PART I (Midterm Notes)

Part I Contents:
 Biological Science (COMPLETE)
 NCST Culture 1(INCOMPLETE)
 Science, Technology, and Society (COMPLETE)
 Introduction to Psychology (COMPLETE)

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE (Midterm Notes)

Cell and The Cell Theory

Cell – Basic building block of all living organisms - Basic unit of life – "Cella" cork – Robert Hooke "Cella" - Small
Room – Small thin slice of cork

2 Types of Organism
Prokaryotes – Single-celled organism – lack of Nucleus, and mitochondria
Eukaryotes – Multicellular organism contain Nucleus

Eukaryotes

Plant cell and Animal Cell

 Plant Cell – Kingdom Plantae – Larger than animal cell – Rectangular shape
 Animal Cell – Kingdom Animalia – Round and in irregular shape

PEOPLE WHO CONTRIBUTED TO THE DISCOVERY OF CELL

 Zacharias Janssen (1608) – Invented the lens/first microscope – Single-lens and compound
microscope.
 Robert Hooke (1665) – Cella/Cell on a thin-sliced cork – Micrographia
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1673) – Father of Microbiology – Pond water - "Animalcules"
 Robert Brown (1831) - Discovery of Nucleus in the cell

Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow

CELL THEORY
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. Living cells comes from pre-existing cells
3. Cells are the basic unit for structure and function in organisms
STRUCTURE OF CELL
1. Chloroplast – Photosynthesis happen
 Green structure that contains Chlorophyll – Initiates and traps light energy to give plant color
CO2 + H20 = Photosynthesis = Sugar (Glucose)

1. Cell Wall – External boundary – Plant cell – Stability and strength

2. Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane – Selective Permeable – Communicating cell to form tissue
3. Protoplasm – Gel-like materials – holds organelles
4. Cytoplasm – Outside the nucleus
5. Cytosol – Liquid portion of Cytoplasm
6. Karyoplasm (Nucleoplasm) - Protoplasm Inside the nucleus

7. Mitochondria – Power house of the cell – Rod-shaped organelle –Aerobic Respiration transferred to
ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate - main energy currency of cell
8. Golgi Apparatus – Packaging counters of the cell – Receives and modify proteins export of cell
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum – Transport system of cell – carry proteins and other cell materials
10. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - (With ribosomes) - Site of protein synthesis
11. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - (Without ribosomes) - Associated with Golgi Apparatus – site of
lipid synthesis
12. Ribosomes – Small, grain-like bodies – Protein builders/Synthesizers of cell
13. Lysosome – Suicidal Bag of the Cell – Site of protein digestion – small spherical organelle
14. Nucleus – Largest organelle – Control center of the cell – Nuclear Envelope protects the nucleus –
Nucleolus – Where the ribosome synthesizes
15. Centrioles – Cylindrical – 9 microtubules – Produces spindle fibers help separate chromosomes
during cell division
16. Chromosomes - thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
17. Centrosome – Microtubule organizing center – Located near nucleus – Contains centrioles
18. Vacuoles – The storage structure of the cell

CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

There are two kinds of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. What's the Difference? Mitosis produces two genetically identical
“daughter” cells from a single “parent” cell, whereas meiosis produces cells that are genetically unique from the parent and
contain only half as much DNA.

 Cell Cycle – It refers to the sequence/period of phases in the life of a cell.

 It has 2 parts – Interphase and cell division.

Interphase – The period when cell synthesizes/Preparation for mitosis and meiosis/Replication
occur
 G1 or First Gap Phase – Growth of the cell and size and development
 S or Synthesis Phase – Synthesis of DNA, also called REPLICATION
 G2 or Secon Gap Phase – The cell prepares for division and checks for errors

Cell Division – The parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells – Rep of parent to
daughter cell – 46 to 46 (Mitosis)
Two types of Cell Division – 1. Mitosis (Same number and the chromosomes as the parent
cell). - Occurs in Somatic Cells G word "Soma" means body and Meiosis – Formation of for
daughter cells 23 23 23 23 half the number of chromosomes
 Occurs in Sex cells = Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2

