HCPRM Project Quality Management July 2018

Higher Certificate
in
Project Management
PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Study Guide
Copyright© 2018
MANAGEMENT COLLEGE OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
All rights reserved, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying
machines, without the written permission of the publisher. Please report all errors and omissions to the following
email address: modulefeedback@mancosa.co.za
Higher Certificate
in Project Management
PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Unit 1: Introduction to Project Quality Management................................................................................. 4
Unit 2: The Development of the Core Quality Concepts ....................................................................... 13
Unit 3: Project Quality Planning ............................................................................................................. 31
Unit 4: Project Quality Assurance ......................................................................................................... 41
Unit 5: Project Quality Control .............................................................................................................. 50
Terminology ........................................................................................................................................... 71
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 73
i
Project Quality Management
1. Welcome
Welcome to the Higher Certificate in Project Management Programme. As part of your studies, you are
required to study and successfully complete this module on Project Quality Management.
2. Context of the Module

Project management is not uniquely confined to a specific context, and is a very adaptable field that can
be applied to the manufacturing and services sectors across various industries. This module uses a
variety of references so that students are to able apply the principles and concepts of project quality
management to various manufacturing and production, scenarios at local and international facilities
across most industries. The prescribed and recommended textbooks provide useful examples and some
cases studies which enable one to apply the principles and concepts of project quality management in
different contexts.
Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:
 Integrate project quality management into the entire project life cycle;
 Provide the quality principles that underpin planning, implementation and execution of projects;
 Ensure customer satisfaction by monitoring results using project quality control tools;
 Apply project quality management tools and techniques to "real world" project management situations;
 Use cost-effective mechanisms for integrating quality practices into the overall project management
architecture.
3. How to use this Module

This module should be studied using this Study Guide and the prescribed textbook. You should read
about the topic that you intend to study in the appropriate section of this Study Guide before you start
reading in detail in the prescribed and recommended textbooks. Ensure that you make your own
notes/summaries as you work through the textbooks, other learning resources and this Study Guide.
At the commencement of each section of this Study Guide, you will find a list of learning outcomes. These
learning outcomes outline the main points that you should understand when you have completed the
section with its supporting chapters in the prescribed textbooks. Avoid reading all the material at once.
Each study session should be no longer than two hours without a break.
As you work through the Study Guide you may come across:
1 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

 Think Points
 Activities
 Reading Activities
 Self-Assessment Activities
These are designed to help you study and prepare for the assignment and examination.
? THINK POINT
A think point asks you to stop and think about an issue. Sometimes you are asked to apply a concept to
your own experience or to think of an example.
 ACTIVITY
You may come across activities which ask you to carry out specific tasks. The aim of these activities is to
give you an opportunity to apply what you have learnt and / or explore an issue relevant to the particular
section.
 READING ACTIVITY
Some sections of this Study Guide contain a reading activity. The reading activity requires that you read
one or more of the recommended texts and then answer questions relevant to that text / document. Some
of the recommended texts are available from the Emerald library facility and/or My Mancosa which
learners may access via MANCOSA’s website.
 SELF ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

You may come across self-assessment questions which will test your understanding of what you have
learnt so far. You should refer to the Study Guide and prescribed textbooks when attempting to answer
the self-check activities.
4. Reading
Prescribed Textbook
Several recommended readings are provided in each section of the module guide. However, the textbook
that has been prescribed for this module is:
Clements, J.P and Gido, J. (2015)Successful Project Management 6th EditionBoston: Cengage Learning.
MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 2

Recommended Reading
Each section has a list of recommended reading material, which will allow you to develop an
understanding of the issues beyond the perspective of the prescribed textbook and Study Guide. The
following material is recommended in addition to the prescribed textbook:
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) 5th Edition
Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute.
Rose, Kenneth H (2005) Project Quality Management Why, What and How J Ross Publishing
Kloppenborg, Timothy J (2009) Project Management: A Contemporary Approach South Western
Cengage Learning
5. Module Assessment
Assignment: You will be required to complete and submit an assignment. This assignment is assessed
as part of your coursework. Therefore, it is very important that you complete it.
Examination: A three-hour examination will be written at the end of the semester. The assessment
strategy will focus more on application of theory to practice.

The overall outcome for this section is that, on its

completion, the learner should be able to
demonstrate a basic understanding of the
introduction to project quality management. This
Unit 1: overaloutcome will be achieved through the

learner’s mastery of the following specific
Introduction to outcomes, in that the learner will be able to:
Project Quality 1. Understand the definition and the dimensions

of quality.
Management 2. Understand the definition and attributes of
project quality management.
3. Provide a summary of the processes
associated with project quality management.
4. Discuss the cost of quality.

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J. P. and Gido, J. (2015).Successful Project Management.6th Edition. Boston: Cengage

Learning.
Recommended reading:
Garvin, D.A (1987). Competing on the eight dimensions of quality (online). Harvard Business Review
November-December 1987. Available from:
http://cc.sjtu.edu.cn/G2S/eWebEditor/uploadfile/20130427091849944.pdf [Accessed 2 December 2014]
PMI (2013).A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) 5th Edition.
Rose, Kenneth H (2005) Project Quality Management Why, What and How J Ross Publishing.
Schwalbe, K (2010). Managing Information Technology Projects 6th Edition. Cengage Learning. Canada

1.1 Introduction
Project Management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to satisfy stakeholder
expectations from a project (PMBOK Guide, 2013:5). Project management is also an essential skill for all
general managers as new strategies can only be implemented through the careful selection and
implementation of projects. Due to time-based competition and a quality mandate in current business,
the value of project management as a strategic asset is realized.
1.2 Definition of Project Quality

The Project Management Institute defines quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics
fulfil requirements” (Rose, 2005:6). Rose (2005:12) states that:
 Quality involves products, defects, processes, customers and systems.
 Quality is the ability of a set of inherent characteristics of a product, system, or process to fulfil
requirements of customers and other interested parties.
 Quality is a fourth among equals in relation to the project triple constraint of time, cost and scope
Rose (2005: 5) reports that the quality pioneer Juran stated that quality has two meanings that are
critically important to its management. Quality means “features of products which meet customers’ needs
and thereby provide customer satisfaction.” Quality improvement also means “freedom from
deficiencies.”
The Project Management Institute defines quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics
fulfill requirements.” (Rose, 2005:6).
Rose (2005:12) continues that:
 Quality involves products, defects, processes, customers and systems.

 Quality is the ability of a set of inherent characteristics of a product, system, or process to fulfill
requirements of customers and other interested parties.
 Quality is a fourth among equals in relation to the project triple constraint of time, cost and scope.
1.2.1 The Eight Dimensions of Quality
Garvin (1987) developed a list of eight quality dimensions which describe product quality:

 Performance: the efficiency with which a product achieves its intended purpose;
 Features: attributes of a product that supplement the basic performance;
 Reliability: propensity of a product to perform consistently over its useful design life;
 Conformance: compliance with numeric dimensions (specifications);
 Durability: the degree to which a product tolerates stress or trauma without failing;
 Serviceability: the ease of repair of a product;
 Aesthetics: subjective sensory characteristics such as taste, feel, sound, look and smell. Quality is
measured as the degree to which product attributes are matched to customer preferences in terms
of aesthetics;
 Perceived quality: based on customer opinion.
1.3 Definition of Project Quality Management

Project Quality Management (PQM) includes the processes and activities of the performing organization
thatdetermine quality policies, objectives, and responsibilities so that the project will satisfy the needs for
which it was undertaken (PMBOK, 2013:227)
Project Quality Management uses policies and procedures to implement, within the project’s context, the
organization’s quality management system and, as appropriate, it supports continuous process
improvement activities as undertaken on behalf of the performing organization. Project Quality
Management works to ensure that the project requirements, including product requirements, are met and
validated (PMBOK, 2013:227).
Project quality management is about the synergy of continuous improvement of the project and the
principle of project delivery. Using a quality approach plays a key role in assuring that the project meets
customer requirements. Quality management is the process for ensuring that all project activities
necessary to design, plan and implement a project are effective and efficient with respect to the purpose
of the objective and its performance.
This module will cover the broad concepts associated with quality management, the different costs of
quality, quality planning, assurance and control, and quality management tools.

Quality Management is concerned with and about the importance of:

 Customer Satisfaction – Customer satisfaction is the understanding, evaluation, definition, and
management of expectations so that customer requirements are met. This approach requires
conformance to requirements and a fitness of use for the product or service.
 Prevention over inspection – Prevention over inspection is the common sense principle that the cost
of preventing mistakes is generally much less than the cost of correcting them. This is true especially
when they are uncovered during an inspection.
 Management responsibility – Management responsibility in quality is to provide the resources needed
to sustain success.
 Continuous improvement – Continuous improve is following the plan-do-check-act cycle of quality
improvement.
 Cost of quality (COQ) - Cost of quality refers to the total cost of the conformance work and thenon-
conformance work that should be done as a compensatory effort because, on the first attempt
toperform that work, the potential exists that some portion of the required work effort may be done or
hasbeen done incorrectly. The costs for quality work may be incurred throughout the deliverable’s
life cycle
Project Quality Management is all about the synergy of continuous improvement of the project and the
principle of project delivery. Using a Quality Management approach plays a key role in assuring that the
project meets customer requirements. Quality management from a project perspective is to assure that
the stakeholder requirements detailed within the Project Scope Document are met. Quality management
is the process for ensuring that all project activities necessary to design, plan and implement a project
are effective and efficient with respect to the purpose of the objective and its performance.
Project quality management (QM) is not a separate, independent process that occurs at the end of an
activity to measure the level of quality of the output. It is not purchasing the most expensive material or
services available on the market. Quality and grade are not thesame, grade are characteristics of a
material or service such as additional features. A product may be of good quality (no defects) and be of
low grade (few or no extra features).
Quality management is a continuous process that starts and ends with the project. It is more about
preventing and avoiding than measuring and fixing poor quality outputs. It is part of every project

management processes from the moment the project initiates to the final steps in the project closure
phase.
QM focuses on improving stakeholder’s satisfaction through continuous and incremental improvements

to processes, including removing unnecessary activities; it achieves that by the continuous improvement
of the quality of material and services provided to the beneficiaries. It is not about finding and fixing errors
after the fact, quality management is the continuous monitoring and application of quality processes in all
aspects of the project.
Quality management is not an event - it is a process, a consistently high quality product or service cannot
be produced by a defective process. Quality management is a repetitive cycle of measuring quality,
updating processes, measuring, updating processes until the desired quality is achieved.
1.4 Project Quality Management Processes
PMBOK (2013:227) identifies three processes that are critical to the Quality Management System Theses
include Quality Planning, Quality Assurance, and Quality Control.
 Quality Planning is an integral part of project management. It identifies relevant quality standards and
determines how they can best be satisfied.
 Quality Assurance ensures that project management utilizes the quality processes needed to meet
project requirements in a planned and systematic manner.
 Quality Control monitors specific project outputs and determines compliance with applicable
standards. It also identifies project risk factors, their mitigation, and looks for ways to prevent and
eliminate unsatisfactory performance.
The overview of PQM can be seen in Figure 1.1. The diagram below breaks down the three main
processes of PQM into the various inputs, tools and techniques and the outputs.

