HI

NDUSTANI
NSTI
TUTEOFENGI
NEERI
NGTECHNOLOGY

AI
RCRAFTMAI
NTENANCEENGI
NEERI
NG

MODULE17A(
PROPELLER)
SEMESTER-V&VI

SL.
NO.CONTENTS PAGE
NO.
17.
1FUNDAMENTALS
1 05

17.
2PROPELLERCONSTRUCTI
ON
2 23
17.
3PROPELLERPI
TCHCONTROL
3 46

4 17.
4PROPELLERSYNCHRONI
SING 84
5 17.
5PROPELLERI
CEPROTECTI
ON 89
6 17.
6PROPELLERMAI
NTENANCE 98
7 17.
7PROPELLERSTORAGEANDPRESERVATI
ON 123
8 GLOSSARY 129
9 QUESTI
ONS 137

SYLLABUS
 MODULE17A.PROPELLER(
Lev
el2)(
72Hour
s)
17.1Fundame ntals(
Le v
el2)(12Hour s
)
Bladeelementt heory;
High/l
owbl adea ng l
e,re
verseangl
e,angl
eofatt
ack
,rot
ati
ona
lspe
ed;
Propel
lersl
ip;
Aerodynamic ,centri
fugal
,andthrus
tforce
s;Tor
que;
Relat
iveair
flowonbl adeangleofat
tack;
Vibrat
ionandr es
ona nce.
17.
2Pr opel
le
rCons t
ructi
on(Level2)(12Hours)
Constr
ucti
onme t
hodsandma t
eri
alsusedinwooden,c
omposi
teandmet
alpr
ope
ll
ers
;
Bladest
ati
on,bl
adeface,bl
adeshank,bladebackandhubas
sembly;
Fix
e dpit
ch,c
ontrol
la
blepitc
h,consta
ntspeedi
ngpropel
le
r;
Propell
er/
spi
nnerins
tal
lati
on.
17.
3Pr opell
erPitc
hCont r
ol(
Lev
el2)(12Hour
s)
Spee
dc ontrolandpit
chchang
eme t
hods,me
chani
cala
nde
lec
tri
cal
/e
lec
troni
c;
Fea
theringandr e
versepi
tc
h;
Overspe e
dpr ot
ect
ion.

17.4Pr
opel
le
rSync
hroni
si
ng(Leve
l2)(09Hour
s)
Synchr
oni
si
ngands
ynchr
opha
singequi
pment
.

17.5Pr
ope
ll
erIceProt
ecti
on(Lev
el2)(
09Hour
s)
Flui
dandel
ect
ri
calde-
ic
ingequi
pment.

17.6Propell
erMa i
nte
na nce(Leve
l3)(
09Hours)
Stat
icanddy namicbalanci
ng ;
Bladetr
a cki
ng;
Asses
sme ntofbla
deda ma g
e ,er
osi
on,c
orr
osi
on,i
mpa
ctda
mag
e,de
lami
nat
ion;
Propel
lertrea
tment/r
epairschemes;
Propel
lerenginerunni
ng .

17.7Propel
le
rStor
a geandPre
serv
ation(Le
vel2)(
09Hour
s)
Propel
lerpr
eser
vat
ionanddepre
serv
ation

KNOWLEDGELEVELS-CATEGORYA,B1,B2,B3ANDCAI
RCRAFT
MAINTENANCEENGINEER’sLI
CENCE
Basi
ck nowl
edgeforcat
egor
iesA,B1,B2a ndB3a r
eindi
cat
edbythek nowl
edgel
eve
ls(
1,2or3)
agai
nsteachappl
icabl
esubj
ect.Cat
egoryCa ppl
ic
antsha
llmee
teit
he rcat
egor
yB1orB2basi
c
knowledgel
evel
.
Theknowl e
dgeleveli
ndi
cat
orsaredef
inedondefi
nedon3level
sasfoll
ows:

LEVEL1
Fami
li
ari
zat
ionwi
tht
hepr
inc
ipa
lel
eme
ntsoft
hes
ubj
ect
.

Obje
cti
ves
:
(
a)Theappl
ic
ants
houl
dbef
ami
li
arwi
tht
heba
sice
leme
ntsoft
hes
ubj
ect
.

(
b)Theappli
cants
houl
dbeablet
ogiv
eas i
mpl
ede
scr
ipt
ionoft
hewhol
e
s
ubje
ct,us
ingcommonwordsandexa
mples
.

(
c)Thea
ppl
ic
ants
houl
dbea
blet
ous
ety
pic
alt
erms
.

LEVEL2
Agener
alknowle
dgeoft
hetheor
eti
cal
andpr
act
ic
ala
spe
ctsoft
hes
ubj
ecta
nd
anabi
li
tyt
oa ppl
ytha
tknowle
dge.

Object
ives
:
(
a)Thea ppl
ic
ants
houl
dbea
blet
ounde
rst
andt
heor
eti
calf
unda
ment
alsoft
he
subj
ect.

(
b)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbeablet
ogi
veagene
ralde
scr
ipt
ionoft
hes
ubj
ect
us
ingasa
ppropri
ate
,ty
pic
alex
ample
s.

(
c)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbea bl
etousemat
hema
tic
alf
ormul
aei
nconj
unc
ti
on
wi
thphys
ica
lla
wsde s
cri
bingt
hesubj
ect
.

(
d)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbea bl
etore
adandunde
rst
ands
ket
che
s,dr
awi
ngs
ands
chemati
csdesc
ribi
ngthes
ubje
ct.

(
e)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbeabl
etoa
ppl
yhi
sknowl
edg
einapr
act
ic
alma
nne
r
us
ingdet
ail
edproce
dur
es.

LEVEL3
Adet
ail
edk
nowl
edg
eoft
het
heor
eti
cala
ndpr
act
ic
ala
spe
ctsoft
hes
ubj
ecta
ndac
apa
cit
yto
c
ombi
nea
nda
ppl
ythes
epa
rat
eel
eme
ntsofk
nowl
edg
einal
ogi
cala
ndc
ompr
ehe
nsi
vema
nne
r.

Obj
ect
ive
s:

(
a)Theappl
ic
ants
houldk
nowt
het
heo
ryoft
hes
ubj
ecta
ndi
nte
rre
lat
ions
hip
wit
hothe
rsubj
ect
s.

(
b)Theappl
ic
antshouldbeabl
etogi
veadetai
le
dde s
cri
pti
onoft
hes
ubj
ect
us
ingt
heoret
ic
alfundame
ntal
sandspe
cif
icexample
s.

(
c)Theappl
ic
a nts
houldunde
rst
anda
ndbea
blet
ous
ema
the
mat
ic
alf
ormul
ae
re
lat
edtothesubj
ect.

(
d)Thea
ppl
ic
antshoul
dbeabl
etore
ad,under
st
andandpre
par
esk
etc
hes
,
s
impl
edr
awing
sa ndsc
hemat
ic
sdesc
ribi
ngt
hesubj
ect
.

(
e)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbea bl
etoa
ppl
yhi
sknowl
edg
einapr
act
ic
alma
nne
r
us
ingmanufa
cturer
'si
nst
ruc
ti
ons
.

(
f)Theappl
ic
antshoul
dbeabl
etoi
nter
pretr
esul
tsf
romvar
ioussour
cesa
nd
meas
urement
sa nda
ppl
ycorr
ect
ivea
cti
onwhereappr
opri
ate.

CHAPTER1
FUNDAMENTALS
I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Duri
ngt heinventioneraofthea i
rpla
ne,thepr opel
lerprovedtobeav erydi f
fi
cultchal
lenge
.
Earl
yav i
ati
onpione er
sma decrudepropel
lerst
ha twereinef
fi
ci
ent.Thisfurt
he rcomplica
tedthe
i
nventi
onpr ocessbyr equi
ri
ngal argerpropell
ertopr ovi
dether equis
itethrusttopropelthe
ai
rpl
anea tora bov eit
smi ni
mum f l
yingspe e
d.Furthe r
more,thel ar
gerpr opell
errequir
e da
morepowe rfule ngi
nea nds t
urdierstr
ucture,whichf urt
herc ompounde dt hepr obl
em by
i
ncreas
ingwe ig
ht,whichme antmorelif
twa sneededtoa s
cendfr
omt hesurf
ace.

Thepropel
ler,thec omponentt ha
tmus tabsor
bthepowe routputoft
hee ngi
ne,haspassed
t
hroughma nys t
agesofdevelopment.Alt
houghmostpropel
le
rsaretwo-
blade
d,grea
tincr
ea s
es
i
npowe routputha veres
ult
e dinthede vel
opmentoffour
-,f
ive
-,andsix-
blade
dpropel
lersof
l
argedi
ameters.Howe ver
,allpropel
ler
-dr
ivenai
rcr
afta
r el
imi
tedbytherevol
uti
onsperminute
(
rpm)atwhichpr ope
lle
rscanbet ur
ned.

The rea reseveralf

orce sacti
ngont hepr opel
lera sitturns;ama joronei scentri
fuga lf
orce.Thi s
for
c ea thighr pm tendst opullthebl adesoutoft hehub.Thus ,bla dewe ighta ndhubs tr
ength
arev eryimpor t
anttot hede s
ignofapr opell
e r
.Ex cessi
v ebl a
det ips peed( r
ota t
ingt hepropell
e r
toofa st
)ma yr esul
tnotonl yinpoorbl adee ff
ici
enc y,buta l
soinf l
ut te
ra ndv ibrati
on.Si ncethe
prope l
lerspe edislimited,thef or
wa rds peedofapr ope ll
erdr i
v e
na irpla
nei sa ls
ol imite
d—t o
approx imately400mi le sperhour( mph)or650k m/ hor350k nots.Asa i
rcr
a f
ts peedsincreas
e d,
turbinee ng i
ne swe reus edf orhi ghers peeda i
rcraft
.Pr opell
e r
-dr i
vena i
rcra f
tha ves everal
adv a
nt agesov erpur ej etsanda ret huswi del
yus edf ors ev erala pplic
ations.Amongt hos e
adv a
nt agesareag ener all
ylowe rcostands hortene dtake offandl andingdi stancesforope rat
ion
ats ma ll
era irport
s.Ne w bladema te
rialsa ndma nufa cturi
ngt ec hniquesha vei ncrea
sedt he
eff
ici
e ncyo fpropell
ers.Ma nys mallerair
c ra
ftwillcontinuet ous epr opeller
swe llintothefuture.