PARTS OF CHROMOSOME
 Sister Chromatids
 Centromere
 Chromatid

Karyokinesis – Nuclear division

Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division

Stages of Mitosis P, M, A, T
1. Prophase – Chromatids = X – Nuclear envelope dissolves
2. Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in the middle – Nuclear envelope gone – Spindle
fibers on the opposite poles
3. Anaphase - Spindle fibers pull chromosomes towards the separate poles –
Chromosome = half / SC = own chromosome
4. Telophase - Nuclear envelop reforms each set of chromosomes (uncoil) - Spindle
fibers are gone – Cleavage furrow is forming between the cells

Meiosis = Meiosis 1 – 46, 46 daughter cells / Meiosis 2 (23,23,23,23)

MEIOSIS is Two cell divisions MEIOSIS 1 and MEIOSIS 2 (One duplication of chromosomes)

 Interphase similar to Mitosis

 Chromosomes replicate (S phase)

 MEIOSIS 1 (FOUR PHASES)

 Cell division that reduces the chromosomes number by 1 half.
 MEIOSIS 1 = PROPHASE 1, METAPHASE 1, ANAPHASE 1, TELOPHASE 1
 PROPHASE 1 – Longest phase 90% of meiotic process is spent in prophase 1
Chromosomes condense and thicken
A couple of homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are a set of one maternal and
one paternal chromosome (Same size and same type of genes in the same position)
Synapsis occurs – homologous chromosomes = tetrad
Tetrad = is two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and non-sister chromatids)
  Crossing over – is one of two major occurances in meiosis – During crossing over
segments of nonsister chromatids break and reattach to other chromatid. The
Chiasmata (Chiasma) are the sites of crossing over
 METAPHASE 1 – Shortest phase – tetrad align on the metaphase plate
 ANAPHASE 1 – Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards the poles.
 Sister chromatids remain attach at their centromeres.
 TELOPHASE 1 – Cytokinesis occurs and two daughter cells are formed.

MEOSIS 2
No interphase 2
No more DNA replication
Meiosis 2 = Mitosis
PROPHASE 2, METAPHASE 2, ANAPHASE 2, TELOPHASE 2 – same as prophase in Mitosis
TELOPHASE 2 – Nuclear envelope form. Cytokinesis occurs
Remember: four daughter cells produced (Gametes – SPERM or EGG)

NCST CULTURE 1

DIFFERENT TRAFFIC SIGNS IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Warning Signs – Cautions drivers to a potential danger

9 Sub categories of warning signs: Hori, Inter, Adva War, R Width, R Obs, Pedes School, Rai Lev Cross, Ver
Cleara
1. Horizontal Signs – Road curve ahead of the motorist – Sharp turn, Reverse turn, Curve turn
2. Intersection Signs – When approaches an intersection or junction – X intersection – T junction
ahead, Y junction ahead
3. Advance Warning/Traffic Control Device Signs – Signs when one approaches an I or J – Stop sign
ahead, give-way sign ahead
4. Road Width signs – Road narrows ahead, narrow bridge ahead – 2 way/end of road ahead
5. Road Obstacle signs – Opening bridge ahead, Uneven road ahead, hump ahead, uphill sign,
downhill sign
6. Pedestrian School signs – Pedestrian crossing ahead, be aware
7. Railway Level Crossing signs – Vehicles must stop or give the right of way, Railway crossing and
advance warning
8. Supplementary signs – Preferred maximum speed during normal, weather, traffic condition
9. Vertical Clearance signs – Maximum height of vehicle must be 5.2 meters or less
 STS

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Intellectual Revolution – About Nature – Before Socrates 600-400 BCE "Pre-Socratic" - "Non-theological" -
"first philosophy"

COPERNICAN - Nicholas Copernicus - Mathematician and Astronomer – Sun is stationary (heliocentric) 1508 -
1514
 Ptolemy – Earth is the center of all the orbs (geocentric)

DARWINIAN - Charles Darwin's Theory of evolution (common ancestor)

 Natural selection – Adapt to environment/aid survival – Genetic Mutation – DNA sequence changes
– Survival of the fittest = The more adapt the more chance to repro.