Figure 1.1 : Project Quality Management Overview

Source: PMBOK (2013: 230)
1.5 The Costs of Quality
Schwalbe(2010:320) that the cost of quality is the cost of conformance plus the cost of non-conformance.
 Cost of conformance – delivering products that meet requirements and fitness for use. Examples
include the costs associated with developing a quality plan, costs for analyzing and managing product
requirements and costs for testing
 Cost of non-conformance – taking responsibility for failures or not meeting quality expectations
The cost of quality is the sum of costs a project will spend to prevent poor quality and any other costs
incurred as a result of outputs of poor quality. Poor quality is the waste, errors, or failure to meet
stakeholder needs and project requirements.
The costs of poor quality can be broken down into the four categories of prevention, appraisal, failure and
measurement and test equipment costs:

 Prevention costs: These are planned costs an organisation incurs to ensure that errors are not made
at any stage during the delivery process of that product or service to a beneficiary. Examples of
prevention costs include quality planning costs, education and training costs, quality administration
staff costs, process control costs, market research costs, field testing costs, and preventive
maintenance costs. The cost of preventing mistakes are always much less than the costs of
inspection and correction.
 Appraisal costs: These include the costs of verifying, checking, or evaluating a product or service
during the delivery process. Examples of appraisal costs include receiving or incoming inspection
costs, internal production audit costs, test and inspection costs, instrument maintenance costs,
process measurement and control costs, supplier evaluation costs, and audit report costs.
 Failure costs: A project incurs these costs because the product or service did not meet the
requirements and had to be fixed or replaced, or the service had to be repeated. There are internal
and external failure costs.
 Measurement and test equipment costs: the capital cost of equipment used to perform prevention
and appraisal activities
Figure 1.2: Cost of Quality

Source: PMBOK (2013: 235)

1.6 Conclusion
Every project has an anticipated level of quality for the project deliverables. Project quality management
is the process to ensure that the project fulfils its obligations to satisfy the project needs. As projects vary,
so too will the anticipated level of quality


demonstrate a basic understanding of the
development of the quality concepts. This overall
outcome will be achieved through the learner’s
Unit 2: mastery of the following specific outcomes, in that

the learner will be able to:
The Development
1. Discuss the contributions of the quality gurus
of the Core Quality and be able to compare and contrast the
contributions.
Concepts 2. Explain the various frameworks of quality
management.
3. Provide a summary of the four concepts of
quality.
4. Discuss the 6 success factors for managing
quality.

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J. P. and Gido, J. (2015).Successful Project Management.6th Edition. Boston: Cengage

Learning.
Goetsch, D.L and Davis, S (2014) Quality Management for Organisational Excellence: Introduction to
Total Quality. 7th Edition Pearson New Internal Edition England.
ISixSigma(2014)What is Six Sigma?(Online) Available from: http://www.isixsigma.com/new-to-six-

sigma/getting-started/what-six-sigma/ [Accessed 4 Decemeber 2014].

Cengage Learning.
PMI (2013).A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide).5th Edition.
Schwalbe, K (2010). Managing Information Technology Projects 6th Edition. Cengage Learning.
Canada.
Young, ML (2014). 6 Success Factors for Managing Project Quality (online). Available from:
http://www.transformed.com.au/media/articles/tips_quality.html[ Accessed 4 December 2014]

2.1 Introduction
Kloppenborg (2009: 283) contends that the approaches to quality management have evolved from the
teachings of several quality ‘gurus’ (1950s to 1980s) and then through various frameworks. In this
Chapter we will focus on the contribution of five gurus and cover the four main frameworks.,
2.2 Contribution of the Quality Gurus

2.2.1 W. E. Deming
Dr WE Deming is known primarily for his work on quality control in Japan. His approach to quality was
statistically based and focused on the responsibilities of management. Deming stressed the importance
of understanding how organisations operate as systems. He maintained that managers needed insight
in order to predict the future and leaders needed to understand individual motivation (Schwalbe, 2010:
315)
Figure 2.1 W E Deming
Deming formulated a system of profound knowledge that comprised the four elements necessary for
transformation to the new style of management:
 Appreciation for a system.
 Knowledge about variation – the need to understand common and special causes of variation.
 Theory of knowledge – to learn from the past and understand cause-and-effect relationships.
 Psychology – to understand what motivates each individual.
Deming established a list of fourteen goals for management, stressing that quality was an obligation of
management. The fourteen ‘points for management’ can be summarised as follows:
1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.

2. Adopt the new philosophy.

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection.

4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service.
6. Institute training.
7. Adopt and institute leadership.
8. Drive out fear.
9. Break down barriers between staff areas.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force.
11. Eliminate numerical quotas for the work force; eliminate numerical goals for people in
management.
12. Remove barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship.
13. Encourage education and self-improvement for everyone.
14. Take action to accomplish the transformation.
Figure 2.2: Deming’s Fourteen Points for Management
Source: Rose (2005:29)
2.2.2 Joseph Juran

Joseph M Juran taught Japanese manufacturers how to improve their productivity. He is best known for
his Quality Trilogy of quality planning, quality control and quality improvement (Schwalbe, 2010:316).
Quality Planning-Identify all customers and their needs, develop requirements based upon these
needs,anddevelop the methods to satisfy those requirements.
Quality Control- Determine what to control, establish measurement systems, establish
standards,compare performance to standards and act on differences.
Quality Improvement- Select and support improvement projects, prove causes, select and implement
solutions,and maintain control of improved processes.
Figure 2.3 Juran’s Quality Trilogy
Source: Kloppenborg (2009:284)
Rose(2005:30) discusses Juran’s belief that quality improvement depends on two different activities:
control and breakthrough:
 Control ensures that processes are performing consistently, free of assignable cause variation.

 Breakthrough occurs after a process has been studied and some major improvement has been
designed and implemented.
These activities, according to Juran, are not separate and sequential; they can and should occur
simultaneously.
Figure 2.4 Joseph Juran
According to Schwalbe(2010:316) Juran developed ten steps to quality improvement:
1. Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement

2. Set goals for improvement
3. Organise to reach the goals
4. Provide training
5. Carry out projects to solve problems
6. Report progress
7. Give recognition
8. Communicate results
9. Keep score
10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems and processes of
the company
2.2.3 Philip Crosby
Philip B Crosby wrote Quality is Free and is best known for suggesting that organisations strive for zero
defects. He viewed quality as a conformance to requirements. Quality was a result of prevention of
defects, not inspection and subsequent correction of defects.

According to Kloppenborg (2009:284), Crosby’s contributions to project quality can be summarised as

follows:
 Quality is meeting requirements, not exceeding them.

 The burden of quality falls on those who do the work
 Quality costs least when the work is done correctly the first time.
 Quality improves more by preventing defects rather than fixing them.
Figure 2.5 Philip Crosby
A major tenet of Crosby’s approach was that quality is free; that the cost of quality is eventually
outweighed by the benefits, and therefore, is not a cost at all. Crosby focused on behavioural and
motivational aspects of work rather than statistical aspects of processes (Rose, 2005: 30).
2.2.4 Kaoru Ishikawa
Kaoru Ishikawa is best known for his 1972 book Guide to Quality Control. He emphasised training and
education of workers as a foundation of quality. He created quality circles, increasing the role of workers
in solving problems and identifying opportunities for improvement (Rose, 2005: 31).
According to Schwalbe(2010:317) quality circles are groups of non-supervisors and work leaders in a
single company department who volunteer to conduct group studies on how to improve the effectiveness
of work in their department.
The quality philosophy of Ishikawa can be synthesised into 11 points:

Table 2.1 Ishikawa’s Eleven Points

Source: Foster (2007: 48)
1. Quality begins with education and ends with 7. Put quality first and set your sights on long-
education. term objectives
2. The first step in quality is to know the 8. Marketing is the entrance and exit of quality.
requirements of the customer. 9. Top management must not show anger
3. The ideal state of quality control is when when facts are presented to subordinates.
inspection is no longer necessary. 10. Ninety-five percent of the problems in a
4. Remove the root causes, not the symptoms. company can be solved by the seven tools
5. Quality control is the responsibility of all of quality.
workers and all divisions. 11. Data without dispersion data are false data.
6. Do not confuse the means with the objectives.
According to Kloppenborg (2009:284) Ishikawa’s contributions to project quality can be summarised as
follows:
 Quality outputs start with understanding customers and their desires.

