals and practices etc.

CULTURAL DIFFUSION: It means the borrowing of cultural elements from another society.
It takes place in every society. It involves the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another.
It is a selective process. Those who borrow pick up what is needed by them.
Factors which contribute in cultural diffusion include (a)transport and communication (b)desire to
adopt new traits (c)prestige of the different culture (d)Migration.
CULTURAL LAG: In our society all aspects of culture are not advancing at the same speed.
In some cases speed is slow while in others it is very quick and fast. It is the difference between these
two speeds which creates cultural tag.
According to Ogburn changes take place quickly in material culture. These in turn stimulate
changes in the non material culture .But the non material culture may be slow to respond giving rise to
a gap or lag between the material and non material culture. This lag is called cultural lag. One of the
major causes of cultural lag is advancement of technology. Religious dogmas hinder cultural lag.
***************
UNIT-29
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
The components of culture are: (a) Cultural traits (b) cultural complex and (c) cultural pattern.
CULTURAL TRAITS: They are the smallest units of a culture. These are formed on the basis
of needs of people. All these traits are interdependent. Culture includes thousand of such traits. Some
of these traits are shaking hands, saluting the flag, touching the feet, sprinkling water on idols etc.
These traits distinguish one culture from another. A trait found in one culture may have no significance
in another culture.
CULTURAL COMPLEX: Cultural traits do not appear independently. They are associated
with other related traits to form cultural complex. Each trait performs a significant role in the total
complex. E.g. Kneeling before the idol, putting food before it etc. Each complex ha s a role to play in
society.
CULTURAL PATTERN: The interaction and interrelation of cultural complex determine

cultural pattern. A culture pattern is formed when traits and complex become related to each other. The
culture pattern consists of a number of culture complexes such as caste system, ruralism, joint family
etc. Each of these is a cultural complex.

TYPES OF CULTURAL TRAITS:
These traits are of 6 types namely 1.Universal 2. Alternatives 3. Specialties 4. Sub cultures 5.
Contra culture and 6. Cultural area.
1. UNIVERSAL: These traits are followed by all and shared. E.g. one must cover certain parts of
the body.
2. ALTERNATIVES: In this individual are given a choice. E.g. one may take vegetarian food or
non vegetarian food. Alternatives in one society may be universal in some other society or
universal may be alternatives.
3. SPECIALITIES: These are shared by some but not all groups. E.g. Baby nursing is a female
specialty not shared by men.
4. SUB CULTURES: These are the cultural traits of a particular group. They are related to the
general culture of the society. E.g. Sex groups, caste, teen-age culture of the society. E.g.
Specialties lead to sub cultures.
5. CONTRA CULTURE: In this, the groups differ from the prevailing pattern. They are against
the cultural norms. E.g. Naxalites.
6. CULTURAL AREA: Some societies may have similar cultural traits and complexes. These
societies constitute culture area.
UNIT-30
IMPACT OF CULTURE ON HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
This can be studied under two heads
A. Impact of culture on individual behavior and
B. Impact of culture on group behavior.
A. IMPACT OF CULTURE ON INDIVIUAL BEHAVIOUR:

Culture makes man a human being .It regulates the social conduct and behavior. It
teaches him manners, ways of behaving, his food habits etc. It inculcates a sense of cooperation. It
provides means for meeting the minimum basic complicated situations. According Horton and Hunt
man is a prisoner of his culture .Culture provides traditional interpretations according to which man
determine his behavior. E.g. If a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey.
B. IMPACT OF CULTURE ON GROUP BEHAVIOUR:

There is no group life without culture .It decides a code of conduct for social behavior.
It helps in satisfying food, shelter and sex needs. It helps the groups in evolving codes for cooperation.
It gives an idea that individual is a part of the group.

UNIT-31
CULTURE INDUCED SYMPTOMS AND DISEASE
The knowledge of socio economic condition life style, cultural dynamics of social groups helps
to find out the culture induced symptoms and disease. In India risks of illness and death are connected
with personal hygiene ,poor nutrition lack of sanitation human habits customs and culture pattern .The
behavior of people is complex .people will have false and blind beliefs .Their knowledge about health
is poor .They live in unhygienic condition. These lead to many diseases. For example infectious
diseases are caused by micro organisms .But people believe that it is due to supernatural factors.
Most of the people in India believe that the diseases like leprosy and T.B. occur due to past
sins. People go for treatment to quacks. Tribal’s are traditional oriented .They have their own culture
pattern. When a baby is born they apply cow dung to the cut end of the umbilical cord which is
responsible for tetanus in the new born .In some places, the child is not put to breast during the first
three days after birth. They think that collustrum is harmful to the baby.
In rural areas the local dais is preferred for conducting deliveries .In certain communities
foods such as eggs ,meat, and fish are forbidden during pregnancy .In rural areas people go for open
air defecation resulting water and soil pollution and propagation of flies .During festivals people take
holy dip in rivers and drink the raw water which leads to outbreak of cholera and gastroenteritis
.branding of the skin ,administration of castor oil to the new born , smoking hukka ,not wearing shoes
are equally bad customs .
UNIT-32
SUBCULTURE OF MEDICAL WORKERS
Sub culture is the culture traits of a particular group. Culture traits are related to the general
culture of the society .Yet distinguishable from it .medical include doctors ,nurses, physiotherapists,
pharmacists , technicians health workers etc .They works in hospitals , clinics ,laboratories
,Rehabilitation centers etc
In every hospital there are norms to be observed by the medical workers. The cultural traits of
the medical workers are complex in nature. The medical field is vastly expanded due to the improved
scientific knowledge. There is no place for traditions and beliefs. The medical practice is highly
bounded by morals and principles. The medical workers perform their roles as per their job chart. The
hospital norms are to maintain cleanliness; silence and punctuality .Uniform while on duty and
cooperate with each other. They have to build up good rapport with patients and be curtious.

The workers should have patience, pleasing manners, honesty, tolerance, love, kindness,
sympathy towards the patients. They have to work like disciplined soldiers.
CHAPTER-8 UNIT-33
CASTE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION: Society is stratified into caste and class. They decide the position in society.
Caste is unique to India and class is universal. Both influence life styles. The term caste is derived
from Spanish word ‘CASTA’ meaning breed or lineage’. Varna’ is the Sanskrit word for caste means
color. The origin of caste is from Varna. Varna is based on division of labor and occupation during
Vedic period. Hindu society is divided into 4 varnas namely Brahmins, Kshathrias, Vysyas and sudras.
In India there are 2800 castes and sub caste, varnas are four where as castes are in thousand. Both are
not the same.
DEFINITION: Caste has been defined variously. Writer are not uniform in their opinion .According
to Ketker “a caste is a group having two characteristics (1)Membership is confined to those who are
born of members and include all persons so born and (2)the members are forbidden by an
inexorable social law to marry outside group”.
For T.N.Madan & Mazumdar “A caste is a closed group”. In the words of Cooley “when a class is
somewhat hereditary we call it caste”. According to A.W.Green “caste is a system of stratification in
which mobility, movement up and down the status ladder, at last ideally may not occur”.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. HIERARCHICAL DIVISION: There is hierarchy of group on the basis of ritual status and purity
and impurity. In the hierarchy there are concepts of high and low Brahmins are at the apex followed by
Kshathrias, Vysyas and sudras. Those who are outside these four varnas became untouchables.
2. SEGMENTAL DIVISION: In this status and position is decided by birth .Nothing can change the
position and rituals.
3. CASTE PANCHAYAT: Every caste its own panchayat .It acts as a court of law to give judgment
and impose penalty for the cases of violation of caste practices.
4. RESTRICTION ON FOOD: The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on the food habits
of the members. For example, Brahmins are prohibited from eating meat, Kshathiyas and vysyas are
prohibited from eating beef etc. Generally speaking, any food prepared by Brahmin is acceptable to all
the caste people.