Ma nydi ff
ere ntt ypesofpr opelle
rs ys
temsha vebe ende velope dfors pec i
fica i
rc r
aftinstall
ati
on,
speed,andmi s
sion.Prope l
lerde ve l
opme ntha sencour a
g edma nyc hang esa spr opulsi
ons ystems
ha v
ee volved.Ea rlyexperime ntalpr ope ll
e r
s,whi chpr oveduns uc cessf
ul ,we res t
ickse xtende d
from thehubi nwhi chfa bricwa sstretcheda cross.The yf orceda iri nar earwarddi recti
on.
Successfulpr ope l
lersst
arteda ssimpl etwo- bladedwoodpr ope l
lersa ndha vea dvanc edtot he
comple xpr opul si
ons yst
e msoft urbopr opa ircraf
tt hatinvol vemor et ha nj ustthepr opeller
blades.Asa nout growthofope ratinglarg e,mor ecompl expr opell
e rs
,av ar i
able-pi
tch,c onstant-
speedfea t
he ri
nga ndreversingpr ope l
lersy st
emwa sde v
e l
oped.
Thiss yste
ma l
lowst hee ng i
ner pm t obev ari
edonl ys li
ghtlydur ingdi fferentf l
ightc onditi
ons
and,the ref
or e,inc r
ease
sf l
y i
nge fficie
nc y.Aba si
cc onstant-
spe edsy s
temc onsi
stsofaf lyweight-
equippedg ov ernorunitt ha tcont rol
st hepi tcha ngleoft hebl adess ot hatthee ngines pee d
rema i
nsc ons tant.Theg ov ernorc a nber egul
a t
edbyc ontrol
si nthec ock pitsot hata nyde si
re d
bladea ngles etti
nga nde ng i
neope r
ati
ngs peedc anbeobt ai
ne d.Al owpi tc
h,hi ghr pm s e
tti
ng ,
forexa mple,c a nbeut i
li
z edf orta keof
f.The n,a f
terthea irc
ra f
tisa i
r borne ,ahi ghe rpitcha nd
l
owe rr pm s etti
ngc an beus edf orc ruiseope rati
ons .Fig ure1- 1s howsnor ma lpr opeller
mov eme ntwi tht heposit
ionsofl owpi tch,hi ghpi t
ch,fe at
her( usedtor e duc edr agifthee ngine
quits
), a nd zero pit
ch i
nt o nega t
ive pi t
ch, or r e vers
e pi t
c h.
FUNDAMENTALS

Thebasicnome
ncl
atur
eo fthepar
tsofapropel
leri
ss nFi
howni g
ure1-2.Theae
rody
namic
cr
oss
-se
cti
onofapropelle
rbladepres
ent
edi n Fi
gur
e1-3inc
ludeste
rminol
ogyt
ode s
cri
be
re
lev
antele
ment
sofablade.
Fi
gur
e1-
2.Pa
rtsofaPr
ope
ll
er
BASI
CPROPELLERPRI
NCI
PLES

Thea i
rcraftprope
llerconsi
st
softwoormor ebl
adesandac entra
lhubt owhichthebla de sare
att
a ched.Ea chbladeofa na i
rcr
aftpr opel
le
risessent
ial
lyarotati
ngwi ng.Asar e
sultoft hei
r
constructi
on,thepr ope
llerbl
adespr oduceforc
esthatcreat
ethrusttopullorpushthea irplane
throught hea i
r.Thepowe rneededtor ota
tethepropel
lerbl
adesisfurni
shedbytheengine .The
prope l
lerismountedonas haftt
ha tma ybea nextens
ionofthec ranks
haftonlow-hors
e powe r
eng i
nes.
Onhighhorsepowerengi
nes,itismountedonapr opel
le
rs haf
tthati
sg e
aredtot
heeng
ine
cr
anks
haft
.Ine i
therc
ase,t
hee nginerota
testhea
irf
oil
softhebladest
hroughthea
ira
thigh
s
peeds
,andthepropel
le
rtra
nsformstherotar
ypoweroft
heeng i
neint
othr
ust.
Thethrustproduc
edbytheeng
ine/
propell
ercombina
tioni
stheres
ultofhowmuchairi
spus
he d
andthes peedoft hemovi
nga i
rma s
s.Ther es
ult
ingacti
on/r
eacti
onisinacc
ordancewit
h
Newton’sThirdLawofMoti
on.Incompa ri
sontoajeteng
ine,apropel
le
rmove
salargemassof
ai
ratar el
ati
velys
lowspe
ed.
Thrus
t=Ma ss(
V2–V1)
PROPELLERAERODYNAMI
CPROCESS

Ana irpla
nemov ingt hrought hea ircreatesadr a gforceoppos ingi t
sf orwa rdmot ion.Ifa n
air
planeist of l
yonal evelpa t
ha tacons tants peed,theremus tbeaf or
c ea ppliedt oitthatis
equaltothedr a
gbuta cti
ngf orward.Thisforc eisca l
ledthrust
.Thewor kdonebyt hrustisequal
tothethrusttime st hedis t
anceitmov esthea irplane.
Wor k=Thr ust×Di stance
Thepowe re xpe nde dbyt hrustisequaltot het hrustti
me sthev el
ocitya twhi chi tmov esthe
air
plane.
Powe r=Thr ust×Ve locit
y
Ift
hepowe risme asuredinhor sepoweruni t
s,t hepowe re xpende dbyt het hrustisterme dthrust
horsepower.Thee ngi
nes uppl i
esbrakehor se powe rthroughar otat
ings ha f
t,a ndt hepr opel
ler
convertsitintot hr usthor sepowe r
.Int hisc onv ersi
on,s omepowe ri swa s
ted.Forma xi
mum
eff
ici
ency,t hepr ope l
lermus tbede si
gnedt ok e e
pt hiswa stea ssma lla spos sible.Sincet he
eff
ici
encyofa nyma chinei sther at
iooft heus e
fulpowe rout puttot hepowe rinput ,propel
ler
eff
ici
encyist her a ti
ooft hrusthor s
epowe rtobr akehor s
epowe r.Theus ualsy mbolf orpr opel
ler
eff
ici
encyi stheGr eekle t
terη( eta)
.Prope l
le reffi
ciencyv ar
iesfrom 50pe r
c entt o87pe rce
nt,
dependingonhowmuc hthepr opell
ersl
ips .

Pit
c hisnott hesameasbla deangle
,butbe caus
epitchislarg
elyde t
ermine
dbybl adeangle,t
he
twot e
rmsa reofte
nus e
di nterc
hangea bl
y.Aninc r
easeorde cr
e a
seinonei susual
lya
ssociat
ed
withani ncreaseordecrea
s eintheo ther
.Propell
ersli
pisthedi f
fe
rencebetweenthegeome t
ri
c
pit
c hoft hepr opel
le
ra ndi tseff
ect
iv epit
ch.(Fi
gure1- 5)Ge ometri
cpitchisthedista
nc ea
propel
lers houldadvanceinoner evolut
ionwithnos li
ppage.Ef f
ect
ivepi
tchisthedista
nc eit
actual
lyadv ances
.Thus,geome tr
icort he
oret
ica
lpitchisbase
donnos li
ppage.

Act
ual,ore
ff
ect
ive,pi
tc
hre
cogni
zespropel
le
rsl
ippa
gei
nthea
ir.Ther
ela
tions
hipc
anbes
hown
as
:
Sli
p=Ge omet
ricpit
ch–Eff
ect
ivepi
tch
Geomet
ri
cpitchisusual
lyexpr
ess
edinpitc
hinc
hesa
ndc
alc
ula
tedbyus
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ng
f
ormul
a:
GP=2×πR×t ange
ntofbl
adeangl
eat
75per
cents
tat
ion
R=Ra di
usatthe75per
centbl
adest
ati
on
andπ=3.14

Bladeangleandpropell
erpi t
cha r
ec l
osel
yrelated.Bladeangl
eisthea nglebetwee
nt hef ac
eor
chordofabladesecti
ona ndtheplaneinwhicht hepr ope
ll
errot
ates.(Figure1-6)Thec hordline
ofthepropel
lerbl
adeisde t
e r
mi ne
di naboutthes amema nnerasthec hor dli
neofa na i
rfoi
l.In
fac
t,apropel
lerbl
a decanbec ons
idere
da sbeingc omposedofaninf i
ni t
enumbe rofthinbl ade
el
eme nt
s,eachofwhi chisami ni
atur
ea i
rf
oilsecti
onwhos echordi sthewi dt
hoft hepr opell
er
bladeatthatsect
ion.Be causemos tpropel
ler
sha veaflatbla
def ace,t hechordlinei soften
drawnalongthefaceofthepr opel
le
rblade.

BLADEELEMENTTHEORY

Thet ypi
calpropelle
rbl a
dec anbede scri
be dasatwist
eda i
rfoilofir
r egularplanf
orm.Twov iews
ofapr opel
lerbladea reshowni nFi gure1- 7.Forpurposesofa naly si
s,abladec anbedi vided
int
os egmentstha tarelocat
edbys tationnumbe r
sininchesf rom t hec ente
roft hebladehub.
Thec ros
s-s
e c
ti
onsofe a c
h6- i
nchblades egme ntar
eshowna sa i
rf
oilsint heri
ghtsideofFigur e1
-7.Alsoidenti
fi
edi nFigure1-7a r
et hebl adeshankandt hebl adebut t
.Thebl adeshanki sthe
thi
c k
,roundedpor ti
onoft hepropel
lerbl adenearthehuba ndi sde signedtog i
vestr
engthtot he
blade.Thebl adebutt,alsocall
edthebl adeba seorroot,i
st hee ndoft hebladethatfi
tsint he
propell
erhub.Thebl adetipisthatpa rtofthepropell
erbla defarthe s
tfrom thehub,ge nerally
defi
neda sthel ast6i nchesofthebl ade.I nthebladee l
eme ntthe ory,thepropell
erbl a
dei s
divi
dedintosma llsegmentssothatthepe rformanceofeachs egme ntma ybec ri
ti
cal
lyana l
yz ed.
Byc ombini
ngtheperf
ormanc
eoft
hes
egme
nts
,de
sig
ner
sar
eabl
etoc
los
elypr
edi
ctt
he
pe
rformanceoft
hepr
opel
ler
.