 Work to identify and remove root causes, not just symptoms.
 All workers at all levels must engage to improve quality.
 Most quality problems can be solved by using simple tools.
Figure 2.6 Kaoru Ishikawa
2.2.5 GenichiTaguchi
Hedevised a method (“the Taguchi method”) that considers quality not as conformance to specifications,
but as a target within a range. The target value provides ideal quality. Deviations from the target are
expressed in a quality loss function. Instead of an acceptable level of variation within a specified range,

all variation is viewed as some degree of cost to the customer, the supplier or society in general (Rose,
2005: 31).
According to Kloppenborg (2009:284) Taguchi’s contributions to project quality can be summarized as

follows:
 Reducing variation saves money

 Project deliverable will be better with a focus on improving methods.
Figure 2.7 Genichi Taguchi
2.3 Quality Frameworks

The work of the quality ‘gurus’ has been incorporated into a few popular frameworks which include –
Total Quality Management (TQM), International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and Six Sigma.
Many organisations use the frameworks to define and organize their quality initiatives (Kloppenborg,
2009:284).
2.3.1 Total Quality Management (TQM)

According to Goetsch and Davis (2014:435) Total QualityManagement is described as a journey and not
a destination. It considers the wider aspects of quality by integrating quality management components
into a quality management system. TQM is a systems approach to quality management that focuses on
the system and not any particular components of the system.
Total quality has a people focus and an outcome focus. TQM advances the rationale that each project
needs a unique quality management system. It first identifies what the client really wants and how it can
best be achieved. It keeps an emphasis on continuous improvement, but always endeavours to keep the

customer satisfied. For quality to be effective, it needs to be introduced to all members and all aspects of
the operations.
Kloppenborg (2009:285) highlights the core values of TQM:
 Organisational and personal learning

 Valuing employees
 Agility
 Focus on the future
 Managing for innovation
 Management by fact
 Social responsibility
 Focus on results and creating value
 Systems perspective.
2.3.2 ISO 9000
According to Schwalbe(2010:318) The International Organizations for Standardization (ISO) is a network

of national standards institutes that work in partnership with international organisations, governments,
industries, businesses and consumer representatives.
According to Rose(2005:34)the ISO 9000-series of standards addresses quality management systems.
The series includes three standards:
 ISO 9000, Quality management systems – Fundamentals and vocabulary

 ISO 9001, Quality management systems – Requirements
 ISO 9004, Quality management systems – Guidelines for performance improvements

The ISO standards encompass eight quality management principles as reflected in the table below:
Table 2.2 Eight Quality Management Principles
Principle Brief Description
Customer focus Understand current and future customer needs; meet requirements; strive to
exceed expectations; link organisation’s needs to customer needs.
Leadership Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction for the organisation. They
create the appropriate internal environment.
Involvement of people Motivated, committed, and involved people at all levels accept ownership of
problems, evaluate their own performance, and freely share information.
Process approach Activities and related resources are managed as processes resulting in
predictable results and improvement opportunities.
Systems approach to Integrate and align processes; focus effort on key processes; understand
management interdependencies, capabilities and constraints before starting projects.
Continual improvement Use a consistent organization-wide approach to continual improvement to

include training in methods, goals to guide and measures to track.
Factual approach to Ensure data and information are accurate, reliable and accessible; make
decision-making decisions and take action based upon analysing facts; challenge opinions and
decisions.
Mutually beneficial Identify and select key partners; jointly develop and improve with partners;
supplier relationships openly share communication with them.
Source: Kloppenborg (2009: 286)
ISO implementation provides many benefits. It forces analysis of all quality management activities; it
documents all aspects of the quality management system – only facts (n assumptions or promises). The
ISO approach is prevention based; it focuses on prevention, not inspection. It is a framework for quality
improvement. Continual improvement is an essential part of the ISO approach (Rose, 2005:33)
2.3.3 Six Sigma

Six Sigma, at many organisations simply means a measure of quality that strives for near perfection. Six
Sigma is a disciplined, data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects (driving toward six
standard deviations between the mean and the nearest specification limit) in any process – from
manufacturing to transactional and from product to service(iSixSigma:2014)
According to iSixSigma(2014) the statistical representation of Six Sigma describes quantitatively how a
process is performing. To achieve Six Sigma, a process must not produce more than 3.4 defects per
million opportunities. A Six Sigma defect is defined as anything outside of customer specifications. A Six

Sigma opportunity is then the total quantity of chances for a defect. Process sigma can easily be
calculated using a Six Sigma calculator.
The fundamental objective of the Six Sigma methodology is the implementation of a measurement-based
strategy that focuses on process improvement and variation reduction through the application of Six
Sigma improvement projects. This is accomplished through the use of two Six Sigma sub-methodologies:
DMAIC and DMADV.
The Six Sigma DMAICprocess (defines, measure, analyse, improve, control) is an improvement system
for existing processes falling below specification and looking for incremental improvement. The Six Sigma
DMADV process (define, measure, analyse, design, verify) is an improvement system used to develop
new processes or products at Six Sigma quality levels. It can also be employed if a current process
requires more than just incremental improvement.
The DMAIC tools as cited by Rose(2005:33) are:
 Define customers and requirements

 Measure things critical to quality
 Analyse baseline, opportunities, objectives and root causes
 Improve the process
 Control the process .
It is a continuous, circular flow, because it is used as a method of implementing continuous improvement.
Sigma stands for standard deviation – a statistical term for the amount of variation in data. Six Sigma
quality literally means quality problems are measured in parts per million opportunities.

Kloppenborg (2009:288) provides a consolidated description of the primary Six Sigma themes shown in
Table 2.3
Table 2.3 Six Sigma Themes
Theme Brief Description
Customer focus Relentless focus on customers and their needs is a strong driver of good
Fact-driven management quality.
Develop appropriate metrics in a top-down fashion and rigorously
Process management and analyse them statistically.
improvement Understand, control and improve key business and operational
Goal setting processes to reduce cost and time.
Determine objectively what needs to be improved and then set stretch
Project management roles goals for that improvement.
Develop executive sponsors and process experts, collaborate with
DMAIC process suppliers and customers.
Carefully apply the DMAIC process.
Source: Kloppenborg (2009: 288)
2.4 The Four Core Quality Concepts

Kloppenborg (2009: 285) lists the four core project quality concepts as:
1. stakeholder satisfaction
2. process management
3. fact-based management
4. empowered performance
2.4.1 Stakeholder Satisfaction

Stakeholder satisfaction consists of identifying all stakeholders, using a structured process to determine
relevant quality standards, and understanding the ultimate quality goals with respect to stakeholders.
External stakeholders for projects can include customers, suppliers and the public; internal stakeholders
include shareholders and employees at all levels and functions within the organisation.
The decision-process for developing relevant quality standards on a project consists of the following
steps:

 Identify all stakeholders

 Prioritise among the stakeholders
 Understand the prioritized stakeholders’ requirements
 Develop standards to ensure the requirements are met
 Make trade-off decisions.
A stakeholder analysis allows a project manager to identify all parties involved in a project. Once all
stakeholders are identified, their position, influence on the project, and the level of change they will need
to undergo as a result of the project can be determined.
Stakeholders actively participate in the process of developing quality standards. Stakeholders make
judgments about the quality of a process based on what they see and will therefore judge quality both of
project work processes and deliverables. Good quality practice is to not only satisfy, but also to delight
stakeholders (Kloppenborg, 2009:288).
2.4.2 Process Management

Kloppenborg (2009: 290) defines a process as a set of interrelated actions and activities performed to
achieve a set of products, results or services. In order to effectively manage project processes, project
managers need to understand, control and improve them.
The first part of understanding a project process is to demonstrate work glows from suppliers, through
the project, to customers. One way of doing this is a tool called a supplier-input-process-output-customer
(SIPOC) model in Figure 2.8:
Suppliers Input Process(es) Output Customers
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Figure 2.8theSIPOC Model

Source: Kloppenborg(2009:290)

The second aspect of process management is process control. Control is comparing actual performance
with planned performance, analysing variances, evaluating possible alternatives and recommending
appropriate corrective action as needed.The third aspect of process management is process
improvement. Processes can be improved in either a continuous or breakthrough fashion. Improvement
models are based upon the plan-do-check and act(PDCA) improvement cycle:
Act: If results are good

enough implement the Plan: Select needed
improvement, otherwise try improvement, understand process
again and reasons for trouble, and
create plan.
A P
C D
Check: Compare the results

after the change with to see Do: Try the change on a
before to see if there was an small scale and collect data.
improvement,
Figure 2.9 ThePDCA Model

Source: Kloppenborg(2009:292)
2.4.3 Fact-Based Management

Making decisions based on facts is a challenge facing many project managers. Making decisions using
facts is difficult because:
 Opinions get in the way
 It is hard to know what data needs to be collected, and
 Projects operate with time pressures so that decisions need to be made quickly.
Project decision makers need to understand the difference between two types of variation. Common
cause is a source of variation that is inherent in a system and predictable. On the other hand, special
cause is a source of variation that is not inherent in a system, is not predictable and is intermittent. It is
important to determine when there is a variation on a project whether it is within the range of what can
be expected for that particular work activity or deliverable (common cause) or whether something unusual
is happening (special cause). If the variation is common cause, and the results are not acceptable, some
change will need to be made to the system (the way in which the work is accomplished). However, if the

change is due to a particular cause, then the way to improve is to change that particular cause and not
the entire system.
Management by facts requires an understanding that variation can be either common or special cause,
a determination to discover which type, and the resolve to act appropriately on that discovery.
A second aspect of fact-based management is the determination of what to measure.
A third aspect of management by facts is how the identified data are collected, handled and stored. Data
are representations of facts that are collected using a measurement process. Data collection should be
complete, without errors and timely. The final aspect of making fact-based decisions is how the
information is used. Information is derived from data and understood in the context of the project
(Kloppenborg, 2009:292-294).
2.4.4 Empowered performance

The goal of empowered performance is to have capable and willing workers at every level and every
function within a project. Part of an empowered performance culture is setting an expectation for project
managers to allow and encourage their subordinates to take appropriate risks and to treat risk events as
learning opportunities. Part of it is training and equipping workers so they are willing to take risks. Another
part is getting managers to let go of some decision-making authority so those lower can make some
decisions. Another aspect of empowered performance is the development of specialists who can aid
anyone in the organization.
According to Kloppenborg(2009:295) there are four components of empowered performance in order to

create capable and willing workers:
 The recognition of individuality
 Being able to capitalize on individual strengths
 Emphasizing individual responsibilities, and
 Using appropriate collaboration.