FREUDIAN – Sigmund Freud – Father of Psychoanalysis

Human Behavior = Id, Ego, and Superego
 Id – Pleasures, desires, basic urges (Unconscious)
 Ego – Mediates the demands of Id, The superego and the reality (Reality principle)
 Superego – Internalized ideals acquired from parents and society

THE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT

ORAL STAGE – 0 to 1 year old – Mouth pleasures

ANAL STAGE – 2 to 3 years old – Toilet training
PHALLIC STAGE – 3 to 6 years old – Oedipus and Electra complex – Competition little boy and little girl
LATENCY STAGE – 6 years old to puberty – More social interaction
GENITAL STAGE – Beyond puberty – Attracted to opposite sex

PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AGENDA

FIVE SECTORS:
1. National Integrated Basic Research Agenda (NIBRA)
 Water Security – TUBIG PROGRAM - (Tubig ay Buhayin at Ingatan)
 Food and Nutrition Security – SAPAT Program - (Saganang Pagkain Para sa Lahat)
 Clean Energy – ALERT PROGRAM - (Alternative Energy Research Trends)
  Sustainable Community – SAKLAW program - (Saklolo sa Lawa)
 Inclusive Nation-building – ATIN Program (Ang Tinig Natin)
 Health Sufficiency – LIKAS PROGRAM (Likas Yaman sa Kalusugan)

2. Health Research and Development Agenda HeaRea and DA

 Philippine Council for Health and Development (PCHRD) and National Unified Health
Research Agenda (NUHRA)
 Diagnostic, Drug discovery and Development, Functional foods, Hospital Equipment
and Biomedical Devices, Information and Communication Technology for Health,
Nutrition, Food Quality, and Safety, Disaster Risk Reduction, Climate Adaptation and
Molecular Technologies for Health.

3. Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Agri, Aqua, and Natu Reso
 For Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural resources include crops, live stocks,
Aquaculture, Forestry, natural resources and environment, technology transfer,
socio-economics and policy research.

4. Industry, Energy and Emerging Technology Induz, Ener, and Emergi Tech
 The Philippine Council for industry, Energy and Emerging Technology Research and
Development (PCIEERD-DOST)
 Focus on food and nutrition security, countryside development, competitive
Industry, delivery of social services, intelligent transport solutions, renewable energy
and energy storage solutions, and human security.

5. Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation Dis Rsk Redu and Cli
Chan Adap
 Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS)
 Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA)
 Simulation for improvement of monitoring and forecasting; Hazards, Vulnerability,
and risk assessment; Warning and communication of information; Climate change
mitigation and adaptation

MAJOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Balik Scientist Program – Bam Aquino (1975) Motivate to come back to the
Philippines those overseas FILIPINO experts in their own fields for acceleration of
scientific agro-industrial and economic development of the country. BSP
 Irradiated carrageenan fertilizer – This product boosts resiliency of rice
plants IrraCarraFerti
  Electric Train Project – this was created to enhance the efficiency of public mass
transport systems ETP
 NOAH - (Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazard) - Primary Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management program of the Philippines.
1. Coastal Hazards and Storm Surge Assessment and Mitigation (CHASSAM)
Coas hazza and Strm Sur Assess and Miti
2. Disaster Risk Exposure Assessment for Mitigation – Light Detection and Ranging
(DREAM – LIDAR) Project
3. Hydrometeorological – Hydromet
4. Local Development of Doppler Radar Systems (LaDDeRS)
5. Weather Hazard Information Project (WHIP)