5. CASTE IS ENOGAMOUS: All the persons must marry within their own caste .Inter caste
marriages are forbidden.
6. FIXED OCCUPATIONS: Each caste has its own specific occupation which is hereditary.
7. RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL DISABILITIES: The impure caste (harijans) are not allowed to live
in the village .They are not allowed to draw water from the public wells. They are not allowed to listen
to sacred verses and forbidden from entering the temples. They are not allowed to perform religious
ceremonies at public places.
8. RESTRICTIONS ON SOCIAL RELATIONS: The caste system puts restrictions on social
relations .A touch of a lower caste man (Harijan) would pollute a man of higher caste.
UNIT-34
FEATURES OF THE MODERN CASTE SYSTEM
The caste system has been undergoing considerable changes. Some of its traditional feature
has radically altered. The Indian constitution abolished untouchability in any form in public places.
The temples, educational institutions, public wells, transport, cinema halls etc are thrown open for all.
Occupations are becoming caste free. Change of occupation is thrown open to members of all
castes. Caste no more represents an occupational division. The functions of caste panchayats are taken
over by courts and the state.
Western education disseminated the ideas of human dignity and human equality .There is no
segregation between the lower caste and upper caste .The scheduled caste and economically backward
classes are receiving special attention as prescribed in the constitution.
The spread of communication and development of personal contact brought changes in the
attitude of the people. Restrictions on food habits are being neglected. Food habits have become more
a personal choice.
Brahmins were given more privileges .The constitution of India removed all such
privileges and made all caste equal. The caste people had to marry the persons within their own caste.
Now intercaste marriages are legally permitted.
CONCLUSION: In spite of all these changes caste system has found new fields of activity .Caste
organization are on the increase .Many of them are hostel and hospitals, schools and colleges. Caste is
getting themselves more united and organized. Elections are fought on caste basis .Inter dinning has
not become common in rural areas. The practice of untouchability still prevails in rural areas
.Exploitation of harijans and endogamy continues.
TRENDS OF THE MODREN CASTE SYSTEM

The Indian society is regarded as “closed system”. It is not all together changeless. Some kind
of mobility is observed. The socio cultural changes have been taking place in terms of 3 processes
namely (1) Sanskritisation, (2) Westernization and (3) Modernization.
1. SANSKRITISATION: The term “SANSKRITISATION” was introduce into Indian sociology
by prof. M.N. Srinivas (1916 -1999).He is called the father of Indian sociology .He was
awarded the “Padma Bhushan” for his contribution to Indian Academy. Sanskritisation refers
to a process where lower caste people try to adopt the practices of the upper caste to acquire
higher status. M.N.Srinivas in his study of the coorg, found that lower caste adopted some
customs and practices of the Brahmins and gave up some of their own. In order to raise their
status in the caste hierarchy .For example they gave up meat eating and drinking liquor. They
imitated Brahmins in matters of dress, food and rituals. Within a generation they could claim
higher positions in the hierarchy of castes. In the beginning M.N.Srinivas used the term
Brahminisation to denote the process .Later on he replaced it by sanskritisation.
2. WESTERNISATION: M.N.Srinivas introduced the term “westernization” to explain the

changes introduced in Indian society during British Rule. The British were the rulers of India
.They ate pork and beef, drank liquor, allowed divorce and widow remarriages. They possessed
scientific knowledge, new technology and great literature .The educated upper class including
Brahmins slowly westernized themselves and began to acquire the habits of westerners. The
Brahmins were the first converts to westernization.
The British brought with them the printing press which led to many changed. Western
education had an impact on the style of living .They gave up their inhibition towards meat
eating and consumption of liquor. They adopted western style of dressing and dining .The
British brought the following changes.
(a) Political , social, economic and technological
(b) Greater secularization
(c) People secure opportunities for making money, and higher status.
(d) Increase in mobility.
(e) Changes in social and cultural life.
3. MODERNISATION: Daniel Learner introduced the term Modernization .Today people are
trying to orient their behavior, attitudes, beliefs, and life styles of developed societies. Daniel
Learner calls this process as “modernization”. It is a process of social change where by less
developed societies acquire the characteristics of developed societies .The scientific and
technological inventions have brought remarkable changes in social relationship and installed

new ideologies in the place of traditional ones. Urbanization, Industrialization, Communication
and transport and western education brought a change in the Indian society.
CHAPTER - 9 UNIT- 35
SOCIAL CHANGE
MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE: Change is the law of life. In all societies changes are bound to
come. These changes may be slow or fast Social change refers to the modifications which take place
in the life patterns of people. Social change denotes variations of any aspect of social process, social
patterns and social interactions or social organization. Social change occurs in the life of the entire
community. Each change is linked with other changes. Greek Philosopher Heraclitus said that it is
impossible for a man to step into the same river twice because both river and man have changed
neither remains the same.
Social change may occur either in the natural course or as a result of personal efforts. For
social change planned efforts are needed. Many factors are responsible for social change. People
oppose social change due to (1) Habits and customs (2) Lack of knowledge, (3) Economic reasons, (4)
Love for stability and (5) Selfish and vested interests.
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE: Social change is multifactoral. Some of the common factors of
social change are (1) Biological factor, (2) Physical factor, (3) Cultural factor and (4) Technological
factor.
1. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS: Biological factors influence the process of social change. This
includes plant and animal life and human beings. Social and cultural life of men is affected by
plants and animals. Men modify them to serve his purpose. For Eg. Many plants are used for
medicines Cow is regarded as sacred among Hindus. Human being (Demographic factor): The
population is always changing in society due to migration, changing of value system,
epidemics, famine etc. The growth of population brought so many problems like food,
unemployment, housing, poverty, poor health etc. The number of old is increasing due to the
decline in death rate.
2. PHYSICAL FACTORS: They consist of rivers, earth mountains. Forests, climate, rain fall
etc. They consist of rivers, earth mountains, forests, climate, rain fall etc. They have influence
upon human society. Storms, famines and floods, cyclones and earth quakes may bring social
change.

3. CULTURAL FACTORS: They consist of values and beliefs, customs and traditions, morals
and manners and ideas. All these promote or retard social change. William F. Ogburn has
divided culture into two parts namely material culture and no material culture. Material culture
includes customs. traditions, beliefs, practices values etc. Values and norms are an important
source of social change. Cultural factors of change refer to these values, norms and beliefs.
4. TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS: Technology changes society. For example, Radio and

Television have influenced our entertainments, education, politics, sports, attitudes etc.
Technology brought changes in the traditional values. It brought industrialization, urbanization
and modernization etc.
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UNIT 36
CONCEPTS OF EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS:
CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION: The term social evolution originated from Latin Word
"EVOLVERE" meaning to develop or to unfold. It is equivalent to the Sanskrit word "VIKAS". It
means more than growth. It is a continuous process. Darwin and Spencer are Chief exponents of the
concept of social evaluation. According to Von Baer "Evolution is a process of differentiation and
integration". Evolution starts from simple to complex, indefinite to definite and from homogeneity to
heterogeneity. When changes take place in a connected order out of earlier phases of change, the
process is called evolution.
It is very difficult to define social evolution. Evolution is visible in all walks of life. For
example from savagery, human society became civilized. Similarly society passed from Stone age to
Bronze age and then to Iron age.
CHARACTERISTICS OR PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION: According to Herbert Spencer the

characteristics are:
(1) Social evolution is one cultural or human aspect of the law of cosmic evolution.
(2) It takes place in the same way in which cosmic evolution takes place.
(3) Social evolution is gradual and progressive.

CONCEPT OF PROGRESS: It is difficult to scientifically measure progress. It is a relative term. It
does not mean change alone. It means assessment of ultimate values. It varies from individual to
individual. It should give a sense of confidence and avoid frustration. It requires social planning.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRESS:
1. In progress there must be change and desire supported by efforts.
2. It must affect the whole society.
3. In progress the society should gain more and lose less.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIAL EVOLUTION AND PROGRESS: There are basic

differences between evolution and progress which may be briefly discussed as under:
PROGRESS EVOLUTION
1. It implies direction towards a final goal 1. It has no fixed goal
2. It requires social planning 2. Inevitability of causation
3. It is intentional 3. It is natural
4. It implies standard of evaluation 4. Does not imply any standard of valuation
.*******************
UNIT - 37
HUMAN ADAPTATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Every individual must adapt himself to the circumstances for his survival. These circumstances
are biological, physical and social.
BIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION: Biological factors are concerned with heredity. Everyone has to
adapt himself to the biological factors. In this adaptation new generation takes many hereditary
instincts, qualifications, and qualities from the old generation.
PHYSICAL ADAPTATION: This is governed by natural and physical laws. An individual's
adjustment to physical condition for the sake of comforts is called physical adaptation. For example in
rainy season we use umbrella whereas in cold weather we wear warm clothes. Thus an individual
must physically adapt himself for his comforts.
SOCIAL ADAPTATION: An individual's adjustment to the social conditions is called Social
adaptation. For example, during Muslim rule, Telangana Brahmins adjusted themselves to the Muslim
way of life.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL ADAPTATION:
PHYSICAL ADAPTATION:
1. It is a biological process. The individual is exposed to the circumstances and he will not change
them.
2. In it natural law continuously influences him.
3. In it an individual cannot introduce any modifications.
SOCIAL ADAPTATION:
1. It is a social process and the individual can change the circumstances.
2. It is not a continuous process.
3. In it modifications can be introduced.
THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION: According to Darwin's Theory of “Struggle for existence"

those who achieve maximum adaptation only survive and the others are eliminated. In the system of
natural selection death eliminates all those who are inefficient. In all natural catastrophes, only the
able survive where as the disabled die.
SOCIAL SELECTION: It is a process of creating conditions for survival. These are various
methods of social selection. Some are direct and the others are indirect. In the indirect method not the
individual but the society is responsible for the social selection ex. Unhygienic conditions of the
factory workers resulting in their diseases.
FORMS OF SOCIAL SELECTION:

