Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates
• In this section we will discuss…
• Classification of carbohydrates
• Caloric value of carbohydrates
• Recommended daily allowances (RDA)
• Sources of carbohydrates
• Functions
• Digestion, absorption, storage and
metabolism of carbohydrates
• Malnutrition of carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are widely distributed in
plants. Synthesized by photosynthesis
 Carbohydrates
• Classification of carbohydrates
• 1. Monosaccharides
• 2. Oligosaccharides (Di, Tri, Tetra)
• 3. Polysaccharides
• Simplest carbohydrates group is
monosaccharides group
• Also known as simple sugars
• ---ose is the suffix given in general
• Exist in Aldose and ketose form
 Carbohydrates
• 1. Monosaccharides
• Classified depending on no. of “C” atoms

• Glucose is the most important player in metabolism

• Fructose is the sweetest of all
• Galactose is part of lactose present in milk
 Carbohydrates
• 2. Disaccharides
• Formed by combination of two monosaccharides
SUCROSE LACTOSE MALTOSE
Glucose - Fructose Galactose - Glucose Glucose – Glucose

- Constituent of cane sugar - Also called milk sugar -Product of starch

- Common table sugar - Sole CHO source to hydrolysis
infants -Found in germinating
seeds
 Carbohydrates
• 3. Polysaccharides
• Complex carbohydrates composed of many single
sugar units
• Generally tasteless and forms colloids in water
• Depending on composition 2 types
• Homopoly saccharides – same type of sugar unit
• Starch, glycogen, inulin, cellulose…
• Heteropoly saccharides – two or more type of
sugar units
• Heparin, chondroitin sulfate…
 Carbohydrates
Homopolysaccharides

Characters Starch Glycogen Cellulose

Monomer a-glucose a-glucose b-glucose
1,4 glycosidic bond
Type of bond
(amylose) + 1,4 and 1,4 and 1,6
between 1,4 glycosidic bond
1,6 glycosidic bond glycosidic bonds
monomers
(amylopectin)
Amylose is coiled
Straight, long
unbranched Short many
unbranched chains form
Nature of chain Amylopectin is long branched chains,
H-bonds, with adjacent
branched chains, some coiling
chains
some coiling
In animals and
Occurrence In plants In plants
fungi
Carbohydrate energy Carbohydrate
Function Structural
store energy store
General form Grains Small granules Fibres
 Carbohydrates
heteropoly saccharides - play role in health
 Carbohydrates
Summary of classification
 Carbohydrates
• Calorie value
• 1gm of CHO releases 4 Kcal of energy
• RDA
• RDA refers to recommended daily quantities of
nutrients for maintaining health and efficiency

Age Group % of calories from CHO

Infants 50-70
Pre-school children 40-60
Adolescent – school children 50-70
Adults 50-70
Pregnant / nursing women 40-60
 Carbohydrates
• Sources
• Plant sources
• Cereals & grains
• Vegetables
• Fruits
• Sweets

• Animal sources
• Milk
• Glycogen from meat & poultry
 Carbohydrates
• Functions
• Serve as major source of energy
• Precursors for many organic molecules
• In the form of glycoproteins and glycolipids
participate in cellular functions like division,
adhesion and fertilization…
• Serves as structural components (cell walls,
exoskeleton) of organisms
• Serve as raw material for industries
• Serve as diagnostic aids in some diseases
• Example inulin – fructo-oligosaccharide
 Carbohydrates
• Digestion
• Main dietary carbohydrates are polysaccharides
• To some extent di-saccharides and very less
amount of monosaccharides
• Polysaccharides get hydrated during the process
of cooking which is essential for proper digestion
• Digestion of carbohydrates starts in mouth and
mainly happens in intestine
• Digestion in mouth
• During mastication salivary α-amylase acts on
starch
• Produces maltose, α-limit dextrins….
 Carbohydrates
• Digestion in small intestine
• Pancriatic α-amylase continues the digestion
process
• The resulted products are maltose, isomaltose
and oligosaccharides
• In upper jejunum di and oligosaccharides are
converted in to monosaccharides by
oligosaccharidases and disaccharadases
• Sucrase is of particularly important to digest table
sugar
• Lactase is limited in humans in utilization of milk
sugar
• Lactose intolerance
 Carbohydrates
• Absorption
• Final products of carbohydrate digestion are
mainly glucose, galactose and fructose… have
different absorption mechanisms
• Absorption mainly takes place in small intestine
• Galactose is most efficiently absorbed followed
by glucose and fructose
• Glucose and galactose are absorbed by same
mechanism
• Several glucose transporters with varying
functions are in action
• Glucose / galactose transport is carrier mediated
and energy requiring process
 Carbohydrates
• Absorption
• Glucose and Na+ share same transport
mechanism (Symport)
• High concentration of Na+ out side the cells
creates the driving force for its transport in to the
cells
• Simultaneously glucose is also transported
• This is secondary active transport
• Maximum rate of glucose absorption is 120 g/hr
• Galactose is also absorbed in the same manner
 Carbohydrates
• Absorption
• Primary active transport

• Secondary active transport

 Carbohydrates
• Absorption
• Absorption of fructose is simple
• It doesn’t need energy and independent of Na+
• It is transported by facilitated diffusion
• Fibrous material which can not be digested by
human enzymes or intestinal bacteria will be
excreted
Glycemic index – concept
Alternative way to classify CHO foods
• Effect of CHO containing food on blood glucose
levels is glycemic response. Depends on ease of
digestion
• Rapidly increasing glucose level – High GI
• Slowly increasing glucose level – low GI
 Carbohydrates
• Absorption
Glycemic index – increase in blood glucose level
above fasting level during 2 hr period following
consumption of a 50g of CHO containing food
compared with same amount of CHO in a
reference food
the reference food can be glucose or white bread
Glycemic load - Glycemic index multiplied by amount
of CHO in grams present in the food per portion
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates
• Metabolism & Storage
• Glucose is the central molecule in carbohydrate
metabolism… all major pathways of metabolism are
connected with it
• Conversion of glucose to glycogen - glycogenesis
• Conversion of glycogen to glucose - glycogenolysis
• Conversion of non-carbohydrates to glucose –
gluconeogenesis
• Breakdown of glucose – glycolysis
• TCA cycle
• HMP shunt
• Uronic acid pathway – produce ascorbic acid
• Galactose to glucose, fructose metabolism
• Amino sugar and mucopolysaccharide metabolism
 Carbohydrates
• Malnutrition of carbohydrates
• Deficiency
• Carbohydrate deficiency is not common in adults
• Fats generally compensate for temporary
deficiency – results in ketone bodies
• Deficiency may occur in children – “Marasmus”
• Generally appears in children of age 1year
• Marasmic children look like little old man with
features of big head, huge eyes, wrinkled face
and tiny body
 Carbohydrates
• Malnutrition of carbohydrates
• Over consumption
• Over consumption especially sucrose may
increase dental caries
• Cause obesity
• Irritate GI-mucosa
• Depress apetite
• Increase in blood tri-glycerides leading to heart
diseases….
 Next class…..
• Lipids - nutrition