EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Q2 – LIFE SCIENCE

LESSON 1: CONCEPT OF LIFE

Qualification/ Characteristic of Life

 Movement. Most animals move about, but movement from one place to another in itself is not diagnostic of life.
Most plants and even some animals do not move about, while numerous non-living objects, such as clouds, do
move. The criterion of movement is thus neither Necessary (possessed by all life) nor sufficient (possessed only by
life.
 Sensitivity. Almost all living things respond to stimuli. Plants grow toward light, and animals retreat from fire. Not all
stimuli produce responses, however. Imagine kicking a redwood tree or singing to a hibernating bear. This criterion,
although superior to the first, is still inadequate to define life.
 Death. All living things die, while inanimate objects do not. Death is not easily distinguished from disorder, however;
a car that breaks down has not died because it was never alive. Death is simply the loss of life, so this is a circular
definition at best. Unless one can detect life, death is a meaningless concept, and hence a very inadequate
criterion for defining life.
 Complexity. All living things are complex. Even the simplest bacteria contain a bewildering array of molecules,
organized into many complex structures.
Fundamental Properties of Life
The following fundamental properties are shared by all organisms on earth.
 Cellular organization. All organisms consist of one or more cells—complex, organized assemblages of molecules
enclosed within membranes.
 Sensitivity. All organisms respond to stimuli—though not always to the same stimuli in the same ways.
 Growth. All living things assimilate energy and use it to grow, a process called metabolism. Plants, algae, and
some bacteria use sunlight to create covalent carbon bonds from CO2 and H2O through photosynthesis. This
transfer of the energy in covalent bonds is essential to all life on earth.
 Development. Multicellular organisms undergo systematic gene-directed changes as they grow and mature.
 Reproduction. All living things reproduce, passing on traits from one generation to the next. Although some
organisms live for a very long time, no organism lives forever, as far as we know. Because all organisms die,
ongoing life is impossible without reproduction.
 Regulation. All organisms have regulatory mechanisms that coordinate internal processes.
 Homeostasis. All living things maintain relatively constant internal conditions, different from their environment.
Theories about the Origin of Life
There are, in principle, at least three possibilities:
 Special creation. Life forms may have been put on earth by supernatural or divine forces.
 Extraterrestrial origin. Life may not have originated on earth at all; instead, life may have infected earth from some
other planet.
 Spontaneous origin. Life may have evolved from inanimate matter, as associations among molecules became more
and more complex.

LESSON 2: THE CELL

THE CELL THEORY

The cell theory was first proposed by Matthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodore Schwann (1839). Rudolf Virchow (1855)
later added the concept of formation of cells; to this theory. The cell theory is as follows:
 All living things are made of cells
 It is the smallest living unit structure and function of all organisms.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Two Type of Cell

 Prokaryote
 Eukaryote
Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Parts and Functions of a Cell

 Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane is a complex barrier separating every cell from its external environment.
 It is “Selectively Permeable"- which means it regulates what passes into and out of the cell.
 The cell membrane functions like a gate, controlling which molecules can enter and
 Carrier proteins in or on the membrane are specific, only allowing a small group of very similar molecules
through.
 The cell membrane is a fluid mosaic of proteins floating in a phospholipid bilayer. The rest of the cell membrane
is mostly composed of phospholipid molecules. They have only two fatty acid ‘tails’ as one has been replaced
by a phosphate group (making the ‘head’. The head is charged and so polar; the tails are not charged and so
are non-polar.
 Nucleus
 It is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth
and reproduction.
 It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and is commonly the most prominent organelle in a cell.
 The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which has many nuclear pores
through which mRNA, and proteins can pass. These pores make it look like a golf ball.
 Most nuclei contain at least one nucleolus (plural, nucleoli). The nucleoli are where ribosomes are synthesized.
 Cytoplasm
 Everything within the cell membrane which is not the nucleus is known as the cytoplasm.
 Cytosol is the jelly-like mixture in which the other organelles are suspended.
 Organelles carry out specific functions within the cell. In Eukaryotic cells, most organelles are surrounded by a
membrane, but in prokaryotic cells there are no membrane-bound organelles.

