TSQL Material

KESHTO TECHNOLOGIES
SQLSERVER DEVELOPEMENT
TSQL
By SURESH VADDE
(REAL TIME EXPERIENCED BUT NOT EXPERT)
KESHTO TECHNOLOGIES
SQLSERVER 2008 R2 SOFTWARE LINK:
http://care.dlservice.microsoft.com/download/D/8/0/
D808E432-5AC6-4DA5-A087-21947AC4AC5F/1033/
SQLFULL_ENU.iso?lcid=1033
INDEX:
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TOPIC NAME PAGE

NUMBE
R
INTRODUCTION TO DBMS AND RDBMS 3
SQLSERVER 2008 R2 INTRODUCTION 6
MANAGEMENT STUDIO (SSMS) 8
SYSTEM AND USER DATABASES 10
SQLSERVER DATATYPES 11
TABLES FOR PRACTICALS 13
TSQL SUB LANGUAGES 14
(DDL,DML,DRL,TCL,DCL)
OPERATORS 22
(ARITHMETIC,ASSIGNMENT,LOGICAL AND
SQL)
FUNCTIONS 25
(NUMERIC,CHARACTER,DATETIME,AGGREGAT
E)
SET OPERATORS 30
CLAUSES (GROUP BY,HAVING,ORDER BY) 31
JOINS 32
SUB QUERIES 34
COPY TABLE CONCEPT 36
CONSTRAINTS 36
NORMALIZATION 39
VIEWS 42
INDEXES 44
SYNONYMS 46
SQLSERVER LOCKS 46
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DEFAULTS AND RULES 47

INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMS 49
CURSORS 52
STORED PROCEDURES 57
USER DEFINED FUNCTION 61
TRIGGERS 64
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SQLSERVER AND 68
ORACLE
TSQL ENHANCEMENTS IN SQLSERVER 2008 74
QUERIES 77
NEW FEATURES OF SQLSERVER 2012
Data: Data is the most important component in any work

that we do; Data means collection of information or
collection of raw facts.
Ex:
1. Text files
2. Facts
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3. Figures (photos)
4. Audios
5. Videos etc...
Database: collection of related data.
DBMS :( Database Management System)
Data Base Management System is the management system

or maintenance system on databases.
(Or)
It is a suit of software program for creating, maintaining &
manipulating the data in database. (Or)
It allows the users to insert the data, to retrieve the data, to
modify the data and to delete the data.
Properties:
1. Create
2. Insert
3. Update
4. Delete
5. Select (query)
6. Low level security etc...
Ex: FoxPro, ims (information management system)
 The first databases of kind existed in the form of files.

 A file is nothing but collection of records.
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 A Record is nothing but collection of information or

data.
 But the file system was not very efficient .it was
crippled by slow data search speed. It includes the
following Drawbacks.
1.Security
2.Data Redundancy
3.Data Integrity
4.Concurrency Control
5.Slow in Process
6. File system: in a dbms database, data must be stored in
the form of files only
Note: basic property of file system is independent and

individual, means each and every file is unique AND relation
is not possible between data files
7. Low level security, No Login name No Password.
RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):
 Data must be stored in the form of tables only

 Relation between Tables is possible
Table: It is collection of columns and rows, X axis directions

are rows and Y axis directions are columns
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Relation: Creating internal dependencies between Database

Tables
Ex of RDBMS:
1. Sqlserver
2. Oracle
3. Db2 (Database 2000, IBM)
4. Mysql (open source)
5. ms-access
6. Postgresql (open source)
7. Sybase
8. Tera data
Etc.....
Terminology:
1. Table -- Entity
2. Column (field) -- Attribute
3. Row (record) -- Tupple
4. Duplicate data (Repeated data) – Data Redundancy
Metadata: Data about data, it describes characteristics of

data
Ex: Description of a table
Syn: sp_help <TN>
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Ex: sp_help EMP
Note: <TN> stands for Table name
Data models:
1. Hierarchy data model

2. Network data model
3. Relational data model
Note: Currently all RDBMS Databases following RELATIONAL

DATA MODEL
Adv of Relational Data model: s
 Relation
 Perfect solution for duplicate data and null values
 Normalization
Normalization: It is a process of eliminating duplicate data

from the database.
EF CODD RULES:
Foundation Rule
A relational database management system must manage its
stored data using only its relational capabilities.
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Information Rule
All information in the database should be represented in one
and only one way - as values in a table.
Guaranteed Access Rule

Each and every datum (atomic value) is guaranteed to be
logically accessible by resorting to a combination of table
name, primary key value and column name.
Systematic Treatment of Null Values

Null values (distinct from empty character string or a string
of blank characters and distinct from zero or any other
number) are supported in the fully relational DBMS for
representing missing information in a systematic way,
independent of data type.
Dynamic On-line Catalog Based on the Relational Model

The database description is represented at the logical level in
the same way as ordinary data, so authorized users can apply
the same relational language to its interrogation as they
apply to regular data.
Comprehensive Data Sublanguage Rule

A relational system may support several languages and
various modes of terminal use. However, there must be at
least one language whose statements are expressible, per
some well-defined syntax, as character strings and whose
ability to support all of the following is comprehensible:
a. data definition
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b. view definition
c. data manipulation (interactive and by program)
d. integrity constraints
e. authorization
f. transaction boundaries (begin, commit, and
rollback).
View Updating Rule

All views that are theoretically updateable are also
updateable by the system.
High-level Insert, Update, and Delete

The capability of handling a base relation or a derived
relation as a single operand applies nor only to the retrieval
of data but also to the insertion, update, and deletion of
data.
Physical Data Independence

Application programs and terminal activities remain logically
unimpaired whenever any changes are made in either
storage representation or access methods.
Logical Data Independence

Application programs and terminal activities remain logically
unimpaired when information preserving changes of any
kind that theoretically permit unimpairment are made to the
base tables.
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Integrity Independence
Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational
database must be definable in the relational data
sublanguage and storable in the catalog, not in the
application programs.
Distribution Independence
The data manipulation sublanguage of a relational DBMS
must enable application programs and terminal activities to
remain logically unimpaired whether and whenever data are
physically centralized or distributed.
Nonsubversion Rule
If a relational system has or supports a low-level (single-
record-at-a-time) language, that low-level language cannot
be used to subvert or bypass the integrity rules or
constraints expressed in the higher-level (multiple-records-
at-a-time) relational language.
SQLSERVER 2012
1. It is RDBMS database
2. It is a product of Microsoft
3. It is case insensitive
4. It is platform dependant-- it is compatible for windows OS
5. User friendly
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History: Introduced in 1994
 Sqlserver 4.0
 Sqlserver 5.0
 Sqlserver 6.0 (SQL 95)
 Sqlserver 6.5 (HYDRA)
 Sqlserver 7.0 (SPHINX)
 Sqlserver 8.0(2000) (SHILOH)
 Sqlserver 9.0(2005) (YUKON)
 Sqlserver 10.0(2008) (KALMAI)
 Sqlserver 10.5(2008 R2) (KILIMANJARO)
 Sqlserver 11.0(2012) (DENALI)
Editions (Flavors):
1. Enterprise edition
2. Standard edition
3. Developer edition
4. Mobile edition
5. Compact Edition
6. Personal edition (Express Edition)  free
Software Requirements:
1. OS
 Windows xp sp2 or sp3

 Windows 7
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 Windows 8
 Windows server 2003
 Windows server 2008
 Windows server 2008 R2
2. Windows installer 4.5: It is a default component of

Windows; we can download it from www.microsoft.com
3. .Net Framework 3.5 Service Pack1
Hardware requirements:
1. Processor:
It supports both 32 bit, 64 bit
Ex:
1. Pentium 4 dualcore onwards

2. AMD athlon
2. Hard disk:
 1 GB
3. Ram:
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 1 GB
SQL -- Structured Query Language
Sequel-- Structured English Query Language
FEATURES OF SQL SERVER:
1. Security: Provides login and password to interact with data

in database
2. Data Redundancy: Less Data reputation
3. Data Integrity: Data validation/Data Checking Process
facility
4. Backup and Recovery(Restore)
5. Introducing support for XML
6. User defined function are introduced.
7. OLAP (online analytical process) services available in SQL
server 7.0 are now called as SQL server 2012 analysis
services
Tool:
1. Management Studio: It contains two parts, they are
1. Cui (Character user interface):
 Sqlscripting can be written in *newqury* option

 By using execute button or f5 we can execute the
script
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2. Gui (Graphical user interface):
 It is Navigations part of the management Studio.
 We can connect to GUI by using *summary* option.
Path: start programs sqlserver 2008 Management

Studio (click)
Path:startRunSSMS (click)
Inside management studio window provide following

information
1. Server type-- database engine

2. servername-- database server name
3. authentication--
A. Windows’s authentication
 This user must be an OS user
B. Sqlserver authentication
UN: sa (sysadmin-- DBA)

Pw: ******** (Depends Upon Installation)
Things to Observe:
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1. While writing the Queries using T-SQL in SQL Server

Management Studio we need not to follow any
particular case. Because T-SQL is case insensitive
language.
2. After writing the Query, we need to select that query
using either mouse or keyboard.
3. Now Press F5 (Execute Key).
4. Then the results are displayed in a separate window
called Result window or Result Pane.
5. Use Ctrl+R to Hide/Show the Result window or Result
Pane.
6. Use F8 for Object Explorer
Databases:
1. System databases:
 These are inbuilt or default databases

 Along with installation of Sqlserver 2008 we can get
system databases
 System databases monitors entire database engine
Note: User can’t create and delete a system database
A. master
B. model
C. msdb
D. tempdb
E. MS resources
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Description
master Records all the system-level information for

Database an instance of SQL Server.
It is used by SQL Server Agent for scheduling
msdb alerts and jobs.
Database
model
Database Template database
Resource It is a read-only database that contains system

Database objects that are included with SQL Server
2005. System objects are physically persisted
in the Resource database, but they logically
appear in the sys schema of every database.
tempdb It is a workspace for holding temporary

Database objects or intermediate result sets.
2. User databases:
 These database created and maintained by the users

explicitly
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Ex:
CREATE DATABASE suresh

ON PRIMARY
(NAME=suresh,
FILENAME="C:\MSSQL\vadde\suresh.mdf",
SIZE=100,
MAXSIZE=200,
FILEGROWTH=25%)
Log on
(
NAME=suresh_log,
FILENAME="C:\MSSQL\vadde\suresh_log.ldf",
SIZE=100,
MAXSIZE=200,
FILEGROWTH=25%)
SQL Server Data Types:
Character strings:
Data type Description Storage

char(n) Fixed-length character string. n
Maximum 8,000 characters
varchar(n) Variable-length character string.
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varchar(max)Variable-length character string.

Maximum 1,073,741,824 characters
text Variable-length character string.
Maximum 2GB of text data
Unicode strings:

nchar(n) Fixed-length Unicode data. Maximum
4,000 characters
nvarchar(n) Variable-length Unicode data.
nvarchar(max)Variable-length Unicode data.
Maximum 536,870,912 characters
Ntext Variable-length Unicode data.
Maximum 2GB of text data
Binary types:

Bit Allows 0, 1, or NULL
binary(n) Fixed-length binary data. Maximum
8,000 bytes
varbinary(n) Variable-length binary data.
Maximum 8,000 bytes
varbinary(max)Variable-length binary data.
Maximum 2GB
Image Variable-length binary data.
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Maximum 2GB
Number types:

Tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 2 bytes
and 32,767
Int Allows whole numbers between - 4 bytes
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647
Bigint Allows whole numbers between - 8 bytes
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17
bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to
10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the

maximum total number of digits that
can be stored (both to the left and to
the right of the decimal point). p must
be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum

number of digits stored to the right of
the decimal point. s must be a value
from 0 to p. Default value is 0
numeric(p,s)Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17
bytes
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Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to

10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the

maximum total number of digits that
can be stored (both to the left and to
the right of the decimal point). p must
be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum

number of digits stored to the right of
the decimal point. s must be a value
from 0 to p. Default value is 0
small Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 4 bytes
money 214,748.3647
Money Monetary data from - 8 bytes
922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n) Floating precision number data from - 4 or 8
1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 308. bytes
The n parameter indicates whether the

field should hold 4 or 8 bytes. Float (24)
holds a 4-byte field and float (53) holds
an 8-byte field. Default value of n is 53.
Real Floating precision number data from - 4 bytes
3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38
Date types:
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datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 8 bytes
31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33
milliseconds
datetime2 From January 1, 0001 to December 6-8
31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100 bytes
nanoseconds
smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 4 bytes
with an accuracy of 1 minute
Date Store a date only. From January 1, 3 bytes
0001 to December 31, 9999
Time Store a time only to an accuracy of 3-5
100 nanoseconds bytes
datetimeoffsetThe same as datetime2 with the 8-10
addition of a time zone offset bytes
timestamp Stores a unique number that gets
updated every time a row gets
created or modified. The timestamp
value is based upon an internal clock
and does not correspond to real time.
Each table may have only one
timestamp variable
Other data types:
Data type Description

sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various
data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp
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uniqueidentifierStores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

Xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
Cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for
database operations
Table Stores a result-set for later processing
TABLES FOR PRACTICALS:
1.CREATE TABLE EMP