A summary of the core concepts of project quality is provided by Kloppenborg (2009:295):

Table 2.4 Project Quality Core Concepts
Concept Specific Guidance
Stakeholder Identify all internal and external stakeholders
Satisfaction Prioritize among the stakeholders
Understand the prioritized stakeholders’ requirements
Develop standards to ensure the requirements are met
Make trade-off decisions
Realize that stakeholders will judge quality both of project work processes and
deliverables
Measure twice, cut once (Plan and check the plan)
Meet requirements, but exceed expectations
Develop capable customers
Process Learn about processes with the supplier-input-process-output- customer model
Improvement Realize that designing a quality process is far better than merely trying to find
mistakes
Ensure project processes are capable and flexible
Control project processes to make them predictable
Improve project processes using a model based upon the plan-do-check-act concept
Fact-Based Understand the difference between common and special causes of variation
Management Select a few well-defined items to measure
Carefully collect the data and use analysis techniques appropriate to the project to
turn it into useful information
Encourage truthful, transparent and challenging communication when making project
decisions.
Empowered Develop capable and willing workers at every level and function
Performance Develop a risk-taking culture
Understand each person is an individual
To the extent possible, let everyone do what their strengths support
Ensure everyone understands and accepts their responsibilities
Share lessons learned and other information as widely as possible.
Source: Kloppenborg(2009: 295)

Think Point:
Refer back to one of your own projects and discuss why these core concepts were important in your
project.
2.5 Six Success Factors for Managing Project Quality
According to Young (2009) commentators have differing views on what constitutes a quality project. The
generally agreed parameters are that it delivers the desired outcomes on time and within budget. He has
identified 6 key factors that improve project quality:
Key Success Factor 1: A Good Plan

The Plan, Do, Check, Act cycle is fundamental to achieving project quality. The overall project plan should
include a plan for how the project manager and team will maintain quality standards throughout the
project's cycle.
Key Success Factor 2: Appropriate Communication

Despite good project planning and scheduling, poor or absent communication with team members and
stakeholders can bring a project undone. Project managers need excellent communication skills and a
comprehensive scheme that encourages formal and informal discussion of expectations, innovation,
progress and results.
Key Success Factor 3: Manage Stakeholders

Stakeholders include everyone who has an interest in, can influence or is affected by the project's
implementation or outcomes. To engage stakeholders, identify who they are, analyse their concerns and
what they need to know and then prepare a strategy to provide the appropriate amount of information
and opportunities for involvement.
Key Success Factor 4: Good Measurement

Early in the process it is important to identify the key outcomes and outputs of the project and how you
will measure whether they have been delivered. Implement processes that measure progress, both
qualitatively and quantitatively, throughout the project at individual, team and whole project levels. This

ensures that problems can be identified early and successful tactics can be promulgated throughout the
project.
Key Success Factor 5: Constant Review

Along with good measurement go good review mechanisms. Successful project managers diligently and
regularly review progress against the schedule, budget and quality elements of the project. Regular
review allows problems to be identified early so that corrective action can be taken to keep the project on
track. Review also helps team members to learn and improve their skills.
Key Success Factor 6: Act Early

Measurement and review are important, but they are only effective if the project manager takes action on
issues identified. Leaving problems to be fixed up later is a recipe for disaster. Simple issues should be
addressed immediately. More complex issues should be added for action into the project plan and
resources allocated to address them.
2.6 Conclusion
It is imperative to gain knowledge on the contribution of the quality gurus and the various frameworks and
core quality concepts, This knowledge will pave the way for the understanding go the processes within
quality management.
 ADDITIONALREADING
The full-text of the following articles can be accessed from the EMERALD database through the
library portal in the MyMANCOSA website.
ARTICLE
Bendell, T, Penson,R and Samantha Carr, S. (1995) "The quality gurus – their approaches described
and considered", Managing Service Quality: An International Journal, Vol. 5 Iss: 6, pp. 44 – 48
Abstract:
Discusses the major contributions of various quality gurus. Highlights the main messages and how
principles which originally focused on the product can now be applied to services. Draws attention to the
competitive importance of quality and concludes that business survival depends on quality.


demonstrate a basic understanding of the project
quality planning process. This overall outcome will
Unit 3: be achieved through the learner’s mastery of the

following specific outcomes, in that the learner will
Project Quality be able to:
Planning 1. Understand the definition of project quality

planning.
2. Explain the inputs, tools and techniques and
output of the quality assurance process

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J.P, and Gido, J. (2015)Successful Project Management. 6th Edition Boston: Cengage
Learning.

Cengage Learning.
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) 5th Edition.
Schwalbe, K (2010) Managing Information Technology Projects 6th Edition Cengage Learning. Canada

3.1 Introduction
Rose (2005:42) contends that this activity is the foundation for quality being planned in, not inspected in.
Project managers need not, and must not, depend on inspection and correction to achieve project quality.
Instead they should use conformance and prevention to achieve quality. Through planning, project
managers should design in and build in quality (Rose, 2005: 42).
The project quality plan gathers together all the quality standards and requirements and presents them
in one coherent document. The project quality plan must be communicated effectively to all stakeholders
to ensure that they have been adequately consulted and informed.
Quality planning is the first step in project quality management. Quality planning may be performed
simultaneously with other aspects of project planning. Quality planning includes identifying which quality
standards are relevant to the project and how best to satisfy those standards. It also involves designing
quality into the products of the project as well as the processes involved in managing the project. Like
other plans, the size and complexity of quality management plans vary to meet project needs (Schwalbe:
2009:163).
Quality planning implies the ability to anticipate situations and prepare actions that bring the desired
outcome. The main objective is the prevention of defects through selecting proper materials and training
of staff in quality, and planning a process that ensures the appropriate outcome. Standards for each
unique project must be identified (Schwalbe: 2006:294).
3.2 Definition of Quality Planning

PMBOK (2013:231) defines quality planning as the process of identifying quality requirements and/or
standards for the project and its deliverables, and documenting how the project will demonstrate
compliance with relevant quality requirements.
Rose (2005:57) provides a summary of project quality planning:
 Quality management includes quality planning, quality assurance, quality control, and quality
improvement.
 The quality management plan is part of the project plan. It includes the quality policy (intended
direction of the organisation regarding quality) and answers the questions: Who is in charge

(infrastructure and responsibilities)? Where are we going (goals)? How are we going to get there
(processes)?
 Quality planning is identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and how to satisfy
them.
 Customers (internal or external) are the base in project quality.
 Customer and requirement identification and prioritisation should be performed early in project
planning so that the project starts in the right direction.
 Identifying specifications is also part of the quality journey. Specifications are specific and
measurable statements of requirements.
 Operational definitions provide a link between requirements and specifications. Operational
definitions remove ambiguity of terms by describing what something is and how it is measured.
 Standards are closely related to specifications. Standards address how something is to be done.
Specifications provide specific targets for performance.
The key benefit of this process is that it provides guidance and direction on how quality will be managed
and validated throughout the project. The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are
depicted in Figure 3.1 below:
Figure 3.1 Quality Planning –Inputs, Tools and Techniques and Outputs
Source: PMBOK(2013:232)
3.3. Inputs to quality planning

The inputs for the quality planning process as described by PMBOK (2013:233-234) include:
Project management plan

A project management plan is a document used to coordinate all project planning documents and to
assist guide the project’s execution and control. Plans created in the other knowledge areas are the
subsidiary parts of the overall project management plan and provide more detailed information about that

knowledge area (PMBOK, 2013:76-77). This is covered in detail in the Principles of Project Management
Module Section 2.4.4
Stakeholder Register
The stakeholder register aids in identifying those stakeholders possessing aparticular interest in, or
having an impact on, quality.
Risk Register
The risk register contains information on threats and opportunities that mayimpact quality requirements.
Requirements documentation
Requirements documentation captures the requirements that the project shallmeet pertaining to
stakeholder expectations. The components of the requirements documentation include, but arenot limited
to, project (including product) and quality requirements. The requirements are used by the project teamto
help plan how quality control will be implemented on the project.Enterprise environmental factorsThe
enterprise environmental factors that influence the Plan Quality Managementprocess include, but are not
limited to:
 Governmental agency regulations;
 Rules, standards, and guidelines specific to the application area;
 Working or operating conditions of the project or its deliverables that may affect project quality; and
 Cultural perceptions that may influence expectations about quality
 Organisational process assets
The organisational process assets that influence the Plan Quality Managementprocess include, but are
not limited to:
 Organizational quality policies, procedures, and guidelines. The performing organization’s quality
policy,as endorsed by senior management, sets the organization’s intended direction on
implementing its qualitymanagement approach;
 Historical databases; and
 Lessons learned from previous phases or projects.
3.4 Tools and Techniques for quality planning

PMBOK (2013:235) discuss the following tools and techniques for quality planning:

Benefit/cost analysis
The planning process must consider benefit/cost trade-offs. The primary benefit is less work, higher
productivity, lower costs and increased stakeholder satisfaction. The primary cost is the expenses
associated with project quality management activities.
Cost of Quality – Covered in Section 1

Seven Basic Quality Tools – this will be covered in Section 6
Benchmarking
Benchmarking involves comparing actual or planned project practices to those of comparable projects to
identifybest practices, generate ideas for improvement, and provide a basis for measuring performance.
Benchmarked projects may exist within the performing organization or outside of it, or can be within the
sameapplication area. Benchmarking allows for analogies from projects in a different application area to
be made.
Design of experiments
Design of experiments (DOE) is a statistical method for identifying which factors may influence specific
variablesof a product or process under development or in production. DOE may be used during the Plan
Quality Managementprocess to determine the number and type of tests and their impact on cost of quality.
Statistical sampling
Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a population of interest for inspection (for example, selecting
tenengineering drawings at random from a list of seventy-five). Sample frequency and sizes should be
determined duringthe Plan Quality Management process so the cost of quality will include the number of
tests, expected scrap, etc.
Additional Quality Planning tools

Other quality planning tools are used to define the quality requirements and to plan effective quality
managementactivities. These include, but are not limited to:
 Brainstorming. This technique is used to generate ideas

 Force field analysis. These are diagrams of the forces for and against change.
 Nominal group technique. This technique is used to allow ideas to be brainstormed in small groups
andthen reviewed by a larger group.

