GST 211

Scientific Methodology, Science and

Technology in the Society and Service of
Man

By
Dr. O. E. Obisesan
What is Science?
•Science is a process and means by which man investigates
his world and gains knowledge about it.
•Mani ( 1985) defined science as a systematized body of
knowledge and a process of inquiry carried out in order to
study the would around us.
•Holkbrook (1992) defined science as an intellectual acitivity
through which man seeks to understand nature.
•Gottlieb (2004) defined science as an intellectual acitivity
carried out by human that are designed to discover
information about the natural world in which humans live
and to discover the ways in which this information can be
organized into meaningful patterns.
The Process Content of Science
• The processes of science relate to those activities carried out by scientists during a scientific
investigation include:
• Observation
• Classification
• Measurement
• Prediction
• Problem identification
• Testing hypothesis
• Analyzing
• Inferring
• Experimenting
• Collection of data
• Interpretation of data
• Exptrapolating
• Drawing valid conclusion etc.
 Science as a Human Enterprise
• Science is an activity of man carried out in order to know more about
his enviroment. This aspect of the nature of science deals with the
attitude and behaviors of scientist. These include:
• Rationality: the search for plausible solution is not influenced by supersitious
explanation. The scientist seeks natural events and is cautious not to permit decision to
be affected by personal likes or dislikes, fear, anger or ignorance.
• Objectivity: the scientist is not guided by personal feelings and does not let his feeling
interface with the impersonal judgement needed in collecting and interpreting data.
• Suspending judgement: the scientist should be reluctant to form a generalization based
upon inadequate evidence. Judgements are made only after the accumulation of
sufficient evidence .
• Critical – Mindedness: a scientist is not available to consume information but rather
questions the source of information and its reliability.
• Open – mindedeness: the scientist does not hold tenaciously to his own ideas. He should
exhibit a willingeness to change his mind in light of new evidence.
• Honesty: the scientist expresses a reluctance to compremise with the truth. He
consciously reports all observation in a truthful manner.
• Humility: the scientist as he matures should develop a recognition of his own limitations
as well as the limitations inherent in science itself.
 Why do we study Science?
• To develop the cognitive or intellual ability by the product content of
science.
• To develop the abilities to problem – solving skills gained through the
mastery of science processes.
• To develop scienctific mindedness and favourable outlook benefits of
science to mankind
 The Philosophy of Science
• The Philosophy of science concerns itself with how we come to know
what we know about NATURAL PHENOMENA. It deals with
assumption concerning:
• The nature
• The Processes and products of scientific investigations.
• The philosophy of science regards science as a human enterprises and
as such subject to human weaknesses.

• Science therefore is not the epitome of truth but a DUBITABLE,

REVISIONARY human enterprises.

• Hence according to schwab(1962), science is TENTATIVE, DUBITABLE,

ANTI-AUTHORITARIAN, CONTINGENT, REVISIONARY rather than a
rhetoric of conclusion.
What is Technology?
• Black and Harrison (1985) defined technology as a disciplined process
that uses the resources of matter, energy and natural phenomena to
achieve human purpose.
• It is the practical application of scientific results for the development
of tools, equipment and techniques.
• Technology employs knowledge, skills and tools to improve human
potentials, to solve practical problems, to modify our enviroment.
• It is therefore concerned with the application of science to obtain
practical solution to the myriad of human problems.
• Examples are: invention of the telescope, improved techniques of
cooking, canning of foods, bottling, preservation, medications, etc.
 Technology Transfer
• Technology Transfer is also referred to as Transfer of Technology (TOT).

• It is the process of tranferring skills, knowledge, technologies, methods of

manufacturing, sample of manucturing and facilities among governments or
universities and other institutions to ensure that scientific and technological
development are accessible to a wider range of users who can then further
develop and exploit the technology into new products, processes,
applications, materials or services.
• In Technology Transfer, we have the producer and the receptor system.

• TOT is needed to move the technology from the producers to the

receptors.

• Examples of TOT are Marketing tools which may include special

publications, magazines articles, workshops, exhibits, demostrations of
new developed products, videotapes, and market surveys.
Nature of Society
• Society can be defined as a group of humans living together for self
maintenance and self perpetuating and sharing their own institution
and culture (Yager 1992).

• It could also be defined as a long – standing group of people sharing

cultural aspects such as languages, dress, norms of behaviours and
artistic forms.

• It can also be defined as a formal association of people with similar

interest e.g Medical Society, Science Teachers Society
 Social Institution
• A social institution is a social arrangement that directs or channels
behaviours in prescribed ways in important areas of social life.

• Social institutions are interrelated sets of normative elements

consisting of norms, values and role expectations.

• They are devised by the people making up the society and which they
pass on to succeeding generations in order to provide permanent
solutions to society’s perpetually unfinished business.
• Examples of social institution are:
• Medicine which takes care of the provision of physical and emotional
health care.

• Policy as a social institution takes care of maintenance of order and

distribution of power.

• Economic systems is the social system that cares for production of

goods and services and ownership of property.

• Science as a social institution makes for the understanding of the

universe.
Science as a Social Institution
• Science as a social Institution comprises of not only scientists,
professional societies, universities but it is also a way of thinking and
doing.

• It is as a result of human thoughts, actions and behaviour pattern,

designed to help man understand and control his enviroment.

• Therefore, Science as a social institution is interwoven within a

network of other institution which gave it life and continue to sustain
it.
 Relationship between Science, Techonolgy and
Society
• At the time of industrial revolution, entrepreneurs used scientific and technological
result for the development and improvement of production for profit.