The Organelles Function

 Organelle Function
Cell wall Provides mechanical support and maintains cell
shape in
plant cell. It prevents water loss in plants and
protect from over expansion by too much water.
(Animals have no cell wall)
Mitochondrion Provides energy for the cell in the form of ATP
Vacuole Stores water, food and waste for the cells
Golgi Apparatus Sorts, packages and secretes cellular products
Lysosomes The “suicide bag”. They digest excess or worn out
organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or
bacteria.
Centrioles Formation of the spindle fiber during cell division
Endoplasmic reticulum Translocation of materials within the cell and in
and out of the nucleus
Chloroplastids Gives green color of plants
Nuclear Membrane Separates the nuclear contents from the contents
of cytoplasm
Nucleoplasm Synthesis of RNA and production of ribosomes
Ribosomes They use the RNA synthesized by the nucleolus in
making specific amino acid.
Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape,
motility of the cell as a whole, and motility of
organelles within a cell
Microbodies They contain enzymes that are essential in
neutralizing toxic materials that are product of
cellular metabolism.

LESSON 3: PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Photosynthesis
 Life on Earth is solar powered. The chloroplasts in plants and other photosynthetic organisms capture
light energy from the sun and convert it to chemical energy that is stored in sugar and other organic
molecules. This conversion process is called photosynthesis.
 An organism acquires the organic compounds it uses for energy and carbon skeletons by one of two
major modes: autotrophic nutrition or heterotrophic nutrition.
 Almost all plants are autotrophs; the only nutrients they require are water and minerals from the soil and
carbon dioxide from the air. Specifically, plants are photoautotrophs, organisms that use light as a
source of energy to synthesize organic substances. Photosynthesis also occurs in algae like kelp,
certain other unicellular eukaryotes, and some prokaryotes.
 Equation for photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
 It involves two stages, which involve a step-by-step series of chemical reaction.
1. Light reactions (the photo part of photosynthesis) - which capture solar energy and transform it
into chemical energy; and
2. Calvin cycle (the synthesis part) - which uses that chemical energy to make the organic
molecules of food.
 During photosynthesis, plants carry out three vital energy conversions;
1. Conversion of light energy to electron energy
2. Conversion of electron energy to short-term energy storage (ATP)
3. Conversion of short-term energy storage (ATP) to long-term energy storage (sugars)
Cellular Respiration

 Cellular processes are made possible by means of energy. Where does this energy come from?
Whereas only photosynthetic cells can make sugar using photosynthesis. All cells need to be able to
break down sugars they take in from their environment and turn it into energy to be used in cellular
work. ATP is the short-term energy currency of the cell that is generated by the mitochondria. The
conversion of long- term energy storage such as glucose into ATP is called respiration.
 During cellular respiration, sugar is broken down to CO2 and H2O, and in the process, ATP is made that
can then be used for cellular work.
 The over all reaction for cellular respiration is an opposite reaction of photosynthesis:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ̴38 ATP
 Stages of Cellular Respiration
 Glycolysis. Glycolysis is known as “splitting of sugar”. One Glucose (C6H12O6) is broken down
to 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, results in the production of 2 ATPs for every glucose. It is an
anaerobic process - proceeds whether or not O2 is present. Aerobic conditions produce
pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate as the end products of glycolysis. At the
end, the process yields a 2 pyruvate molecule and 2ATP.
 Krebs Cycle (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle). Recall that the pyruvate is the end product of
glycolysis. Pyruvate is transported to the mitochondrial matrix, where it is broken down via
Krebs Cycle. The pyruvate diffuses down its concentration gradient into the mitochondria until
it reaches the mitochondrial matrix, where it is used in cellular respiration. In the matrix,
pyruvate reacts with coenzyme A(CoA) forming CO2 and acetyl CoA. When acetyl CoA enters
the Krebs Cycle, CoA is released. One set of the reactions in the cycle produces 3 NADH, 1
FADH2, 2 CO2 and 1 ATP for each acetyl CoA. Because each glucose molecule yields 2
pyruvates, the total energy harvest per glucose molecule in the matrix is 2 ATP, 8 NADH and
FADH2.
 Electron Transport System. Energetic electrons produced by the Krebs Cycle are carried to
electron transport chains in the inner mitochondrial membrane. At this point, the cell has
gained only 4 ATP molecules from the original glucose molecule: 2 during glycolysis and 2
during Krebs cycle. The cell has, however, captured many energetic electrons in carrier
molecules. The carriers deposit their electrons in electron transport chain. Energy released by
the electrons during the transfer is used to pump hydrogen ions from the matrix across the
inner membrane. The movement of the hydro-gen ions down their gradient through the pores
of ATP synthesizing enzymes drives the synthesis of 32-34 molecules of ATP.
ATP accounting from 1 glucose molecule:
Pathways ATP Yield
1. Glycolysis 2 ATP
2. Krebs Cycle 2 ATP
3. ETS 34 ATP
- 2 ATP energy expended to transport NADPH form glycolysis to mitochondria
Net 36 ATP
Anaerobic Respiration