SELECTED INDIGENEOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIES

Indigenous Science
 Non-scientific knowledge/product of indigenous knowledge

Philippine Indigenous Technology PIT

 Product of studying indigenous science
 YOYO – Pedro Flores/Santa Monica, California/Donald F. Duncan Sr.
 MEDICAL INCUBATOR – Dr. Fe del Mundo, First Asian at Harvard University's School
of Medicine/Incubator = composed of two native laundry baskets made of bamboo. Dr. F
Dl Mdo
 Erythromycin – Dr. Abelardo Aguilar – Antibiotic produced by the bacterium -
Bacterium Streptomyces erythreus – Iloilo DR. ABEL AGUI _ BACM STREP
ERYTh
 Patis or Fish sauce – Ruperta David known as Aling Tentay – 1940's – Salted fish in a
jar RUP DAV 1940
 Banana Ketshup – Maria Orosa y Ylagan MAR ORO y YLA
 Anticancer cream and Mole remover – Rolando de la Cruz – Cream made of cashew
nuts and other local herbs to treat BASAL SKIN CARCINOMA (BSC) and made mole
remover to remove warts and moles on the skin
DeBCC anticancer cream – won gold medal International Inventor's Forum in November
2005 ROLA D L CRZ_BSL SN CARCI_DeBCC anticancer cream 2005
 16-bit Microchip – Developed by Diosdado Banatao – graphical user interface
accelerator DIOS BANA
 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
1-Midterm THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nerve cells or neurons which act as a communication system enabling the organism the organism to
respond to external and internal stimuli; regulates the behavior in order for him to survive.

THE MECHANISMS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR:

1. The Receiving Mechanism
2. The Reacting Mechanism
3. The Connecting Mechanism

1The Receiving Mechanism – Sensitive organs receptors of stimulus

1. Sensibility and irritability – The Power to react to stimulus
2. Conductivity – The Power to conduct nerve impulses
 Nerve Impulses – A wave of electro-chemical disturbance propagated along a nerve fiber.
3. Specificity – Reacting to particular stimulus – light waves stimulates the eyes
4. Adaptability – The power to become used to particular stimulus

TYPES OF SENSE ORGANS

Exteroceptors - Found in Ey, Ers, Ns, M, Skn and are sensitive to external stimulus
Interoceptors – Sense organs in Respi Trac, Diges, and Genitor- Urinary tract
Proprieoceptors – Embedded in muscles, tendons, and joints

2The Reacting Mechanism – The muscles and glands

A. MUSCLES
 Voluntary, stripe, skeletal, or striated
 Involuntary, visceral, smooth, or unstriated
 Cardiac or heart

The Characteristics of muscles are:

 Contractility – Muscles to shorten
 Tonicity – Muscles to be in partial contraction
 Extensibility – Muscles to stretch
 Elasticity – Resume to its original shape

B. GLANDS – Special secreting organs which pour there secretions either directly or indirectly

 Duct Glands, Exocrine – Ducts or canals to pour their secretion – Lachrymal (tear) glands,
sebaceous (Sweat Glands); Salivary, gastric, sex, (mammary glands)
 Ductless or Endocrine glands – Pour hormones directly into the blood stream

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM MALE-FEMALE

1. Pineal, 2. Hypothalamus, 3. Pituitary gland, 4. Thyroid, 5. Parathyroid, 6. Thymus, 7. Adrenal cortex,
8. Kidney, 9. Pancreas, 10. Testes, 11. Ovary, 12. Uterus
 1. Pituitary – Under surface of Cerebrum – Hypofunction = Retarded Development: Diabetes Insipidus
Hyperfunction = Giantism or Acromegaly "GENERAL HORMONE"

2. Adrenal Cortex – Over Kidneys – Hypofunction = Addison's disease Hyperfunction = Accelerated sexual
development
3. Thyroid – Front of trachea – Thyroxin – Hypofunction = cretinism, adulimyxedema Hyperfunction = Goiter,
increase metabolism
4. Parathyroid – On surface of thyroid glands – Hypofunction = tetany, death
5. Islets of Langerhans – Glucagons and Insulin - In Pancreas – Hypo = Diabetes mellitus Hyper = none
6. Gonads – Estrogen, Relaxin, Androgens - Pelvis (Female) - Testicles – Male – Hypo = Under-development of
secondary sex characteristics Hyper = Sexual Precocity
7. Placenta – Pelvis of Female – Progesterone – corpus luteum

The Connecting Mechanism (The Nervous System)