 Quality management and control tools. These tools are used to link and sequence the activities.
Meetings
Project teams may hold planning meetings to develop the quality management plan. Attendees at these
meetings may include the project manager; the project sponsor; selected project team members; selected
stakeholders; anyone with responsibility for Project Quality Management activities namely Plan Quality
Management, Perform Quality Assurance, or Control Quality; and others as needed.
3.5 Outputs from quality planning

The main outputs of quality planning as cited by PMBOK (2013:241-242) include:
Quality Management Plan

The quality management plan is a component of the project management plan that describes how the
organisation’s quality policies will be implemented. It describes how the project management team plans
to meet the quality requirements set for the project.
The quality management plan may be formal or informal, detailed, or broadly framed. The style and detail
of the quality management plan are determined by the requirements of the project. The quality
management plan should be reviewed early in the project to ensure that decisions are based on accurate
information. The benefits of this review can include a sharper focus on the project’s value proposition and
reductions in costs and in the frequency of schedule overruns that were caused by rework.
According to Rose (2005:42), the basic document for project quality is the quality management plan. It is
one of several subordinate plans within the project plan. A general framework for quality management
plans includes four elements:
1. Quality policy – This expresses the intended direction of the organization with regard to quality.
2. Who is in charge? – This addresses project infrastructure and describes participants, reporting
chains, and responsibilities.
3. Where are we going? – Managing quality effectively depends on specific performance targets
and goals provide broad descriptions of what the project is expected to achieve.
4. How are we going to get there? – This addresses processes, resources and standards.
Kloppenborg (2009:296) states that the quality management plan “describes how the project
management team will perform the organisation’s quality policy.” The quality management plan is a
portion of the overall project management plan.

Within a quality management plan, some or all of the following topics should be addressed:
 The mission and quality policy of the organization

 Roles and responsibilities of management and staff with respect to audit and/or quality activities.
 Quality system description
 Personnel qualifications and training and implementation of work processes
 Corrective actions procedures
 Standard operating procedures
 Quality improvement description
 Procurement of items and services
 Documentation and records
 Computer hardware and software(Kloppenborg, 2009:296)
Quality metrics
A quality metric specifically describes a project or product attribute and how the control quality process
will measure it. A measurement is an actual value. The tolerance defines the allowable variations to the
metric. For example, if the quality objective is to stay within the approved budget by 10%, the specific
quality metric is used to measure the cost of every deliverable and determine the percent variance from
the approved budget for that deliverable. Quality metrics are used in the perform quality assurance and
control quality processes. Some examples of quality metrics include on-time performance, cost control,
defect frequency, failure rate, availability, reliability, and test coverage.
Quality checklists
A checklist is a structured tool, usually component-specific, used to verify that a set of required steps has
been performed. Based on the project’s requirements and practices, checklists may be simple or
complex. Many organisations have standardised checklists available to ensure consistency in frequently
performed tasks. In some application areas, checklists are also available from professional associations
or commercial service providers. Quality checklists should incorporate the acceptance criteria included
in the scope baseline.
Process improvement plan and quality baseline

The process improvement plan is a subsidiary or component of the project management plan The process
improvement plan details the steps for analysing project management and product development
processes to identify activities that enhance their value. Areas to consider include:

 Process boundaries. Describe the purpose of the process, the start and end of theprocess, its inputs and
outputs, the process owner, and the stakeholders of the process.
 Process configuration. Provides a graphic depiction of processes, with interfaces identified, used to facilitate
analysis.
 Process metrics. Along with control limits, allows analysis of process efficiency.
 Targets for improved performance. Guide the process improvement activities.
Project Document Updates

Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:
 Stakeholder register and

 Responsibility assignment matrix and
 WBS and WBS Dictionary.
3.6 Conclusion
Rose (2005:57) provides a summary of project quality planning:
 Quality management includes quality planning, quality assurance, quality control, and quality
improvement.
 The quality management plan is part of the project plan. It includes the quality policy (intended
direction of the organisation regarding quality) and answers the questions: Who is in charge?
(infrastructure and responsibilities), Where are we going? (goals), and How are we going to get
there? (processes).
 Quality planning is identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and how to satisfy
them.
 Quality planning is the foundation that allow quality to be planned in, not inspected in.
 Customers are the base in project quality. They may be classified as external or internal.
 Identifying customers is the first step in a seven-step quality journey that provides a general
framework for quality management.
 Identifying requirements is the second step in the quality journey.
 Customer and requirement identification and prioritization should be performed early in project
planning so that the project starts in the right direction.

 Identifying specifications is the third step in the quality journey. Specifications are specific and
measurable statements of requirements.
 Operational definitions provide a link between requirements and specifications. Operational
definitions remove ambiguity of terms by describing shat something is and how it is measured.
 Standards are closely related to specifications. Standards address how something is to be done.
Specifications provide specific targets for performance.
Activity:
Revisit one of your previous projects and improve on the project quality planning you used at that time.


demonstrate a basic understanding of project
Unit 4: quality assurance. This overall outcome will be

achieved through the learner’s mastery of the
Project Quality following specific outcomes, in that the learner will

be able to:
Assurance
1. Understand the definition of project quality
assurance.
output of the quality planning process.

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J.P and Gido, J. (2015)Successful Project Management. 6th Edition Boston: Cengage
Learning.
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). 5thEdition

4.1 Introduction
Quality assurance encompasses all the planned and systematic activity implemented in a quality system
to provide confidence that the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards. Quality assurance is
provided by a Quality Assurance department.
Quality assurance can be:
 Internal(from the project management team to the performing organisation).

 External (provided to the customer and other parties actively involved in the work of the project).
In project management, the prevention and inspection aspects of quality assurance should have a
demonstrable influence on the project. Quality assurance work will fall under the conformance work
category in the cost of quality framework.
A quality assurance department, or similar organisation, often oversees quality assurance activities. Quality
assurance support, regardless of the unit’s title, may be provided to the project team, the management of the
performing organization, the customer or sponsor, as well as other stakeholders not actively involved in the
work of the project.
Quality Assurance also provides an umbrella for continuous process improvement, which is an iterative means
for improving the quality of all processes. Continuous process improvement reduces waste and eliminates
activities that do not add value. This allows processes to operate at increased levels of efficiency and
effectiveness.
4.2 Definition of Quality Assurance

PMBOK(2013:242) defines Quality Assurance as the process of auditing the quality requirements and
the results from quality control measurements to ensure that appropriate quality standards and
operational definitions are used. The keybenefit of this process is that it facilitates the improvement of
quality processes. The inputs, tools and techniquesand outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Quality Assurance –Inputs, Tools and Techniques and Outputs
Source: PMBOK (2013:243)
The quality assurance process implements a set of planned and systematic acts and processes defined
within the project’s quality management plan. Quality assurance seeks to build confidence that a future
output or an unfinished output, also known as work in progress, will be completed in a manner that meets
the specified requirements and expectations. Quality assurance contributes to the state of being certain
about quality by preventing defects through the planning processes or by inspecting out defects during
the work-in-progress stage of implementation.
4.3 Inputs to Quality Assurance

The outputs of the quality planning process are generally the inputs the Quality Assurance process as
outlined by PMBOK (2013:244-245). They include:
Quality Management Plan

Described in Section 3.5, the quality management plan describes the quality assurance
andcontinuousprocess improvement approaches for the project.
Process Improvement Plan

Described in Section 3.5The project’s quality assurance activities should be supportive of and
consistentwith the performing organization’s process improvement plans.
Quality Metrics
Described in Section 3.5the quality metrics provide the attributes that should be measured and
theallowable variations.