Thec r
oss-
sect
ionofat y
picalpropel
lerbl
adeisshowninFigure1-3.Thisbl a
dee l
eme ntisan
air
foilcompa r
a bl
et oac ross
-se
c t
ionofana i
rcr
a f
twing
.Thebl adeba ckist hecambe redor
curvedsideoft heblade,si
mi l
artotheuppersurfa
ceofanaircr
aftwing.Thebl adefa c
ei st
he
rel
ati
v el
yfla
ts i
deoft hepropell
erbladesi
mil
artotheunders
urfac
eofawi ng.Thec hordlinei
s
ani ma gi
narylinedr awnt hr
oug hthebladefr
om t hel
eadi
nge dgetot het r
ail
inge dge.The
l
e a
dinge dgeisthethickedgeofthebladet
hatme et
stheai
rasthepropel
lerrotate
s.

Ass
ee nFi
ni gur
e1-
7,t
hepr
ope
ll
erbl
adei
sde
sig
nedwi
that
wis
ti
ngc
ompone
nt.Thea
ngl
eof
thebladene arthehubi shighe rt hant hea ng l
ea tthet i
p.Ther easonthepropelle
rbladene eds
thetwisti
sduet ot hedi f
ferencei nv elocitybe t
we ent hebladea tthehubv ersusthebladea tthe
tp.(
i Figure1-8)Thel owe rspe edsa tt hehubr e g
ionbe nefitfr
om t hehighe
rbl adea ngl
ewhi l
e
thehighe rspeedsa tthet ipr e quireal esserbl adea ngle.Thepi tchoft hebl adec hanges
progre
ssivel
yfrom t her oott othet i
pt opr ovidethepr ope rinteract
ionwit
ht hea i
ralongt he
enti
relengthofthebl ade.
Thereisadi s
tinct
ionbe t
we enbl adea ng leanda ngleofatta
c k.Thebl adeangleforeachsegme nt
ofafixed-pi
tchprope ll
eristhea ng l
efor me dbyt hec hordlineoft hebladese
g me ntanditsplane
ofrotat
ion.Tha tre l
a t
ionshipdoe snotc hang e.(Figure1-9)Thes ameistr
uef orc ont
ro l
labl
e-
pit
chpr opell
ersonc ethebl a dea ng l
ei se st
ablished.Byc ont ra
st,thea ng
leofa tta
ckofaf i
xed-
pit
chpr opell
erbl adev ari
eswi thf or wards peedoft heaircraf
t.(Figure1-10)Thef aste
rt he
air
speedofthea ir
pla ne,thele s
sthea ng l
eofa t
tack.

Ass e
enin Fi
gure
1-
10, the re
lat
ive
ai
rf
low (
RAF)

e
nc ounte
redbythepropell
ervari
eswiththes peedoftheairpl
ane.Whent heaircr
aftist
rave
ling
a
tal owa i
rspe
ed,t
hea ng
leofattac
ke ncounteredbythepr ope
lle
rbladeishig
h.Thet hr
ustf
ora
g
ivenr pm wil
lbehighduet othehigha ngleofa t
tac
k .I
nt er
msofe ff
ic
iency,theslowmov ing
a
irplanewil
lhavepoorpropel
le
re f
fi
ci
e ncy.Athigha i
rspe
eds,theang
leofa t
tackofthepropell
er
i
s r e
lati
vely low.
Whe real argenumbe rofs ma l
la i
rpl
anesus ef i
xed-pi
tchpr ope l
ler
s,ama j
ori
tyofhi gher
perf
ormanc eaircra
ftaree quippedwi t
hpr ope l
le
rst hatarev ari
a blepitc
h.Thi sa llowst he
operat
ortov ar
yt hepi
tchofthepr opell
erduringfl
ighttoinc
r e
aset hee f
fi
cie
nc yofthepr opell
er
inordertoy i
el
dt hedesi
redpe rf
or manceinte rmsofs pee
da ndfue leconomy .Thes epropell
e r
s
oft
enincludeac onst
ant-
speedme chanismtha tkeepstheenginea tthes amer pm duringc r
uise
fl
ig
ht.Whe nthea i
rcr
aftchang esf l
ig
hta t
ti
tude( e.
g.,noseupf ora l
ti
tudega i
n),thepr opell
er
changespit
chtok eept
hee nginea tthesamer pm.

Somepr ope l
ler
sa reabl et oproduc ereversethrus t
.Thisi sac complis
he dbyr e ducingthepi tch
angletoa c hieveane ga t
ivea ngleofa t
tack.Thispr oducesr eversethrustthatservesa same a
nsof
aerodyna mi cbr a
k ingtor educ eair
c r
aftspeedfollowingla nding .Thea bil
itytor eversethethrust
ofthepr ope ll
erisus efulf orslowingt hea ir
craf
ta f
tertouchi ngdown,t herebys hor t
eningt he
lengthofr ollouta nda ll
owingt hea ircrafttoope ratef r
om as horte
rr unwa yt ha nitc ould
otherwiseus ewithoutr eve rs
ethrustwhi l
es avi
ngame asureofwe aront hebr a kesystem.Some
airc
ra f
tar ea bletoba ck-upont heg r
oundus i
ngr evers
ethr ust.Mul ti
engineaircraftarenor ma ll
y
equippe dwi thpr opel
lerst hatma ybef e
athered.Thi sf eat
ur ei susefulforwhe nt hea ircraf
t
experience sade ade ng ineora ne nginei ncapa bl
eofpr oduc i
ngpr operthr ustdur i
ngf li
g ht
.
Wi t
houtt hea bil
it
yt of eatherthepr opell
er,thede adorwe ake ngi
newoul dwi ndmi l
lora tt
empt
towi ndmi ll.Sucha ct
iong enerat
esde t
r i
me nta
ldr ag,ma k i
ngi tmor edi f
fi
cultfort hea ir
craftto
sust
aina lti
tude .
Whe nt hepropel
lerisf
eather
edthebl
adeangleiscloseto90°.Wherethepropel
lert
ipma ynot
appeart obepe rpendi
culartothepl
aneofr ot
a t
ion,thehigherangleofa t
tac
koft heblade
towardsthehubi sa l
soinplay.Thenetres
ultoft heaerody
namica ct
ionacti
ngont heenti
re
bladeisthatthepr opel
le
rdoe snotr
otat
ethee ngine.Thedr agproducedbythepr ope
ll
eris
rel
a t
ive
lylowa st
hebl a
dessli
cethr
oug
hthea i
rduringf l
ig
ht.(
Figur
e1-12)
RANGEOFPROPELLERPI
TCH

Dependingont hede s
ignoft hepropell
er,t
her angeofpitc
hma yextendfrom r
ever
sethrus
tt o
f
eather
ed.Ge ner
a l
lyspeaking,higherpe rf
orma nceturbopr
opa i
rcraf
tha vepropel
ler
st hat
i
ncludethefullrangeoftravel.Thi
spr ovi
desthea ir
cra
ftwit
hsuf
fic
ientpropel
le
rcapabi
li
tie
st o
meetoperat
ionalrequire
me nts.(
Figure1-13)eversethr
ustmayproveusef
ulwhe nmaneuvering
aseapl
ane,especi
a l
lyduri
ngdoc ki
ng .(
Figure1-11)
FORCESACTI NGONAPROPELLER

Thepr opelleri
ssubjec
tedtonumerousforces
.Thel e
v e
lofforcema ybeextr
eme,depe
ndingon
theoperation.Forc
esacti
ngonthepr ope
lle
rdur i
ngfl
ighti
nc l
ude:(
a) c
entr
if
ugalf
orc
e,(
b)torque
bendingf orce,(c
)t hr
ustbendingforce,(d)a e
rodynami
ct wisti
ngf or
ce,and(e)cent
rif
ugal
twis
ti
ngf orceasshowninFigure1-14.Ade sc
ript
ionofeac
hi sprovi
ded.
Centr
ifuga
lfor
ceisaphysi
ca lact
ionthattendstopullt
herota
tingpr opel
le
rbladesoutofthe
hub.(Fig
ure1-14A)Thisist hemos tdominantfor
ceonthepr opel
ler.Thec e
ntri
fug
alload
exer
tedbytheblade
sathig
hr pmisme asur
edintons
.Da ma
g etot hepropel
lerneart
herootor
damagetothehubma yr
esultinbladesepar
ati
on.

Tor quebe ndi

ngforce,intheform ofa i
rr esi
st
ance,tendstobe ndt hepropell
erbladesi
nt he
dir
e ct
iono pposi
tethanofr ot
ation.(Figure1-14B)Ther esis
tanceg ener
atedbyt herota
ting
bladesi sbasic
all
ydr ag
.Unde rv aryi
ngf l
ig
htc onfi
gurat
ions,thepi l
otha stous ethefl
ight
controlstocompensatef
orthetorqueg e
ne rat
edbyt heengi
ne /propel
lercombinat
ion.
Thr ustbendingforceisthethrustlo
a dt hatbendspr ope
llerbladesforwardast heair
cra
ftis
pull
edthroughtheai.(
r Fi
gure1-
14C)Thet hrus
tbendi
ngfor
ceismorepr
ominenta
ttheti
pof
thepropel
lerbl
ade.Therel
ati
vet
hinne
ssoftheprope
ll
erbl
adeinthet
ipar
eaa
llowst
hatse
cti
on
tobendforwardinres
pons
etothegener
ati
onofthrus
t.

Aer ody na mict wisti

ngf or ce(ATF) ,als
ok nowna sa erody nami ctwist
ingmome nt( ATM) ,te
ndsto
rotatet hepr opell
e rbl adestoahi ghbl a dea ngle.( Figure1- 14D)Thi sforceisg e neratedasthe
prope llerpr oduc est hrus t
.Be causethea x i
sofr ota ti
onoft hepr opell
e rbladei nt er
mso fpit
ch
ang lei sa pprox i
ma te l
yt hemi dpointa longt hec hor d,thec enterofpr es
sureg eneratedbyt he
aerody nami ca cti
onoft hebl a deinter
a ctingwi t
ht hea i
rimpa rt
saf orcene a rerthel eadingedge
ofthebl ade .Ther esultistha tthebladet r i
estomov eint hedirecti
onofhi gherpi tch.ATM ma y
bei nc orpo rate
dt oi nc r
ea s
et hepitchoft hebl ade sdur ingf l
ight.
Ce ntrifug altwist
ingf orc e(CTF) ,alsok nowna sce ntrifugaltwist
ingmome nt(CTM) ,i
sg enerat
ed
asthepr ope l
lerrota tes
.Be c
a usethea x i
sofbl adepi tchr otati
onisba sicall
yt hemi dpointofthe
chor d,t hema ssoft hepr ope ll
erbl adeone achs ideoft hea xisofr otati
onwor kst or e
duce
prope llerpi tchduet ot hec entrif
ugalf or c
eg ene ra t
ed.Aswi t
ht heot herf orcesa cti
ngont he
prope llerbl ades,thehi g herther pm,t heg r
e a
tertheCTM.Whe nc ompa r
edt ot hea erodynamic
twistingmome nt,t hec entri
fug a
lt wisti
ngmome nti smor epowe rfula ndt endst of orcethe
prope llerbl adestowa rdal owbl adea ng l
e .(Fi
gur e1- 14E)

Twooftheseforce
sacti
ngont hepropell
er'
sblade
sa reusedtomov ethebla
de sonacont
roll
able
pi
tc
hpropelle
r.Ce nt
ri
fuga
ltwist
ingmome nt(CTM)i ssome t
imesuse
dt omov ethebl
adest
ot he
l
owpit
chpos iti
on,whileaer
odynami ctwist
ingmome nt(ATM)i sus
e dtomov ethebl
adesinto
hi
ghpi
tch.The sefor
cescanbethepr imaryorseconda r
yf or
cest
hatmov etheblade
stothene w
pi
tc
hposit
ion.