1. Wars: Strong and healthy persons in the society are selected for national defense. The defense
becomes richer where as the society on the whole gets poorer.
2. Politics: The people who have will and desire become national leaders and are selected by the
society and get preference over others.
3. Religion: Religious leaders are selected by the society there by the society get poorer because
these intelligent people do not get married. The society looses the off springs of these intelligent
people.
4. Judiciary: It points out the criminals, anti-social elements, bad characters and habitual law
breakers.
5. Economic Conditions: People who have more inclination in the economic life come to the front
while the others are left behind. Those who are economically well off have not as many number of
children as the poor.
6. Environment: People in the cities have not as many children as the people in the villages have.

UNIT - 38
SOCIAL CHANGE AND STRESS
Social Change refers to a change in the social structure. Social change affects human beings
and their families. Any kind of change produces stress but some amount of stress is necessary for
growth. Not all stress produces illness or aggression.
CAUSES FOR SOCIAL CHANGE: (1) Cultural (2) Technological, (3) Biological, (4) Population,
(5) Environmental, (6) Psychological.
Social change forces human beings to adjust themselves physically, socially and biologically.
If a man is not able to cope up with the incoming changes either in the family, peer group, colleges,
business etc. with new technology it leads to stress and later to a state of crisis (total downfall).
Crisis within a family can be classified into 4 groups.
1. Shifts in Status: Ex. Sudden poverty, unemployment.
2. Abandonment: Ex Death of a child or spouse, a runaway child, divorce.
3. Crisis of Addition: Ex unwanted pregnancies, addition of children by birth.
4. Crisis of Demoralization: Ex. Adultery, Alcoholism, drug abuse delinquency.
SOCIAL CHANGE LEADING TO STRESS IN FAMILIES:

1. Breakdown of joint family into nuclear families.
2. Technological changes have affected family whereby.
 Women's status has changed and concepts of working women develop.
 Children undergo stress periods that in turn leads to various psychosomatic
disorders. Ex. Asthma.
 Parent starts abusing and use violent methods in handling children.
3. Individual disorganization:
a) Unfulfilled psychological needs - love, security, belongingness, appreciation, recognition etc.
b) Personal disintegration: Individual disorganization leads to personal disintegration and deviance.
c) Difference mechanisms: A person defends himself to handle stress in between these two
extremities.
4. Family disorganization:
Ex. Divorce, Broken families, Separated parents, family conflicts, unemployment, sickness etc
CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL CHANGE LEADING TO STRESS:

1. Isolation of small family leads to a feeling of loneliness.
2. Incidence of disorders such as Cardio Vascular diseases, peptic ulcer and other forms of cancer.
3. Devaluation of personal values on the society. The task of family to socialize, personalize and
provide companionship for its members is critical with problems.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS:
Stress beyond a certain point becomes distress. The acts that produce distress vary from
person to person. Some events that seem to be stressful are injuries, infections of the body, dangerous
events in our environment, major changes in life which force us to cope in new ways - noise, climate,
frustration, conflicts etc. Methods of coping with stress are (1) Relaxation, (2) Hypnotize etc.
UNIT - 39
SOCIAL CHANGE AND HEALTH PROGRAMMES
Social Change may be defined as modification in ways of doing and thinking of people.
The different factors of social change are: cultural technological, biological, population,
environmental, psychological and others.
CULTURAL: Change in the food habits: In rural areas quantity matters more than quality. Further
rural people do not have good knowledge about the nutritious food. They take milk unboiled. They
take milled rice than the hand pounded rice.
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES: They have led to the changes in environment. Thereby there is a
modification in the customs and social institutions like family. Discovery of new machines have also
brought scope for women employment. Some changes in technology have led to unemployment,
poverty suicide, sickness etc. Rural people have accommodated themselves into urban slums adding
on crimes like thefts and have acquired social evil habits such as alcoholism, drugs, prostitution,
cheating etc. Technology has led to stress at work spots and at homes.
ENVIRONMENT: Floods, earth quakes and other natural calamities have made people to lose their
houses and belongings. Insects like scorpions; snakes etc. also get displaced and forced themselves on
man. There is an outbreak of epidemic and other health hazards.
BIOLOGICAL: New methods of birth control have taken over urban people; rural people have given
themselves to vices such as female infanticide due to dowry problem.
PSYCHOLOGICAL : Technology has led to the rising of several psychological and physical
disorders i.e. the Psychosomatic disorders like peptic ulcers, migraine, headaches, eczema, asthma and
hypertension, Psychosomatic diseases like Schizophrenia, neurosis and psychosis are some of the
problems that have increased in families.
OTHERS: Social vices like alcoholism, drugs, affected the health of the people. Prostitution led to
the spread of diseases like S.T.D. (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) and AIDS. Thus, social change has
led to various health problems ranging from malnutrition to diseases like AIDS. To tackle these

problems several health programmes have to be implemented by Government and voluntary
organizations from time to time.
Some of the Health Programmes implemented by Government are:

1. National Family Planning Programme - 1954
2. National Leprosy Eradication Programme - 1955
3. National Malaria Programme - 1958
4. S.T.D. Control Programme - 1949
5. Universal Immunization Programme - 1985
6. National AIDS Control Programme - 1985
7. Child Survival and Safe Motherhood - 1983
8. National T.B. Control Programme - 1962
9. National Programme for control of Blindness - 1976
CONCLUSION: Society in its process of change gives rise to a number of health problems. To
tackle them there is a need for planning and implementing programmes on health.
UNIT - 40
THE ROLE OF SOCIAL PLANNING IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF
HEALTH AND IN REHABITATION
Social planning is a movement that has recently come into prominence. According to
Andersons and Parker "Social planning is the development of a programme designed to accomplish
predetermined objectives for a society or a segment of it ". Man must plan on the basis of facts
discovered by scientific research in order to deal effectively with the problems facing him. Social
problems are mostly man made.
The aim of the social planning is to check the recurrence of social problems and to bring about a
harmonious adjustment of relationships between the different parts of society.
HEALTH PLANNING IN INDIA: It is a part of National development planning. The purpose of

health planning is to improve the health services and meet the health needs and demands of the
people. More recently the Alma - Ata declaration on primary Health Care and the National Health
Policy of the Government gave a new direction to health planning in India. The goal of National
Health Planning in India now is to attain Health for all by the year 2000 A.D.
PLANNING COMMISSION: The Government of India set up a planning commission, in 1950 to

make an assessment of the material, capital and human resources of the country and to draft

development plans. The planning commission has been formulating the successive five year plans.
The Planning Commission gave considerable importance to health programmes.
The Department of Social Welfare under the Central Government is responsible for general
social welfare. In 1954, in rural areas, the scheme of the welfare extension projects started to provide
maternity and health services. Government started the District Rehabilitation Center scheme in 1983.
It identifies the disabled persons and arrange restorative, medical, educational, vocational and
placement devices for them.
Special Programmes have been started for women in adult education centers providing
education in subjects like Health, Nutrition, Child care and Family welfare. For the rehabilitation of
women in distress, in 1977 a scheme was launched to provide vocational training - cum -
employment. The family life institution provides counseling services and family life education for the
mal-adjusted spouses, parents, unmarried youth etc.
The I.C.D.S. scheme was launched on 2-10-75 to improve the nutrition and health status of
Children. The scheme covers children below the age of 6 years, expectant and nursing mothers and
other women in the age group of 15-44 years belonging to the poor families. The Welfare Department
gives grants-in-aid to the institutions engaged in the field of child and women welfare. Helps Age
India at New Delhi provides Homes for the aged, Geriatric wards, Mobile Medicare Units,
Rehabilitation of the aged, blind, physically handicapped, leprosy patients and cataract operations.
CHAPTER – 10 UNIT - 41
SOCIAL CONTROL
MEANING OF SOCIAL CONTROL