The Connecting Mechanism
 Neuron – Is the basic conducting unit of The Nervous System
 The Dendrites (Receivers) – Are specialized signal-receiving structure where the
impulse input enters the neuron fiber
 The Cell body – The central region – Input and output – Compact central portion of
neuron
 The Axon (The Conducting Fiber)– Where the output is discharge – Carry away from
the cell body
 Axon Terminals (Transmitters)
 Schwann's Cells (They make the myelin)
 Node of Ranvier
 Myelin Sheath (Insulating fatty layer that speed transmission)
Types of Neurons
 According to speed – fastest 110 m/s - Slowest – 0.5 m/s - The more myelin the
faster the conduction
 Glia Cells or Neuroglia – Other cells in the central nervous system – it is smaller than
neurons – To support neurons
 According to Basic Function -
Sensory neurons (afferent fibers) - Conduct impulses to the nervous system.
 Connecting or Association neuron – These are 'the middle-men' - Central nervous
system
 Motor neurons (efferent fibers) - Conduct impulses away from the neurons system –
Central Nervous system to the muscles and glands.
DIVISIONS OF THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Automatic or Sympathetic Nervous System - "Autonomous" or "Self-regulating" such

as digestion and circulation – Unconscious
 Sympathetic System – Consist of nerves and ganglia in the cervical, Thoracic and
lumbar segments of gray matter of the spinal cord.
 Parasympathetic System – Is composed of fibers from the cranial region, some below
the sympathetic system.

2. The Cerebro – Spinal System – (Brain and the Spinal cord) protected by three
meninges or membranes
 The Dura Mater – Is the outer membrane lining the inner surface of the skull forming
a protective covering for the brain.
 The Arachnoid – Is the Thin membrane beneath The Dura mater – secrets serious
fluid keeping the inner surface moist.
 The Pia mater – Is the membrane dipping to the convolutions, fissures and the
interior and is rich in blood vessels.

A. The Central nervous system – Composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
 Brain – is that portion of the nervous system that is encased in the cranial bones. -
Covered by three meninges. FOREBRAIN, MIDBRAIN, HINDBRAIN
 Spinal Cord – Main nerve connections running between the brain and the various
parts of the body. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.

Hindbrain – Medulla oblongata, Cerebellum, and pons varolii

 Medulla Oblongata – The lowest portion of the brain. It connects the spinal cord. Has
control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat.
 Cerebellum – Back of and above medulla. For muscles tone, body balance,
coordination of voluntary movement (as of fingers and thumb)
 Pons Varolii – Connect both hemispheres of the cerebellum with each other –
Transmit neutral impulses upward and downward within the nervous system.

Midbrain - Contains nerve tracts that connect the cerebrum with the brain stem and the spinal
cord. Visual and Auditory Functions – Conduction and switching center; pupillary light reflex.

Forebrain – The highest part of the brain – Thalamus, The Limbic System, Cerebrum
  Thalamus – Is the brain's major relay station connecting the lower structures of the
brain and the spinal cord with cerebrum. The way station for impulses coming up the
spinal cord of the cerebrum.
 Limbic System – Includes Amygdala, the hippocampus, the septum and portions of
the hypothalamus – Structure pathways carrying messages between lower and
higher parts of the brain – messages from visceral organs helps control activities.

Two Sub-Division of the Central Nervous System

 Somatic Nervous System – Efferent Nerves – Skeletal muscles – Behavior
 Automatic Nervous System – The Viscera necessary to keep the body operation and
to reproduce the species. Mainly responsible for the activation of the smooth
muscles, The glands, and in part, the heart muscle

BRAIN AREAS

 Motor Area – In front of the fissure of Rolando – Control of voluntary muscles

(Upside – Down form). - Control Voluntary muscle
 Body-sense area Area – In the partial lobe – Lower extremities – represented in high
on the opposite hemisphere.
 Visual Area – In the occipital lobe – Damage in the left hemisphere – blind both left
eye.
 Auditory Area – Both represented in both side of hemisphere
 Speech Area - (Broca's speech area) - Controls the Tongue and Jaws
 Association Area - (Areas of the brain not accounted for) - Bring together phenomena
including more than one sense
 Smell Area – Just below the frontal – Near the temporal lobe
 Taste Area – Located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the
brain.
 Sensory Area – Skin sensations - (Temperature, pleasure, pain) Frontal Lobe –
Movement, Problem solving, Thinking, behavior, personality, mood Broca's Area –
Speech Control Temporal Lobe – hearing, Language, memory Brain Stem –
Consciousness, breathing, heart rate Parietal lobe – Sensations, Language,
perception, body awareness, attention Occipital lobe – Vision, Perception Wernicke's
Area – Language Comprehension Cerebellum – Posture, balance, Coordination of
movement