 In aerobic respiration, glucose is converted to ATP in a presence of oxygen. Anaerobic means without
oxygen. In humans, what you’ll do is take glucose, and, in many steps, break it down to two molecules
of a three-carbon molecule called lactic acid. Lactic acid causes the muscle cramps.

Comparative Summary of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

1. Stores energy in sugar molecules Releases energy from sugar molecules
2. Uses carbon dioxide and water Releases carbon dioxide and water
3. Increases weight Decreases weight
4. Occurs in cell containing chloroplasts Occurs in all living cells
5. Produces oxygen in green organisms Utilizes oxygen
6. Produces ATP with energy from light Produces ATP with energy released from sugar

LESSON 4: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

 Asexual reproduction
 The type of reproduction where cells from only one parent are used, is called asexual. Only genetically-
identical organisms are produced by this type of reproduction. Evolutionary asexual reproduction came
before sexual reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction in bacteria
 Asexual reproduction is very common in microorganisms. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission. During
binary fission, the cell divides into two daughter cells that are similar in size and shape.
 Asexual reproduction in plants
 Asexual reproduction in plants is also called vegetative reproduction. It usually involves only the plant's
vegetative structures like roots, stems and leaves. For example, raspberries can produce a new
generation using their stems; potatoes, using their roots; and geraniums can be grown from any piece of
a parent plant.
 Sporulation
 Some types of mold reproduce through sporulation. They produce reproductive cells - spores - that are
stored in special spore cases until they are ready to be released. After they are released they will
develop into new, individual organisms. Bread mold reproduces by sporulation.
 Asexual reproduction in animals
 Some invertebrate animals (without a backbone) reproduce by asexual reproduction. Animals can
reproduce asexually in the following ways:
 Budding
 During budding, a new organism starts growing from the parent's body. At first it looks like a bud. This
bud later develops into a mature organism. Sometimes it stays attached to the parent's body and
sometimes it breaks off. Hydras reproduce by budding.
 Gemmules are special structures that are found in sea sponges. A parent sponge releases gemmules
that later develop into mature sponges.
 Regeneration. In the process of regeneration, detached pieces of the parent's body can develop into a
new organism if this body part contains enough genetic information. Some flat worms and starfish can
reproduce by regeneration.
Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction
 Asexual reproduction works well for organisms that stay in one place. Because they do not move, it is
difficult for them to find a mating partner. Stable environments are the best places for organisms that
reproduce asexually. Asexual reproduction is also much less time and energy consuming. Asexually-
produced generation does not have any genetic variations. That means that these organisms will not
have any 'material' for adapting to environmental changes. That is why many asexually-reproducing
organisms can reproduce sexually as well.
 Sexual reproduction. During sexual reproduction, two gametes from both parents fuse, forming a
zygote. A zygote is also referred to as a fertilized egg. All gametes are haploid cells, meaning they have
only one set of chromosomes (1n). So, when gametes fuse, they form a diploid organism: 1n+1n=2n.
 Sexual reproduction in algae. The simplest form of sexual reproduction in algae is conjugation,
in which two similar organisms fuse, exchange genetic material and then break apart. Some
multicellular green algae undergo a process called alternation of generations. During this
process, generations of different types of organisms are produced: haploid and diploid. Haploid
generation reproduces sexually. It is followed by diploid generation that reproduces asexually.
 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants. Flowers contain both male and female parts. The
female part is called the pistil, which consists of the ovary, ovule, style and stigma at the tip.
Inside the ovary are the ovules. Each ovule contains an egg cell. The male structure is called
the stamen. It consists of the filament and the pollen-producing anther. A new seed is formed
 when an egg cell joins with a pollen cell in the process of pollination. Pollination occurs when
pollen grains are carried from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the pistil.
 Sexual reproduction in animals. Animal male gamete is called spermatozoan or sperm. Sperm
is a mobile cell that moves using its 'tail', called flagellum. Female gamete is called an ovum. It
does not move and it is much larger than sperm.
 Types of Fertilization
1. Internal fertilization. During internal fertilization, eggs are fertilized inside the female's body.
Animals, like reptiles and birds, lay eggs after fertilization. New offspring develop outside the
female's body. All eggs are covered by a protective shell. Mammal females, except
monotremes, develop a new embryo inside their body. This extra protection increases an
organism's chances of survival.
2. External fertilization. During external fertilization, the egg is fertilized outside the female's body.
Male and female gametes are released into these species' surroundings where they fuse,
forming a zygote. This type of fertilization usually occurs in water. Amphibians and fish are
examples of animals that reproduce in this way.
 Hermaphrodites
Hermaphrodites are animals that have both female and male reproductive organs. Earthworms
and leeches are hermaphrodites, but as they produce eggs and sperm at different times, they need a
mate to reproduce. Flatworms are hermaphrodites that can self-fertilize.
 Parthenogenesis
In some animal species, eggs can develop without fertilization in a process called
parthenogenesis. Some types of birds and bees can reproduce by parthenogenesis.
 Plants:
A plants life cycle starts with a seed. When it receives the right amount of sunlight, water, and
air, it will begin to grow. The Seed sprouts, then grows into roots, a stem, then develops leaves, flowers
and more seeds. The sprouted seed which grows down into the soil is called root. The part which grows
to the surface of the soil is the stem. Later, leaves begin to form from the stem, and that seed is then
called a ‘seedling’ as it can produce and prepare food. Slowly and steadily, it develops as a plant, sheds
seeds, and the cycle continues.
 Animals:
Animals that give birth to babies and feed them with their milk are called mammals. Examples
are humans, cows, and dogs. Other animals lay eggs and hatch them to reproduce new babies. Some
insects lay eggs and the young ones have to undergo the process of metamorphosis.