(EMPNO NUMERIC(4) NOT NULL,
ENAME VARCHAR(10),
JOB VARCHAR(9),
MGR NUMERIC(4),
HIREDATE DATETIME,
SAL NUMERIC(7, 2),
COMM NUMERIC(7, 2),
DEPTNO NUMERIC(2));
DATA:
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES

(7369, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 7902,'17-DEC-1980', 800,
NULL, 20);
(7499, 'ALLEN', 'SALESMAN', 7698,'20-FEB-1981', 1600,
300, 30);
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(7521, 'WARD', 'SALESMAN', 7698,'22-FEB-1981',

1250, 500, 30);
(7566, 'JONES', 'MANAGER', 7839,'2-APR-1981', 2975,
NULL, 20);
(7654, 'MARTIN', 'SALESMAN', 7698,'28-SEP-1981',
1250, 1400, 30);
(7698, 'BLAKE', 'MANAGER', 7839,'1-MAY-1981', 2850,
NULL, 30);

(7782, 'CLARK', 'MANAGER', 7839,'9-JUN-1981', 2450,
NULL, 10);
(7788, 'SCOTT', 'ANALYST', 7566,'09-DEC-1982', 3000,
NULL, 20);
(7839, 'KING', 'PRESIDENT', NULL,'17-NOV-1981', 5000,
NULL, 10);
(7844, 'TURNER', 'SALESMAN', 7698,'8-SEP-1981',1500,
0, 30);
(7876, 'ADAMS', 'CLERK', 7788,'12-JAN-1983', 1100,
NULL, 20);
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(7900, 'JAMES', 'CLERK', 7698,'3-DEC-1981', 950,

NULL, 30);
(7902, 'FORD', 'ANALYST', 7566,'3-DEC-1981', 3000,
NULL, 20);
(7934, 'MILLER', 'CLERK', 7782,'23-JAN-1982', 1300,
NULL, 10);
2.CREATE TABLE DEPT

(DEPTNO NUMERIC(2) NOT NULL,
DNAME VARCHAR(14),
LOC VARCHAR(13) );
DATA:
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (10, 'ACCOUNTING', 'NEW

YORK');
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (20, 'RESEARCH', 'DALLAS');
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (30,
'SALES', 'CHICAGO');
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (40, 'OPERATIONS', 'BOSTON');
3.CREATE TABLE SALGRADE

(GRADE NUMERIC NOT NULL,
LOSAL NUMERIC,
HISAL NUMERIC);
DATA:
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INSERT INTO SALGRADE VALUES (1, 700, 1200);

3.CREATE TABLE STUDENT

(SNO NUMERIC NOT NULL,
SNAME VARCHAR(20),
PHONENO NUMERIC);
DATA:
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (101, ‘RAM’, 1);

INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (102,’ RAMESH’, 2);
INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES (103, ‘RAVI’, 3);
SQL
This is a 4th generated intermediate language between

user and SQL Server. Whenever user wants to interact with
SQL Server, he has to interact with SQL Server through T-
SQL. It includes the following Sub Languages
Sublanguages:
1. DDL (data definition language)

2. DML (data manipulation language)
3. DRL (data retrieval language) or QL (query language)
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4. TCL (transaction control language)

5. DCL (data control language) -- DBA
1. DDL:
Commands:
1. Create
2. Truncate
3. Drop
4. Alter
1. Create: used to create database, tables and other

database objects
syn: create table <tn>(col1 dt(l),col2 dt(l),col3 dt(l))
Ex: create table T1 (id int, ename varchar (20), DOB

datetime)
Note:
 Max length of a table name and column name is 30; it
may include alphabets, digits 0 to 9 and special
character '_' (Underscore).
 It is known as "naming conventions".
 Max of 1024 columns can be included into a table.
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2. Truncate: used to delete entire data from a table and its

not possible to delete selected or specific rows from a table
by using truncate command.
Ex:
Assume that T1 is a table, contains 10 rows of data, now
Entire data of T1 table= 10rows
Selected or specific data of T1 table<entire data
1 to 9 rows are known as selected or specific data
Syn: truncate table <TN>
Ex: truncate table T1
3. Drop: used delete a table from the database
Syn: drop table <TN>
Ex: drop table T1
4. Alter:
Alter+add: used to add a column to the table
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Syn: alter table <TN> add column_name DT (l),

column_name DT (l)
Ex: alter table T1 add sal numeric (7, 2), comm Numeric (5,
2), address varchar (50)
Alter+drop: used delete columns from the table
Syn: alter table <TN> drop column column_name
Ex: alter table T1 drop column address
Alter+alter: used change the data type and length of data

type of a column
Note: Column is empty then only we can change data type
Syn: alter table <TN> alter column column_name DT (l)
Ex: alter table T1 alter column id varchar (20)
Miscellaneous:
System stored procedures: Directly we can execute them

when ever required
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1. Getting description of a table (metadata)
Syn: sp_help <TN>
Ex: sp_help T1
2. Getting description of a database:
Syn: sp_helpdb <dbname>
Ex: sp_helpdb Suresh
3. Displaying list of tables in a database
Syn: sp_tables
Ex: sp_tables
4. Changing name of a table
Syn: sp_rename <TN>, <new_name>
Ex: sp_rename T1, t3
5. Retrieving list of Databases
Syn: sp_databases
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DML:
Commands:
1. Insert
2. Update
3. Delete
1. Insert: Used to insert (add) data into tables
Syn: insert into <TN> values (col1, col2, col3)
Ex: insert into T3 values ('a12','ramesh','12-apr-07', 3000, 30)

Id name DOB sal comm
Note: while working with char and date time data we should
use single quotes
Inserting null values into table:
Student table contains 5 columns; now insert null value into

comm column
Ex: insert into T3 (id, name, DOB) values ('a13','ravi','21-jul-

07', 3000)
Ex: insert into T3 values ('a14','ram','12-apr-07', 4000, null)
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2. Update: used to update (replace) old data with new data,

it is two types they are
A. Updating entire data in a column:
Syn: update <TN> set column_name=new_value
Ex: update T3 set sal=5000
B. Updating selected data in a column:
Syn: update <TN> set column_name=new_value where

<condition>
Ex: update T3 set sal=3000 where id='a12'
3. Delete: used to delete entire data and selected data from

a table
A. Deleting entire data from a table:
Syn: delete from <TN>
Ex: delete from T3
B. Deleting selected data from a table:
Syn: delete from <TN> where <condition>
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Ex: delete from T3 where id='a14'
DRL:
Commands:
1. Select: used to retrieve or display data from table or

tables
Note: Retrieving data from single table is 4 types
1. Retrieving entire data (all columns and all rows) from a

table
Syn: select*from <TN>
Ex: select*from T3
Note: * stands for entire columns of the table
2. Retrieving all columns and selected rows from a table
Syn: select*from <TN> where <condition>
Ex: select*from T3 where id='a12'
3. Retrieving entire data from selected columns
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Syn: select col1, col2 from <TN>
Ex: select ename, fees from T3
4. Retrieving selected rows from selected columns
Syn: select col1, col2 from <TN> where <condition>
Ex: select name, fees from T3 where id='a13'
Constraints:
 Set of rules which are used to improve functionality of

tables
 These are inbuilt rules
 We can impose constraints on columns
Adv:
1. Creating permanent relations between tables
2. We can avoid duplications and null values
3. We can create permanent conditions
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Note: We can create a constraint along with table creation

this is of two types:
1. Column level Constraint: It can be created on single

column
2. Table level Constraint: It can be created on multiple

columns
Note: We can add a constraint to the existing table
Types:
1. Primary key
2. Unique constraint
3. Check constraint
4. Not null
5. Foreign key (Referential integrity)
1. Primary key:
Properties:
 It is unique
 It is not null
 Column level Primary Key:
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Syn: create table <TN> (col1 DT (l) constraint con_name

primary key, col2 DT (l), col3 DT (l))
Ex: create table t1 (id int constraint p_key primary key, name
varchar (20), DOB datetime)
 In this we can create a constraint on single column only
 Table level Primary key:
syn: create table <tn>(col1 dt(l),col2 dt(l),col3 dt(l), constraint

con_name primary key(col1,col2))
Ex: create table t2 (id int, name varchar (20), DOB datetime,
constraint p_key3 primary key (id, name))
 We can create single constraint on multiple columns
 Max of single primary key can be created on a table
 If single primary key is working on multiple columns

then it is known as "composite primary key"
2. Unique constraint:
Properties:
 Unique
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 It accepts single null value
Syn: create table <TN> (col1 DT (l) constraint con_name

unique, col2 DT (l), col3 DT (l))
Ex: create table t3 (id int constraint u_con unique, dname

varchar (20), loc varchar (20))
3. Check constraint: used to impose permanent conditions

on columns
Syn: create table <tn>(col1 dt(l),col2 dt(l) constraint

con_name check(condition),col3 dt(l))
Ex: create table t4 (id int, sal numeric (7, 2) constraint

check_con check (sal>3000), commission numeric (5, 2))
4. Not null: it doesn’t accept null values
Syn: create table <TN> (col1 DT (l) constraint con_name not

null)
Ex: create table t5 (id int constraint n_null not null)
5. Foreign key:
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 It always references values from either primary key or

unique constraint and there are no properties for
foreign key.
 It also known as referential integrity
 This reference will be stored into database permanently,

so that
 It is comes under permanent relation
 Generally primary key and foreign are a part of different

tables
 Primary key table is known as parent or master table
 Foreign key table is known as child or detail table
 We can create primary key and foreign key in single

table, that is known as "self referential integrity"
Note:
1. Primary key and foreign key columns data types must

be same.
2. If the value existing in primary key then only we can

insert same value into foreign key.
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3. Foreign key accepts null values when it is referencing

from unique constraint
syn: create table <tn>(col1 dt(l),col2 dt(l),col3 dt(l), constraint

con_name foreign key(col1)references <tn2>(col1))
Ex: create table t6 (id int, address varchar (50), job varchar
(20), constraint f_key foreign key (id) references t1 (id))
Adding constraint to a table:
Syn: alter table <TN> add constraint con_name

type_constraint (col_list)
Ex: alter table t2 add constraint p_key3 primary key (id)
Dropping constraint:
Syn: alter table <TN> drop constraint con_name
Ex: alter table t2 drop constraint p_key3
Information regarding constraints of a table:
Syn: sp_helpconstraint <TN>
Ex: sp_helpconstraint t1
Normalization:
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Normalization is process of splitting the base table into

multiple tables based on the theory of Functional
Dependency.
OR
Normalization is repetitive process in order to identify the
functional dependencies among the columns and to remove
them. If any functional dependency is occurred after the
normalization process again we have to start the same
process until all functional dependencies have been
removed.
To do this Normalization we have to follow rules or

conditions called Normal Forms.
Un-Normalized Table
EMPNO PROJNO ENAME PNAME SAL BUD DEPTNO

DNAME LOC
11 (P1, P2) ---- (Pn1, Pn2) ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
22 (P2, P3) ---- (Pn2, Pn3) ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
33 (P1, P3) ---- (Pn1, Pn3) ----- ----- 20
-------- -----
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EMPNO and PROJNO are Primary Keys called ‘COMPOSITE

PRIMARY KEY’
FIRST NORMAL FORM (1NF): According to first normal

form table should contain only single values columns. But in
the above un-normalized table the columns PROJNO and
PNAME contains multiple values.
To make the table into first normal form we should have to

split the multiple values into single values.
EMPNO PROJNO ENAME PNAME SAL BUD DEPTNO
DNAME LOC
11 P1 ---- Pn1 ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
11 P2 ---- Pn2 ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
22 P2 ---- Pn2 ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
22 P3 ---- Pn3 ----- ----- 10
-------- -----
33 P1 ---- Pn1 ----- ----- 20
-------- -----
33 P3 ---- Pn3 ----- ----- 20
-------- -----
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SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF):

According to second normal form table should be in 1NF
and we should have to remove Partial Functional
Dependency.
In the above table DEPTNO non-key column dependent part

of the Primary key column i.e. EMPNO. It means there existed
Partial functional dependency.
To make the table into second normal form we have to

divide the table into multiple tables.
PROJ-INFO
PROJNO PNAME BUD
P1 Pn1 ------
P2 Pn2 ------
P3 Pn3 ------
EMP-INFO
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC
11 ---- ---- 10 ------ -----
22 ---- ---- 10 ------ -----
33 ---- ---- 20 ------ -----
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THIRD NORMAL FORM (3NF):

According to second normal form table should be in 2NF
and we should have to remove Transitive Functional
Dependency.
In the above EMP-INFO table non-key column DNAME

dependent part on the other non- key column i.e.DEPTNO. It
means there existed Transitive functional dependency.
To make the table into third normal form we have to divide
the table into multiple tables.
PROJ-INFO
PROJNO PNAME BUD
P1 Pn1 ------
P2 Pn2 ------
P3 Pn3 ------
EMP-INFO DEPT-INFO
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC
11 ---- ---- 10 ------ -----
22 ---- ---- 20 ------ -----
33 ---- ----
DCL: It is used to control the data between different user

accounts. It includes the following statements.
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1. GRANT Statement
2. REVOKE Statement
Grant Statement: This statement is used to grant the

permissions (INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE) on a specific
table to different user accounts.
Syntax:
GRANT {ALL/SPECIFIC PERMISSIONS} ON TABLENAME