E.A.Ross, an American Sociologist was the first who used the concept of social control. Social
control is an influence exercised by the society for promoting the welfare of the group. Thus, the
control of society over the behavior of its members through various mechanisms can be referred to as
social control. It is exercised over the undesirable or harmful tendency of men. Through social
control man can be prevented from performing anti-social activities. Social control keeps on changing
in accordance with the changes in society.
DEFINITION: E.A.Ross defines social control as “The system of devices whereby society brings its
members into conformity with the accepted standards of behavior".
NEED OF SOCIAL CONTROL: Society is a heterogeneous organization. No two persons are
alike. There are cultural differences among individuals. Unrestricted freedom creates social disorder.
Social control is necessary for the following reasons. (1) To establish social unity, (2) To control

individual behavior (3) To maintain the old order (4) To provide social sanctions and (5) to check
cultural mal-adjustment.
TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL: Social control can be classified into (1) Formal control and (2)
Informal control.
FORMAL CONTROL: It is deliberately created. In it various rules are laid down. Violators are
given punishments. Law, Education and coercion come under this.
INFORMAL CONTROL: It is not purposefully created. No specific punishments are given to the
violators. It is more effective in primary groups. Norms, Folkways, Mores, Values, Religion,
Sanctions and public opinion come under informal control.
UNIT 42
REGULATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR:
ROLE OF LAW: Laws are rules of state. They regulate individual and community behavior.
Government punishes the violators. Laws are enforced with the help of the courts and the police.
They limit the criminal activity by threatening punishment. Laws are enacted by Parliament and State
Legislature. The Supreme Law is the Constitution.
ROLE OF NORMS: They are the standard expected behavior. They are the rules and regulations
governing the behavior. They guide our conduct. They are the ways of doing things set for us by our
society. They are acquired through socialization. Norms give order and stability to social life. They
have goals and means. They are prescriptive and prohibitive. Without norms social relation would be
chaotic. Norms are to two types. They are (1) Folk ways and (2) Mores.
ROLE OF FOLKWAYS: This term was invented by the American Sociologist, William
Graham Summer. It literally means the way of the folk. They are the laws of behavior in the society.
They are learnt through socialization. Violators are not punished, yet they are obeyed. The fear of
social radical, acts as a control measure.
ROLE OF MORES: This term was also coined by William Graham Summer. These are
considered essential for the welfare of the group. The person who violates mores is turned out of the
class of society. People do not talk with him. For example cow slaughter is prohibited in Hindus
Society. Mores contribute to the solidarity and harmony of the group. There are more for every
group. Mores differ from place to place and time to time.
ROLE OF CUSTOM: Many of our activities are regulated by customs. Eg. Dressing, speaking,
eating and worshipping etc., they are self accepted rules. Customs give guidance and Customs are

rarely opposed. Even harmful customs are obeyed because people do not consider the harmful.
Customs are found everywhere. They are basic to our collective life. They are dominant in the
primitive society than modern.
RULE OF RELIGION: Religion refers to man's faith in the super natural power. The religious
concept is linked with man's relationship with God. The religious norms make good, obedient and
helpful to others. The concepts of Ghosts, spirits, taboos, sermon etc control human behavior Ideas of
Hell and Haeron also have great effects on the behavior of the people Man tries to mend his behavior
for God's blessings. He is afraid of going against God's will. Man suppresses his selfish desires by
surrendering himself to God's will.
ROLE OF MORALS: They are concerned with right and wrong. Society expects from its members
that they should have high moral character and standard. All are supposed to be true, just, honest, faith
and virtuous. When these rules are manifested through conscious we may call that morality. Morality
formulates laws of conduct and such laws are obeyed due to internal urge and pressure of an
individual.
CHAPTER - XI UNIT - 43
SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE DISABLED AND REMEDIES
A disabled person is one who suffers from the loss or impairment of a limp or deformity in
physical or mental capability whether due to nature's foul play or an unexpected unfortunate accident.
1.8% of the Indian population has at least one disability or the other. There is growing awareness both
in the Government and society about the need to reach out to the disabled people to enable them to
become self-sufficient and independent.
Our fellow citizens have branded them as "Crippled", "disabled" or "physically handicapped".
Before we deal the subject in detail let us know the meaning of the following terms.
Crippled: They are restricted to one group among the disabled namely those who have a
physical defect or deformity.
Handicap: A handicap is the combined effect of physical, mental and environmental obstacle
caused by the disability.
In the dictionary of Sociology a handicapped person is defined as "Possessing a physical
defect which reduces one's efficiency in performing one's personal and social obligation according
to a socially determined standard".
The problems of the disabled: They are loss of happiness and dignity in broken homes, in economic
despair and in diminishing man power. They are not merely the problems of individual sufferers but

the concern of the society as a whole. They constitute a real handicap to the socioeconomic progress
of the entire nation. India has made a good beginning.
IMPACT OF PHYSICAL DISABILITY: We can see the impact of the physical disability both on
individual and society. The physically handicapped have to adjust themselves to their own disabilities
as well as to the unpleasant social atmosphere. They have to bear double burden i.e., social handicap
and actual physical loss. Thus, psychological disturbance may occur directly by disability itself or
indirectly through social attitudes.
REMEDIES FOR THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS: There are four National Institutions in each major
area of disability. They are (1) National Institute for the orthopedically handicapped at Calcutta. (2)
National Institute for the mentally handicapped at Secunderabad. (3) National Institute for the visually
handicapped at Dehradun, (4) Ali Yavarjung Institute for the hearing handicapped at Bombay.
These institutions are called apex organizations for: training of professionals, production of
education material and other aids for the handicapped, conducting research in rehabilitation and
development of suitable model services for the handicapped. A number of voluntary organizations are
conducting training courses for the resource persons.
The Ministry of Welfare started the District Rehabilitation Center Scheme in 1983 for the
disabled persons living in rural areas. They undertake identification of disabled persons, arrangement
of restorative, medical, educational, vocational and placement services. The Government of India has
set up on Artificial Limb Manufacturing Corporation at Kanpur. About 100 training institutes exist for
providing training in a variety of vocational activities to the handicapped persons.
Other facilities arranged for them are:

1. Loans from banks for self-employment;
2. Reservation of 1 % vacancies;
3. Age relaxation of 10 years for appointment;
4. Special concession for travel by bus, train and air;
5. Priority in the allotment of Government houses;
6. Scholarships: Income of parents should not exceed RS.2000/- per month;
7. Certain percentage of reservation for allotment of Petrol pumps gas agencies/Kerosene oil
depots / public telephone and S.T.D. Booths.
Note: 3rd December is the World Disabled Day.

UNIT - 44
POPULATION EXPLOSION
PREDICTION OF MALTHUS: Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) an English Parson and

Economist stated that "Power of Reproduction in man is superior to his power to increase the means
of subsistence. Population when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio and subsistence
increase in an arithmetical ration. As food is necessary for all there must be constant check on
population".
FACTS OF INDIA: In the World today India ranks second in population with 102.7 Crores. India
claims 16% of the World land on 2.4% of the Worlds land area. Out of the 6 in the World is an
Indian. 80% are rural population. India does not produce enough food. Hence depending on imports
half of the population is underfed, under clothed and uneducated. The progress in technology has not
yet enabled us to produce the resources at the same pace for the growing population. Standard of
living is poor. Though gain is there in industrial and agricultural development it is eaten up by the
growth in population. Population began to grow slowly up to 1921 and rapidly afterwards. Changes in
population depend on Fertility, Mortality and Migration.
CAUSES FOR POPULATION EXPLOSION:
1. Rapid decline in death rate due to improvements in Public Health measures and spread of
preventive medicine.
2. Fifty percent of the total population is under 15 years of age. Hence, Young and more
fecund
people predominate. That results in more number of births.
3. Invention of medicines.
4. No wars and famines.
5. Illiteracy.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR HIGH BIRTH RATE:

1. Universal marriages.
2. Child marriages.
3. High Infant Morality.
4. Poverty.
5. Absence of recreation
6. Illiteracy.
7. Absence of sex education.