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Composed of cranial nerves, the spinal nerves, and the nerves of automatic nervous system. -
Brain and spinal cord to the periphery of the body – Peripheral nerves outside the central
nervous system

 CRANIAL NERVES - 12 pairs made out of Sensory, Motor, and Mixed nerves.
Motor nerves within the brain – Sensory nerves – cell bodies outside the brain

 SPINAL NERVES – There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves

 CRANIAL NERVES – 12 cranial Nerves

1. Olfactory – Smell
2. Oculomotor – Eye movement, pupil reflex
3. Trigeminal – face sensation and chewing
4. Facial – f move and taste
5. Glossopharyngeal – Throat sensation, taste, and swallowing
6. Accessory – Neck movement
7. Optic – Vision
8. Trochlear and Abducens – Eye movement
9. Vestibulocochlear – Hearing and balance
10.Vagus and Hypoglossal – Movement, sensation, and abdominal organs

 SPINAL NERVES
1. CERVICAL
2. THORACIC
3. LUMBAR
4. SACRAL
5. COCCYGEAL

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

 Sensation – Simple experience from a sense organ

 Sense Organ – Sensitive nerve endings – Gateways of the mind
 Receptors – Specialized nerve ending capable of responding to energy
 Senses – Mechanisms – Stimulus to neutral energy
 Stimulus – Any form of energy that exiting the nervous system – Light waves, sound,
chem ener, etc. That causes the sensation
 Sensory Adaptation – Reduction to sensitivity of stimulus – Sense organs have the
capacity to adapt to stimulus over time.
 Perception – Interpretation of stimulus – differentiated from the simple experience
of stimulation
SENSATIONS AND SENSES
1. Vision/Visual - Sight
2. Audition/Auditory - Sound/Hearing
3. Olfaction/Olfactory - Smell
4. Gustation/Gustatory - Taste
5. Somesthasia/Somesthetic - Touch

VISION
 Stimulus – Lightwaves – strikes the retina where the photo
 Radiant energy – meets various sorts of matter which affect it in different ways.
 Sunlight – It is a combination of all colors = White light + Prism = Rainbow
Eyes – Iris = Black na bilog Pupil – Nucleolus ng Iris Eyelid – Extra upper layer ng mata Sclera –
Color white

Light rays – Eye – Corneas – Aqueous – Humor – Pupil – Lens

 Accommodation – Reflex reaction carried through the ciliary muscles.

 Image is produced on the Retina, rods and cones are scattered on the Retina
 Rods – Detecting light Night time vision - visual purple/Rhodopsin - Cones – Color
vision - Day time vision – Clearest vision – Fovea (Fovea Centralis) - Contains mostly
cones
 Blind spots – Nerve fibers that leave retina (No Rods and Cones)
 Iris – Circular arrangement of muscle that contract and expand the size of the pupil
depending upon illumination – Light and Dark

THREE COATS OF EYEBALL

1. SCLEROTIC COAT – The outer layer, Helps maintain the shape of the eyeball
2. CHOROID COAT – Heavily-pigmented layer that keeps out all light except the pupil.
The middle layer, a pigmented layer.
3. RETINA – Is the photoreceptor that translate light stimulus into nerve impulses

COMMON VISUAL DEFFECTS

 Hyperopia/Far-sightedness – The eyeballs are short and the image is focused at the
back of the Retina – Visions from far but not nearby
 Myopia/Near-sightedness – Long eyeballs and the image is focused on the front of
the retina – Visions nearby but not from afar
 Astigmatism – Uneven curvature on the cornea or the lenses – light rays are
distorted and image also
 Cross-eyedness or strabismus – Much muscle imbalance – eyes turn inward
  Presbyopia or Old-sightedness – Lenses harden – special form of far sightedness
which occur with advancing age – cannot see nearby

VISUAL ABNORMALITIES (FUNCTIONAL AND ORGANIC)