TO USER ACCOUNT (S) [WITH GRANT
OPTION]
WITH GRANT OPTION: When any user got the permissions

on a specific table from other user with this option, then that
user can grant the permissions on that same table to another
user account. At that time sub user acts as owner.
Ex:
GRANT ALL ON EMP TO RAMESH WITH GRANT OPTION
From the above statement RAMESH user account got all

permissions on EMP table from SA user account. Mean time
RAMESH can give the permissions on EMP to another user
account because he got the permissions WITH GRANT
OPTION.
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Ex:
GRANT INSERT, SELECT ON EMP TO SURESH
Now SURESH can perform select and insert operations on

EMP table.
But SURESH cannot perform update and delete operations
on EMP table because he does not have the corresponding
permissions.
Revoke Statement: This statement is used to revoke the

permissions (INSERT, SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE) on a specific
table from different user accounts.
Syntax:
REVOKE {ALL/SPECIFIC PERMISSIONS} ON TABLENAME

FROM USER ACCOUNT (S) [CASCADE]
CASCADE: Using this option we can destroy the

communication link between user accounts more over from
the main user it self we can revoke the permissions from all
sub users.
Ex:
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REVOKE ALL ON EMP FROM RAMESH CASCADE
The above statement revokes the permissions on EMP table

from RAMESH and SURESH.
Now RAMESH and SURESH users cannot access EMP table.
TCL:
Transaction is nothing but a unit of work. We can control

these transactions using the following statements
ROLLBACK Statement
COMMIT Statement
SAVE TRAN [SACTION]
ROLLBACK Statement: This statement is used to cancel a

particular performed transaction. To perform this statement
in SQL Server we have to follow any one of the below 2
approaches.
Approach 1: SET IMPLICIT_TRANSATIONS ON
This approach is only to cancel a single recently performed

operation.
Ex:
SET IMPLICIT_TRANSATIONS ON
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SELECT * FROM EMP

DELETE FROM EMP
SELECT * FROM EMP
ROLLBACK
SELECT * FROM EMP
Approach 2: Explicit Transactions
To approach is to cancel recently performed multiple

operations.
Syntax: BEGIN TRAN

-------------
GO
-------------
GO
-------------
ROLLBACK TRAN
Note: GO is query separator
Ex:
BEGIN TRAN
INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES (50,’TRA’,’AUS’)
GO
UPDATE EMP SET SAL=SAL+1000 WHERE EMPNO=11
GO
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DELETE FROM STUDENT WHERE SNO=101
Select the entire transaction and press F5 for one time
ROLLBACK TRAN
The ROLLBACK statement cancels INSERT on Dept, UPDATE

on EMP and DELETE on Student tables.
COMMIT Statement: This statement makes a transaction

permanent. It is not possible to rollback the committed
transaction.
Ex:
SELECT * FROM EMP

DELETE FROM EMP
SELECT * FROM EMP
COMMIT
SELECT * FROM EMP
The COMMIT statement deletes the data from EMP

permanently. It is not possible to ROLLBACK the delete
operation.
Ex:
BEGIN TRAN
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GO
GO
Select the entire transaction and press F5 for one time
COMMIT TRAN
The above COMMIT TRAN makes all three transactions

permanent. We cannot ROLLBACK the transactions.
SAVE TRAN Statement: This statement is used to

COMMIT/ROLLBACK a particular performed transaction from
the set of transactions. It is associated with alphabets in
order to save the transactions.
BEGIN TRAN
SAVE TRAN A
SAVE TRAN B
SAVE TRAN C
ROLLBACK TRAN C (The delete operation will be cancelled)

COMMIT TRAN B (The update operation performed
permanently we cannot rollback)
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Operators:
1. Arithmetic operators: +, -,*, /
1. +:
Select sal, sal+1000 from EMP
2.-:
Select sal, sal-100 from EMP
3.*:
Select sal, sal*12 from EMP
4. /:
Select sal, sal/2 from EMP
2. Assignment operator’s :( relational operators)
=, <> or ! =,>,>=,<,<=
1. =:
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Select*from EMP where deptno=20
2. <> or! =:
Select*from EMP where deptno<>20
3.>:
Select*from EMP where sal>3000
4.>=:
Select*from EMP where sal>=3000
5. <:
Select*from EMP where sal<3000
6. <=:
Select*from EMP where sal<=3000
3. Logical operators: and, or, not
Ex: in maths two conditions are there, condition A and

condition B
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A and B-- both conditions must be satisfied
A or B-- if anyone satisfied then we can get output
1. And:
Select*from EMP where sal>3000 and deptno=20
2. Or:
Select*from EMP where sal>3000 or deptno=20
Between operator :( Range operator)
Ex: select*from EMP where sal between 2000 and 5000
Not between:
Ex: select*from EMP where sal not between 2000 and 5000
In operator :( Minimizes searching time)
Select*from EMP where ename in ('Scott', 'Turner’, ‘Suresh')
Not in:
Select*from EMP where ename not in ('scott','turner','suresh')
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Like operator :( Pattern matching)
Ex: select*from EMP where ename like’s%'
S%-- ename starts with s

%s-- ename ends with s
%s%-- somewhere s in ename
_s%-- second character is s from beginning
%s_ -- second from ending is s in ename
Note: _ (underscore) denotes one character
Not like operator:
Select*from EMP where ename not like’s%'
Alias:
 Second or duplicate name, can be assigned to a table

or column
 Alias is temporary
Ex:
 Select sal*12 from EMP
 Select sal*12 annual Sal from EMP
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Note: annual Sal is alias for sal*12
Inbuilt functions:
1. Aggregate functions :( Group functions)
1. Sum ():
Select sum (sal) from EMP
2. Average ():
Select avg (sal) from EMP
3. Max ():
Select max (sal) from EMP
4. Min ():
Select min (sal) from EMP
5. Count (): it counts number of rows
Select count (*) from EMP
Select count (ename) from EMP
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Select count (comm) from EMP
Note:
1. Count Function doesn’t consider null as a value.
2. COUNT function does not count the rows of the column
whose data type is BIGINT, In such situations we have to
use COUNT_BIG function
6. Standard deviation ():
Select stdev (sal) from EMP
7. Variance ():
Select var (sal) from EMP
DISTINCT ( ): This function displays the different values

available for a specific column. It considers one NULL value.
Ex: SELECT DISTINCT (DEPTNO) AS DIFF_VALUES FROM EMP
DIFF_VALUES
10
20
Ex: SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT( DEPTNO)) AS NO_OF_ROWS

FROM EMP
NO_OF_ROWS
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2. Numeric functions:
1. Absolute:
Select abs (-9.5)
O/p: 9.5
2. Ceiling:
Select ceiling (9.01)
O/p: 10
3. Floor:
Select floor (9.9)
O/p: 9
4. Square root:
Select sqrt (144)
O/p: 12
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5. Power:
Select power (3, 3)
O/p: 27(3*3*3)
6. Square:
Select square (3)
O/p: 9(3*3)
7. Pi ():
Select pi ()
O/p: 3.14(22/7)
8. Log:
Select log (2)
O/p: 0.693147180559945
9. Exp:
Select exp (2)
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O/p: 7.38905609893065
10. ROUND (M, N):
IT WILL ROUND THE VALUE OF M TO NEAREST WHOLE

NUMBER OF IT WILL AROUND.
 SELECT ROUND (15.143)

15

16

17
 SELECT ROUND (21.132,1)

21.1

25
3. Character functions :( String functions)
1. Length:
Select Len ('Hyderabad')
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O/p: 9
2. Upper:
Select upper ('Hyderabad')
O/p: HYDERABAD
3. Lower:
Select lower ('HYDERABAD')
O/P: hyderabad
4. Reverse:
Select reverse ('Malayalam')
O/p: Malayalam
Select reverse ('school')
O/p: loohcs
5. Replace:
Select replace ('hyderabad','hyd','cyb')
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O/p: cyberabad
6. Substring:
Select substring ('hyderabad', 3, 5)
O/p: derab
7. ASCII (Character): It gives ASCII value of a character
Select ASCII (‘A’)
O/p: 65
Select ASCII (‘a’)
O/p: 97
8. Char (n): It gives character for given ASCII value
Select char (98)
O/p: b
Date time functions:
1. Getdate ():
Select getdate ()
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O/p: 2009-07-17 18:11:20.000
2. Getutcdate ():
Select getutcdate ()
O/p: 2009-07-17 12:42:09.263
3. Dateadd:
Select dateadd (dd, 7, getdate ())
O/p: 2010-04-27 15:24:15.827
4. Datediff:
Select datediff (mm,'03/26/04', getdate ())
O/p: 73
5. Date part:
Select datepart (yy, getdate ())
O/p: 2010
Select datepart (mm, getdate ())
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O/p: 4
Select datepart (dd, getdate ())
O/p: 20
6. Date name:
Select datename (DW, getdate ())
O/p: Tuesday
Set operators:
a= {1, 2, 3}
b= {3, 4, 5}
1. A union B= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2. A union all B= {1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5}
Note: union all retrieves duplicate data
3. A intersect B= {3}
4. A except B = A minus B= {1, 2}
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1. Union:
SELECT EMPNO FROM EMP

UNION
SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT
2. Union all:

UNION ALL
3. Intersect:

INTERSECT
4. Except:

EXCEPT
CLAUSES:
Group by clause:
 Used to group similar data in the output
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 Conjunction of the similar data
 Used to divide the table into number of subgroups

based on a specific column.
 Minimum single group or aggregate function is

mandatory
 If column contains similar data then only we can use it

into group by clause
 Display the number of employee working in

different jobs of EMP table
Ex: Select job, count (job) from EMP

Group by job
 Display max and min salaries of employees who are

working in different deptno's of EMP table
Ex 1: Select deptno, max (sal), min (sal) from EMP

Group by (deptno)
Ex 2: SELECT DEPTNO, MAX (SAL) AS HISAL, MIN (SAL) AS

LOSAL, SUM (SAL) AS TOTSAL, AVG (SAL) AS AVGSAL
FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO
Having clause:
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 It is an arithmetical expression
 It can be used as an extension of group by clause and

we can’t use where clause after group by clause
 This clause is used to evaluate a condition with group

by clause. Generally for evaluating conditions we will
use WHERE clause, but where clause does not support
by group by clause.
Ex: Select job, count (deptno) from EMP

Group by job
Having count (deptno)>2
Ex: SELECT DEPTNO, MAX (SAL) AS HISAL, MIN (SAL) AS

LOSAL,
SUM (SAL) AS TOTSAL, AVG (SAL) AS AVGSAL FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO HAVING AVG (SAL)>10000
Order by clause:
 It is temporary sorting of the data either in ascending

order or in Descending order
 Default is ascending order
Ascending:
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Ex: Select*from EMP order by sal
Descending:
Ex: Select*from EMP order by sal desc
Clause precedence:
1. Where clause
2. Group by clause
3. Having clause
4. order by clause
Joins:
 Used to retrieve data from multiple tables
 Joins plays major role in performance tuning
 Joins comes under temporary relations
 We need a common column or common data column in

multiple tables
 Two tables are there, they are EMP and DEPT am

creating joins between them
 Both tables contains a common column i.e. deptno, so

that we can create Joins between EMP, DEPT tables
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 Formula: no. of joins=no. of tables-1
Types of JOINS:
1. Inner join :( Equi join)
We are retrieving data from EMP, DEPT tables
Ex:
Select empno, ename, sal, d.deptno, dname, loc from EMP e

Inner join DEPT d on e.deptno=d.deptno
Note: Query retrieves equal number of rows from both

tables
2. Outer join: This is three types
1. Left outer join:

Left outer join DEPT d on e.deptno=d.deptno
It retrieves condition satisfies and non satisfied data from left

side table of the condition i.e. EMP, it retrieves only condition
satisfied data from right side table of the condition i.e. DEPT
2. Right outer join:
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Right outer join DEPT d on e.deptno=d.deptno
It retrieves condition satisfied from left side table of the

condition i.e. EMP, it retrieves condition satisfied data and
non satisfied data from right side table of the condition i.e.
DEPT
3. Full outer join:
This is combination of both right and left outer joins.