Inte rmsofc ons tr

uc tion,apr ope l
lermus tbec apa bleofwi ths t
andi ngs e
ve restresses,whi cha re
greaternea rthehub,c ausedbyc entri
fugalforcea ndt hr ust.Thes tres
sesinc r
e aseinpr oportion
tother pm.Thebl a def acei sa l
sos ubject
edt ot ens i
onf r om thec entri
fugalforc ea nda ddit
ional
tensionfrom t het hr ustbe ndi ngf or ce
.Fort heser ea
sons ,nicksors crat
che sont hebl adema y
causev erys eri
ousc ons eque nc es.The sec ouldl e adt oc racksa ndf a
il
ur eoft hebl adea nda re
addr ess
edint her epa irsectionl at
eri nthisbook .
Apr ope l
lermus ta lsober i
g ide noug htopr eventf lutt
er i
ng ,at ypeofv i
bra t
ioni nwhi cht hee nds
ofthebl adet wistba cka ndf ortha thighf reque nc ya rounda na xisperpendi culart othee ngine
crank s
haft.Flutteringi sa cc ompa niedbyadi stinc t
ivenoi s
e ,oftenmi st
ake nf ore xha ustnoi se
.
Thec onst
antv ibrationa ndr e sonanc etendstowe akent hebl a dea nde ventua l
lyc ausesf ai
lure.
P-FACTOR
Whe na na irplanei sf ly
ingi nal evelatti
tude ,t het hrus tde velope dbyt hepr opelleri sfairl
y
uniform be t
we ent hede scendi ngbl a deandt hea scendi ngbl a de.Ra isi
ngt henos eoft hea i
rcraf
t
produc esasymme tric alt
hr us tbe twe enthea sc
e ndi nga ndde scendingpr ope l
le rblade s.Thi sis
ofte
nr e
ferredtoa s“ P- Factor .”

P-
Fac
tori
sgener
ate
dduri
ngcl
imbsbeca
uset
hedes
cendingbl
adehasagr
eat
erang
leofat
tac
k
t
hantheas
cendi
ngbla
de.Thedif
fe
rencei
nthr
ustbetweent
herig
htandlef
treg
ionsoft
he
pr
opell
erdis
cg e
nera
tesayawi
ngmome nt
.Forrig
ht-
handrota
tingpropel
le
rs,alef
tya
wing
momentisformed.Pil
otsc
ompens
atef
orP-Fa
ctorbyappl
yingt henece
ssa
ryrudderi
nput
.
(
Figur
e1-15)

SLIPSTREAM EFFECT
Anot heroc currencegenerat
e dbyt heflowi nga i
rma ssofthepr ope l
leristhes lipstr
e ame f
fect.As
thea ira cte
duponbyt hepr opellerflowsa ft
,itflowsa roundt hes urf
a c
eoft hea ir
c r
aftata n
accelerateds peedwhe nc ompa r
edt oa irflowingov e
rt hes urfaceout sidet hepr opell
erdi sc
.
Cont rolsurfaceswithi
nt hepa thofthes l
ipstrea
mbe nefitfr
omt hea cc e
leratedf lowa ndbe come
mor ee ff
ecti
v e.
Thes l
ipstre
a mg enera
tedbyt hepr ope ll
era lsohasawhi rl
inga cti
ona sitflowsa ft
.Thi srot
a t
ing
airma s
sons ingle-
engi
nea ircraf
t,ora ircraftwithapr opel
lerint henos e,ex pe ri
enceay awing
acti
onduet othes t
ri
ki
ngoft hea iragainstt heve r
tica
lfin.Forr ight-
ha ndr otatingpr ope l
ler
s,the
airc
ra f
tde vel
opsay awingmome ntt ot hel e
ft.Aircraftdesigne r
sof t
enc ompe nsatefort he
sli
pstreame f
fectbyoff
setti
ngt hev e
rtic
a lfin,incorporati
ngac or rect
iv eme asurewi t
ht herudde r
,
ora pplyingas l
ightof
fsetofthet hrustlineoft hee ng i
nebyde signingt hee ng inemountwi tha
correctiv
ei nstall
ati
ona ngle.Suchc orrectiveme a s
uresma ya l
sos of t
ent hee ffectofP- Factor
.
(Fig
ur e1- 16)
Onar ight-
ha ndr otat
ingpr ope ll
er,t orquewor kst odr opt hel e
ftwi ng .Theg reat
ert he
powe r/rpm,t heg reatert het or quee ff
e ct
.Hi ghpo we rope r
ations,inc ombi na t
ionwi thlow
airspeeds,increasethet orquee ffe ct
.Of t
ena erobati
cpi lotswillde mons tra
te“ torquer oll
s”by
pointingt henos eofthea i
r pl
anev erti
call
yupwi t
hf ullpowe r.Ast hea irs
pee da pproachesz e
ro,
thea ir
cr af
twillbeg i
ntor ev ol
vei nt heoppos itedirect
ionoft her otati
ngpr ope l
ler.
Pilotsex per
iencethee ff
e ctoftor que ,P-Factor ,ands l
ipstreame ffectwhe nthe ype rform powe r
-
ons tall
s.Dur i
ngt hema ne uver,t het hrottl
ei splaceda tfullpowe ra ndt henos eoft hea i
rcraf
tis
li
ftedunt ilt
hea irc
raftst
a l
ls.Whe nt hesta l
lise nter
ed,t hepilotwillimple mentc orrecti
vec ont
rol
inputst oc ompe nsatefort het or quea ndot he reff
e ct
swhi l
er ecov e
ringf rom t hes ta
ll
.I fthe
throttl
ei sreducedt oidl
e ,oral ow- powe rsetti
ngdur ingt hes t
all
,thee ffect
soft orque ,P-Fact
or,
ands li
ps tr
eama ct
iona r
eg rea
tlyr educed.

GYROSCOPI CPRECESSI ON
Ther otat
ingpr opell
eris
,ine ff
ect,ag yrosc
ope .Therotat
ingma sswillgenerat
eame as
ur eof
gyroscopicrigidit
ya ndprecessi
on.Thel a t
terproduc
esas ma l
l,butnotic
eable,re
acti
ondur ing
operation.
Gy roscopicpr e
c e
ssi
onisther e
sponseofag yros
copetogenerat
ea na c
ti
on90°f romthepo intof
inputi nthedi recti
onofr otati
on.Toi l
lust
rate,whenana i
rcra
ftequippedwi t
har i
ght
-ha nd
rotati
ngpr ope l
lerisyawedt othel e
ft,gyroscopicpr
eces
sionwi l
lworkt olif
tthenos e
.Dur ing
takeoffrollofa na i
rcr
aftequippedwi that ailwheel
,whe nthepilotrais
esthetail
,theaircraf
t
deve l
opsay a wingacti
ontot helef
t.
Ing ene r
al,thee f
fect
sofg y
roscopicprecessi
ona reminor.Thepi l
otisabletoma keinputsinto
thefli
g htcontrolsys
temtoc ounter
a c
tg yr
oscopicprec
essi
on.

VI
BRATI
ONANDRESONANCE
Whenapropel
le
rispr oduc
ingthr us
t,aer
odynamica
ndme chanic
alfor
cesar
epres
entwhich
ca
uset
hebl
adestovibrat
e.Vibrat
ionc a
usedbythepr
ope
ll
era l
soproduc
esre
sona
nce,whic
his
pr
oduc
edbytheechoing‘be
at’oftheoutofbala
ncepr
opel
le
r.Vi br
ati
oncaus
edbyme cha
nica
l
i
nput sa regeneral
lyt hecaus
eofa noutofbalanc
ebl a
deonapr opel
leras
s e
mbly.Pr ope
lle
rs,
spinners,andpowe rt rai
ndynamiccomponentsar
e,ma nuf
act
uredt ost
ri
cttole
rances
,however,
duet oc ent
rif
ugalf orce,aer
odynamicloa
dinga ndindivi
dualc omponentt ol
era
nces,some
residualout-
of-bal
a ncemome ntma ybepresenti
nt hewholeassembly,whichwi l
lleadt
oa n
i
nc reas
ei nv ibrat
ion. Thepr oc
essoftra
ckinga ndba l
anc
ingpr opel
le
rsma ybeg enera
ll
y
requiredonthef ol
lowi ngocc
asi
ons:

 Af
terma
jorc
ompone
ntr
epl
ace
ment
 Asaf
aul
tdi
agnos
is
/t
roubl
eshoot
inga
id
 Whe
nev
err
equi
redbyt
hema
int
ena
ncema
nua
lorma
int
ena
ncepr
oce
dur
es
Whenlookinga thowtheproc
essoftrack
ingandba l
anci
ngi sa ccompli
shed,i
tisfi
rs
tneces
sary
t
ode t
erminewha tvi
brat
ionis
.Vi brat
ionisarapidosci
lla
tiont hatma ybecausedbyrota
ting
as
sembli
es,whent he
ya r
eoutofba l
anceorbye xt
ernalinfl
ue ncessuchasaerody
namicforc
e s
.
These os
cil
lat
ionswi l
lbe feltwi t
h ac er
tai
nf orce
,k nown a sDI SPLACEMENT or
AMPLI TUDE,a ndatacer
tai
nrate,i
e.vibr
ati
onsperminute ,knowna sFREQUENCY.