8. Superstitions.
9. Moral, Spiritual and religious reasons and
10. Joint families.
The change in population is caused mainly either by an increase in birth rate or by a decrease in
the death rate. In India the death rate has come down quickly where as the Birth rate slowly. Such a
situation creates "Population explosion". The present growth rate is 1.38%
CONSEQUENCES OF POPULATION EXPLOSION IN RELATION TO SICKNESS AND
DISABILITY: This can be discussed under the heads namely (1) Density and (2) Nutrition.
DENSITY: In India the density of population is 275 sq. Kms (2001 census). As the density is on high
side people live in poor housing conditions which lead to respiratory infections such as T.B.,
Influenza, Diphtheria, Bronchitis, Measles etc. skin infection such as Scabies, Leprosy, Ringworm,
High morbidity and mortality rates.
NUTRITION: Half of the population in India is underfed which leads to (1) L.B.W. (Low Birth
Weight) (2) P.E.M. (Protein Energy Malnutrition) (3) Xerophtalmia (Dry eye) (4) Nutritional anemia,
(5) Iodine deficiency disorders and (6) Rapid Pregnancies.
L.B.W (Low Birth Weight): The goal of the National Health Policy is to reduce the incidence of
L.B.W. from 30% to 10% by the year 2000. There is no universal solution as the problem is
multifactoral. Causes for L.B.W.: Genetic factors, Maternal nutrition. Height and age of
mother, parity, Birth spacing etc.
P.E.M (Protein Energy Malnutrition): It occurs in children during infancy. It is an important cause
of child hood morbidity and mortality. It also leads to permanent impairment of physical and mental
growth of those who survive. People suffer with KWASHIORKOR and MARASMUS. The PEM is
due to an inadequate intake of food, infection like diarrhea, measles, respiratory infections and
intestinal worms which increase requirement for calories, protein and other nutrients.
XEROPHTALMIA: Vit - A deficiency leads to blindness. It is most common in Children.

Mortality rate is high in this age group. The victims belong to poorest as families. It is often
associated with P.E.M.
Prevention and Control: The Government of India started National Vit-A prophylaxis
programme for the prevention of blindness in children with periodic dosing of children with 110 mg.
Of retinol palmitate in oil every 6 months.

NUTRITIONAL ANAEMIA: Iron deficiency results in anemia. Anemia exists when the
hemoglobin is below the cut off points recommended by World Health Organization. The incidence is
highest among women and young children. Women lose iron during menstruation. Other factors are
Malaria and Hook worm infestations.
REMEDIAL MEASURES: Green leafy vegetables are required in greater quantity. They contain
iron and vitamins. Anemia can be treated with Iron and Folic Acid Tablets. Daily requirement is 400
micrograms up to three months.
IODINE DEFICIENCY DISORDERS: Iodine deficiency is another nutrition problem in India. It is

equated with Goiter. It leads to many disorders.
Prevention: Using Iodized salt. It is most economical and effective. The Government of India
proposed to replace common salt with iodized salt. Another method is injecting iodized oil.
RAPID PREGNANCIES: Mothers who have born children at close intervals become anemic.
Rapid Pregnancies lead to communicable diseases. S.T.D., Aids and other social problems result in to
sickness and disability. PREVENTION: By observing spacing of births.
REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR POPULATION EXPLOSION:

1. It is to reduce number of births through family planning methods.
2. The people must be educated about family planning.
3. Peoples participation in family planning is essential.
4. Increase in the age of marriage.
5. Medical Termination of pregnancy.
6. Fertility control methods.
7. Education
Other Solutions: 1. scientific agricultural development.
2. Large scale Industrialization.
3. Internal migration and
4. Migration.
UNIT - 45
POVERTY
Poverty is a state or condition. It is related to health and standard of living. It is also related to
food, clothing and shelter. Poverty sticken person does not maintain high standard of living. Poverty
exists when one is not able to get sufficient food and necessities. Poverty is a personal one. In all
societies poverty will not be the same.

CAUSES:
It can be due to various reasons. According to Karl Marx it is due to exploitation of poor by
the rich Malthus think that it is due to increase in population. Others think that it is due to less
industrial production and more consumption. On the whole poverty can be due to
PERSONAL REASON: such as large family, use of intoxicating drugs, sickness, illiteracy etc.,
GEOGRAPHICAL REASON: such as lack of natural resources, unfavorable climate, volcanoes etc.,
ECONOMIC REASONS: like unequal distribution of health, uneconomical land buildings etc
SOCIAL CAUSES: such as customs and traditions etc.
CONSEQUENCES: It can be seen in three stages. (1) Personal disorder, (2) Family disorder and (3)
Community disorder.
PERSONAL DISORDERS: Individual thinks low of himself and leads a frustrated life, suffers with
mental agony and becomes sick. He involves in immoral activities and at times may commit suicide.
FAMILY DISORDER: Poverty spoils family welfare and security. It throws away love and
affection between husband and wife. Family members cannot get food, clothing, education, medical
facilities etc. Death rate will be high.
COMMUNITY DISORDER: Poverty gives scope for social problems. Country will lose its value
and status. There will not be unity and cooperation in society. It leads to class struggle between rich
and poor. The progress of the nation is slow.
REMEDIAL MEASURES: For the removal of poverty Government of India launched many
programmes and schemes as under.
1. Five Year Plans: They aimed at removal of unemployment and wiping out poverty.
2. 20 Points Programmes:' Indira Gandhi introduced this for removing poverty, economic
exploitation and upliftment of weaker sections.
3. I.R.D.P. (integrated Rural Development Programme): it is to enable selective families to cross the
poverty line.
4. Anthyodaya: It is for the upliftment of the poorest.
5. J.R.Y. (Jawahar Rozgar Yojana): This is to help at least one member of each poorest family by
providing employment for about 50-100 days in a year.
6. RLEGP: Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme
7. TRYSEM: Training Rural Youth for Self Employment.
8. M.N.P.: Minimum Needs Programme.

CONCLUSION: Poverty cannot be removed all of a sudden. People's involvement in development
programmes is important. We may require committed officials, strong political leaders committed to
this cause.
UNIT 46
UNEMPLOYMENT
MEANING: When a person has will and capacity to work but does not get any work we call him
unemployed and that state or condition is known as UNEMPLOYMENT. In India due to ever
increasing population it is becoming difficult to provide employment to all. Thus, unemployment
problem is assuming serious magnitude in the country.
TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT:
Unemployment is of two types:
1. Subjective
2. Objective
SUBJECTIVE UNEMPLOYMENT: In this unemployment is within the control of the individual.
Otherwise, it is called Objective Unemployment.
TYPES OF SUBJECTIVE UNEMPLOYMENT:
1. Frictional Unemployment: It is due to change over from one job to another.
2. Immobility: Those who do not feel inclined to move away to a strange place to find work.
3. Strikes & Lockouts
4. Unpreparedness To Accept Socially Degrading Jobs
OBJECTIVE UNEMPLOYMENT:
1. Seasonal Unemployment: It is due to closure of a seasonal industry
Eg: Crackers manufacturing.
2. Cyclical Unemployment: It is due to economic depression.
Eg: Closure of sick industry.
3. Sudden Unemployment: It is due to retrenchment and reduction in work.
4. Agricultural Unemployment: Agriculture land cannot keep all the people busy
throughout the year.
5. Technological Unemployment: Machine is replacing man.
6. Educational Unemployment: Faulty system of our education.
CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYTMENT:
1. Population Explosion
2. Decline in traditional skill and decay of small scale and cottage industries.
3. Migration to urban areas for jobs led to urban unemployment.