Full outer join DEPT d on e.deptno=d.deptno
It retrieves condition satisfied and non satisfied data from

both tables.
3. Non-equi join: EMP table contains a column sal, in

SALGRADE table, we got two columns losal and hisal so that
we can define a join condition.
Select empno, ename, sal, grade from EMP e, SALGRADE s

where
e.sal between s.losal and s.hisal
By using above query we can map employees and their

grades.
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4. Cross join :( Cartesian product)
a= (1, 2, 3)
b= (4, 5, 6)
A*B=3*3=9
EMP table contains 14 rows

Dept table contains 4 rows
Cross join of EMP, DEPT tables produces 56 rows
Ex:
Select*from EMP cross join DEPT
SUB-QUERIES:
 It is a Combination of multiple queries or select

statements.
 Query with in a query is known as Sub-Query
Syn:
Select statement (Select statement)
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Outer query inner query
Types:
1. Simple or single row sub query:
 It returns only single row to the user
Ex: Retrieve second highest sal from EMP table
Select max (sal) from EMP where sal< (select max (sal) from
EMP)
2. Nested sub query:
 It is also simple sub query
 It returns single row
Ex: Retrieve third highest sal from EMP table
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Select max (sal) from EMP where sal< (select max (sal) from
EMP where
Sal< (select max (sal) from EMP))
Distinct: It eliminates duplications temporarily.
Ex:
A. Select sal from EMP
B. Select distinct (sal) from EMP
 Formula for retrieving n highest salaries from

EMP table:
Select max (sal) from EMP e where n= (select count

(distinct (sal)) from EMP b where e.sal<b.sal)
 N is a number which indicates position of the sal
 N starts from zero
 n=n-1
 Formula for Min sal:
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Select min (sal) from EMP e where n= (select count

(distinct (sal)) from
EMP b where e.sal>b.sal)
3. Co-related sub query:
 It can return single and multiple rows to the user
I want to retrieve deptno 20 data from EMP table, for that I

want Satisfy the condition in dept table
Ex:
Select*from EMP where deptno= (select deptno from DEPT

where dname='accounting')
Note: If a sub query sends multiple values to its nearest main

query then we have to use IN operator between Main query
and Sub query.
Ex: WAQ to display employee details, who are working under

RAM dept.
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO= (SELECT DEPTNO

FROM EMP WHERE ENAME=’RAM’)
Ex: WAQ To display employee details, whose salary is greater

than highest salary of 10th department
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SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL> (SELECT MAX (SAL) FROM

EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10)
Ex: WAQ To display employee details, whose salary is greater

than average salary of RAM department
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE SAL> (SELECT AVG (SAL) FROM

EMP WHERE DEPTNO=
SELECT DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE ENAME=’RAM’)
Creating a table by copying data and structure from

another table:
Syn:
Select*into <TN> from <existing_table>
Ex:
Select*into EMP1 from EMP
Ex: (Oracle)
Create table EMP1 as select*from EMP;
Creating a table by copying structure from another

table:
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In this by defining false condition we can avoid copying

of data.
Syn:
Select*into <TN> from <existing_tabel> where

<false_condition>
Ex:
Select*into EMP2 from EMP where 1=2
Views:
A View is nothing but an image table or virtual table, which is

created for a base table. A view can be created by taking all
values from the base table or by taking only selected values
from base table. There are two types’ views available in SQL
Server.
1. Simple Views
2. Complex Views
Note: If we perform any modifications in base table, then

those modifications automatically effected in view and vice-
versa.
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1. Simple Views: Creating View by taking only one single

base table.
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW VIEWNAME [WITH ENCRYPTION]

AS SELECT * FROM TABLENAME [WHERE CONDITION]
[WITH CHECK OPTION]
Ex:
CREATE VIEW V1 AS SELECT * FROM EMP

INSERT INTO V1 VALUES (55,’RAVI’, 10000, 10)
The above insert statement inserts the values into base table
EMP as well as into view V1.
Ex:
CREATE VIEW V2 AS SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE

DEPTNO=10
INSERT INTO V2 VALUES (66,’BABBU’, 25000, 10)
The above insert statement inserts the values into base table
EMP as well as into view
V2.
INSERT INTO V2 VALUES (77,’AMAR’, 15000, 20)
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The above insert statement inserts the values into only base
table EMP but not into view
V2 because according to the definition of V2 user supplied
values are invalid values. It means invalid values are inserting
into base table EMP. To stop this kind of operations we have
to create the view with ‘WITH CHECK OPTION’.
Ex:

DEPTNO=10
WITH CHECK OPTION
INSERT INTO V3 VALUES (88,’TEJA’, 25000, 20)
The above insert statement cannot insert the values into

base table EMP as well as into view V3.
SP_HELPTEXT: This stored procedure is used to display the

definition of a specific view.
Syntax:
SP_HELPTEXT VIEWNAME
Ex: SP_HELPTEXT V1
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Output: CREATE VIEW V1 AS SELECT * FROM EMP
WITH ENCRYPTION: Once we create any view with ‘WITH

ENCRYPTION’ then we cannot find the definition of that
particular view using SP_HELPTEXT stored procedure because
this encryption option hides the definition.
Ex:
CREATE VIEW V4 WITH ENCRYPTION

AS SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20
SP_HELPTEXT V4
Output: The text for object v4 is encrypted
To decrypt the definition of view V4 we have to follow the

below approach
1. Replace CREATE with ALTER
2. Remove WITH ENCRYPTION keyword
Ex:
ALTER VIEW V4 AS SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=20
SP_HELPTEXT V4
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DEPTNO=20
2. Complex Views:
Creating View by taking multiple base tables.
Ex:
CREATE VIEW EMP_DEPT_VIEW AS SELECT EMP.EMPNO,

EMP.ENAME, DEPT.DEPTNO, DEPT.DNAME FROM EMP, DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO
Syntax to create view based on another views:
SQL SERVER enables users to create views based on another

view. We can create view based on another view up to 32
levels
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW VIEWNAME [WITH ENCRYPTION] AS SELECT *

FROM VIEWNAME [WHERE CONDITION] [WITH CHECK
OPTION]
Ex:
CREATE VIEW V5 AS SELECT * FROM V1 WHERE

DEPTNO=10
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Syntax to Drop the Views:
DROP VIEW VIEWNAME […N]
Ex: DROP VIEW V1, V2, V3, V4, V5
Indexes:
Indexes in SQL server is similar to index in text book...

Indexes are used to improve the performance of queries.
 INDEXES ARE GENERALLY CREATED FOR FOLLOWING

COLUMNS
1. Primary key column
2. Foreign key column: frequently used in join
conditions.
3. Column which are frequently used in where clause
4. Columns, which are used to retrieve the data in
sorting order.
 INDEXED CANNOT BE CREATED FOR

FOLLOWING COLUMNS
1. The columns which are not used
frequently used in where clause.
2. Columns containing the duplicate and
null values
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3. Columns containing images, binary

information, and text information.
TYPES OF INDEXES:
 CLUSTERED INDEX
 NON-CLUSTERED INDEX
CLUSTERED INDEX: only one clustered index is allowed per

table. The order of values in a table order of values in index
is also same. When cluster index is created on table data is
arranged in ascending order cluster index will occupy 5% of
the table.
Syntax:
CREATE [UNIQUE] CLUSTERED INDEX INDEXNAME ON

TABLENAME (COLUMN)
Ex:
CREATE CLUSTERED INDEX CI ON EMP (EMPNO)
Note: If we want to maintain unique values in clustered/non

clustered indexed column then specify UNIQUE keyword
along with CLUSTERED INDEX/NONCLUSTERD INDEX
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NONCLUSTERED INDEX: It is the default index created by

the server the physical order of the data in the table is
different from the order of the values in index. Max no. Of
non-clustered indexed allowed for table is 249
Syntax:
CREATE [UNIQUE] NONCLUSTERED INDEX INDEXNAME
ON TABLENAME (COLUMN1…)
Ex:
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX NCI ON EMP (ENAME, SAL)
Ex:
CREATE UNIQUE NONCLUSTERED INDEX UI ON DEPT
(DNAME)
COMPOSITE INDEX: If a Unique NonClustered index is

created on more than one column then that concept is called
composite index.
CREATE UNIQUE NONCLUSTERED INDEX COI ON DEPT

(DEPTNO, DNAME)
DEPTNO DNAME
10 SALES
20 HR
30 IR
10 HR (Accepted)
20 SALES (Accepted)
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30 IR (Repeated, Not accepted)
SP_HELPINDEX: This stored procedure is used to display the

list of indexes, which have been placed on different columns
of a specific table.
Ex: SP_HELPINDEX EMP
Syntax to drop the index:
DROP INDEX TABLENAME.INDEXNAME
Ex:
DROP INDEX DEPT.UI
Synonym:
 It is a database object
 It is a second or duplicate name which can be assigned

to a table
 It will not occupies any space, just it is a second name

of the table
 Trough synonyms we can impose securities i.e. we can

hide actual table names
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Syn: create synonym syn_name for <TN>
Ex: create synonym syn_1 for EMP
Retrieving data:
Syn: select*from syn_name

Ex: select*from syn_1
Dropping:
Syn: drop synonym <TN>

Ex: drop synonym syn_1
SQLSERVER LOCKS:
1. Intent
Intent lock shows the future intention of SQL Server's lock
manager to acquire locks on a specific unit of data for a
particular transaction. SQL Server uses intent locks to queue
exclusive locks, thereby ensuring that these locks will be
placed on the data elements in the order the transactions
were initiated.
Types: Intent locks are 3 types……
Intent shared (IS): IS locks indicate that the transaction will
read some (but not all) the resources in the table or page by
placing shared locks.
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Intent exclusive (IX): IX locks indicate that the transaction

will modify some (but not all) resources in the table or page
by placing exclusive locks.
Shared with intent exclusive (SIX): SIX locks indicate that
the transaction will read all resources, and modify some (but
not all) of them. This will be accomplished by placing the
shared locks on the resources read and exclusive locks on
the rows modified. Only one SIX lock is allowed per resource
at one time; therefore, SIX locks prevent other connections
from modifying any data in the resource (page or table),
although they do allow reading the data in the same
resource.
2. Shared
Shared locks (S) allow transactions to read data with SELECT
statements. Other connections are allowed to read the data
at the same time; however, no transactions are allowed to
modify data until the shared locks are released.
3. Update
Update locks (U) are acquired just prior to modifying the
data. If a transaction modifies a row, then the update lock is
escalated to an exclusive lock; otherwise, it is converted to a
shared lock. Only one transaction can acquire update locks
to a resource at one time. Using update locks prevents
multiple connections from having a shared lock that want to
eventually modify a resource using an exclusive lock. Shared
locks are compatible with other shared locks, but are not
compatible with Update locks.
4. Exclusive
Exclusive locks (X) completely lock the resource from any
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type of access including reads. They are issued when data is

being modified through INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE
statements.
5. Schema
Schema modification locks (Sch-M) are acquired when data
definition language statements, such as CREATE TABLE,
CREATE INDEX, ALTER TABLE, and so on are being executed.
Schema stability locks (Sch-S) are acquired when store
procedures are being compiled.
6. Bulk Update
Bulk update locks (BU) are used when performing a bulk-
copy of data into a table with TABLOCK hint. These locks
improve performance while bulk copying data into a table;
however, they reduce concurrency by effectively disabling
any other connections to read or modify data in the table
RULES AND DEFAULTS:
CREATING DEFAULT: Default is one of the database objects

used to declare default values globally.
Syntax:
CREATE DEFAULT DEFAULTNAME AS

NUMERICVALUE/STRING VALUE
Ex:
CREATE DEFAULT D1 AS ‘UNKNOWN’
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BINDING THE DEFAULT TO COLUMN:
Syntax:
SP_BINDDEFAULT DEFAULTNAME,
‘TABLENAME.COLUMN’
Ex:
SP_BINDDEFAULT D1, ‘DEPT.LOC’

SP_BINDEFAULT D1, ‘EMP.ENAME’
INSERT INTO DEPT (DEPTNO, DNAME) VALUES

(10,ACCOUNTING’)
SELECT * FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO =10

DEPTNO DNAME LOC
10 ACCOUNTING UNKNOWN
INSERT INTO EMP (EMPNO, SAL, DEPTNO) VALUES (100,

5000,20)
SELECT EMPNO, ENAME, DEPTNO FROM EMP WHERE

EMPNO =100
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO
100 UNKNOWN 20
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UNBINDING THE DEFAULT FROM THE BINDING

COLUMN:
Syntax:
SP_UNBINDEFAULT ‘TABLENAME...COLUMN’
SP_UNBINDEFAULT ‘ DEPT.LOC’
SP_UNBINDEFAULT ‘ EMP.ENAME’
DROPPING THE DEFAULT:
Syntax:
DROP DEFAULT DEFAULTNAME
DROP DEFAULT D1
CREATING RULES: Rule is just check constraint but it is

placed on columns globally.
Syntax:
CREATE RULE RULENAME AS EXPRESSION
Ex:
CREATE RULE R1 AS @ X >=10 AND @ X <= 60
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BINDING THE RULE:
SP_BINDEFAULT RULENAME, ‘ TABLE.COLUMN’
SP_BINDEFAULT R1, ‘DEPT.DEPTNO’
INSERT INTO DEPT (DEPTNO) VALUES (70)
ERROR
UNBINDING THE RULES:
SP_UNBIND RULE ‘DEPT.DEPTNO’
DROPPING THE RULES:
DROP RULE RULENAME
DROP RULE R1
TSQL Programs:
Variable: whose can be varied is known as a variable
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Types:
1. Local variable: once we declared local variable then it can

be used into single program
Ex: @x int
2. Global variable: once we declared global variable then it

can be used into many no. of programs
Ex: @@y int
Constant: whose value can’t be varied
Ex: 1, 2,3,4,5
Note: tsql programs also known as tsql batches, these are

two types
1. Named batches
2. Unnamed batches
Structure:
Declare
Declaration and initiation of variables
Begin
Body of the program
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End
1. Declare:
User can declare variables according to the requirement of

the batch and can assign initial values to variables
Ex: declare @x int

Set @x=10
2. Begin:
It contains actual code i.e.
Logic
Exceptions
Conditional statements
Output
Output: print 'output'
3. End: Ending of the batch
 WAP to display the word 'welcome to database'
Begin
Print 'welcome to database'
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End
 WAP to calculate sum of two numbers
Declare @x int
Set @x=20
Declare @y int
Set @y=10
Declare @z int
Begin
Set @z=@x+@y
Print @z
End
Conditional Statements:
1. If. Else:
Syn:
Declare
Variable declaration and initiation
Begin
If condition
Output
Else
Output
End
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 WAP to find out greatest number among two numbers
Declare @x int
Set @x=20
Declare @y int
Set @y=10
Begin
If @x>@y
Print 'x is greatest'
Else
Print 'y is greatest'
End
2. If. Elseif... Else:
Syn:
Declare
Begin
If condition
Output
Else if condition
Output
Else
Output
End
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 WAP to find out greatest number among three

numbers
Declare @x int
Set @x=20
Declare @y int
Set @y=10
Declare @z int
Set @z=5
Begin
If @x>@y and @x>@z
Print 'x is greatest'
Else if @y>@x and @y>@z
Print 'y is greatest'
Else
Print 'z is greatest'
End
3. While:
Syn:
Declare
While condition
Begin
Body of the program
End
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 WAP to display numbers from 1 to 10 with increment of