Vibra
tionisge neral
lyexpre
ssedasfrequencype rs
econd,andi smeasur
edinHe r
tz(Hz )
.One
hert
zist he
reforeequa lt
oonec yclepers e
cond,thatisamov ementfr
om theba se
lineinone
dir
ect
iona ndc onti
nuingint heopposit
edirect
ionuntilaret
ur ntothebasel
ineisachieved,as
showni nthei l
lust
rat
ion.Ifnotc ompe ns
atedforinthede s
ign,vi
brati
onma yc auseexcess
ive
fl
exi
ng,wor k-
ha rdeni
ngoft heme ta
l,andr es
ultinsecti
onsofthepropell
erbladebre a
kingoff
duri
ngope rat
ion.
Aerodynamicforc
e shav
eag r
eatvi
brat
ione ff
ecta
tt het i
pofabl
adewheret
heeff
ect
sof
tr
ansonicspee
dsca us
ebuff
eti
ngandvibr
a t
ion.Thevibra
tionsma
ybedec
rea
sedbyus
eofthe
properaer
ofoi
lshapeandti
pdesi
gns
.

Mechanic
alv i
brat
ionsaregene r
ate
dbypowe rpuls
esinapist
one ngi
nea ndareconsi
dere
dt obe
moredest
ructi
veint he
ireffe
c tt
hana er
ody namicvi
brat
ion.Theseenginepowe rpul
sescausea
pr
opell
erbladetov i
brat
ea nds e
tups t
andingwa vepat
ter
nsthatcauseme t
alfat
igueandfail
ure
.
Thelocat
iona ndnumbe rofs tr
esspoint
sc hangeswithdiff
ere
ntr pm set
ting
s,butthemos t
cr
it
ic
allocat
ionforthes
es t
ressconcent
rati
onsisaboutsi
xinchesi
nfromt hetopoftheblades
.

Mos ta ir
fr ame -engi
ne -propel
lerc ombinationsha venopr oble
mi ne li
mi na t
ingthede t
rime ntal
eff
e c
tsoft he sev i
bra t
ionalstress
e showe ver,s omec ombi nat
ionsa res ensiti
vetoc ert
a i
nr pm
range sandha vet hisCRI TICALRANGEi ndicat
e dont het a
c home terbyar eda rc. The
eng i
nes houl dnotbeope rate
dint hecri
tic
a lrang eexcepta snecessa rytopa s
sthroughittos eta
highe rorl owe rrpm.I fthee ngineisope ratedint hec rit
icalra nge,t hereisapos s
ibil
it
yof
str
uc turalfa i
lureint hea ir
craf
tduet othev ibrati
ona lstr
essessetup.Pr ope l
ler
sdr i
venbyag as
turbinet urbo- propa renota f
fectedbyac ri
ticalrang ea stherea renotpowe rpul s
esinag as
turbinee ng i
ne . Ast heope rati
onc y
c l
ei sc ontinuous ,thereisnor eciproca
tingmot ioni n
theeng i
ne ,t husamor es moothope rat
inge nginepr oduc i
ngl owe rv ibr a
tionfrequenciesa nd
henc elowe rr es
ona nce .Thi sme anst
ha tthe rea r
emuc hlessfatiguea ndope rati
onalstresse
s
transmittedt othepr opell
er. Thea bov eme nti
one dt echnic
a lda tame anst hatat urbo-prop
prope ll
ers houldr ema inins e
rvi
c elonger,mor et i
mebe tweenov erha ul(TBO) .

CHAPTER2
PROPELLERCONSTRUCTI
ON
PROPELLERSUSEDONGENERALAVI
ATI
ONAI
RCRAFT

Ani nc r
e as
ingnumbe rofl ighta ircr
aftarede si
gnedf orope rat
ionwi thg overnorr e
gulat
ed,
const
a nt
- s
pe edpropell
ers.Si
g ni
fic
a ntsegmentsofgene ra
la v
iati
ona i
rcr
a f
tares t
il
loperatedwith
f
ixed-pit
c hpr opel
ler
s.Ama j
or i
tyofs mall
,si
ng l
eeng i
nea ir
craftusef
ixed-pi
tchme t
alpropel
lers
.
Somel i
ghts portaircr
a f
t(LSA)us emul tibladefixed-pi
tchc omposi
tepr opell
ers
.Me di
um s i
ze
tur
bopr opa i
rcr
aftwilloft
enbee quippedc ontr
oll
abl epropell
erswit
hpi tchr e
ve r
si
ngs yst
ems.
Largertrans portandc argoturbopr opa i
rcr
a f
tusepr opel
lersyst
emswi thdua lordoublea ct
ing
governorsa nddi f
fer
entialoi
lpressuretochang epi
tch.

FI
XED-
PITCHWOODENPROPELLERS

Althoug hma nyoft hewoodpr ope ll

erswe reus edonol dera i
rplanes,somea restilli
nus e .Ea rl
y
aviationpi one ersc a
rv edpr ope ll
ersf rom l a mina tedwoode nbl anksus i
ngha ndt ool s.The
cons t
r uctionofaf ixed-pitch,woode npr opelleriss uc ht hatitsbladepi t
c hc annotbec ha nged
aft
e rma nuf ac t
ur e.(Figur e2- 1)Thec hoi ceoft hebl a dea ngleisde ci
dedbyt henor malus eoft he
prope llerona na ircraftdur ingl evelfli
ghtwhe nthee ng inepe r
formsi na neffici
entma nne r
.The
impos s i
bilityofc ha ng i
ngt hebl a depi t
c hont hef ixe d-pit
chpr opelle
rr est
r i
ctsi t
sus et os ma l
l
aircraftwi thl ow hor sepowe re ng inesi nwhi c hma ximum e ng i
nee f
fic
ienc ydur i
nga llfli
ght
condi tionsi sofl essers ignifi
c ancet hani nl argera irc raf
t.Thewoode n,fixed-pitchpr ope ll
eris
we l
ls uitedf ors ma l
la i
rc raf
tbe causeofi tslightwe i
g ht,r i
gidi
ty,economyofpr oduc ti
on,s i
mpl i
ci
ty
ofcons tr
uc tion,a nde aseofr eplaceme nt.Be c ausema nys ma l
laircr
aftha veav arietyofa ppr oved
prope llersf ori ns tal
lation,a irc
r af
to wne r
sorope ratorsha vet heopt i
on ofs elect
ingt he
appr opr i
a tepr ope ll
erf ort he irope r
ation.Thet woc ommonopt i
onsa rea“ c l
imbpr op”or
“cruisepr op. ”Cl imbpr opellersg enerallyha veal owe rpitchors horterdiame tert hata l
lowst he
enginet oa tta i
nhi g herr pmswhi l
ec ruisepr ope ll
ersa r ebuiltwithhighe rpit
c ha ng l
esa ndl onger
diame tersa nda rewe llsui t
edf orc ruiseope r
a t
ions.
Awoode npr opellerisnotc ons tructedfr omas ol
idbl ockofwood,buti sbuiltupofanumbe rof
separ atel aye rsorl ami na t
esofc a ref
ullys electeda ndwe llseasonedha r
dwoods .Ma nywoods ,
sucha sma hog a ny ,che rry,bl ackwa l
nuta ndoa k,a reus edtos omee x
tent,butbi rchisthemos t
wide lyus e d.Fi vet oni nes e paratel ayersa ret ypic allyus e
d,e acha bout3⁄ 4i nc h(2c m)t hic
k.
Ge ne rall
y ,t heg r
owt hr ingsoft hel ami na t
e sa r
ea lternatedint ermsofdi rectiont omi nimize
warpi
ng .Thewoodl ami
natesa regluedtogetherusingawa t
erproof,res
inousgl
uea nda ll
owe d
toset
.Thebl ankisthenroug hedoutt otheappr oxi
ma teshapeands izeofthefi
nishedproduc t
.
Ther oughedoutpr opel
lerist hena l
lowedt odr yfora pproxi
ma telyonewe ekt ope r
mitt he
moist
urec ont
entofthelayerstobe c
o mee quali
zed.Thisa ddi
ti
ona lperi
odofs e
asoningprevents
warpi
nga ndc rack
ingthatmi ghtoccurifitwa simme di
a t
elycarv
e dfromabl ank.Foll
owingthis
peri
od,thepropell
erisca
refullyconstr
ucted.Te mplate
sa ndbenchpr otra
c t
orsar
eus edtoassure
thepropercontourandbladea ngleatallst
ati
ons .
Aftert hepr opell
e rblade sarefinishe d,af a
br i
cc ove r
ingisc eme ntedtotheout er12t o15i nches
(
30t o38c m)ofe a c
hf inishedbl ade .Ame talorc ompos i
tetippingi sf
astene dtothel ea
dinge dge
andt ipofe achbl adet opr otectthepr opell
e rfrom da ma gec ausedbyf lyingpa r
ticle
sint hea i
r
dur i
ngl anding,t axi
ing ,ort akeoff.Thet ippinga ls
os ervesa sa ne r
osions t
ri
pt opr otec tthe
leadinge dg eoft hepr ope ll
er.(Fig ures2- 3a nd2- 4)Me talti
ppi ngma ybeoft e
rnplate,Mone l
me tal,orbr ass.Stainlesssteelhasbe enus edt osomee xtent.Theme taltippingiss ec
uredt ot he
leadinge dg eoft hebl adebyc ount ersunkwoods crewsandr i
ve ts
.Thehe adsoft hes c
rewsa re
soldere dtot het i
ppingt opr eventl oos ening ,andt hes olderisf i
ledtoma keas mooths ur face
.
Sincemoi st
urec ondens esont het ippi ngbe t
we ent heme tala ndt hewood,t het i
ppi ngi s
provide dwi ths ma l
lhol esne arthebl a det i
pt oa ll
owt hismoi sturetodr aina wayorbet hrown
outbyc entri
fugalforce .(Figure2- 5)I tisimpor tantthatthe s
edr ai
nhol esbek eptopena tal
l
ti
me s.Whe nthea i
rcraftisinac t
ivef ora ne xtende dpe r
iod,thee ngi
nei spos i
ti
one dsot ha tthe
woode npr opellerrema i
nsi nahor izont alpos i
tiont oma intaine venwa terc onte
ntbe twe ent he
blade s.Ifthebl adesa r
el e f
tinav er t
ica lpositi
onf orapr otractedpe ri
od,wa t
erint hewo odwi l
l
tendt omi grat
etot helowe rblade .