Reproductive system of a flower

The flower is a plant which has an interesting reproductive system. The flower is what we know as angiosperm
which means that they have seeds in a closed ovary. The flower has many parts which make it up including
petals, sepals (small leaves under the flower) carpels (female reproductive organs ) and the stamens (male
reproductive organs.)
 The Carpels: (female reproductive organs)
Within a flower there can be many carpels. If there are more than one carpel it is referred to as a pistil.
In each carpel is an ovary, which is similar to that of a female human. In here are where the eggs are the
produced. A style is found on top of the ovaries and looks like a long tube. The style is where the male gametes
come down to reach the ovaries. On top of the style is the stigma. The stigma's function is to receive the male
pollen so the flower can undergo fertilization.
 The Stamens: (male reproductive organs)
A stamen is basically the male reproductive organs. Within the stamen is an anther. An anther's function
is to create pollen. It also contains filaments. Filaments hold the pollen in place making it easier for the pollen to
be taken with the wind. Within the pollen is the male reproductive cells. This pollen finds the stigma, goes down
the style where it will find and bind with the ovaries.

Fertilization: course, pollen must fuse with the egg to start fertilization, but how does this process actually works?
The process is known as pollination. This process is helped by animals such as bees which carry pollen from all
kinds of different flowers. As they buzz around the bees drop some of the pollen on the stigma. Once the stigma
feels the pollen, the its way down these tubes and fuses with the eggs and then the flower starts to pollinate and
create a seed.
Types of Flowers:
 There are many types of flowers all over the world and not all of them have both of these reproductive
organs in them. Some flowers have only one and therefore depend on other animals in order to
reproduce. These flowers are known as Imperfect flowers. The flowers which have both of these organs
are known as perfect flowers.

Reproductive system of Animals

The reproductive system of animals depends on what animal they are. Most animals have reproductive systems
similar to that of humans. Animals must pair with a partner of the opposite sex in order to reproduce. Quite
opposite to the flower, animals have either the male reproductive system or the female reproductive system.