1
DECLARE @counter INT

SET @counter=1
WHILE @counter <= 10
BEGIN
PRINT @counter
SET @counter=@counter+1
END
Cursors:
Cursor is a logical area, which is used to retrieve a particular

nth record. Selecting a particular nth record is not possible
through physical area (Table). In such situations one logical
area (Cursor) we can create and then we can select a
particular nth record. Cursors are used to store transaction
information temporarily.
Types of Cursors:
1. STATIC CURSOR
2. DYNAMIC CURSOR
3. KEYSET CURSOR
4. FORWARD_ONLY CURSOR
DEPT_TABLE:
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DEPTNO DNAME LOC

10 SALES HYD
20 HR CHE
30 IR BAN
40 A/C MUM
Syntax:
Syntax to declare the Cursor:
DECLARE CURSORNAME CURSOR CURSORTYPE

FOR SELECT * FROM TABLENAME
Syntax to open the Cursor:
OPEN CURSORNAME
Syntax to fetch the records from Cursor:
FETCH {FIRST/NEXT/PRIOR/LAST/ABSOLUTE
N/RELATIVE N}
FROM CURSORNAME
Syntax to close the Cursor:
CLOSE CURSORNAME
Syntax to de allocates the Cursor:
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DEALLOCATE CURSORNAME
FIRST: Fetches first record from the cursor
NEXT: Fetches next record from the current position of the

cursor
PRIOR: Fetches previous record from the current position of

the cursor
LAST: Fetches last record from the cursor
ABSOLUTE N: Fetches nth record from the top of the cursor

if n is positive fetches the nth record from bottom of the
cursor if n is negative. Where n is an integer
RELATIVE N: Fetches nth next record from current position

of the cursor if n is positive fetches nth previous record from
the current position of the cursor if n is negative where n is
an integer.
1. STATIC CURSOR:
This is the logical area in which dynamic updations not

possible. If we want those updations in logical area we close
the cursor and we need to reopen it.
1.
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DECLARE SC CURSOR STATIC FOR SELECT * FROM DEPT
OPEN SC
FETCH FIRST FROM SC

10 SALES HYD
UPDATE DEPT SET DEPTNO=15 WHERE DEPTNO=10
FETCH FIRST FROM SC

10 SALES HYD
CLOSE SC
OPEN SC
FETCH FIRST FROM SC

15 SALES HYD
FETCH NEXT FROM SC

20 HR CHE
FETCH PRIOR FROM SC

15 SALES HYD
FETCH LAST FROMSC

40 A/C MUM
FETCH ABSOLUTE 2 FROM SC

20 HR CHE
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FETCH ABSOLUTE –2 FROM SC

30 IR BAN
FETCH FIRST FROM SC

15 SALES HYD
FETCH RELATIVE 2 FROM SC
30 IR BAN
FETCH RELATIVE –2 FROM SC

15 SALES HYD
CLOSE SC
DEALLOCATE SC
2. DYNAMIC CURSOR:
This is the logical area in which dynamic updations possible.

We need to close and reopen the cursor for the modified
values
Ex:
DECLARE DC CURSOR DYNAMIC FOR SELECT * FROM DEPT
OPEN SC
FETCH FIRST FROM DC

15 SALES HYD
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FETCH FIRST FROM DC

10 SALES HYD
CLOSE DC
DEALLOCATE DC
Note: ABSOLUTE N will not be supported by the dynamic

cursor because dynamic updations are possible.
3. KEYSET CURSOR:
This is the logical area, which is useful only when there is a

primary key in the table. This logical area holds only Primary
key column values. Based on the key column values in the
logical area (Cursor) the rest column values are coming from
physical area (Table).
Ex:
DECLARE KC CURSOR KEYSET FOR SELECT * FROM DEPT
OPEN KC
FETCH FIRST FROM KC

10 SALES HYD
UPDATE DEPT SET LOC=’SRNAGAR’ WHERE LOC=’HYD’
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FETCH FIRST FROM KC

10 SALES SRNAGAR
FETCH FIRST FROM KC

0 NULL NULL
CLOSE KC
OPEN KC
FETCH FIRST FROM KC

15 SALES HYD
CLOSE KC
DEALLOCATE KC
Note: Dynamic updations are not possible on key column of

the keyset cursor, we have to close the cursor and we need
to reopen it for the modified values.
4. FORWARD_ONLY CURSOR:
This is the most unused logical area because it supports only

NEXT operation.
Ex:
DECLARE FC CURSOR FORWARD_ONLY FOR SELECT * FROM
DEPT
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OPEN FC
FETCH FIRST FROM FC

Error Message
FETCH NEXT FROM FC

15 SALES HYD
CLOSE SC
DEALLOCATE FC
NOTE:
If the cursor does not found any value in its searching

process then it will display the corresponding column values.
1. BATCH TO FETCH MULTIPLE RECORDS FROM STATIC

CURSOR
DECLARE SC CURSOR STATIC FOR SELECT * FROM DEPT

DECLARE @N INT
OPEN SC
SET @N=2
WHILE (@N<=4)
BEGIN
FETCH ABSOLUTE @N FROM SC
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SET @N=@N+1
PRINT @N
END
CLOSE SC
DEALLOCATE SC
OUTPUT:
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
20 HR CHE
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

30 IR BAN
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

40 A/C MUM
Stored Procedures:
 After successful compilation it will be stored into a
precompiled programming unit
 So that with out compilation we can use same stored

procedure any number of times
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 User can get reusability
 It is major part performance tuning
 Used complete a task in database
Types:
1. System stored procedures:
Ex:
sp_tables
sp_helptable <TN>
sp_helpdb <database name>
sp_rename
sp_addumpdevice
2. User stored procedure:
 defined by the users explicitly
 variable are known as "parameters"
 parameters are two types
1. In :( default) used to pass the values
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2. Output: used to get the values
Note: stored procedure can return multiple values through

its output parameter
Syntax:
CREATE PROC [EDURE] PROCEDURENAME

[@PARA 1 DATATYPE (SIZE)[=DEFAULT_VALUE]
[OUTPUT]
@PARA 2 DATATYPE (SIZE)[=DEFAULT_VALUE]
[VALUE],….]
AS
BEGIN
SELECT STATEMENT
END
Syntax to execute the user defined stored procedure:
EXEC [UTE] PROCEDURENAME [VALUE1, VALUE2…]
Drop:
Drop procedure pro_name
Programs:
 Create a stored procedure to insert data into dept table
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Create procedure insert_dept @dno int,@name varchar (20),

@loc varchar (20)
As
Begin
Insert into dept (deptno, dname, loc) values (@dno, @name,
@loc)
End
Execution:
Exec insert_dept 50,'csc','hyderabad'
Result:
Select*from dept
 Create a stored procedure to update dname, loc

according to the given deptno of dept table
Create procedure update_dept @dno int, @name varchar

(20),
@loc varchar (20)
As
Begin
Update dept set dname=@name,loc=@loc where
deptno=@dno
End
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Execution:
Exec update_dept 50,'eee','india'
Result:
Select*from dept
Note: The number of values supplied through EXEC

statement must be equal to the number parameters.
 Write a procedure to select the data from EMP table.
CREATE PROCEDURE P1
AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM EMP
END
EXEC P1
 Write a procedure to select the data from EMP table

based on user supplied DEPTNO.
CREATE PROCEDURE P2 @X INT

AS
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=@X
END
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EXEC P2 20
 Write a procedure to add two numbers
CREATE PROCEDURE P3 @A INT=10,@B INT=20

AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @C INT
SET @C=@A+@B
PRINT @C
END
EXEC P3
Output: 30
EXEC P3 25, 45
Output: 70
Note: Server will give highest priority to the user supplied

values rather than default values.
User Defined Functions :( UDF’S)
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 Used to complete calculations in database
 It is like stored procedure after successful compilation it

will stored into database as a pre
 compiled programming unit
 User’s gets reusability facility i.e. without compilation

users can go for execution
 It contains only one parameter
In parameter: used to pass the values
1. Through return statement it can send value to the user
2. Udf’s can return single value with data type
Functions created by user are called user defined functions
Types of user defined functions:
1. SCALAR VALUED FUNCTIONS

2. TABLE VALUED FUNCTIONS
1. Scalar valued functions: These functions will return a

scalar value to the calling environment
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION < FUNCTION_NAME> (@PARA 1
DATA TYPE ,
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@ PARA 2 DATATYPE…)
RETURNS <DATATYPE>
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @VARIABLE DATATYPE
--------
----------
RETURN @VARIABLE
END
Syntax to execute the user defined function:
SELECT/PRINT DBO.FUNCTIONNAME (VALUE1,

VALUE2…)
Note: The number of values supplied through PRINT/SELECT

statement must be equal to the number parameters.
 Write a function to find the product of two numbers
CREATE FUNCTION F1 (@ A INT, @B INT)

RETURNS INT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @ C INT
SET @C = @A * @B
RETURN @C
END
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SELECT/PRINT DBO.F1 (3,5)
 Write function to find the net salary of an employee

read EMPNO though parameter and display the net to
return value
CREATE FUNCTION F2 (@ VNO INT)

RETURNS INT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @ VSAL INT, @VCOM INT, @NET INT
SELECT @VSAL = SAL, @VCOM=COM
FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO =@VNO
IF @ VCOM IS NULL
BEGIN
PRINT ‘COMMISION IS NULL’
SET @NET = @VSAL
END
ELSE
BEGIN
SET @ NET = @VSAL + @VCOM
END
RETURN (@NET)
END
PRINT/SELECT DBO.F2(22)
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2. Table valued function: These functions will return entire

table to the calling environment.
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION <FUNCTION_NAME> (PARA 1 DATA
TYPE ……….)
RETURNS TABLE
AS
BEGIN
<FUNCTION BODY>
RETURN (SELECT STATEMENT)
END
 Write a function to return entire dept table

CREATE FUNCTION F3()
RETURNS TABLE
AS
BEGIN
RETURN (SELECT * FROM DEPT)
END
SELECT * FROM F3()
DEPT DNAME LOC
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CREATE FUNCTION F4()

RETURN TABLE
AS BEGIN
RETURN(SELECT ENAME, DNAME FROM EMP, DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO)
END
SELECT * FROM F4()
ENAME DNAME
SMITH RESEARCH
MILLER ACCOUNTING
 Create function to convert datetime data into char
Default datetime format: 'yyyy-mm-dd HH: MI: SS: MS’
 2009-07-31 -- is it datetime data in sqlserver 2005?
No
CREATE FUNCTION DateOnly (@InDateTime date time)

RETURNS varchar (10)
AS
BEGIN
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DECLARE @MyOutput varchar (10)

SET @MyOutput = CONVERT (varchar (10),
@InDateTime, 101)
RETURN @MyOutput
END
Note: Convert is inbuilt function used to convert data from

one data type to another
To call our function, execute: SELECT dbo.DateOnly

(GETDATE ())
Drop:
Syn:
Drop function fun_name
TRIGGERS:
Two types of Triggers are there in SQLSERVER 2005, they are
1. DDL TRIGGERS: Can be created on database Servers and

databases.
2. DML TRIGGERS: Can be created on Tables and Views.
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DML Triggers:
DML triggers respond to user INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

operations against a table or a view. When a data
modification event occurs, the trigger performs a set of
actions defined within the trigger. Similar to stored
procedures, triggers are defined in Transact-SQL and allow a
full range of activities to be performed.
A DML trigger can be defined specifically as FOR UPDATE,

FOR INSERT, FOR DELETE, or any combination of the three.
UPDATE triggers respond to modifications against one or
more columns within the table, INSERT triggers respond to
new data being added to the database, and DELETE triggers
respond to data being deleted from the database.
There are two types of DML triggers: AFTER and INSTEAD

OF.
AFTER triggers are only allowed for tables, and they execute
after the data modification has been completed against the
table.
INSTEAD OF triggers execute instead of the original data

modification and can be created for both tables and views.
DML triggers allow you to perform actions in response to

data modifications in a table.
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For example, you can create a trigger that populates an audit

table based on the operation performed, or perhaps use the
trigger to decrement the value of a quantity. Although this
ability to trigger actions automatically is a powerful feature,
there are a few things to keep in mind before your use of
triggers proliferates:
• Triggers can often become a hidden and hence forgotten

problem. When troubleshooting
Performance or logical issues, DBAs can forget that triggers
are executing in the background.
Make sure that your use of triggers is “visible” in your data
documentation.
• If you can ensure that all your data modifications flow

through a stored procedure, I would
strongly recommend you perform all activities within the
stored procedure, rather than use a
Trigger. For example, if you need to update a quantity in a
related table, after inserting a sales
record; why not put this logic in the stored procedure
instead? The advantages are manageability
(One place to look) and supportability (one place to
troubleshoot), when the Procedure needs modifications or
performs unexpected actions.
• Always keep performance in mind and this means writing

triggers that execute quickly.
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Long-running triggers can significantly slow down data

modification operations. Take particular
care in putting triggers into databases with frequent data
modifications.
• Non-logged updates do not cause a DML trigger to fire (for

example WRITETEXT, TRUNCATE
TABLE and bulk insert operations).
• Constraints usually run faster than a DML trigger, so if your

business requirements can be
fulfilled by a constraint, use constraints instead. AFTER
triggers run after the data modification
has already occurred, so they cannot be used to prevent a
constraint violation.
• Don’t allow result sets from a SELECT statement to be

returned within your trigger. Most
applications can’t consume these in an elegant fashion, and
embedded queries can hurt the
Trigger’s performance.
Parts of Trigger:
1. Triggering Statement
2. Triggering Restriction
3. Triggering Action
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Note: Triggering Action is different from remaining parts,

because Trigger fires implicitly whenever an event occurs
against to the Triggering Condition.
Things to Observe:
 When user creates an after Trigger on any table for

INSERT operation then server arranges a temporary
table “INSERTED” for holding recently inserted values.