1. Hemianopsia – Blindness to one side of the visual field
2. Scotoma – Blind spots in the visual field
3. Visual Paresthesia – Optic sensation without an object
4. Color Blindness – Certain colors are black and green – Poor color vision – lack of one
or more types of cones
 Trichromat – is normal, Light – Dark, yellow – blue, and red-green systems
 Dichromat – lacks one system (Partially color blind)
 Monochromat – Is a totally colorblind person – can only see light-dark system
5. Night Blindness – Lack in Vitamin A (Synthesis of visual purple) – Cannot see clearly
at night

AUDITION – Stimulus: Sound Waves

 Sounds – Form of energy when objects vibrate
 Comprehension wave – Is the crowding motion – Closest together
 Rarefaction wave – Rare field air moving away and away – Furthest apart
 Sound waves – One compression and one refraction comprise

THE AUDITORY APPARATUS: THE PROCESS OF HEARING

 OUTER EAR – External protruding ear part that assembles sound vibrations to the
auditory canal or meatus, to the tympanic membrane (Eardrum)
 MIDDEL EAR – The eardrums vibrates and transmits sound waves to three small
bones or ossicles. The Malleus (Hammer), The Incus (Anvil), and Stapes (Stirrup) - The
movement of the eardrum is transmitted to a membrane called Oval Window
 INNER EAR – Can find a cochlea which is a fluid-filled bony structure shaped like a
snail shell – 3 Canals –The Cochlear Canal – The Tympanic Canal, and the Vestibular
Canal

AUDITORY
1. Pitch – Vibrations per seconds – Hertz
2. Loudness – Correlated with the amplitude of sound waves – wave bigger variation in
pressure
3. Timbre – The tonal quality of the sound – Differences of the quality of pitch
Auditory Defects
 Conduction Deafness – Disturbance in the conductions of air waves from the outer to
the inner ear
  Nerve Deafness – There is loss of sensitivity of the receptors due to infection or
injury

OLFACTORY: (STIMULUS ODORS)

1. Olfactory Receptors on The Nose – The Receptors in the Olfactory Epithelium –

Directly to the Olfactory bulb of the brain lying just below the frontal lobe.
2. Phenomena of Olfaction
 Odors or Smells – Those gases that do react
 Olfactory Adaptation – Same kind of odor for a specific time

GUSTATION: (STIMULUS ON TASTE QUALITIES)

 Taste Receptors – The Tongue
 The Tastebuds are the receptors for taste: SWEET, SOUR, SALTY, and BITTER
 Papillae – at the back of the tongue called protrusions
 Circumvallate Papillae – For bitter taste
Gustatory Phenomena
Gustatory sense – is comparative well affected by other senses

SOMESTHESIA or SKIN SENSES: PRESSURE, TOUCH, WARMTH, and PAIN

The Skin has four separate senses: Pain, Pressure, Cold, and Warmth. The receptors from the
skin senses are nerve endings which come from general forms: Free nerve endings, globular
bulbs, egg-shaped corpuscles, and "Baskets" surrounding root hairs

 Pain – These spots are numerous than pressure spots

 Pressure – Varies greatly for different parts of the body
 Cold – Temperature is from 10 to 30 degrees
 Warmth – Temperature is from 35 to 70 degrees

PROPRIECEPTIVE SENSES or KINETHESIS and VESTUBULAR SENSES

 Kinesthetic Senses – Position and sense of Body movement – Its receptor – Muscles,
Tendons, and linings of joints.
 Muscles – Where free nerve endings surround small muscle spindles and which
signal stretch of muscles.
 Tendons – Connect muscles to bone
 Joint Lining – Possibly the Pacinian corpuscles are stimulated when the limb moves
 Vestibular Senses - Static sense – Whole body – Two kinds of receptors give
information about movements of the head and permit a sense of balance of the
body.

EXTRA-SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP)

  Clairvoyance – Frech term Clair = Clear – voyance = Vision – is used to refer to the
ability to gain information about an object, person, location, or physical event
 Precognition – Is foreknowledge of specific events without any rational means
(Prae = Before and Cogito = Acquiring knowledge) "Future sight" or Second Sight
 Psychokinesis (PK) - or Telekinesis (Distance Movement) allowing a person to
influence a physical system without physical interaction.

BSPSYCH 11M2