Quality Control Measurements

Quality control measurements are the results of control quality activities. They areused to analyse and
evaluate the quality of the processes of the project against the standards of the performingorganisation
or the requirements specified. Quality control measurements can also compare the processes used
tocreate the measurements, and validate actual measurements to determine their level of correctness.
Project Documents
Project documents may influence quality assurance work and should be monitored within the context of
a system for configuration management.
4.4 Quality Assurance Tools and Techniques

The tools and techniques of the Quality Assurance process as outlined by PMBOK (2013:245-247)
include:
Quality Management and Control Tools

The Perform Quality Assurance process uses the tools and techniques of the Plan Quality Management
and Control Quality processes. In addition, other tools that are available include:
 Affinity diagrams -The affinity diagram is similar to mind-mapping techniques in that they are used to generate
ideas that can be linked to form organised patterns of thought about a problem. In project management, the
creation of the WBS may be enhanced by using the affinity diagram to give structure to the decomposition of
scope.
 Process decision program charts (PDPC) -Used to understand a goal in relation to the steps for getting to the
goal. The PDPC is useful as a method for contingency planning because it aids teams in anticipating
intermediate steps that could derail achievement of the goal.
 Interrelationship digraphs. An adaptation of relationship diagrams. The interrelationship digraphs provide a
process for creative problem solving in moderately complex scenarios that possess inter-twined logical
relationships for up to 50 relevant items. The interrelationship digraph may be developed from data generated
in other tools such as the affinity diagram, the tree diagram, or the fishbone diagram.
 Tree diagrams -Also known as systematic diagrams and may be used to represent decomposition hierarchies
such as the WBS, RBS (risk breakdown structure), and OBS (organisational breakdown structure). In project
management, tree diagrams are useful in visualizing the parent-to-child relationships in any decomposition
hierarchy that uses a systematic set of rules that define a nesting relationship. Tree diagrams can be depicted
horizontally (such as a risk breakdown structure) or vertically (such as a team hierarchy or OBS). Because
tree diagrams permit the creation of nested branches that terminate into a single decision point, they are useful

as decision trees for establishing an expected value for a limited number of dependent relationships that have
been diagrammedsystematically.
 Prioritisation matrices - Identify the key issues and the suitable alternatives to be prioritised as a set of
decisions for implementation. Criteria are prioritised and weighted before being applied to all available
alternatives to obtain a mathematical score that ranks the options.
 Activity network diagrams -Previously known as arrow diagrams. They include both the AOA (Activity
on Arrow) and, most commonly used, AON (Activity on Node) formats of a network diagram. Activity
network diagrams are used with project scheduling methodologies such as program evaluation and
review technique (PERT), critical path method (CPM), and precedence diagramming method (PDM).
 Matrix diagrams -A quality management and control tool used to perform data analysis within the
organisational structure created in the matrix. The matrix diagram seeks to show the strength
ofrelationships between factors, causes, and objectives that exist between the rows and columns
that form the matrix.
The quality management and control tools are depicted in Figure 4.2
Figure 4.2 Storyboard illustrating the seven Quality management and control tools

Quality Audits
PMBOK (2013:247) defines a quality audit is a structured, independent process to determine if project
activities comply with organisationaland project policies, processes, and procedures. The objectives of a
quality audit may include:
 Identify all good and best practices being implemented;
 Identify all nonconformity, gaps, and shortcomings;
 Share good practices introduced or implemented in similar projects in the organisation and/or
industry;
 Proactively offer assistance in a positive manner to improve implementation of processes to help the
 team raise productivity; and
 Highlight contributions of each audit in the lessons learned repository of the organisation.
The subsequent effort to correct any deficiencies should result in a reduced cost of quality and an
increase insponsor or customer acceptance of the project’s product. Quality audits may be scheduled or
random, and may beconducted by internal or external auditors.Quality audits can confirm the
implementation of approved change requests including updates, correctiveactions, defect repairs, and
preventive actions.
Process Analysis
Process analysis follows the steps outlined in the process improvement plan to identify needed
improvements.This analysis also examines problems experienced, constraints experienced, and non-
value-added activitiesidentified during process operation. Process analysis includes root cause
analysis—a specific technique used toidentify a problem, discover the underlying causes that lead to it,
and develop preventive actions.
4.5 Quality Assurance Outputs

The outputs of the Quality Assurance process as outlined by PMBOK(2013:245-247-248) include:
Change Requests
Change requests are created and used as input into the Perform Integrated Change Control processto
allow full consideration of the recommended improvements. Change requests are used to take corrective
action,preventive action, or to perform defect repair.
Project Management Plan Updates

Elements of the project management plan that may be updated include, but are not limited to:

 Quality management plan

 Scope management plan
 Schedule management plan and
 Cost management plan
 Project Documents Updates
Project documents that may be updated include, but are not limited to:\
 Quality audit reports,
 Training plans, and
 Process documentation.
Organisational Process Assets Updates

Elements of the organisational process assets that may be updated include, but are not limited to,
theorganisation’s quality standards and the quality management system.
4.6 Conclusion
Rose (2005:64) provides a summary of project quality assurance:
 Quality assurance is the application of planned, systematic quality activities to ensure that the project
will employ all processes needed to meet requirements identified during quality planning.
 Quality assurance addresses the programme; it is the combined set of activities that the project team
will perform to meet project objectives. Quality control addresses the outcomes; it is about monitoring
performance and doing something about the results.
 Defining quality assurance activities is the fourth step in a seven-step quality journey that provides a
general framework for quality management.
 Quality assurance activities are based on specifications and operational definitions. They include
identified resources and responsible entities.
 Metrics are the means of measurement that link requirements, specifications, assurance activities
and the metrics themselves.
 The quality assurance plan lists all assurance activities in one place to assist in managing project
quality.
 Preparing a quality assurance plan is the fifth step in the quality assurance journey.
 Quality audits are structured reviews of the quality system. They may be scheduled or random and
conducted by internal or external elements.

 ADDITIONALREADING
The full-text of the following articles can be accessed from the EMERALD database through the
library portal in the MyMANCOSA website.
ARTICLE
Brennecke, P and Beckmerhagen, I, (1994) "Quality Assurance and Quality Control for the Planned
Konrad Repository", International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 11 Iss: 5, pp.30 – 37.
Abstract:
In Germany radioactive waste with negligible heat generation, i.e. LLW and ILW, is planned to be
disposed of in the Konrad repository. The construction and operation of this disposal mine necessitates
quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) programmes focusing on the above‐ground and
underground facilities as well as on the waste packages to be disposed of. The QA organization provides
a division of this facility into three areas with different requirements on the measures to be taken. For
classification of systems and companies the results of the safety assessment, in particular of the incident
analysis, are used. The waste package QC, i.e. the fulfillment of waste acceptance requirements, is either
to be performed by checking the waste producer’s documentation and carrying out random tests or by
qualifying and subsequently inspecting the waste conditioning process.


completion,
1. The learner should be able to demonstrate a basic
Unit 5: understanding of project quality control. This overall

outcome will be achieved through the learner’s
Project Quality mastery of the following specific outcomes, in that the

learner will be able to:
Control 2. Understand the definition of project quality
control.
output of the quality control process

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J. P. and Gido, J (2015)SuccessfulProject Management 6th Edition Boston: Cengage

Learning.
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) 5th Edition

5.1 Introduction
Quality control involves monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with relevant
standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory results.Project results mentioned
include both product results such as deliverables and Management results such as cost and schedule
performance. Quality control is often performed by a quality control department. The project management
team should have a working knowledge of statistical quality control especially sampling and probability
to help evaluate and control outputs.
The project manager / project team should be aware of the following among other subjects:
 Prevention ( keeping errors out of the process)

 Inspection (keeping errors out of the customers hand
 Attribute sampling (for conformity of results)
 Variable sampling (where the results are rated on a continuous scale that measures the degree of conformity
or non-conformity
 Special cause ( unusual events)
 Random causes ( normal process variations)
 Tolerances ( where results should fall within a defined tolerance range
 Control limits ( the process is in control if it falls within these defined limits)
5.2 Definition of Quality Control
PMBOK (2013:242) defines Quality Control as the process of monitoring and recording results of
executing the quality activities to assessperformance and recommend necessary changes.
The key benefits of this process include:
1. Identifying thecauses of poor process or product quality and recommending and/or taking action to
eliminate them; and
2. Validating that project deliverables and work meet the requirements specified by key stakeholders
necessary forfinal acceptance.
The inputs, tools and techniques, and outputs of this process are depicted in Figure 5.1

Figure 5.1 Quality Control–Inputs, Tools and Techniques and Outputs

5.3 Inputs to Quality Control

The outputs of the quality assurance process are generally the inputs the quality control process as
outlined by PMBOK (2013:250-251). They include:
 Project Management Plan - Project Management Module Section 2.4.4

 Quality Metrics - Described in Section 3.5
 Quality Checklists - Described in Section 3.5.
 Work Performance Data
Work performance data can include:

 Planned vs. actual technical performance,
 Planned vs. actual schedule performance, and
 Planned vs. actual cost performance.
Approved Change Requests

As part of the Perform Integrated Change Control process, a change log update indicates that some
changes are approved and some are not. Approved change requests may include modifications such as
defect repairs, revisedwork methods, and revised schedule. The timely implementation of approved
changes needs to be verified.

Deliverables
A deliverable is any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability that resultsin a validated deliverable
required by the project.
Project Documents
Project documents may include, but are not limited to:
 Agreements,
 Quality audit reports and change logs supported with corrective action plans,
 Training plans and assessments of effectiveness, and
 Process documentation such as those obtained using either the seven basic quality tools or the
qualitymanagement and control tools.
 Organisational Process Assets
The organizational process assets that influence the Control Quality process include, but are not limited
to:
 The organisation’s quality standards and policies,

 Standard work guidelines, and
 Issue and defect reporting procedures and communication policies.
5.4 Tools and Techniques for Quality Control

PMBOK (2013:250-251) outlines the following tools and techniques for quality control:
 Seven Basic Quality Tools - Described in Section 6.

 Statistical Sampling - Described in Section 3.4
Inspection
An inspection is the examination of a work product to determine if it conforms to documented standards.
The results of an inspection generally include measurements and may be conducted at any level. For
example, the results of a single activity can be inspected, or the final product of the project can be
inspected. Inspections maybe called reviews, peer reviews, audits, or walkthroughs. In some application
areas, these terms have narrow and specific meanings. Inspections also are used to validate defect
repairs.