DELETE operation then server arranges a temporary
table “DELETED” for holding recently deleted values.

UPDATE operation then server arranges two temporary
tables “INSERTED, DELETED” for holding old and new
values of UPDATE operation.
Syntax of After Trigger:
CREATE TRIGGER TRIGGERNAME ON TABLE NAME

FOR/ AFTER {INSERT/ UPDATE/ DELETE}
AS
BEGIN
SQL STATEMENT
END
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Syntax for Instead of Trigger:
Create trigger <Trigger_name> on <TN> or <View_name>

instead of INSERT OR UPDATE OR DELETE
As
Begin
Body of the program
End
Drop:
Syntax: Drop trigger <Trigger_name>
Retrieve list of Triggers on a Table:
Syn: sp_helptrigger <TN>
Ex: sp_helptrigger EMP
To view the SQL behind a specific trigger
Syn: sp_helptext <Trigger_name>
Create a trigger for generate alert
Create trigger tri_emp on EMP after insert

As
Begin
Print 'one row inserted'
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End
Result:
Insert into EMP (empno) values (1)
Create a trigger for copying data from Temp table to

Original table
CREATE TRIGGER deleteorder_trigger ON orders

AFTER DELETE
AS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO orders_archive (order_id, order_date, cust_id)
SELECT order_id, order_date, cust_id FROM DELETED
End
Note:
1. Create Orders, Orders_archive tables before running

above program.
2. Orders, Orders_archive tables contain same structure.
3. DELETED is a temporary table
Ex:
CREATE TRIGGER vendor_trigger ON EMP

AFTER INSERT, UPDATE
AS
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BEGIN
UPDATE EMP SET ename=Upper (ename)
WHERE empno IN (SELECT empno FROM INSERTED)
END
Instead of Trigger:
Ex:
CREATE TRIGGER T4 ON DEPT INSTEAD OF INSERT,UPDATE,

DELETE
AS
BEGIN
PRINT ‘THESE OPERATIONS ARE NOT ALLOWED’
END
The above trigger fires automatically and shows a message

THESE OPERATIONS ARE NOT ALLOWED, when user try to
perform INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE operations on DEPT table.
DDL TRIGGERS (2005 Triggers):
These triggers are fired when user performs DDL operations

in the database and these triggers belong to database. It
means we can define triggers on the current database.
Syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER TRIGGERNAME ON DATABASE
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FOR/ AFTER {DROP,/ALTER/ CREATE}

AS
BEGIN
SQL STATEMENT.
END
1.
USE PUBS
CREATE TRIGGER DROP_TRG ON DATABASE FOR

DROP_TABLE
AS
BEGIN
PRINT ‘TABLE DROPPED’
END
2.
USE PUBS
CREATE TRIGGER DROP_TRG ON DATABASE INSTEAD OF

DROP_TABLE
AS
BEGIN
PRINT ‘U CANNOT DROP THE TABLE’
END
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORACLE & SQL Server:
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ORACLE SQL Server DESCRIPTION
The %TYPE data type of Oracle

%TYPE data No equivalent lets you create a variable and
type have that variable's data type
be defined by a table or view
column or a PL/SQL package
variable.
There is no equivalent for

Oracle's %TYPE datatype in T-
SQL, but it can be simulated
(not very conveniently though)
using User Defined Data types
(UDT). Here is an example:
EXEC sp_addtype 'MyType',

'smallint', NULL
CREATE TABLE MyTable (i

MyType)
CREATE PROC MyProc

AS
BEGIN
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DECLARE @i MyType
END
BEFORE INSTEAD OF
triggers triggers Use INSTEAD OF trigger in SQL
Server as an equivalent to
Oracle's BEFORE trigger.
For more information on

INSTEAD OF triggers, see SQL
Server Books Online
DECODE() CASE
function expression DECODE can be conveniently
simulated using the T-SQL
CASE expression. Here's an
example:
SELECT Sport,
CASE Sport
WHEN 'Cricket' THEN 'England'
WHEN 'Hockey' THEN 'India'
WHEN 'Base Ball' THEN
'America'
ELSE NULL
END AS 'Originating Country'
FROM Sports
DESCRIBE sp_help or
sp_columns There are a lot of alternatives
for Oracle's DESCRIBE, in SQL
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Server. You could use the

system stored procedure
sp_help for detailed
information about a table's
columns and other properties.
If sp_help is providing you with

too much information, then try
the ODBC catalog stored
procedure, sp_columns.
There are a bunch of other

useful sp_help* stored
procedures available in SQL
Server. You can find more
information about those in SQL
Server Books Online.
If none of those procedures are

suitable for your requirements,
then you could query the
system view
INFORMATION_SCHEMA.COLU
MNS, to get the desired
information. You could wrap
your code inside a stored
procedure named DESCRIBE, if
you wish.
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As a last resort, you could even

query system tables like
sysobjects and syscolumns, but
this is not a recommended
approach.
DUAL table No equivalent
There is no DUAL table in SQL
Server. In fact, you don't need
one in SQL Server, as you can
have a SELECT statement
without a FROM clause.
For example, consider the

following SELECT statement in
Oracle:
SELECT 'Something'
FROM DUAL
In SQL Server, the same result

can be obtained by the
following command:
SELECT 'Something'
If you are porting some code

from Oracle into SQL Server
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and if you don't want to

remove all references to DUAL
table, then just create a DUAL
table in your database using
the following commands:
CREATE TABLE DUAL

(
DUMMY varchar(1)
)
INSERT INTO DUAL (DUMMY)

VALUES ('X')
INTERSECT Not
operator supported Use EXISTS clause to generate
the same result.
The following example

illustrates the simulation of
Oracle's INTERSECT operator:
SELECT OrderID, OrderDate

FROM Orders O
WHERE EXISTS
(
SELECT 1
FROM RefundsTable R
WHERE O.OrderID = R.OrderID
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)
MINUS Not
operator supported Use NOT EXISTS clause in your
SELECT statement to generate
the same result.
The following example

illustrates the simulation of
Oracle's MINUS operator:

FROM Orders O
WHERE NOT EXISTS
(
SELECT 1
FROM RefundsTable R
WHERE O.OrderID = R.OrderID
)
Nested tables Not
supported Oracle 8i and prior versions
didn't support this feature and
is introduced in Oracle 9i. This
feature basically enables you to
store a table, within a column.
It is like having an array of
records in your database
columns.
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SQL Server has no concept of

nested tables.
As a workaround, You could

store your sub-tables or child
tables in the form of XML inside
a char, nchar, varchar, nvarchar,
text or ntext type column, and
parse it as needed, at runtime.
See OPENXML,
sp_xml_preparedocument,
sp_xml_removedocument in
SQL Server 2000 Books Online.
Another possible workaround

would be to store comma
separated values (CSV).
Note that this is against the

basic rules of normalization.
Columns are nomore atomic,
with nested tables.
From a design point of view,

best thing to do would be, to
create different tables for
representing different entities
and link them with primary and
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foreign key relationships. This

will also make searching easier.
Packages Not
supported No equivalent in SQL Server for
Oracle's Packages and Package
variables concept
PL/SQL T-SQL
PROGRAMMI Every database product
NG implements and extends the
standard SQL. Oracle's
implementation of SQL is called
PL/SQL, while Microsoft's is
called T-SQL (Transact-SQL)
Row level No equivalent
security Though there is no inbuilt
support in SQL Server for row
level permissions, you can
implement it using view and
system functions.
For more information and a

working example, read this
article:
Implementing row level

permissions/security in SQL
Server databases
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rownum No equivalent
pseudo Though there is no rownum or
column rowid in SQL Server, there are
several ways in which a row
number can be generated.
For some examples, read this

article:
Q186133 INF: How to

Dynamically Number Rows in a
Select Statement
SELECT...FOR UPDLOCK hint

UPDATE Use the locking hint UPDLOCK
in your SELECT statement.
See SQL Server Books Online

for more information.
Sequences IDENTITY
It is much simpler in SQL Server
to generate a sequence value
for a primary key or a non-key
column.
You just need to turn on the

IDENTITY property of column.
IDENTITY property can be set
to columns of the following
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data types: tinyint, smallint, int,

bigint, decimal, numeric
Try this example to see how it

works:
CREATE TABLE foo

(
i int IDENTITY(1, 1)
j int
)
INSERT INTO foo (j) VALUES

(911)
INSERT INTO foo (j) VALUES
(999)
SQL *Plus Query
Analyzer/ For connecting to SQL Server
SSMS and executing queries and
modifying data, use the built-in
Query Analyzer. It is much
more powerful and friendlier
than Oracle's SQL *Plus
START No equivalent
WITH...CONNE Though there's no direct
CT BY clause equivalent in T-SQL for Oracle's
START WITH...CONNECT BY,
there are several ways and
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efficient techniques for

processing and querying
hierarcical data.
For more information, read this

article:
Working with hierarchical data

in SQL Server databases
Synonym Views
You can simulate Oracle
Synonyms in SQL Server using
Views. For example, the
following creates a view that
returns the OrderID and
OrderDate from Orders table.
CREATE VIEW vOrders

AS
FROM Orders
Now you can select data from

the view, using the following
SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM vOrders
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The following example will

create a view which is
equivalent to Oracles TABS
synonym or USER_TABLES data
dictionary view (For simplicity, I
am only including the table
name in the view definition):
CREATE VIEW TABS

AS
SELECT name AS table_name
FROM sysobjects
WHERE type = 'U'
Now you can execute the

following SELECT statement to
return all user table names:
SELECT table_name
FROM TABS
T-SQL Enhancements in 2008:
Every new version of SQL Server comes with several T-SQL

features and enhancements.
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SQL Server 2008 is no exception. In the newest version of

SQL Server, Microsoft has responded to developer requests
in a big way. SQL Server 2008 supports brand new developer
convenience features like single statement declaration and
initialization, new data types to manipulate and query date-
based and spatial data, new statements like MERGE that add
much needed functionality to T-SQL and a whole lot more.
Once you’ve made the move to SQL Server 2008, you’ll
undoubtedly want to take advantage of the new features and
functionality to solve common problems.
1. Separate Variable Declaration and Initialization
The first of these new features is single statement variable

declaration and initialization. In the past, developers had
to declare new variables in one or more DECLARE
statements and assign values to the variables in one or
more SET or SELECT statements as shown in below Listing.
DECLARE @x int, @y int, @z int

SET @x=1
SET @y=2
SET @z=3
With single statement declaration and initialization, you

can combine these two steps into a single step as shown
in below Listing
DECLARE @x int =1,@y int=2, @z int =3
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2. Calculating and Assigning Values with C-Style

Assignment
T-SQL has further improved with the addition of several C-

Style assignment operators.
Operator Description
+= Addition with assignment, or
string concatenation with
assignment
-= Subtraction with assignment
*= Multiplication with
assignment
/= Division with assignment
%= Modulo with assignment
Ex:
DECLARE @x int=4, @y int=25, @s1 varchar(20)=’Sql’

SET @x *= @y
SET @s1+= ‘SERVER’
SELECT @x, @s1
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3. NEW INSERT STATEMENT
SYNTAX:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

VALUES
(VALUE1, VALUE2,……),
(VALUE1, VALUE2,…..),
(VALUE1,VALU2,……..)
EX:
INSERT INTO EMP

VALUES
(11,’RAM’, 30000, 10),
(22,’RAJ’, 20000, 20)
Like in SQL Server 2005 we need not to write multiple

INSERT statements for multiple records. With in single
INSERT statement we can insert multiple records into the
table at a time
4. MERGE Statement
It is one of the DML statement placed newly in SQL Server

2008
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Merge Statement is a combination statement that can

perform INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statements based on
whether rows that match the selection criteria exist in the
target table or not.
This Merge statement takes Target and Source Tables,

When Source rows are matched with Target it will update
the rows of source table into target table otherwise it will
insert the rows of source table into target table. Always
merge statement takes a temp table as its source and
base table as its target table. Using this Merge statement
we can combine the rows of a source table to target table.
Syntax:
MERGE Target_Table as target

USING Source_table as source
ON condition
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE
SET column=source.column,………..
WHEN TARGET NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES (source.column1, source.column2,)
4. New Data Types In 2008
SQL Server 2008 provides new data types that support

storage, manipulation and querying of new forms of data.
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Some, like the date data type which stores a simple date
with out the time component. Others like the geometry
data type, which allows storage and querying of spatial
data, have only recently addressed.
Date and Time Data Types
SQL Server supports four brand new date and time data
types, which includes
1. date
2. time
3. datetime2
4. datetimeoffset
The date data type finally allows us to store date only

without the time component. It can also store a much
larger range of dates than datetime and smalldatetime
data types.
The date data type can handle dates from January 1, 1 CE

(0001-01-01) to December 31, 9999 CE (9999-12-31)
Ex:
DECLARE @d1 date=’0014-08-19’
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DECLARE @d2 date=’1983-02-26’

SELECT @d1 as DATE1,@d2 as DATE2
DATEDIFF (YEAR, @d1, @d2) as YEARDIFFERENCE
In contrast to the date data type, the time data type

lets you to store time only data.
The range for the time data type is defined on 24 hour
clock, from 00:00:00.0000000 through
23:59:59.9999999 with user defined fractional second
precision of up to seven digits.
Ex:
DECLARE @start_time time (1) =’06:25:19.1’ --1 digit

fractional precision
DECLARE @end_time time=’18:25:19.1234567’ --default

fractional precision
SELECT @start_time as STARTTIME, @end_time as

ENDTIME
DATEADD (HOUR, 6, @start_time) as STARTTIMEPLUS,
DATEDIFF (HOUR,@start_time,@end_time) as
ENDSTARTDIFF
The cleverly named datetime2 data type is an

extension to the standard datetime data type. The
datetime2 combines the benefits of the new date and
time data types, giving you the wide date range of the
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date data type and the greater fractional second

precision of the time data type.
Ex:
DECLARE @start_dt2 datetime2=’1972-07-

06T07:13:28.8235670’
DECLARE @end_dt2 datetime2=’2009-12-
14T03:14:13.2349872’
SELECT @start_dt2 as start_dt2, @end_dt2 as end_dt2
The new datetimeoffset data type builds on datetime2

by adding the ability to store offsets relative to the
International Telecommunication Union(ITU) standard
for Coordinated Universal Time(UTC) with your date
and time data type.
5. The Hierarchyid Data Type
The hierarchyid data type offers to represent hierarchical

data in the database. This new data type offers built-in
support for representing your hierarchical data using one
of the simplest models available: materialized paths
Hierarchyid Data Type Methods
Method Description
GetAncestor(n) Retrieves the nth ancestor of
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the hierarchyid node instance

GetDescendent(n) Retrieves the nth descendent
of the hierarchyid node
instance
GetLevel() Gets the level of the
hierarchyid node instance in
the hierarchy
GetRoot() Gets the root node of the
hierarchyid instance in the
hierarchy
IsDescendent(node) Returns 1 if a specified node
is descendent
Parse(String) Converts the given canonical
string, in forward slash-
separated format to a
hierarchyid path.
Reparent(old_root,new_root) Reparents a node by moving
nodes from old_root to
new_root
ToString() Converts a hierarchyid
instance to a canonical
forward slash-separated
string representation
5. The Spatial Data Type
SQL Server 2008 includes two new data types for storing,
querying, and manipulating spatial data.
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 Geometry
 Geography
Geometry data type is designed to represent flat-earth, or

Euclidean, spatial data.
Geography data type supports round earth or ellipsoidal,

spatial data.
QUERIES:
1. Display the dept information from department table.

Select * from DEPT;
2. Display the details of all employees.

Select * from EMP;
3. Display the name and job for all employees.

Select ename, job from EMP;
4. Display name and salary for all employees.

Select ename, sal from EMP;
5. Display employee number and total salary for each

employee.
Select empno, sal+comm from EMP;
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6. Display the names of all employees who are working in

department number 10.
Select ename from EMP where deptno=10;
7. Display the names of all employees working as clerks

and drawing a salary more than 3000.
select ename from EMP where job=’CLERK’ and
sal>3000;
8. Display employee number and names for employees

who earn commission.
Select empno, ename from EMP where comm is not
null and comm>0;
9. Display names of employees who do not earn any

commission.
Select empno, ename from EMP where comm is null
and comm=0;
10. Display the names of employees who are working as

clerk, salesman or analyst and drawing a salary more
than 3000.
Select ename from EMP where (job=’CLERK’ or
job=’SALESMAN’ or job=’ANALYST’) and sal>3000;
(Or)
Select ename from EMP where job in
(‘CLERK’,’SALESMAN’,’ANALYST’) and sal>3000;
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11. Display the names of employees who are working in the

company for the past 5 years.
Select ename from EMP where sysdate-
hiredate>5*365;
12. Display the list of employees who have joined the

company before 30th June 90 or after 31st dec 90.
Select * from EMP where hiredate between ‘30-jun-
1990’ and ‘31-dec-1990’;
13. Display the names of employees working in department

number 10 or 20 or 40 or employees working as clerks,
salesman or analyst.
Select ename from EMP where deptno in (10, 20, 40)
or job in (‘CLERK’,’SALESMAN’,’ANALYST’);
14. Display the names of employees whose name starts with

alphabet S.
Select ename from EMP where ename like ‘S%’;
15. Display employee names for employees whose name

ends with alphabet.
Select ename from EMP where ename like ‘%S’;
16. Display the names of employees whose names have

second alphabet A in their names.
Select ename from EMP where ename like ‘_S%’;
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17. Display the names of employees whose name is exactly

five characters in length.
Select ename from EMP where length (ename) =5;
(Or)
Select ename from EMP where ename like '_____';
18. Display the names of employees who are not working as

SALESMAN or CLERK or ANALYST.
Select ename from EMP where job not in
(‘CLERK’,’SALESMAN’,’ANALYST’);
19. Display the total number of employees working in the

company.
Select count (*) from EMP;
20. Display the maximum salary from EMP table.

Select max (sal) from EMP;
21. Display the minimum salary from EMP table.

Select min (sal) from EMP;
22. Display the average salary from EMP table.

Select avg (sal) from EMP;
23. Display the maximum salary being paid to CLERK.

select max (sal) from EMP where job=’CLERK’;
24. Display the maximum salary being paid in dept no 20.
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Select max (sal) from EMP where deptno=20;
25. Display the min Sal being paid to any SALESMAN.

select min (sal) from EMP where job=’SALESMAN’;
26. Display the average salary drawn by managers.

select avg (sal) from EMP where job=’MANAGER’;
27. Display the names of employees in order of salary i.e. the

name of the employee earning lowest salary should
appear first.
Select ename from EMP order by sal;
28. Display the names of employees in descending order of

salary.
Select ename from EMP order by sal desc;
29. Display the details from EMP table in order of EMP

name.
Select ename from EMP order by ename;
30. Display empno, ename, deptno, and sal. Sort the output
first based on name and within name by deptno and
within deptno by Sal;
Select * from EMP order by ename, deptno, sal;
31. Display name, Sal, hra, pf, da, total Sal for each
employee. The output should be in the order of total Sal,
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hra 15% of Sal, da 10% of sal, pf 5% of sal total salary will

be (sal*hra*da)-pf.
select ename,sal,sal*15/100 HRA, sal*5/100 PF,
sal*10/100 DA,sal+sal*15/100-sal*5/100+sal*10/100
TOTAL_SALARY from emp
32. Display dept numbers and total number of employees

within each group.
select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno;
33. Display the various jobs and total number of employees

with each job group.
select job, count(*) from emp group by job;
34. Display department numbers and total salary for each

department.
select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;
35. Display department numbers and maximum salary for

each department.
select deptno, max(sal),min(sal) from emp group by
deptno;
36. Display the various jobs and total salary for each job.
select job, sum(sal) from emp group by job;
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37. Display each job along with minimum sal being paid in
each job group.
select job, min(sal) from emp group by job;
38. Display the department numbers with more than three

employees in each dept.
select deptno, count(*) from emp group by deptno
having count(*)>3;
39. Display the various jobs along with total sal for each of
the jobs where total sal is greater than 40000.
select job, sum(sal) from emp group by job having
sum(sal)>40000;
40. Display the various jobs along with total number of

employees in each job. The output should contain only
those jobs with more than three employees.
select job, count(*) from emp group by job having
count(*)>3;
41. Display the name of emp who earns highest sal.

select ename from emp where sal=(select max(sal)
from emp);
42. Display the employee number and name of employee

working as CLERK and earning highest salary among
CLERKS.
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select empno, ename from emp where job='CLERK'

and sal=(select max(sal) from emp where
job='CLERK');
43. Display the names of the salesman who earns a salary

more than the highest salary of any clerk.
select ename from emp where job=’SALESMAN’ and
sal >
(select max(sal) from emp where job='CLERK');
44. Display the names of clerks who earn salary more than
that of James of that of sal lesser than that of Scott.
select ename from emp where job='CLERK' and
sal<(select sal from emp where ename='SCOTT') and
sal>(select sal from emp where ename='JAMES');
45. Display the names of employees who earn a Sal more

than that of James or that of salary greater than that of
Scott.
select ename from emp where sal <
(select sal from emp where ename='SCOTT') and sal
>
(select sal from emp where ename='JAMES');
46. Display the names of the employees who earn highest

salary in their respective departments.
select * from emp e where sal =
(select max(sal) from emp where deptno=e.deptno)
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47. Display the names of employees who earn highest

salaries in their respective job groups.
select * from emp e where sal in
(select max(sal) from emp group by job having
e.job=job)
48. Display the employee names who are working in

accountings dept.
select ename from emp where deptno =
(select deptno from dept where
dname=”ACCOUNTING”);
(or)
select ename from emp where deptno in (select
deptno from dept where dname=”ACCOUNTING”);
49. Display the employee names who are working in

Chicago.
select ename from emp where deptno =
(select deptno from dept where loc=’CHICAGO’);
50. Display the job groups having total salary greater then
the maximum salary for managers.
select job, sum(sal) from emp group by job having
sum(sal) >
(select max(sal) from emp where job='MANAGER');
51. Display the names of employees in Upper case.

select upper(ename) from emp;
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52. Display the names of employees in lower case.

select lower(ename) from emp;
53. Replace every occurrence of alphabet A with B in the

string Allen’s (user translate function).
select replace('Allens','A','b') from dual;
54. Display the information from EMP table. Wherever job

‘manager’ is found it should be displayed as boss(replace
function).
select empno, ename, replace(job, 'MANAGER',
'Boss') JOB from emp;
55. Display empno, ename, deptno from EMP table. Instead

of display department numbers display the related
department name (use decode function).
select e.empno, e.ename, d.dname from emp e,dept
d where
e.deptno = d.deptno;
56. Display the common jobs from department number 10

and 20.
select job from emp where deptno=10 and job
in(select job from emp where deptno=20);
(or)
select job from emp where deptno=10 intersect
select job from emp where deptno=20;
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57. Display the jobs found in department number 10 and 20

eliminate duplicate jobs.
select distinct(job) from emp where deptno=10 and
job in(select job from emp where deptno=20);
(or)
select job from emp where deptno=10 intersect
select job from emp where deptno=20;
58. Display the jobs which are unique to dept no 10.

select job from emp where deptno=10 minus select
job from emp where deptno!=10;
(or)
select job from emp where deptno = 10 and job not
in (select job from emp where deptno<>10);
59. Display the details of those who do not have any person
working under them.
select empno from emp where empno not in (select
mgr from emp where mgr is not null);
60. Display the details of employees who are in sales dept

and grade is 3.
select * from emp where sal>=(select losal from
salgrade where grade=3) and sal<=(select hisal from
salgrade where grade=3) and deptno=(select deptno
from dept where dname='SALES');
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61. Display those who are not managers and who are
managers any one.
select * from emp where empno in(select mgr from
emp) union
select * from emp where empno not in(select mgr
from emp where mgr is not null);
62. Display those employees whose name contains not less

than 4 chars.
Select * from emp where length(ename)>4;
63. Display those departments whose name start with ‘S’

while location name end with ‘O’.
select * from dept where dname like 'S%' and loc like
'%O';
64. Display those employees whose manager name is

JONES.
select * from emp where mgr=(select empno from
emp where ename='JONES');
65. Display those employees whose salary is more than 3000

after giving 20% increment.
select * from emp where sal*120/100 > 3000;
(or)
select * from emp where sal+sal*20/100 > 3000;
66. Display all employees with there dept name.
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select ename, dname from emp e, dept d where

e.deptno = d.deptno;
67. Display ename who are working in sales dept.

select empno, ename from emp where
deptno=(select deptno from dept where
dname='SALES');
68. Display employee name, deptname, salary and comm.

for those Sal in between 2000 to 5000 while location is
Chicago.
select empno,ename,deptno from emp where
deptno=(select deptno from dept where
loc='CHICAGO') and sal between 2000 and 5000;
69. Display those employees whose salary greater than his

manager salary.
select * from emp e where sal>(select sal from emp
where empno=e.mgr);
70. Display those employees who are working in the same

dept where his manager is working.
select * from emp e where
deptno = (select deptno from emp where
empno=e.mgr);
71. Display those employees who are not working under any
manger.
select * from emp where mgr is null or empno=mgr;
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72. Display grade and employees name for the dept no 10

or 30 but grade is not 4, while joined the company
before 31-dec-82.
select empno,ename,sal,deptno,hiredate,grade from
emp e,salgrade s where e.sal>=s.losal and
e.sal<=s.hisal and deptno in(10,30) and grade<>4
and hiredate<'01-dec-1981';
73. Update the salary of each employee by 10% increments

that are not eligible for commission.
update emp set sal=sal+(sal*10/100) where comm is
null;
74. Delete those employees who joined the company before

31-dec-82 while there dept location is ‘NEW YORK’ or
‘CHICAGO’.
delete from emp where hiredate<'31-dec-1982' and
deptno in
(select deptno from dept where loc in('NEW
YORK','CHICAGO'));
75. Display employee name, job, deptname, location for all

who are working as managers.
select ename,job,dname,loc from emp e, dept d
where e.deptno=d.deptno and empno in (select mgr
from emp);
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76. Display those employees whose manager names is

Jones, and also display there manager name.
select e.empno, e.ename, m.ename MANAGER from
emp e, emp m
where e.mgr=m.empno and m.ename='JONES';
77. Display name and salary of ford if his Sal is equal to high
Sal of his grade.
select ename,sal from emp e where ename='FORD'
and sal=(select hisal from salgrade where
grade=(select grade from salgrade where
e.sal>=losal and e.sal<=hisal));
78. Display employee name, his job, his dept name, his
manager name, his grade and make out of an under
department wise.
select d.deptno, e.ename, e.job, d.dname, m.ename,
s.grade from
emp e, emp m, dept d, salgrade s where
e.deptno=d.deptno and e.sal between s.losal and
s.hisal and e.mgr=m.empno order by e.deptno;
79. List out all the employees name, job, and salary grade
and department name for every one in the company
except ‘CLERK’. Sort on salary display the highest salary.
select empno, ename, sal, dname, grade from emp e,
dept d, salgrade s where e.deptno=d.deptno and
e.sal between s.losal and s.hisal and e.job<>'CLERK'
order by sal;
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80. Display employee name, his job and his manager.