4. Development of Technology.
CONSEQUENCES OF UNEMPLOYMENT:
This may be discussed under four heads.
1. Personal disorganisation.
2. Family disorganisation.
3. Social disorganisation.
4. Economic losses.
1. Personal Disorganisation: An unemployed person loses self respect. Unemployment damages
physical, mental and moral health. The unemployed many not get sufficient food and medical
assistance to maintain good physical health. Anxiety and tension affect the mental health.
2. Family Disorganisation: Family suffers starvation. Physical health of the family members gets
damaged. Due to want of nutritious food and proper timely medical care upsets the balance of the
family. Children stop their education and take up jobs at an early age. There is not proper socialization.
Children may develop delinquent tendencies.
3. Social Disorganisation: People fail to live up to the expectations of the society. Some of them
resort to anti-social activities. It tempts them to go for begging, criminal activities. They fall prey to
drug addiction, drunkenness etc.
4. Economic Losses: Unemployment brings down economic production. Low production would
causes low per-capita income. Unemployment affects the standard living of the people.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:
1. Population control.
2. Promoting economic development through agriculture and industry.
3. Employment opportunities through FIVE YEARS plan. And other schemes and
programmes like IRDP, NREP, JRY, RLEGP, MNP, SEPUP (Self employment
programme for the urban poor), SEEUY (Scheme for self employment of other educated
Urban Youth), NRY (Nehru Rozgar Yojana).
UNIT-46
BEGGARY
Beggary is a socio economic problem found in many found in many of the other under
developed countries. Beggars are a burden upon the society and a great threat to the public health.
Among beggars in India there are deaf and dumb, blind, insane and lepers. They are economic
parasites. They do not contribute to the productive process of the economy. The society failed to make
use their energy. Prevention of begging is a State subject.

TYPES OF BEGGARS:
1. Adult beggars
2. Child beggars
3. Hereditary Beggars
4. Sick or disabled beggars
5. Physically disabled
6. Mentally retarded
7. Religious mendicants who beg under the grab of sadhu
CAUSES OF BEGGARY:
1. Economic causes for Beggary: Poverty, Unemployment, Beggary as a profitable business.
2. Social causes: Family disorganisation, lack of parental control, break up of institutional
arrangements and customs.
3. Biological causes: Sickness or disease, physical and mental deficiency, old age.
4. Religious causes: Religious mendicancy indiscriminate alms giving.
CONSEQUENCENCES IN RELATION TO SICKNESS AND DISABLITY:

1. There are some beggars suffering from incurable diseases like leprosy, syphilis, T.B, Skin
disease etc… They spread their diseases wherever they go.
2. Some people kidnap children and make them physically handicapped which leads to the
mental agony of the child.
3. If a beggar does not get sufficient alms, he suffers from malnutrition.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:
1. Legislation is essential to prohibit beggary.
2. Establishment of protective homes
3. Removal of poverty by developing resources.
4. Arranging vocational training.
UNIT-47
JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Delinquency is a kind of abnormality. When an individual deviates from the social life his
behavior is called “Delinquency”. When a juvenile (below an age specified under a statute) exhibits
behavior which may prove harmful to society and/ or to himself he may be called “Juvenile
Delinquency”.

It is one of the serious social problems of the society. It is an outcome of rapid urbanisation and
industrialisation which affected the family pattern favoring the growth of Juvenile Delinquency. A
large number of children moving from rural areas to the cities on living in slums in cities are bound to
be highly vulnerable to this process.
WHO ARE JUVENILE DELINQUENTS: In India they are those offenders who are normally under 16
years of age. Each state has its own definition of the age range. Juvenile Delinquents are young person
incorrigible or habitually disobedient. Acts of delinquency may include:
(1) Running away from home without permission of parents, (2) Habitual truancy beyond the
control of parents, (3) Early sex experience, (4) Mental conflicts and (5) Street life.
CAUSES:
1. Broken Homes: Mother plays a vital role in socialising the child. If she divorces or deserts her
husband or dies the growth of the child is affected. Such a child looses mother’s love parental
control and becomes a victim to the anti-social activities.
2. Poverty: Some times, poverty compels both the husband and wife to go out for earning money.
They children will become uncared for. Such children may join with criminal gang and become
Delinquents.
3. Bad Company: Delinquent acts are done in bad company.
4. School Dissatisfaction: Some students get dissatisfied with school life and start wandering in
streets. They may form groups and become gamblers, eve teasers, drunkards, smokers and
addicts.
5. Films and Phonographic Literature: They provoke sexual and other impulses in adolescents.
They may start committing crimes.
6. Mental Deficiency: Such children are used by the others for their criminal activities.
CONSEQUENCES IN RELATION TO SICKNESS AND DISABILITY:
They spoil their health by smoking, drinking, and by taking intoxicant drugs. They may even
become victims of Aids. They are exposed to the diseases caused by malnutrition. They suffer from
mental agony.
REMEDIAL MEASURS:
Two methods have been suggested. They are (1) Preventive Methods (2) Rehabilitative or
Curative methods.
Preventive Methods:
1. Educating the family for paying proper attention to the needs of their children.

2. Establishing child guidance clinics.
3. Improving the social environment eg: Slum areas, School facilities etc…
4. Giving proper training to the staff concerned with delinquency control.
Rehabilitation methods:
1. Establishment of reformatory schools.
2. Juvenile courts can place the offenders under the supervision of probation officers.
3. Special treatments for offenders for reforming them.
4. Effective enforcement of the Suppression of Immoral Traffic Acts.
UNIT-48
PROSTITUTION
Prostitution is the performance of sexual acts for payment of money. It exists to meet the
desires of many. It exists throughout the world. Almost all prostitutes are women but some are men.
The male component of prostitution is known as “Prostituant”. In most societies serves as a means of
satisfying male sexual freedom then women. Prostitute serves as a mean of satisfying male sexual
desires activities. Some prostitutes are associated with religious activities. Eg: Devadasis. Prostitution
is a problem in most urban areas then rural areas.
CAUSES FOR PROSTITUTION:

1. Breakdown of family relations.
2. Parental quarrels
3. Want of affection
4. Changes in environment
5. Illegitimate love
6. Easy way of earning money
7. Poverty
8. Low IQ
9. Low Moral standards
10. Drug abuses
CONSEQUESNCES IN RELATION TO SICKNESS AND DISABILITY:

S.T.D (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) Prostitution is a major factor in the spread of STDs.
Some of the STDs are Syphilis, Gonorrhoea, Choncroid, Lymphogranulama, and Venereum (L.G.V).
Through S.T.D’s the following complications may develop.

a) Complication of pregnancies like still births prematurity etc….
b) Complication in infants. EX: Blindness, Conjunctivitis etc….
c) Others like infertility, Cancer etc….
OTHER CONSEQUENCIES OF PROSTITUTION:

Sleeplessness, Alcoholism, Malnutrition, Communicable diseases etc….
AIDS: (ACQUIRED IMMUNO – DEFIENCY SYNDROME)

Sometimes it is called “Slim Disease”. It is caused by H.I.V. Virus. It breaks down the immune
system. If a person is ones infected will be infected for life.
REMEDIAL MEASURES:
1. Health Education
2. Medical check-up
3. Improving Slums
4. Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act, 1956.
This Act is passed to protect young girls and to suppress prostitution. The Act prohibits
soliciting in public places, using residential premises for running brothels, forcibly detaining young
women in brothels etc…. In 1986 the Act was amended and later retitled as “Prevention of Immoral
Traffic Act”. It covers all persons, male or female, who are exploited for commercial purposes.
UNIT-49
ALCOHOLISM
Alcoholism is a disease, in which a person has an overwhelming desire to drink alcoholic
beverages. A person who has this disease is called “Alcoholic”. Occasional drinking does not make
him alcoholic. An alcoholic feels forced to drink does not make him to alcoholic. Alcoholism is
considered a disease and alcohol a diseased agent. To third of all alcoholics are men. The effects of
alcoholism are more severe among women. Many people drink to escape temporarily from anxiety,
frustration and tension.
CAUSES:
Research indicates alcoholism a genetic origin i.e., compulsion to drink alcohol is a
characteristic passed on from parents to their children. Some researches believe certain alcoholics may
be born with a reduced level of “Endorphins”. Endorphins are morphine like substance in the brain that

relieves feeling of stress and pain. People who lack sufficient endorphins may drink compulsively to
regain feeling of well being. But alcohol actually reduces the level of endorphins even more and thus
the need to drink increases. Some researchers believe psychological pressures such as stress may cause
alcoholism.
TYPES OF ALCOHOLICS:
According to endorphin theory alcoholics may be classified into three groups namely.
1. Born Alcoholics, 2.”Stress induced” drinkers and 3.”Drug induced” drinkers.
Continued use of alcohol weakened the brains ability to produce a normal amount of
endorphins. Continued drinking leads to a shortage of endorphins and long term alcoholic
behavior.
CONSEQUENCIES IN RELATION TO SICKNESS AND DISABILITY:

Alcohol lowers the activity of nervous system. It affects the control centers of brain.
Intoxicated people may lose their self control and exhibits in unacceptable behavior. They may
experience mental confusion and inability may cause mental disorders, violent trembling. It may also
cause CHRRHOSIS the disease that damages the liver.
If women drink heavily during pregnancy they may deliver babies abnormally small at birth.
They may have malformed organs or be mentally retarded.
SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES: Family disorganisation, crime and loss of productivity.