Approved Change Requests Review

All approved change requests should be reviewed to verify that they were implemented as approved.
5.5 Quality Control Outputs

PMBOK (2013:252-253) discusses two outputs for quality control namely:
Quality Control Measurements

Quality control measurements are the documented results of control quality activities. They should be
captured in the format that was specified through the Plan Quality Management process.
Validated Changes
Any changed or repaired items are inspected and will be either accepted or rejected before notification
of the decision is provided. Rejected items may require rework.
5.6 Difference between quality control and quality assurance

Quality assurance is often confused with quality control; quality control is done at the end of a process or
activity to verify that quality standards have been met. Quality control by itself does not provide quality,
although it may identify problems and suggest ways to improving it. In contrast, quality assurance is a
systematic approach to obtaining quality standards.Quality assurance is something that must be planned
for from the earliest stages of a project, with appropriate measures taken at every stage. Unfortunately
far too many development projects are implemented with no quality assurance plan, and these projects
often fail to meet quality expectations of the donor and beneficiaries.
5.7 Conclusion
Rose (2005:64) provides a summary of project quality assurance:
 Quality assurance is the application of planned, systematic quality activities to ensure that the project
will employ all processes needed to meet requirements identified during quality planning.
 Quality assurance addresses the programme; it is the combined set of activities that the project team
will perform to meet project objectives. Quality control addresses the outcomes; it is about monitoring
performance and doing something about the results.
 Defining quality assurance activities is the fourth step in a seven-step quality journey that provides a
general framework for quality management.

 Quality assurance activities are based on specifications and operational definitions. They include
identified resources and responsible entities.
 Metrics are the means of measurement that link requirements, specifications, assurance activities
and the metrics themselves.
 The quality assurance plan lists all assurance activities in one place to assist in managing project
quality.
 Preparing a quality assurance plan is the fifth step in the quality assurance journey.
 Quality audits are structured reviews of the quality system. They may be scheduled or random and
conducted by internal or external elements.


demonstrate a basic understanding of project quality
management tools. This overall outcome will be
Unit 6: achieved through the learner’s mastery of the

following specific outcomes, in that the learner will be
Project Quality able to:
Tools
1. Define the categories of quality management
tools.
2. Describe each of the project quality tools.

Reading Material:
 READING
Prescribed reading:
Clements, J.P. and Gido, J. (2015)Successful Project Management. 6thEdition Boston: Cengage
Learning.
Ishikawa, I (1986), Guide to Quality Control (2 ed.), Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, p. 30
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) 5th Edition.
Tapke, T, Muller, A, Johnson, G and Sieck, J (2010) House of Quality-Steps in understanding the
House of Quality (online) Available from:
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~vardeman/IE361/f01mini/johnson.pdf [Accessed 28 Nov 2014]

6.1 Introduction
The concept of quality management is applied in business of all sizes and all types. It is a relevant in
manufacturing as it is in health care or food services. Of course, quality means different things for different
industries, and takes a different meaning depending on whether a product, a service, or a combination
of both is offered.
Rose (2005:77) describes five categories of tools that may be applied to managing project quality:
 Collecting data
 Understanding data
 Understanding processes
 Analysing processes
 Solving problems
6.2 Tools for Collecting Data

According to PMBOK (2013:237) check sheets or tally sheets and may be used as a checklist when
gathering data. Check sheets are used to organize facts in a manner that will facilitate the effective
collection of useful data about a potential quality problem. They are especially useful for gathering
attributes data while performing inspections to identify defects. For example, data about the frequencies
or consequences of defects collected in check sheets are often displayed using Pareto diagrams.
Ishikawa(1986) identified five uses for check sheets in quality control:
 To check the shape of the probability distribution of a process

 To quantify defects by type
 To quantify defects by location
 To quantify defects by cause (machine, worker)
 To keep track of the completion of steps in a multistep procedure

There are four steps involved in using a check sheet:

1. Defining events or data – it is important to define what is to be collected and to establish the boundaries of the
collection effort. This will prevent the collection of wrong data, insufficient data or irrelevant data.
2. Deciding who, what, when, where, how and why –
3. Determining who collects the data establishes responsibility.
4. Determining what adds to the detail of defining events and data (step1).
5. Determining when and where establishes the conditions under which data will be collected
6. The how describes the collection method and the why aspect establishes the reason for collecting the data so
that the data collector(s) can understand the objective(s).
7. Designing the check sheet – which must be clear and easy to use. Instructions and terms should be
unambiguous.
8. Collecting the data.
The collected data provides a foundation for analysis, for example, check sheets can be used to form
histograms.Rose (2005:81) cautions that there is a difference between a check sheet and a checklist. A
check sheet is sued to collect data; a checklist is used to establish things to do. A typical check sheet is
shown in Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1 A Typical Check Sheet

6.3 Tools for Understanding Data

Rose (2005:81) refers to four tools that may be helpful for project managers to understand data – graphs,
histograms, Pareto charts and scatter diagrams.
6.3.1 Graphs
The purpose of a graph is to organize, summarise and display data, usually over time. Graphs and charts
are great because they communicate information visually. For this reason, graphs are often used in
newspapers, magazines and businesses around the world. The different types of graphs include line
graphs, bar graphs and circle graphs.
6.3.1.1 Line Graph

Line graphs are usually used to show time series data – i.e. how one or more variable vary over time.
Typical examples include monthly rainfall or annual unemployment rates. An example of a line graph
showing the midday temperature over a seven day period is shown
Figure 6.2 A Typical Line Graph

6.3.1.2 Bar Graph

A bar graph is a chart that uses bars to show comparisons between categories of data. The bars can
be either horizontal or vertical. Bar graphs with vertical bars are sometimes called vertical bar graphs.
A bar graph will have two axes. One axis will describe the types of categories being compared, and the
other will have numerical values that represent the values of the data. It does not matter which axis is
which, but it will determine what bar graph is shown. If the descriptions are on the horizontal axis, the
bars will be orientated vertically, and if the values are along the horizontal axis, the bars will be
orientated horizontally.
A typical bar graph is shown in Figure 6.3 below outlying the amount capital spent for projects in 2015:
Figure 6.3 A Typical Bar Graph
6.3.1.3 Circle Graph

A Circle graph is a graph that shows how parts of the data are related to the whole and to each other.
When constructing a circle graph, follow the steps:
1. Is the Data Suitable--Determine if there is a "whole" for the data. Then determine what the different
parts, or data groups, of the whole are.

2. Calculate Percentages--For data that is not already given as a percentage, convert the amounts for
each part, or data group size, into a percentage of the whole.
3. Draw the Graph--Draw a circle and draw in a sector for each data group. Try to make the sector sizes
look as close to the percentage of the circle as the percentage of the data group
4. Title and Label the Graph--Label the sectors with the data group name and percentage. Then add a
title to the graph. This is the same as the title of the table.
A typical circle graph is shown in Figure 6.4
% of Actual Spend in 2015 in Projects

0% April
10% 11% May
6% June
10%
7% July
August
14%
13% September
October
6%
9% November
9% 5%
December
Figure 6.4 A Typical Circle Graph
6.3.2 Histograms
A histogram is a type of bar graph that deals with data that exist in a continuous range from a low number
to a high number. Histograms display frequency distribution. They are a special form of bar chart and are
used to describe the central tendency, dispersion, and shape of a statistical distribution. Unlike the control
chart, the histogram does not consider the influence of time on the variation that exists within a distribution
(PMBOK, 2013:238).

A histogram is a bar graph of a distribution of variables and each bar represents an attribute or
characteristic of a problem or situation, and the height of the bar represents its frequency.
Figure 6.5: A typical Histogram
6.3.3 Pareto Charts

According to PMBOK (2013:238) pareto charts exist as a special form of vertical bar chart and are used
to identify the vital few sources that are responsible for causing most of a problem’s effects. The
categories shown on the horizontal axis exist as a valid probability distribution that accounts for 100% of
the possible observations. The relative frequencies of each specified cause listed on the horizontal axis
decrease in magnitude until the default source named “other” accounts for any non-specified causes.
Typically, the Pareto diagram will be organized into categories that measure either frequencies or
consequences.
A Pareto chart is a bar graph with data in descending order. It involves identifying the vital few contributors
that account for most quality problems in a system and uses a histogram or column chart that can help
identify and prioritize problem areas.
Pareto analysis isalso called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80 percent of problems are often due to 20
percent of the causes.

Figure 6.6 A Typical Pareto Diagram
Pareto charts disclose two important types of information. First, the left most bar indicates the greatest
opportunity for improvement because it represents the source of error responsible for the most problems.
Second, the chart identifies the “vital few”, those sources that account for most of the defects or errors.
The steps used in Pareto analysis include:

1. Gathering categorical data relating to quality problems.
2. Drawing a frequency chart of the data. (the data is arranged in descending order from left to right on
the chart).
3. Focusing on the tallest bars in the frequency chart first when solving the problem.
6.3.4 Scatter Diagrams

A scatter diagram identifies possible relationships between two variables. It helps to show if there is a
relationship between two variables. The closer data points are to a diagonal line, the more closely the
two variables are related. PMBOK (2013:238) describes the scatter diagrams as correlation charts
because they seek to explain a change in the dependent variable, Y, in relationship to a change observed
in the corresponding independent variable, X.

The direction of correlation may be proportional (positive correlation), inverse (negative correlation), or a
pattern of correlation may not exist (zero correlation). If correlation can be established, a regression line
can be calculated and used to estimate how a change to the independentvariable will influence the value
of the dependent variable.
Figure 6.7: A typical Scatter Diagram
6.4 Tools for Understanding Processes

The following tools for understanding processes will be covered:
6.4.1 Flow Charts

A flow chart identifies the sequence of events in a process. Flow Charts are graphic displays of the logic
and flow of processes that help analyse how problems occur and how processes can be improved. They
show activities, decision points, and the order of how information is processed.
According to PMBOK (2013:236) flowcharts are also referred to as process maps because they display
the sequence of steps and the branching possibilities that exist for a process that transforms one or more
inputs into one or more outputs. Flowcharts show the activities, decision points, branching loops, parallel
paths, and the overall order of processing by mapping the operational details of procedures that exist
within a horizontal value chain of a SIPOC model. Flowcharts may prove useful in understanding and
estimating the cost of quality in a process. This is obtained by using the workflow branching logic and
associated relative frequencies to estimate expected monetary value for the conformance and non-
conformance work required to deliver the expected conforming output. A typical flowchart is shown below:

Figure 6.8: A typical flowchart
6.4.2 Run charts

A run chart is used to observe process performance over time. It is a line graph with data that vary around
a centreline, usually the mean. Run charts:
 Display the history and pattern of variation of a process over time.