• New Scientific and technological results led to the creation of new industries, new
science and technologies.

• Competition between nations became intense and focused on the importance of

science and technology and source of national power on economy and security.

• After world war II, Science and technology became an intergral part of national policy.
 Qualitative Changes in the Society
• Scientific and technological progress has several effects on the society. Some of the changes are as follows:
i. Materials prosperity – Since industrial revolution science and technology have shown accelerated progress in
energy, physical materials, information and communications, medicine, resulting into improvement in people’s
health, economic prosperity and living conveniences.
ii. Transport mode- Progress in energy and material technology has given rise to new tranport modes, such as
railways, automobile, airplane and ships.
iii. Communication – Development of telephone, radio and GSM cellular phone broaden the range of human
activities and scope of human exchange.
iv. Machine tools – Large-volume production of goods and prodution of diverse types of material.
v. Medical technology – resulted in extention of people’s average life span, infant and child mortality rate reduced,
leading to rise in world population.
vi. Globalisation – advocacy that political policies should take worldwide issues into account before focusing on
national or state.
vii. Information Technology (IT) – the internet revolution combined with computer technology led to information
revolution which reduced cost; and time required for information distribution.
 Factors Threating Societal Safety and
Security
• Despite the advances of science and technology making life more prosperous,
there are issues arising from science and technolgy progress. Some of the
issues include:
i. Global warming
ii. Destruction of ozone layer
iii. Destruction of tropical forest
iv. Desertification
v. Nuclear radiations
vi. Emerging and Re – emerging infections diseases such as ebola, HIV
vii. Tsunami (Toyama 2004)
Application of Science and Techonology to
Everyday Life
Benefits of Science and Technology to the Society
 Agriculture
• Science and technology have contributed immensely to the development of agriculture.
With the development of modern agroscience and technology:
• The traditional farming method has been replaced by modern mechanised farming.
• Improved strians of seeds are introduced. These strains can withstand the attack of viral
or bacteria diseases. They can grow to reach maturity within a short period in places
where there is short period of rainfall; produce more yeild during harvest and are
resistant to attack by pests.
• Soil quality is improved by using fertilizers
• Production of agricultural machinery, equipment, and agricultural structures.
• Animal production, including the care and processing of poultry and fish and dairy
management.
• The processing of food and other agricultural and biorenewable products.
 Health
• The most important contribution of science and technology to health is the ability to
provide cures or prevention measures for the different ailments that afflict man (Nutter,
2003). Some of the contributions of science and technology to health includes:
• Discovery of complex techniques to cure previously incurable diseases.
• Development of vaccines to prevent attack by some diseases like chicken pox, yellow
fever, etc.
• Complex surgical equipment to make previously complicated surgeries simple
• Medication for all types of diseases
• Diagnostic equipment that help in detecting diseases.
• X- rays, machine, scaning machine
• Developement of genetic engineering
• Biotechnology industry
 Communication
• Science and technology have influenced the means of
communication.
• In the olden days, messages took months to reach distance places.
Messengers and horse – riders carried messages.
• Now there are numerous means of communication like telephones,
radios, televisions, and so on. On a telephone, you can talk to your
friends, relatives at a distant place in few seconds.
• With the help of wireless apparatus, messages can be conveyed to far
off places in no time infact, telecommunication has made the whole
world a “global village”.
 Transportation
• Science and technology have revolutionized the area of
transportation. In the olden days, means of transportation were by
trecking, and horse riding. With advent of science and technology,
travelling by land, using cars, buses, trains; by sea using ships and
canoes, by air using aeroplanes is now very easy. Aeroplanes are the
fastest means of transportation.
• Time and distance are no more a problem to the society becuase of
the means of transportation.
• The world has grown smaller. The credit for all these achievements
goes to science.
 Appliances in the Homes
• Science and technology have helped in the production of appliances in the homes which make life
more comfortable. Some of these appliances are:
• Freezers and refrigerator which are used in the preservation of food as well as cooling drinks
• Fans, air condition used during hot season
• Room- heaters used when there is cold
• Mirco waves
• Pressure cooker
• Washing machine
• Pressing iron
• Cooking pots
• Electric kettle
• Electric cooker
• Gas cooker
Problems related to the Use of Science and
Technology
A. Pollution
i. Air Pollution
ii. Water Pollution
iiii. Noise Pollution
iv. Radioactive Pollution
v. Thermal Pollution
vi. Soil Pollution
B. Global Warming: Global Warming refers to the increase in the average
temperature of global surface air and oceans as a result of natural events and
human activities.
The term is used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the
Earth’s atmosphere and its ocean, a change that is believed to be permanently
changing the earth’s climate.
The six main greenhouse gases are:
Carbon dioxide (Co2)
Methane (CH4) 20 times potent as C02
Nitrogen (iv) oxide (N20)
Hydrogenfluorocarbons (HFCS) industrial gas
Perfluorocarbons(PFC2) Industrial gas
Sulpur hexafluoride (SF6) industrial gas
Water vapour (H20)
 Impacts of Global Warming
• The impact of global warming are as follows:
• Rapid changes in global temperature
• Extreme weather patterns
• Extreme weather events on the increase
• Ecosystem Impacts
• Habitat Inundation
• Increase in pest and diseases
• Failing agricultural output
• Increase in would hunger
C. Deforestation: In simple term, it means the felling and clearing of
forest cover or tree plantations in order to accommodate agricultural,
industrial or urban use.

It involves permanent end of forest cover to make that land available

for residential, commercial or industrial purpose.