REMEDIAL MEASURES:
1. Treatment: (a) Care for physical and emotional needs and withdrawal (b) Use chemicals to
raise endorphin levels in the body.
2. Rehabilitation: Individual, group or family therapy.
3. Involvement of Voluntary Organization: To help alcoholics and their families to
overcome their problems.

UNIT-50
PROBLEMS OF WOMEN IN EMPLOYMENT & IN NUCLEAR FAMILIES:
Women are employed in both agricultural and non agricultural sectors. In non agricultural
sector most of the women are employed in Government, Private organizations and in industries. In a
nuclear family if both husband and wife are employed they have to face several problems. There will
be none to look after the children. Availability of baby care center is not there expect in big cities. The
eldest of the children, without going to school, has to take care of the youngsters. The education of the
children is spoiled. The employed women will undergo much strain as she has to cook, take care of her
husband and children, wash the clothes etc…
PROBLEMS IN PRIVATE ORGANISATIONS:

Except in Government, she is exploited by the employer by paying less salary. In many places
toilets are not there. As she is away to the children, she cannot take care of the children. It results in
faulty socialization. Social security is not there because of their temporary appointment. The period of
employment is on the mercy of the employees. She is exposed to harassment by the employer and also
superior officials.
PROBLEMS IN INDUSTRIAL WORK:

Females may be less suited for some work then men. Pregnancy can decrease their capacity to
work. Further, the developing embryo may be more susceptible to noxious agent than the exposed
mother. Women workers require special protection. The following protections are available in
Industries:
1. Maternity leave with pay for 12 weeks.
2. Free anti-natal and post natal services.
3. Prohibition of night work.
4. Prohibition of work underground.
5. Provisions of creches.
PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS:

Their problems relate to health. Agricultural workers have many health problems. They will be
handling animals or their products which may lead to zoonotic diseases. They may have to face insect
and snake bites. Workers are exposed to toxic hazards are they deal with fertilizers, insecticides etc…
Solar radiation and humidity may impose stress upon them. They are exposed to excessive noise
inadequate ventilation. They work in uncomfortable position for a long period. Exposure to ducts of
cotton, coconut fibers, grains etc., may lead to respiratory diseases.

CHAPTER-12 UNIT-51
SOCIAL SECURITY
In 1948, General Assembly adopted Universal Declaration of Human Rights. According this
everyone has right to security in sickness, disability and old age etc. There is provision for health our
constitution i.e., assistance in case of old age, sickness and disablement. The Government assumes
responsibility to safeguard and promote health and welfare of the people. All industrialized countries
and many developing countries now have social security systems.
With regard to social security there are two Acts.
1. Employees state Insurance Act,1948 (E.S.I. Act)
2. Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923 which came into force form 1-7-1924.
Social Security is called social insurance. It provides money to replace income lost as a result
of retirement, unemployment, disability or death. Social security covers the risk of sickness, invalidity,
old age, maternity and death. Social Security is provided to Civil Servants, Industrial workers and
general public.
SOCIAL SECURITY FOR CIVIL SERVANTS:

The people who retire from service are granted pension. The employees governed by
provident fund scheme are given a lump sum amount at retirement. The retired persons are also
entitled to gratuity, family pension, encashment of earned leave medical reimbursement.
SOCIAL SECURITY FOR GENERAL PUBLIC:

The risks of death, accident and fire are covered by Insurance Schemes. Government may also
pay cash benefits to aid the poor Ex. Old age pension, accidents and death through accidents.
SOCIAL SECURITY FOR INDUSTRIAL WORKERS:

The E.S.I.Act 1948 is an important measure of social security and health insurance in this
country. It provides certain cash and medical benefits to industrial workers in cases of sickness,
maternity and employment injury. The Act has made provision for the following to insured persons.
1. Medical Benefit.
2. Sickness Benefit.
3. Maternity Benefit.
4. Disablement Benefit.
5. Dependants Benefit.
6. Funeral Expresses.
7. Rehabilitation allowance.

1. Medical Benefit: It consists of full medical care including hospitalization free of cost to the insured
persons in case of sickness, employment injury and maternity Medical care is also extended to families
of workers.
2. Sickness Benefit: It consists of periodical cash payment to an insured person in case of sickness if it
is certified by an Insurance Medical Officer. The benefits is payable for maximum period of 56 days in
a continuous period of 365 days. The person receiving the sickness benefit must remain under medical
treatment.
3. Extended Sickness Benefit: Insured persons suffering from long term diseases like T.B. Leprosy
etc…are entitled to extend sickness benefit for 309 days. The Insured person is protected from
dismissal or discharge from service by the employer during the period of sickness.
4. Maternity Benefit: The benefit is payable in cash to an insured women for confinement/
miscarriage in sickness arising out of pregnancy / confinement the duration of benefit is 12 weeks, for
miscarriage 6 weeks and for sickness arising to of confinement etc…30 days.
5. Dependant’s Benefits: The act provides for cash payment, besides free medical treatment in the
event of disablement for periodical payments.
6. Funeral Expenses: Funeral benefit is a cash payment payable on the death of an insured person to
towards the expense on his funeral, the amount not exceeding RS.1000/-.
7. Rehabilitation: On monthly payment of Rs.10/- the insured person and his family members
continue to get medical treatment after permanent disablement or retirement.
UNIT-52
THE WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION ACT, 1923
This Act was the starting point towards social security of workmen. The main object of the Act
is to provide the payment of compensation by the employer to their workmen for injury by accident.
The Act came into force on 1-7-1924. Several amendments were made from time to time.
ADVANTAGES OR MAIN OBJECTS OF THE ACT:

1. Employer is always liable for the injury caused to the workers.
2. The amount of compensation to be paid to the workmen is certain.
3. Compensation can be secured by easy procedure.
4. Right to compensation is protected even against insolvency of the employer.
5. Necessary schedules are farmed to find out the rate of incapacity.
6. Immediate payment of the compensation by the employer is made possible.
7. It is a welfare measure of workers.

DIFFERENCES AVAILABLE TO EMPLOYERS:
1. If the injury does not result in the total or partial disablement of the workmen for more than
3 days.
2. When the workmen filed a suit in a civil court for damages .
3. When the injury or death caused to the workmen by accident did not arise out of and in the
course of employment (Borley Vs. Ockenden)
4. When the injury (not resulting death) is caused by an accident because:
a. The workmen has been under the influence of drink and drugs at the time of accident or
b. The willful disobedience of the workmen to an order or rule expressly given for the
purpose of securing the safety of workmen or
c. The willful disregard or removal of any safety guard or device by the workmen.
UNIT-53
SOCIAL LEGISALTION IN RELATION TO THE DISABLED
There are various social problems which are obstacles to the social and economic development.
The legislation which deals with these social problems is called social legislation.
AIMS OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION:
1. To ensure social security (equal rights)
2. To establish social norms.
3. To maintain basic values of the society.
4. To change and reorganize the society.
SOCIAL LEGISLATION BEFORE INDEPENDENCEE:

In 1929 Sarada Act relating to child marriage was passed according to which the boy and girl
must have attained the age of 15 and 13 years respectively at the time of marriage. The Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act, 1939 Validated Widow Remarriage. According to Hindu Succession Disability
Removal Act no one is deprived form the right of property of Joint family on the ground disease,
disability etc… Unless he is insane or idiot by birth. The Hindu marriage Act, 1955 introduces
Monogamy among the Hindus.
SOCIAL LEGISLATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE:

According to Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 amended in 1976, women are entitled to maintenance
and live separately form their husbands. They can take divorce from their husbands by fulfilling
certain conditions. According to the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1954 amended in 1978 the boy and
the girl to be married must have attained the age of 21 and 18 years respectively. The Hindu Intestate