Sincewoodi ssubj
ectt
oswe l
li
ng,s
hri
nki
ng,andwa r
pingbecauseofc
ha ngesofmoistur
econtent,
apr ote
c t
ivecoati
ngisappli
edtothefi
nis
hedpropell
ertopreventar apidchangeofmoi st
ure
content.Thefinis
hmostc ommonlyuse
disanumbe rofcoatsofwaterr epel
le
nt,cl
e a
rvarnis
h.
Afte
rt heseprocess
esar
ec omplet
ed,t
hepropel
lerismountedonas pindleandv eryca
refull
y
balanced.
Severaltypesofhubsa reusedtomountwoode npr opel
le
r sonthee ngi
nec ra
nk s
haf
t.The
prope l
lerma yha veaf org eds te elhubt ha tf it
sas pl ine dc r
a nk sha f
t.I tma ybec onne ctedt oa
taperedc rank sha ftbyat a pe re d,f or geds te elhub.Ori tma ybebol tedt oas teelf l
a ngeforg edon
thec rank sha ft.I na nyc ase ,s ev era la ttachingpa r tsa rer equi redt omountt hepr ope ll
eront he
shaftpr ope rly.
Hubsf i
ttingat ape r eds ha fta reus uallyhe ldi npl a cebyar etainingnutt ha ts crewsont othee nd
ofthec ra nk s
ha ft
.Al eng thyme talk eyi sus edt oa lignt hepr ope ll
e rhubwi tht hec r
ank shaft
.
Prope rpos i
tioni ngoft hepr ope llero nt hec rank sha ftint e rmsofc loc ka ng l
ei sne ededwhe nt he
enginei ss tartedbyha ndc rank ingorpr oppi ng.As na pr ingi sus edi nma nyhubs .Thes napr ing
retai
nst hec rank sha f
tnutwhe nt hepr ope lleri sr e mov e df rom t hee ngine .Thes na pringa l
so
servesa sapul l
ings urfacewhe nbr e akingt hehubf re ef rom t het a peredc r
ank sha ftusi
ngt he
crank s
ha f
tnut .Al oudc rac kings oundi se mi ttedwhe nt hehubi sbr oke nf reef rom t heta pered
crank s
ha f
t.
Ons pline ds ha fti ns tall
a ti
ons ,f ronta ndr e arc one sma ybeus edt oa ccur atelyc entert he
prope l
leront hec ra nksha ftorpr ope l
le rs hafta nds e a tthepr ope ller.Ther ea rconei saonepi ece
bronz ede s i
g nt ha tf i
tsa roundt hes hafta nda g ains tthet hr ustnut( ors pa cer) ands eatsinther ear
coner e cessoft hehub.Thef rontc onei sat wopi ec e,s pli
tt y pes te elc onet ha tha sag roove
aroundi tsinne rc ircumf erenc es ot hatitc anbef itte dov eraf lang eoft hepr ope l
lerr etai
ningnut .
The n,t her e t
a iningnuti sthr ea de di ntopl ac ea ndt hef rontc ones e
a tsint hef rontc onehub.A
snapr ingi sfittedi ntoag roov ei nt hehubi nf r
ontoft hef rontc ones otha twhe nt her etaining
nutisuns c r
e we df r omt hepr ope ll
e rsha ft,thef rontc onea ctsa g ainstt hes na pr inga ndpul lsthe
prope l
lerf romt hes ha ft.
Onet ypeofhubi nc orpor a tesabr onz ebus hi ngi ns tea dofaf rontc one .Whe nt hist ypeofhubi s
used,itma ybene ce ss
a ryt ous eapul l
e rt os tartt hepr ope ll
erf romt hes ha ft.Ar earc ones pacer
issome ti
me spr ov i
de dwi tht hes pl i
ne ds haftpr ope ll
e ra ssembl yt opr eve ntt hepr opelle
rf r
om
inte
rferingwi tht hee ng inec owl i
ng .Thewi def lang eont her ea rf aceofs omet ypeso fhubs
eli
mi nat estheus eofar earc ones pa cer.
Onet ypeofhuba s sembl yf ort hef i
x ed-pi t
c h,woode npr ope ll
eri sas t
ee lfitt
ingi nsert
edi nt he
prope l
lert omounti tont hepr ope ll
ers ha f
t.I tha st woma inpa rts:thef ace platea ndt hef lange
plate.(Fig ure2- 6)Thef acepl a tei sas t
e eldi skt ha tf or mst hef orwa rdf aceoft hehub.Thef lange
plateisas teelf lang ewi tha ni nt erna lbor es pline dt or ec eivet hepr ope ll
e rs haft.Thee ndoft he
fla
ng epl a t
eoppos itethef lang edi ski se x te
r na l
lys pline dt or ece i
v et hef ace plate.Thef ace pl
a t
e
boreha ss pline st oma tcht he see x t
erna ls pl i
ne s.Theuni t
sus edonl owe rhor sepowe re ng i
nes
witht ape reds ha ftsg ene rallydonotha vet he s
es pline s.Bot hf ac epla tea ndf l
ang epl a t
esha v
ea
correspondi ngs e riesofhol e sdr illedo nt hedi sksur fa c ec onc ent ri
cwi tht hehubc enter.Thebor e
ofthef lang epl a teha sa15°c ones e atont her eare nda nda30°c ones eatont hef or warde ndt o
centert hehuba cc ur atelyont hepr ope ll
e rsha f
t.
TORQUI
NGWOODENPROPELLERS

Aswi tho the re xampl esofma intena nc eproc edure spr ov idedi nt hisuni t,t hei nf orma ti
on
cont aine dhe reini sonl yf orins t
ruc t
iona lpurpos es
.Al wa y sr efert ot hec urr
entma nuf acturer’
s
techni calda t
af ore xplici
tma intena ncei nstr
uctions.
Thei ns tal
lati
onofawoode npr ope l
le rmus ta dher et os tric ttor quingpr ocedur e s
.Thet orque
place donawoode npr ope ll
ermus tbee nought oa ppl yac ompr e s
sivefor cetot hehubwi thout
crushi ngt hewood.Be forei nstall
ingt hepr ope l
ler,orc he ckingt het orque ,e nsur et hatt he
ma g ne t
os wi tch( es
)a rei nt heOFFpos i
ti
ona ndt ha tt hea irc raf
ti sc hoc kedort ied-down.
Re mov ingas pa rkpl ugf rom e achc yl
inde rwillfurthe re nha nces a f
etya ndwi l
lma kei te asierto
rotatet hee ng inef ort orquingpur pos esa ndforc hec kingpr ope llert r
a ck.Al way sus ea na ccur at
e
torquewr e
nc ht hatfulfi
llsca l
ibrationr equi r
eme nts.
Thepr opellerbol t
ss houl dbet ightene dus i
ngas tarpa ttern.I nc reasethet ight ne s
soft hebol t
s
usings ma l
li nc reme ntali ncreas e
soft orque .Ke eps hi ftingf rom onebol ttot hene x tus ingt he
starpa t
tern.Cont inuet hepr oc essunt ilthepr escribe dt or quev a l
uei sa ttai
ne d.I fs e l
f-lock i
ng
nutsa reus edt or etai
nt hepr ope l
ler,a ddt her esista nc eoft hef ri
ctionoft hes e l
f-lock i
ng
me cha ni s
mt ot hepubl ishedt orquev a l
ue.Ther eas ont ha tt het e c
hni cians houl dus es ma ll
incre me ntalinc r e
ase sint orquet oa r
rivea tthede s
iredt ight ne ssi sthata pplyingl argequa nt it
ie
s
oft orquea tonet imet ot hebol tsma yc auset hewoodt oc r
us ha ndt hebl a det ra ckt os hif
t.
Woode npr ope llersshoul dha v eabl a
det rac
knog rea tert ha n1/ 8i nch( 3.175mm) .Afte ra rri
v i
ng
atthepr ope rtor que ,safetythepr opellerr et
entionha rdwa r e,a sr equired.
Thet or queoft hepr ope ll
erbol t
ss houl dber e-chec ke da ftert hei niti
alflighta ndf ollowi ngt he
fir
st25hour sofope r at
ion.The r
e aft
er,c heckt hebol tt orquee v ery50hour sofope ration.The
torques houlda lsobec he ckedwhe nt hea mbi ente nv i
r onme ntc hang esinas ubs tant i
a lma nner
(
e.g.
,wi ntertos umme r).
Toc he ckt het orqueoft hepr opellerbolt
s,remov esafetywi re
,ifa pplicable,andr otat
et he
t
orquewr enc hinat ighteningdi rec
tionuntilt
hefa s
tenerbeg i
nstoturn.I fthea mountoft orque
re
quiredt or otatethefa st
enerisv er
yl ow(e.
g .
,approximatelyha l
ftotwo- t
hirdsoft hepr esc
ribed
t
orque )
,r e
mov et hepr opell
era ndi nspe
ctthehuba reaforde fec
ts(e
.g.,e l
ong ate
dhol esand/or
cr
ack s
).Suc hda ma gemus tber e
pa i
redbyt hema nufacturerora na ppr opriat
elyr atedr e
pa i
r
f
acil
ity.Ifthet orqueiss ome wha tl
ow( e.
g.,thre
equa rte
rsthes peci
fi
edt orque),carefull
yinc r
ease
t
het orquet ot hepr ope rlevel
.Ifthet or
quei swithinthes pecif
iedrang e,noa cti
oni srequire
d.
Andi fthet orquee xcee dsthepr escri
bedrang e
,loosenthebol tsandtor quet othec or r
ectli
mi t
.
Atthec onc l
us i
onoft het orquec heck,veri
fythatthepropellertra
ckiswi thinlimitsa ndre -
safe
ty
t
heha rdwa r e,asne ce
ssa r
y.

METALFI
XED-
PITCHPROPELLERS

Me talfixed-pitchpr opell
e r
sa resimi laring enerala ppe aranc etoawoode nprope l
ler,e xceptthat
these ct
ionsa reusua l
lythinne r.Theme t
a lfixed-pitchpr ope lleriswide l
yus edonma nymode l
s
oflighta ircraf
t.Ma nyoft hee arli
es tme t
a lprope ll
erswe rema nufa c
turedinonepi ec eoff orged
Dur alumi n.Compa redtowoode npr ope l
ler s
,somewe rel i
ght erinwe ightbe c
a useofe limination
ofbla dec lampi ngde vi
ces,of f
eredal owe rma intena nc ecos tbe causet heywe rema deinone
piece,prov idedmor ee f
fi
c i
entc oolingbe ca useoft hee ffecti
vepi tchne arerthehuba nd,be cause
therewa snoj ointbe tweenthebl ade sa ndt hehub,t hepr ope ll
erpi t
chc ouldbec hang e d,within
li
mi t
s,byt wisti
ngt hebla deslightl
ybyapr opell
e rrepa irstation.Ge nerally
,me t
alpr ope l
lersare
heaviertha nt heirwoode nc ount er
pa rt
s.
Prope ll
ersoft histy pearenowma nuf a ct
ur eda sonepi ecea nodi zeda l
umi num a ll
oy .The ya re
identi
fiedbys tampi ngthepr opell
erhubwi ththes er
ia lnumbe r ,mode lnumbe r
,typec erti
fi
ca t
e
numbe r,pr oduc ti
onc erti
fi
ca t
enumbe r
,a ndt henumbe roft ime sthepr opell
erha sbe en
reconditione d.Thec ompl et
emode lnumbe roft hepr ope ll
eri sac ombi nati
onoft heba sicmode l
numbe ra nds uffi
xnumbe rst oindi catet hepr ope lle
rdi ame tera ndpi tch.Ane xpl
a na ti
onofa
compl etemode lnumbe r,usingt heMc Ca uley1B90/CM pr ope l
ler,i
spr ovidedinFi gur e2-7.

STEELPROPELLERBLADES

Anumbe rofprope l
le
rbl a
de sarema nufac
ture
df rom st
eel
.Thesebladesaresometi
mesfound
onpropel
lersuse
donl argerairc
raf
t.Anumbe rofWor l
dWa rIIa i
rcr
a f
tandlargetr
anspor
t
pi
st
onpowe redai
rcraftoft
ha ter
ausepr opel
le
rswithstee
lblade
s.
St
eelpropell
erbladesa r
et ypi
call
yhol l
ow tok ee
pwe i
ghttoami nimum.Byc ompari
sonto
bl
adesma defr
omot herma teri
al
s,st
eelpropel
lerbl
a de
sposse
ssmorehe f
t.(
Figur
e2-8)
COMPOSI
TE PROPELLERS

Aswi t
hot he rpa r
tsoft hea irplane,composit
ema t
eri
a l
sa ndc onstructi
ont echniquesha vebe en
adopt e
dbyt hepr ope l
lerma nuf ac
turers
.The yoffe
rnume rousa dva nt
a ges
,e s
pe cial
lyforhi gher
speedt urboprop a ircraft
.Thes trengt
h offer
ed byc ompos i
tebl a
de si nc onjunction wi t
h
l
ightwe ighta ndr educ e
ds oundl evelshaveprovenusefula t
tri
butes.
Simi l
art oothe rcompos i
tesus edthroughoutthea v
iat
ioni ndustry,twoe ssenti
alc ompone ntsa r
e
util
izedt opr oduc et hebl ades,thema t
ri
xa ndt hefiberma t
erial.Thef or meri ssimilart oa n
epox ya ndi sus edt ok eept hes tr
andsoft hefi
be rinpos it
ion.Thef ibersposse ssconsidera bl
e
tensil
es tr
e ngtha ndpr ov i
dev i
gorint er
msofbl adere s
ilie
ncy.Anumbe rofpr ope l
ler
sf l
owni n
aeroba t
icsa rec ompos itebe causeoft hei
rlig
htwe i
ght,lowi nerti
a,dur a
bil
ity,a nda ff
orda bil
ity.
(
Fi gure2- 9)
Compos itebl adesty pical
lybe gina ttheblader ootwhe r
et heya reforme da roundt heme tal
blades hank .Nume rousl ayersofc arbonfi
berlaminatesa rewounda roundac ore.Ana ttached
erosions t
rip,whe ni ncluded,pr ovi
de spr
otect
iona ga
instbladee rosion.(Figure2- 10)
BLADESTATI
ONS

Prope l
lerbl a
desa rer ot
a t
inga i
rfoil
stha tha vear ela
tivel
yc ompl e
xs ha pewhe nc ompa redto
wings.Thema i
nr easonfort hei ntri
catesha peisre l
a t
edtoa i
rspe e
d.Ne a rtheprope l
lerhubt he
rel
ati
v ev eloci
tybe twe e
nt hebl a desec t
iona nda i
ri scompa rati
ve l
ys low.Byc ontr ast
,the
propellertipe x periencesahi ghv e
locitywi tht hea i.(
r Figur e1- 8)Toa cc
ommoda tethe
dif
ferenceina irspeed,at ypi calpropell
e rbladewi llha veahi ghbl adea ng l
ene arthehuba nda
shall
owbl a dea ng l
ea tthet ip.Ane xamina ti
onofapr opel
lerbl ader ev ealsthatthebla dea ngl
e
graduallyde cr
ea sesfrom thehubors ha nka reaoft hebl adet ot hetip.Thel e
ngthoft hec hord
ofthepr ope l
lerbl adema ya ls
oc hangemov ingfrom t hehubt ot het ip.Thes tr
uc t
uralne edof
thepr opel
le rbla dene arthehubma yr equir
eas hapet hatl acksa e rodyna micqua liti
esbut
providesampl es tre
ng thtoc omba tthev ari
ousforce splacedont heprope ll
era s
sembly .
Prope l
lerstati
onsa reoftenpr ov i
de dins ixinchi ncreme nts(15c m).Re fertoFi gure1- 7.Note
thegr adualchang ei npitcha ng l
ea ndc hordwi dth.

PROPELLERHUB,SHANK,BACK,ANDFACE

Thepr opellerhubi sde si

g nedt owi thstanda llt hef orcese xpe r
iencedbyt hepr ope l
lerdur ing
operati
on.Onf ixed- pitche duni t
s,t heoppos ingbl adesc onne cta tthehub,whi chi sat hick
,
heavil
ybui ltme mbe r.Onc ont r
ollable -
pitchpr ope ll
ers,thehuba ccommoda testhepitchc ha nge
me chanisms ,be arings,pa ssagewa ys,a ndne cessa r
yl ubr ic
a nt(
s).Ina dditi
ont or etainingt he
bladesa ndi nte rnalme mbe r
soft hepi tchc ont rolme chanism,t hepr ope ll
erhubi sa ttac he dto
thec ranksha ftorpr ope llers haft.Thet hrustg e neratedbyt hepr opellerist ransmittedt ot he
enginea ndul t
ima te l
yt ot hea ir
framet hr ought hepr opellerhub.Somepr ope ll
ermode lsa ttach
thespinne rbul khe ad,ors pinne rba ck pl
a te,tothehub.
Thepor ti
onoft hebl adei nsertedi ntot hehubofac ontrollablepitchpr ope ll
e risknowna sthe
bladebut torbl ader oot .Thepr ope l
lerbl ades ha nkc onne ctsthebl ader ootorbut ttot hea ir
foi
l
sect
ionoft hepr ope l
lerbl ade.Thes hapeoft hes hankr a ngesf r
om c ircularorov altoahi ghly
cambe redf or m.Thes ha nkmus tbec apa bleofa bsorbingt hel oadspl acedupont hepr ope ll
er
andt ransmi tti
ngt het hr ustt ot hehub.Ov e r
shoe sorboot sa ss
ociatedwi thde -i
cinga nda nti
-
ici
ngs yste
msa rea t
t ache dtot hes ha nkoft hepr ope l
lerbla desa nde xtenddowname asur eoft he
blade.(SeeFi gure1- 2)
Thes ur f
aceoft hepr ope ll
e rbla dek nowna st heba cki sthes i
deoft hebl a dec ontainingt he
cambe rorc urva t
ur e.Thepr ope l
lerba cki ssimi la
rt ot heuppe rsurfaceofawi ngi nt hatit
generatesal owe rpne uma ti
cpr essurea sthebl ader otates.Whe reawi ngpr oduc esl ift,the
propell
e rge neratest hrus t.
Thef aceoft hepr ope ll
e rbl adei sthes urfacetha tisr elat
ivelyf l
at.Ast hepr opellerrota tes,the
facestr
ikest hea ir.Pi l
ot swhof lys i
ng lee nginea irplanese quippe dwi t
ht ractorpr ope l
le
r slooka t
,
orface,thef a ceoft hepr ope l
lera sthe yope r
a t
et hea ircraf
t.(Fi g
ure2- 11)
TYPESOFPROPELLERS

The r
ea r
ev ari
oustypesorclas
sesofpr opel
ler
s,thesimple
stofwhi c
ha r
ethefixed-
pit
cha nd
grounda dj
ust
ablepropel
le
rs.Thec omplexit
yofpr opel
le
rsyste
msinc r
eas
esfr
om thesesi
mpler
f
or mstoc ontr
oll
abl
e-pi
tcha ndcompl exconsta
nts pee
ds ys
tems(automat
icsys
tems)
.Va ri
ous
charact
eris
ti
csofs e
veralpropel
lertypesa redis
c us
sedint hefol
lowingpara
graphs,butno
att
emptisma detocoveral
ltypesofpropell
ers
.

TESTCLUBPROPELLER

At e
stc l
ubisusedt
ot e
standbre
akinr e
cipr
ocati
ngeng
ines.(
Figur
e2-
12)The yaremadeto
provi
det hec
orre
ctamountofl
oadonthee ng
ineduri
ngthetes
ti
ngandbrea
k i
nginper
iodand
notintendedforfl
ig
ht.Themul t
ibl
a dedesig
na ls
opr ov
ide
se xt
racool
ingair
fl
ow dur
ing
opera
tion.
FIXED- PITCHPROPELLER
Ast hena mei mpli
es,af ixed-pitchprope ll
e rhast hebl adepi t
ch,orbl adea ngle
,bui l
tintothe
propelle
r.(Figure2-13)Thebl a dea ng
lec annotbec ha ngeda f
tertheprope l
leri
sbuilt.Ge nera
ll
y,
thisty
peofpr opell
erisonepi ec eandisc ons t
ructedofwoodora luminuma ll
oy.
Fixed-pi
tchpr ope l
le
rsa rede s
igne dforbe ste f
fi
ciencya toner otati
onalandf orwards peed.They
arede si
gnedt of i
tas etofc ondi t
ionsofbot ha i
rpla nea nde ngi
nes peeds.Anyc ha ngeint hese
conditi
onsr educ e
sthee f
fi
ciencyofbo t
ht hepr ope ll
e randt heeng i
ne.Thef ixed-
pitchpr opel
ler
i
sus edona i
rplanesofl owpowe r,speed,r ange,ora ltit
ude.Ma nys i
nglee ngi
nea i
rcraftusefix
ed
-pit
chpr opellersandt hea dvant agestothe sea relesse xpensea ndtheirs i
mpleope rati
on.Thi s
typeofpr ope l
lerdoe sno tr equirea nyc ontroli nputsf rom thepi l
oti nf l
ight.Fi x
e d-
pit
ch
propelle
rsa r
ea v a
il
ablei ntractorandpus herde s
igns .
GROUND- ADJ USTABLEPROPELLER
Theg round-adjusta
blepropel
leropera
tesasaf i
xed-pitc
hpr ope l
ler
.Thepitc
h,orbladeangle
,
ca
nbec hangedonl ywhe nthepropell
erisnotturning.Thisi sdonebyloos
eningt
hec l
amping
mecha ni
smt hathol dsthebladesinplace,ands etti
ngt hede si
redpit
ch.Aftert
hec l
amping
mecha ni
sm ha sbe enti
ghtened,thepit
choft hebl adesc annotbec hange
di nfl
ig
htt ome e
t
var
iablefl
ightre quir
ements.Theg r
ound-adj
ustableprope l
lerisnotoft
enusedonpr es
entday
ai
rpl
a nes.