Display also employees who are without manager.
select e.ename, e.job, m.ename Manager from emp
e,emp m where e.mgr=m.empno union select
ename,job,'no manager' from emp where mgr is null;
81. Find out the top 5 earner of company.

select * from emp e where 5>(select count(*) from
emp where sal>e.sal) order by sal desc;
82. Display the name of those employees who are getting

highest salary.
select empno,ename,sal from emp where sal=(select
max(sal) from emp);
83. Display those employees whose salary is equal to

average of maximum and minimum.
select * from emp where sal=(select (max(sal)
+min(sal))/2 from emp);
84. Display count of employees in each department where

count greater than 3.
select deptno, count(*) from emp group by deptno
having count(*)>3;
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85. Display dname where at least 3 are working and display

only dname.
select dname from dept where deptno in
(select deptno from emp group by deptno having
count(*)>3);
86. Display name of those managers name whose salary is

more than average salary of company.
select ename, sal from emp where empno in(select
mgr from emp) and sal > (select avg(sal) from emp);
87. Display those managers name whose salary is more than

an average salary of his employees.
select ename, sal from emp e where empno in(select
mgr from emp) and e.sal>(select avg(sal) from emp
where mgr=e.empno);
88. Find out the last 5(least) earner of the company?

select * from emp e where 5>(select count(*) from
emp where sal<e.sal) order by sal;
89. Find out the number of employees whose salary is

greater than there manager salary?
select count(*) from emp e where sal>(select sal from
emp where empno=e.mgr);
90. Display those manager who are not working under

president but they are working under any other
manager?
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select * from emp e where mgr in(select empno from

emp where ename<>'KING');
91. Delete those department where no employee working?

delete from dept d where 0=(select count(*) from
emp where deptno=d.deptno);
92. Delete those records from EMP table whose deptno not
available in dept table?
delete from emp where deptno not in(select deptno
from dept);
93. Display those earners whose salary is out of the grade

available in Sal grade table?
select * from emp where sal<(select min(losal) from
salgrade) or sal>(select max(hisal) from salgrade);
94. Display employee name, Sal, comm. and whose net pay
is greater than any other in the company?
Select ename, sal, comm from emp where
sal+sal*15/100-sal*5/100 +sal*10/100 = (select
max(sal+sal*15/100-sal*5/100+sal*10/100) from
emp);
95. Display those employees who are working in sales or

research?
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select * from emp where deptno in(select deptno

from dept where dname in('SALES','RESEARCH'));
96. Display the grade of Jones?

select grade from salgrade where losal<=(select(sal)
from emp where ename='JONES') and
hisal>=(select(sal) from emp where ename='JONES');
97. Delete those records where no of employee in a

particular department is less than 3?
delete from emp where deptno in(select deptno from
emp group by deptno having count(*)>3);
98. Display the department name the no of characters of

which is equal to no of employees in any other
department?
Select dname from dept where len (dname) in (select
count(*) from emp group by deptno);
99. Display those employees who are working as manager?

select * from emp where empno in(select mgr from
emp);
100. Count the no of employees who are working as

manager (use set operation)?
select count(*) from emp where empno in(select mgr
from emp);
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101. Display the name of then dept those employees who

joined the company on the same date?
select empno,ename,hiredate,deptno from emp e
where hiredate in (select hiredate from emp where
empno<>e.empno);
102. Display the manager who is having maximum number

of employees working under him?
Select mgr from emp group by mgr having
count(*)=(select max(count(mgr)) from emp group
by mgr);
103. Produce the output of the EMP table

“EMPLOYEE_AND_JOB” for ename and job?
select * from EMPLOYEE_AND_JOB;
104. Print the details of all the employees who are sub
ordinate to Blake.
Select * from emp where mgr=(select empno from
emp where ename='BLAKE');
105. Display those who working as manager using co related

sub query.
Select * from emp where empno in(select mgr from
emp);
106. Display those employees whose manger name is Jones

and also with his manager name.
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Select * from emp where mgr=(select empno from

emp where ename='JONES') union select * from emp
where empno=(select mgr from emp where
ename='JONES');
107. Find out how many mangers are there with out listing
them.
Select count (*) from EMP where empno in (select
mgr from EMP);
108. Check whether all employees number are indeed

unique.
select count(empno),count(distinct(empno)) from
emp having
count(empno)=(count(distinct(empno)));
109. List out the lowest paid employees working for each
manager, exclude any groups where min sal is less than
1000 sort the output by sal.
select e.ename,e.mgr,e.sal from emp e where sal
in(select min(sal) from emp where mgr=e.mgr) and
e.sal>1000 order by sal;
110. find out the all employees who joined the company
before their manager.
Select * from emp e where hiredate<(select hiredate
from emp where empno=e.mgr);
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111. list out the all employees by name and number along
with their manager’s name and number also display ‘No
Manager’ who has no manager.
select e.empno,e.ename,m.empno Manager,m.ename
ManagerName from emp e,emp m where
e.mgr=m.empno
union
select empno,ename,mgr,'No Manager' from emp
where mgr is null;
112. find out the employees who earned the highest Sal in
each job typed sort in descending Sal order.
select * from emp e where sal =(select max(sal) from
emp where job=e.job);
113. find out the employees who earned the min Sal for
their job in ascending order.
select * from emp e where sal =(select min(sal) from
emp where job=e.job) order by sal;
114. find out the most recently hired employees in each dept
order by hire date
select * from emp order by deptno, hiredate desc;
115. display ename, sal and deptno for each employee who
earn a Sal greater than the avg of their department order
by deptno
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select ename,sal,deptno from emp e where

sal>(select avg(sal) from emp where
deptno=e.deptno) order by deptno;
116. display the department where there are no employees

select deptno,dname from dept where deptno not
in(select distinct(deptno) from emp);
117. display the dept no with highest annual remuneration

bill as compensation.
select deptno,sum(sal) from emp group by deptno
having sum(sal) = (select max(sum(sal)) from emp
group by deptno);
118. display avg sal figure for the dept

select deptno,avg(sal) from emp group by deptno;
119. Write a query of display against the row of the most

recently hired employee. display ename hire date and
column max date showing.
select empno,hiredate from emp where
hiredate=(select max (hiredate) from emp);
120. display employees who can earn more than lowest Sal
in dept no 30
select * from emp where sal>(select min(sal) from
emp where deptno=30);
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121. find employees who can earn more than every

employees in dept no 30
select * from emp where sal>(select max(sal) from
emp where deptno=30);
select * from emp where sal>all(select sal from emp
where deptno=30);
122. find all dept’s which have more than 3 employees

select deptno from emp group by deptno having
count(*)>3;
123. Create a copy of emp table.

Create table emp1 as select * from emp;
124. Select ename if ename exists more than once.

select distinct(ename) from emp e where ename
in(select ename from emp where e.empno<>empno);
125. display all enames in reverse order.

select ename from emp order by ename desc;
126. List out the employees ename, sal, PF from emp

Select ename,sal,sal*15/100 PF from emp;
127. Create table emp with only one column empno

Create table emp (empno numeric(5));
128. Add this column to emp table ename Varchar(20).
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alter table emp add ename varchar(20) not null;
129. OOPS! I forgot to give the primary key constraint. Add

it now.
alter table emp add constraint emp_empno primary
key (empno);
130. Now increase the length of ename column to 30

characters.
alter table emp modify ename varchar(30);
131. Add salary column to emp table.

alter table emp add sal numeric(7,2);
132. I want to give a validation saying that sal cannot be

greater 10,000(note give a name to this column).
alter table emp add constraint emp_sal_check check
(sal<10000);
133. Add column called as mgr to your emp table.

Alter table emp add mgr numeric (5);
134. Oh! This column should be related to empno. Give a

command to add this constraint
Alter table emp add constraint emp_mgr foreign
key(empno);
135. Add dept no column to your emp table

Alter table emp add deptno numeric (3);
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136. This dept no column should be related to deptno

column of dept table
Alter table emp1 add constraint emp1_deptno
foreign key (deptno) references dept (deptno);
137. Create table called as new emp. Using single command

create this table as well as to get data into this table (use
create table as)
Select*into newemp from EMP;
138. Create table called as newemp. This table should

contain only empno,ename, dname
create table newemp as select empno,ename,dname
from emp e , dept d where e.deptno=d.deptno;
139. Provide a commission to employees who are not

earning any commission.
update emp set comm=300 where comm is null;
140. If any employee has commission his commission should

be incremented by 10% of his salary.
update emp set comm=comm*10/100 where comm
is not null;
141. Display employee name and department name for each

employee.
select ename,dname from emp e, dept d where
e.deptno=d.deptno;
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142. Display employee number, name and location of the

department in which he is working.
Select empno, ename, loc from emp e, dept d where
e.deptno=d.deptno;
143. Display employee name and his manager name.

Select e.ename, m.ename from emp e, emp m where
e.mgr=m.empno;
144. Display the department name along with total salary in

each department.
Select deptno, sum(sal) from emp group by deptno;
145. Display the department name and total number of

employees in each department.
select deptno,count(*) from emp group by deptno;
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Phone: 9951338095
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Phone: 9951338095

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KESHTO TECHNOLOGIES

SQLSERVER 2008 R2 SOFTWARE LINK:

TOPIC NAME PAGE

DEFAULTS AND RULES 47

Data: Data is the most important component in any work

Database: collection of related data.

DBMS :( Database Management System)

Data Base Management System is the management system

Ex: FoxPro, ims (information management system)

 The first databases of kind existed in the form of files.

 A Record is nothing but collection of information or

Note: basic property of file system is independent and

7. Low level security, No Login name No Password.

RDBMS (Relational Database Management System):

 Data must be stored in the form of tables only

Table: It is collection of columns and rows, X axis directions

Relation: Creating internal dependencies between Database

Metadata: Data about data, it describes characteristics of

Ex: Description of a table

Syn: sp_help <TN>

Ex: sp_help EMP

Note: <TN> stands for Table name

1. Hierarchy data model

Note: Currently all RDBMS Databases following RELATIONAL

Adv of Relational Data model: s

Normalization: It is a process of eliminating duplicate data

Guaranteed Access Rule

Systematic Treatment of Null Values

Dynamic On-line Catalog Based on the Relational Model

Comprehensive Data Sublanguage Rule

View Updating Rule

High-level Insert, Update, and Delete

Physical Data Independence

Logical Data Independence

History: Introduced in 1994

 Windows xp sp2 or sp3

2. Windows installer 4.5: It is a default component of

3. .Net Framework 3.5 Service Pack1

It supports both 32 bit, 64 bit

1. Pentium 4 dualcore onwards

SQL -- Structured Query Language

Sequel-- Structured English Query Language

FEATURES OF SQL SERVER:

1. Security: Provides login and password to interact with data

1. Management Studio: It contains two parts, they are

1. Cui (Character user interface):

 Sqlscripting can be written in *newqury* option

2. Gui (Graphical user interface):

 It is Navigations part of the management Studio.

 We can connect to GUI by using *summary* option.

Path: start programs sqlserver 2008 Management

Inside management studio window provide following

1. Server type-- database engine

 This user must be an OS user

UN: sa (sysadmin-- DBA)

1. While writing the Queries using T-SQL in SQL Server

 These are inbuilt or default databases

Note: User can’t create and delete a system database

master Records all the system-level information for

Resource It is a read-only database that contains system

tempdb It is a workspace for holding temporary

 These database created and maintained by the users

 Sqlscripting can be written in newqury option

 We can connect to GUI by using summary option.