Act, 1956 with amendments gives equal rights in the property irrespective of their age, sex or status.
This act confers this right upon widows. The Panchayat Raj Act, 1974 provides reservation to women
in politics. Commission of Sati Prevention Bill, 1987 abolished Sati Custom.
CHAPTER-13 UNIT-54
MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION (OR)
IMPACT OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION ON INDIAN SOCIETY
Social Legislation has been mainly passed relating to marriage, Upliftment of women, Child
welfare and rights and their reforms. Thus social legislation has made great impact on Indian
Institutions.
MERITS OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION:

1. Upliftment of Women: Through social legislation the upliftment of women has been ensured.
Women are given equal rights on par with men. There are given various rights from that of divorce to
division in poverty.
2. Reform in Marriage Relations: Men used to keep several wives. This state of affairs is checked
now.
3. Child Welfare: Because of the abolition of child marriages many evils have been checked. Now the
children get sufficient time for their upliftment.
4. Removal of Miserable Conditions of Women: Because of the removal of sati custom and
problems of widows, women can lead now a better life and claim equal rights along with them.
5. Validity of Human Rights: The passing of these acts has given validity to the human rights under
Indian Constitution. All men and women are treated equally.
DEMERTS OF SOCIAL LEGISLATION:

1. Decline of Joint Family: The institution of joint family has received a setback due to equal rights to
men and women.
2. Disintegration of Family: Many families are disintegrated because of the provision of divorce.
Dissatisfied party wants to live independently after divorce.
CONCLUSION: The Social Security scheme and social legislation are the two helping hands
extended to the disabled to get out of the ditch of social evils and social problems.

CHAPTER-14 UNIT-55
SOCIAL WORKER
Social work is a profession. It includes social services and programmes. It is financed by

Government and Private Organizations. Social workers are specially trained people. They are
employed in school, prisons, factories, hospitals etc,. They have private practice and private
counseling, support and guidance. They try to improve living condition to prevent social problems like
crime, drug addiction etc.
METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK:

1. Case Work: It involves direct contact to find out the social background.
2. Group Work: This involves programmes in which the social worker deals with several
people.
3. Community Organisation Work: It focuses on neighborhoods and their people.
MEDICAL SOCIAL WORK:

Social work had its beginning in London in 1895. Later on in United States. The term was
expanded into Medical Social Work. Today it is an-integral part of medicine. The purpose of medical
social work is to help sick people.
MEDICAL SOCIAL WORKER (M.S.W):

He is a Para medical worker. He is trained in social case work and on the art of interviewing
the people. Many Medical Social Workers specialize in a particular area. The M.S.W uses case work to
find out the social background of illness. This information helps the doctor in arriving at a social
diagnosis and treating illness. M.S.Ws. are employed in Hospitals, T.B Clinics, Sexually Transmitted
Disease (STD) Clinics, Family Planning Clinics, Mental Health and Child welfare, School health
services. The first M.S. Worker in India was appointed in 1946 in J.J Hospital, Bombay.
M.S.W forms a link between the institutions and the community. The main work of M.S.W. is
to visit the family and probe into the causes of illness and collect social history of the patient. The
M.S.W is recognized as a professional colleague of the doctor.
FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK: There are five fields i.e., 1. Family and Child welfare 2.Health
3.Mental Health, 4. School & 5.Corrections.

ROLE OF MEDICAL SOCIAL WORKER:
1. Family and Child Welfare: He helps the families during emergency. He provides guidance
to children of the broken families. In the child welfare programmes he provides services such as
adoption, care of the handicapped children etc… He also helps physically or emotionally abused
children.
2. Health: He helps patient and their families in clinics hospitals etc… He assists doctor by
providing information about the socio-economic background of the patients.
3. Mental Health: He helps the people suffering from mental and emotional stress.
4. Schools: He provides services to student in special school for emotionally disturbed and
handicapped. He provides vocationally counseling and helps with personal problems.
5. Corrections: This includes programmes concerned with prevention of crime and the
rehabilitation of the criminals.
CHAPTER-15 UNIT-56
EVALUTION
MEANING AND DEFINITION:

Evolution is a technical activity that requires trained personnel, statistical facilities and
adequate flow of data and information. It is concerned with final outcome and factors associated with
it.
DEFINITION: Evaluation is defined as process of making judgments about selected objectives and
events by comparing them wish specified value standards for the purpose of deciding alternative
course of action.
PURPOSE: The purpose of evolution is to improve the design, asses the achievement of the stated
objectives, its adequacy, its efficiency and its acceptance.
GENERAL STEPS OF EVALUATION: (HEALTH SERVICES)
1. Determine What Is To Be Evaluated: There are 3 types of evaluation 1.Evaluation of

structure (facilities, equipment and man power), 2. Evaluation of process (the way programme is
carried out) 3. Evaluation of outcome (concerned with end results).
2. Establishment Of Standards And Criteria: Standards should be established by prescribing
targets, to determine the percentage of achievement.
3. Plan the Methodology: This must be put in writing how do you want to carry out the
programme.

4. Collect Information: This can be done by face to face questions, questionnaire, asking them
to narrate or by observation.
5. Analyze the Result: The analysis, interpretation and feed-back to the concerned individuals
should take place within the shortest time. One has to be careful on the interpretation of the finding.
6. Take Action: Emphasis should be placed on actions designed to support, strengthen or
otherwise modify the services. Ex. Shifting Priorities, revising objectives and develop new
programmes or services.
7. Re-Evaluation: It is a continuous process.
ELEMENTS OF EVALUATION:
1. Relevance: It relates to the appropriateness of service. It should be problem oriented and
need based. Ex: Vaccination against small pox is now irrelevant.
2. Adequacy: It relates to the attention paid to the course of action. Eg: The staff posted to a
programme may be inadequate when compared with the work load and targets to be achieved.
3. Acceptability: The services provided may not be acceptable to all. Eg: Vasectomy.
4. Effectiveness: It measures the degree of achievement of the objects and targets.
5. Efficiency: Evaluation should be done to find out the extent to which the facilities like
people, time money, materials and technologies are used and whether the resources are used
economically.
6. Impact: It is the overall effect of a programme or services. Eg: If the target of family
planning programme is achieved it must lead to a reduction in the birth rate.
*****************************
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PRAGATHI COLLEGE OF PHYSIOTHERAPY

GANDHI NAGAR THANDA

SOCIOLOGY TEXT BOOK

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SOCIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL SCICENCE: Sociology is one of the social sciences. It is concerned

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IS SOCIOLOGY AN APPLIED SCIENCE?

1. Theoretical sociology and practical sociology

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Sociology is related to Physiotherapy. Knowledge of sociology helps the Physiotherapist to

USES OF SOCIOLOGY IN PHYSIOTHERAPY:

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A. BIO-MEDICAL CONCEPT: Traditionally health has been viewed as an "absence of disease".

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ICE-BURG PHENOMENON OF DISEASE:

e Life styles or culture

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URBAN-RURAL DIFFERENCE IN DECISION MAKING: In Urban areas many people are

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DECISION MAKING-FEAR, SELFISHNESS AND MOTIVATION: Fear and selfishness also

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Socialization is of four types:

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1). PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION:

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PURPOSEFUL PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIP: The medical staff should lay a strong

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DEFINITION OF SOCIAL GROUPS

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MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FAMILY:-

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3. BASED ON DESCENT: Families may be either MATRILINEAL OR PATRILINEAL: When

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6. BASED ON MARRIAGE: Families may be monogamous or polygamous. In monogamous family

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS: People need intimate human response. Affection and

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CHANGES IN THE FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY

RECREATION: For recreational facilities there are clubs, association etc.

ECONOMIC: Economic decency is vanishing. Today women are working.

RELIGIOUS: Secular outlook has reduced the importance of religious function.

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PROBLEM OF MODREN FAMILY:

Personality and human behavior are interrelated. Personalities are moulded

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES:

SOME COMMON PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASES:

THEORIES FOR PSYCHOSOMATIC DISEASE PRODUCTION: PSYCHOLOGICAL

PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORIES: Neuro-physiological and Neuro-endocrinal regulation disturbance

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DEFINITION AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNITY:

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1. Community is a group of people living together

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a. VILLAGE HEALTH GUIDE SCHEME : It is introduce d on 2-10-77 with the