CONTROLLABLE- PI TCHPROPELLER
Thec ontroll
able-
pit
chpr opel
lerpe rmitsac hangeofbl adepitch,ora ngle
,whi lethepr ope l
leris
rota
ting.Thisa l
lowst hepr opelle
rt oa ss
umeabl adea ng l
etha tg i
vesthebe stperforma ncef or
part
icularfl
ightconditi
ons .Thenumbe rofpitchpos i
tionsma ybel i
mi t
ed,aswi that wopo s
it
ion
contr
ollablepropell
er,ort hepi t
chma ybea djustedt oa nya ng l
ebe t
we e
nt hemi nimum a nd
ma xi
mumpi tchsett
ing sofag ivenpr opell
er.Theus eofc ontroll
able-pi
tchprope ll
ersa lsoma kes
i
tpos si
bletoa t
tai
nthede si
rede ngi
ner pmf orapa rti
cularfli
ghtc onditi
on.
Thist ypeofpr opell
e ri snott o bec onfused with ac ons t
a nt
-speed prope l
ler.Wi t
ht he
contr
ollable-
pit
cht y
pe ,t hebladea ng l
eca nbec hangedi nfli
g ht,butthepi l
otmus tcha ngethe
propell
erbladea ngl
edi rect
ly.Thebl a
dea ng lewillnotc hang ea gai
nunt i
lthepi lotc ha ngesi t
.
Thee lect
ricpropell
ersus edonol dermode lsBe echcraftBona nzasa reexample sofc ont rol
lable-
pit
chpr opell
ers.Toc ha ng ebladea ngleont hesee l
ectricprope l
lers
,thepi l
ott ogglesi ncreases
a
ndde
cre
ase
sinpr
ope
ll
erpi
tc
hus
ingas
wit
ch.

Theus eofagover
nori
sthenexts
tepi
ntheevol
utionofpropell
erdevel
opment
,makingwayfor
const
ant-
speed pr
opel
ler
s wit
hg ove
rnor sys
tems.Cons tant
-speed pr
opel
le
rs yst
ems are
commonpl a
ceinhighe
rpe r
for
mancegene
ralavi
ationair
planesa ndla
rge
rpropel
le
re qui
pped
air
planes
.

CONSTANT- SPEEDPROPELLERS
Thepr opell
e rhasana turalte ndencytos l
owdowna sthea i
rc raf
tc l
imbsa ndt ospe edupa st he
air
cra f
tdi v
e sbecaus ethel oadont hee nginev aries
.Topr ovidea nef
fici
e ntpr ope ller
,thespe ed
i
sk epta scons t
anta spos sible.Byus i
ngpr opell
erg overnorst oi ncr
e aseorde cre a
seprope ll
er
pit
ch,t hee nginespe edi sheldc onstant.Whe nthea ir
planeg oe sintoac limb,t hebl adea ngleof
thepr opell
erde cre
a sesjuste noug htopr e
v entthee nginespe edf r
omde crea si
ng .Thee nginec an
ma i
nt ainitspowe rout puti ft hethrott
les etti
ngi snotc hange d.Whe nt hea ir planeg oesintoa
dive,thebl adea ng l
ei nc r
ease ssuff
ic
ientl
yt opr eve
ntov erspe edingand,wi t
ht hes amet hrottl
e
set
ting,t hepowe rout putr e ma i
nsunc ha nged.I fthet hrot t
les et
tingi sc ha nge dinsteadof
chang ingthes peedoft hea i
r planebyc li
mbi ngordi vi
ng,thebl adeang l
ei nc rea s
esorde c r
ea s
es
asr equiredt oma int ai
nac ons ta
nte nginer pm. Thepowe rout put( nott her pm)c hangesi n
accorda ncewi t
hc hang esi nt hethrottl
es etti
ng.Theg ov ernorc ont roll
e d,c onst
ant-s
pe ed
prope l
lercha ngesthebl adea ngleautoma t
ica l
ly,keepingeng i
ner pmc onsta nt.

Onety peofpi tchc hangingme chani smi sope rat

edbyoi lpr e
ssure(hydrauli
call
y)a ndus esa
pi
st
ona ndc yl
indera rrangeme nt.Thepi s
tonma ymov eint hec yli
nder,ort hec yl
inderma y
moveov eras t
a t
iona rypist
on.Thel i
ne armot ionofthepiston/
cyli
nde ri
sc onv e
rtedbys everal
di
ff
erentty pesofme c hanicall
inkage sintother otar
ymot i
onne cessa
rytoc hangethebl adeang l
e.
Theme cha ni
calc onne ct
ionbe tweent hepi s
ton/cyl
inde
ra ndpr opell
erbladesma ybet hrough
ge
arsorl ink a
ge s
.Thepi tchc hangingme c
hanis mrotat
esthebut tofeachbl ade.Thepr opelle
r
bl
adesa remount edwi thbea r
ingstha ta l
lowthe mtor ot
atetochang epit
ch.(Figure2-14)
Inmos tc ases,t heoi lpr essuref orope ratingt hedi ffere ntt ypesofhy dr a ul
icpi tchc hanging
me cha nismsc ome sdi rectlyf rom t hee ng inel ubr icatings y st
e m.Whe nt hee ng i
nel ubr icat
ing
sys
te mi sus ed,t hee ng ineoi lpr es
sur ei sus ua llybo oste dbyapumpt ha ti sintegralwi t
ht he
gove r
nort oope ra tethepr ope ll
e r.Thehi ghe roi lpr essur e(a ppr oxima t
ely300poundspe rsqua r
e
inch( psi)pr ov i
de saqui ck erbl a dea ng lec ha ng e .Av a lvewi thint hehy dr auli
cpi t
chc hanging
me cha nism.
Theg ov ernor sus edt oc ont rolhy dra uli
cpi tchc ha ng i
ngme chanismsa reg earedt ot hee ng i
ne
crank shafta nda res ensitivet oc ha ng esinr pm.Whe nr pmi nc reas
e sa bov et hev aluef orwhi cha
gove r
nori ss et,theg ov ernorc aus esthepr ope lle rpi tchc ha ng i
ngme cha ni smt ot urnt hebl ades
toahi ghe ra ng le.Thehi ghe rpi tchi ncre asest hel oa dont hee ngine ,andr pm de crease suntilit
ret
ur nst ot heons peedr pm.Whe nr pm de crea sesbe lowt hev a l
uef orwhi chag ov ernori sset,
theg ov er
norc a us esthepi tchc ha ng i
ngme c hani smt ot ur nt hebl adest oal owe ra ngle.Thel oad
ont hee ng inei sde cr
e aseda ndr pmi nc rea s
e sunt i
li trea che st heons pe edr pm.Thus ,apr opelle
r
gove r
nort endst ok eepe ng i
ner pmc o nstant .
Inc ons t
a nts pe edpr ope ll
e rsy stems ,thec ont rols y stema ut oma ti
callya dj ustspi t
cht hr oug hthe
useofag ov ernor ,wi thouta ttentionbyt hepi l
ot ,toma inta i
nas pecificpr ese tenginer pmwi t
hin
thes etr ang eoft hepr ope l
ler.Fore x a
mpl e,ife ng ines pe edi nc reases,a nov ers
pe edc ondi t
ion
occur sandt hepr opellers ystemr es
pondst or educ et hee ng iner pm.Thec ont r
olsa utoma ti
call
y
increaset hebl a dea ng leunt ilt hede si
re dr pm ha sbe enr e establis
he d.Ag oodc onstants peed
controls ystemr e spondst os uchs ma llva ri
a ti
onsofr pmt ha tfora l
lpr actica lpur poses,ac onst
ant
rpmi sma inta i
ne d.
Eac hc ons tants pe edpr ope ll
e rha sanoppos ingf orc etha tope ratesa gainstt heoi lpr essuref r
om
theg ov ernor .Ons omemode ls,c ount erwe ightsmount e dont hepr opellerbl ades,ora ssoci
ated
parts,mov et hebl ade sint hehi ghpi t
c hdi re
c tiona st hepr ope l
lert urns .( Figure2- 15)Ot her
for
c esus edt omov ethebl ade stowa rdt hehi ghpi tchdi r ectioni ncludea irpr ess
ur e(cont ai
ne din
thefrontdome ),spr i
ng s,a nda erody na mi ctwi stingmome nt.

FEATHERI
NGPROPELLERS
Featheri
ngpr opel
lersaret
ypi
callymount edonmul tieng i
nea ircraf
ttoreducepropel
lerdr agto
ami nimumi nc aseofoneormor eenginefail
ureconditions.Af eather
ingpropel
leri
sac o nst
ant
speedpr opel
lerusedonmul t
ie ngi
nea irc
raftthathasame chanismt ochangethepi t
cht oa n
angleofa pproxi
ma t
e l
y90°.(
Figure1-12)Apr ope l
le
ri susuallyf e
ather
edwhe nthee ngi
nef ail
s
tode v
eloppowe rtot urnt
hepropell
er.Byr ota
tingthepr opellerbladeanglepar
a l
le
lt otheline
offl
ight,thedragont heai
rcr
aftisgr
eatlyreduced.Witht hebl adesparal
lelt
othea i
rs
tream,t he
propell
ers t
opsturni
nga ndminimumwi ndmill
ing,i
fa ny,oc c
ur s.Thebladesar
ehe l
di nfe a
ther
bya er
ody namicforces.

Almos
tal
l s
ma l
lfeat
heri
ngpr opel
ler
suseoilpres
sur
et ota
ket
hepropell
ertolowpitc
ha ndblade
f
lywei
ght
s,spri
ngs,a
ndc ompr es
sedairt
otakethebladest
ohi
ghpitch.Sinc
et hebl
adeswould
gotot
hefeatherpos
it
ionduringshutdown,lat
chesl
ockthepr
opel
lerinthelowpitc
hpos i
ti
ona s
t
heprope
lle
rs l
owsdowna tshutdown.(Fi
gure2-16)T