 Are line charts that show data points plotted in the order in which they occur?
 Can be used to perform trend analysis to forecast future outcomes based on historical patterns.
A typical run chart is shown in Figure 6.9
Figure 6.9 A typical run chart

6.4.3 Control Charts

Control charts are used to determine whether or not a process is stable or has predictable performance.
Upper and lower specification limits are based on requirements of the agreement. They reflect the
maximum and minimum values allowed. There may be penalties associated with exceeding the
specification limits. Upper and lower control limits are different from specification limits. The control limits
are determined using standard statistical calculations and principles to ultimately establish the natural
capability for a stable process. The project manager and appropriate stakeholders may use thestatistically
calculated control limits to identify the points at which corrective action will be taken to prevent unnatural
performance. The corrective action typically seeks to maintain the natural stability of a stable and capable
process. For repetitive processes, the control limits are generally set at about 3s around a process mean
that has been set at 0s (PMBOK, 2013:238).
Quality control charts:

 Are graphic displays of data that illustrate the results of a process over time?
 Are mainly used to prevent defects, rather than to detect or reject them?
 Allow the determination of whether a process is in control or out of control?
6.5 Tools for Analysing Processes

The Cause and effect diagram is a tool for analysing processes. Cause and effect diagrams are also
known as fishbone diagrams or as Ishikawa diagrams. The problem statement placed at the head of the
fishbone is used as a starting point to trace the problem’s source back to its actionable root cause. The
problem statement typically describes the problem as a gap to be closed or as an objective to be
achieved. The causes are found by looking at the problem statement and asking “why” until the actionable
root cause has been identified or until the reasonable possibilities on each fishbone have been
exhausted. Fishbone diagrams often prove useful in linking the undesirable effects seen as special
variation to the assignable cause upon which project teams should implement corrective actions to
eliminate the special variation detected in a control chart (PMBOK, 2013:236)

Figure 6.14 A typical Fishbone diagram
6.6 Conclusion
Rose (2005: 93,113, 123) provides the following summary relating to Quality Management Tools:
 Quality tools provide a mechanism for managing project quality.

 A check sheet may be used to compile and record data.
 Graphs may be used to organize, summarise and display data over time. A line graph shows how
data change over time. A bar graph show how data change and how separate data elements are
related to each other. A pie (or circle) graph shows how data elements are related to each other.
 A histogram is used to summarise data and show a frequency distribution, I.E. how data elements
are distributed across a range of values.
 A Pareto chart is a bar graph with bars arranged in descending order from left to right. The bars
represent sources of error, and the values of the bars reflect the number of defects.
 Scatter diagrams identify possible relationships between two variables. Close groupings of data
points suggest a strong relationship. Very wide groupings or widely dispersed data points suggest
weak relationships or no relationship.
 Flow charts identify the sequence of events in a process. They allow analysis of where errors might
occur.
 Run charts show process performance over time. They are applied to repeatable processes in which
results are expected to be consistent. Run charts show how data vary around a centerline, usually a
mean.

 Control charts also show performance over time. They are run charts with added upper and lower
control limits that allow monitoring, controlling and improving processes over time.
 A cause and effect diagram is used to identify, explore and graphically display all possible causes
related to a single problem. It includes several categories of causes. The categories are decomposed
down several levels in a tree-like structure.

Terminology
Control: The process of comparing actual performance with planned performance, analysing variances,
evaluating possible alternatives, and taking appropriate corrective action as needed.
Control Charts: A graphic display of the results, over time and against established control limits, of a
process. They are used to determine if the process is in control or in need of adjustment.
Corrective Action: Changes made to bring expected future performance of the project into line with the
plan.
Cost of Quality: The cost incurred to ensure quality; includes quality planning, quality control, quality
assurance and rework.
Pareto Diagram: A histogram ordered by frequency of occurrence that shows how many results were
generated by each identified cause.
Performance Reporting: Collecting and disseminating information about project performance to help
ensure project progress.
Project Quality Management: The processes required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs
for which it as undertaken.
Quality Assurance (QA): The process of evaluating overall project performance on a regular basis to
provide confidence that the project will satisfy the relevant quality standards. Also the organisational unit
that is assigned responsibility for quality assurance.
Quality Control (QC): The process of monitoring specific project results to determine if they comply with
relevant quality standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of unsatisfactory performance. Also
the organizational unit that is assigned responsibility for quality control.
Quality Plan: A document setting out the specific quality practices, resources and sequence of activities
relevant to a particular product, service, contract or project.
Quality Policy: The overall quality intentions and direction of an organization as regards quality, as
formally expressed by top management.
Quality Planning: Identifying which quality standards are relevant to the project and determining how to
satisfy them.
Total Quality Management (TQM): A common approach to implementing a quality improvement
program within an organization.
Deming suggested a process of Plan-Do-Check-Act to improve quality. According to Deming, each
process should go through these steps to improve the quality.
Kaizen Theory :Apply continuous small improvements to reduce costs and ensure consistency.

Marginal Analysis: You compare the cost of incremental improvements against the increase in revenue
made from quality improvements. Optimal quality is reached when cost of improvements equals the costs
to achieve quality.
Rule of seven: In control charts, if there are seven points on one side of mean, then an assignable cause
must be found.
Customer Satisfaction: Customer expectations met. Conform to requirements.
Prevention vs. Inspection:The cost of preventing mistakes/defects is much less than the cost of
correcting them later when identified by inspection.

Bibliography
Clements, J. P and Gido, J. (2015)SuccessfulProject Management. 6th Edition Boston: Cengage
Learning.
Garvin, D.A (1987). Competing on the eight dimensions of quality (online) Harvard Business Review
November-December 1987. Available from:
http://cc.sjtu.edu.cn/G2S/eWebEditor/uploadfile/20130427091849944.pdf [Accessed 2 December 2014]
Goetsch, D.L and Davis, S (2014) Quality Management for Organisational Excellence: Introduction to
Total Quality 7thEdition.Pearson New Internal Edition. England.
Ishikawa, I (1986), Guide to Quality Control (2 ed.), Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization, p. 30
ISixSigma(2014). What is Six Sigma?(Online). Available from: http://www.isixsigma.com/new-to-six-

sigma/getting-started/what-six-sigma/ [Accessed 4 Decemeber 2014].

Cengage Learning.
PMI (2013)A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). 5th Edition
Schwalbe, K (2010). Managing Information Technology Projects 6th Edition Cengage Learning. Canada
Tapke, T, Muller, A, Johnson, G and Sieck, J (2010) House of Quality-Steps in understanding the
House of Quality (online) Available from:
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~vardeman/IE361/f01mini/johnson.pdf
Accessed 28 Nov 2014]Young, ML (2014). 6 Success Factors for Managing Project Quality (online).
Available from:http://www.transformed.com.au/media/articles/tips_quality.html[Accessed 4 December
2014]

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Higher Certificate

PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Unit 1: Introduction to Project Quality Management................................................................................. 4

Unit 2: The Development of the Core Quality Concepts ....................................................................... 13

Unit 3: Project Quality Planning ............................................................................................................. 31

Unit 4: Project Quality Assurance ......................................................................................................... 41

Unit 5: Project Quality Control .............................................................................................................. 50

2. Context of the Module

Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:

3. How to use this Module

1 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

 SELF ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 2

3 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

The overall outcome for this section is that, on its

Unit 1: overaloutcome will be achieved through the

Introduction to outcomes, in that the learner will be able to:

Project Quality 1. Understand the definition and the dimensions

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 4

Clements, J. P. and Gido, J. (2015).Successful Project Management.6th Edition. Boston: Cengage

5 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

1.2 Definition of Project Quality

Rose (2005:12) continues that:

 Quality involves products, defects, processes, customers and systems.

1.2.1 The Eight Dimensions of Quality

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 6

1.3 Definition of Project Quality Management

7 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

Quality Management is concerned with and about the importance of:

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 8

QM focuses on improving stakeholder’s satisfaction through continuous and incremental improvements

1.4 Project Quality Management Processes

9 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

Figure 1.1 : Project Quality Management Overview

1.5 The Costs of Quality

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 10

Figure 1.2: Cost of Quality

11 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 12

The overall outcome for this section is that, on its

Unit 2: mastery of the following specific outcomes, in that

13 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

Clements, J. P. and Gido, J. (2015).Successful Project Management.6th Edition. Boston: Cengage

ISixSigma(2014)What is Six Sigma?(Online) Available from: http://www.isixsigma.com/new-to-six-

Kloppenborg, Timothy J (2009) Project Management: A Contemporary Approach South Western

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 14

2.2 Contribution of the Quality Gurus

Figure 2.1 W E Deming

1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.

15 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection.

2.2.2 Joseph Juran

MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management 16

Figure 2.4 Joseph Juran

According to Schwalbe(2010:316) Juran developed ten steps to quality improvement:

1. Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement

2.2.3 Philip Crosby

17 MANCOSA – Higher Certificate in Project Management

According to Kloppenborg (2009:284), Crosby’s contributions to project quality can be summarised as

 Quality is meeting requirements, not exceeding them.

Figure 2.5 Philip Crosby

2.2.4 Kaoru Ishikawa

The quality philosophy of Ishikawa can be synthesised into 11 points: