Methods of Enquiry in Psychology (Ch.

2)

Notes

Q.1 Define Psychology.

Ans.1 - Psychology is the scientific discipline which deals with the study of mental
processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts (situations).

Q2. What are the goals of psychological enquiry? Explain.

Ans.2- (i) Description- Documenting the facts about behaviour.

(ii) Explanation- Statement of causes behind the event and the behaviour behind them.

(iii) Prediction- Where the psychologist tries to tell as to what may happen in the near
future with respect to the event or behaviour under study.

(iv) Change/ Control- Activity to shape a relevant behaviour in desirable and positive
direction.

Q3. Define ‘scientific enquiry’ or ‘research method’.

Ans.3- Scientific enquiry or research method is a scientific method to study a phenomenon or

a particular event in an objective (purposeful), systematic and testable manner.

Q4. Define objectivity.

Ans.4- Objectivity refers the fact that if two or more persons independently study a
particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.

Q.5 What are the systematic procedures or steps of investigation?

Ans.5- Systematic procedures/ steps of investigation involve the following steps:

conceptualization of a problem, collection of data, drawing conclusions and revising research
conclusions and theory.

(a) Conceptualization of a problem- This process of scientific research begins when a

researcher selects a theme or topic for study. Then he/she narrows down the focus and
develops specific research questions or problems for the study.
(b) Collecting data- Data collection requires developing a research design or a blue print
of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: (i)
participants in the study, (ii) methods of data collection, (iii) tools to be used in
research, and (iv) procedure for data collection.
(c) Drawing Conclusions- The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of
statistical procedures to understand what the data means. This can be achieved
through graphical representations and by the use of different statistical methods. The
purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.
 (d) Revising Research Conclusions- The researcher has to see whether the conclusions
support the derived hypothesis.

Q.6 Write about the nature of psychological data.

Ans.6-

1. Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing

different methods.
2. The information is also called data (singular= datum).
3. It relates to an individual’s covert or overt behaviour, subjective experiences and
mental processes. Data farms an important input in psychological enquiry.
4. It provides an opportunity to verify or falsify ideas, hunches, notions etc.
5. Data does not exist independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved
and the time when the behaviour occurs.
6. The method of data collection used and the characteristics of the respondents
influence the nature and quality of the data.
7. Data does not speak for itself about reality. Inferences have to be made from data. A
researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context.

Q.7 Write about the different types of data collected.

Ans.7-

(a) Demographic Information: This information generally includes personal information

like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital
status etc.
(b) Physical Information: This category includes information bout ecological conditions,
mode of economy, housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities available at home etc.
(c) Physiological Data: Data collected about weight, height, heart rate, level of fatigue,
Galvanic Skin Resistance (GSR) etc.
(d) Psychological Information: Relates to areas as intelligence, personality, interest,
values, creativity etc.

Q.8 Define hypothesis.

Ans.8- After identification of a problem a researcher proceeds with developing a tentative

answer to the problem, this is called hypothesis.

Important methods of Psychological Research in Psychology-

(A) OBSERVATIONAL METHOD-

1. It is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry and an effective method
describing behaviour.
2. A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation in the following
respects:
(a) Selection- Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter.
Rather they select a particular behaviour for observation.
(b) Recording- While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using
different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour
whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail
using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording etc.
(c) Analysis of Data: After the observations have been made, psychologists
analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out
of it.

(Note: A good observer knows what he/she is looking for, whom he/she wants to
observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in what form the
observation will be recorded and what methods will be used to analyse the
observed behaviour.)

3. Types-
(a) Naturalistic vs. Controlled Observation:
(i) Natural:
- Done in a natural real life setting.
- In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate
the situation for making an observation.
- Conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centres etc.
(ii) Controlled:
- Many a times you might need to control certain factors that
determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study.
- Conducted in laboratories
- Also known as Controlled Laboratory Observation.
(b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation:
(i) Non-Participant:
- When the observer decides to observes the person or event from a
distance.
- The person being observed may not aware that he/she is being
observed.
- Can be carried out by installing and using a video recorder or
camera, by taking down notes, by marking tallies etc.
(ii) Participant:
- When the observer becomes a part of the group being observed.
- The observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group
so that they start accepting him/her as one of the group members.
 - Degree of involvement of the observer with the group being
observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.

4. Advantages and Disadvantages-

(a) Advantages-
(i) Enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a
naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
(b) Disadvantages-
(i) Labour intensive
(ii) Time consuming
(iii) Susceptible to observer’s bias
(iv) May be influenced by the observer’s values and beliefs about the
person or event.

(B) EXPERIMENTAL METHOD –

1. Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship

between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.
2. It is a carefully regulated procedure in which changes are made in one factor,
while keeping other related factors constant.
3. Cause is the event being changed or manipulated.
4. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.
5. Variable-
(a) Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or
changes) and can be measured is variable.
(b) An object by itself is not a variable, but its attributes are.
(c) Variation can be in the quality or quantity of objects/events.
(d) Types of variables-
(i) Independent variable: Variable which is manipulated or altered or its
strength varied by the researcher in the experiment. It is the effect of
this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or
note in the study.
(ii) Dependent variables: Variables on which the effect of independent
variable is observed. Represents the phenomenon the researcher
desires to explain.
(iii) Extraneous variables: External factors that affect the outcome of the
research.
(iv) Organismic variables: Such as anxiety, intelligence, personality, etc.
(v) Situational or Environmental variables: Such as noise, humidity,
temperature etc.
(vi) Sequential variables: Sequence related variables assume significance
when the participants in the experiments are required to be tested in
several variables.
6. Techniques to control relevant variables:
(a) Since the goal of an experiment is to minimise extraneous variable, the best
way to handle this problem is to eliminate them from the environment.
(b) Elimination is not always possible in the case of extraneous variables. In such
cases, effort should be made to hold them constant so that their effect remains
the same throughout the experiment.
(c) For controlling organismic and background variables , matching is used. In this
procedure the relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held
constant. This is done by taking matched pairs across the conditions of the
experiment.
(d) Counter-balancing technique is used to minimise the sequence effect.
(e) Random assignment of participants to different groups eliminates any
potential systematic differences between groups. It ensures that each person
has an equal chance of being included in any of the experimental groups.

7. Experimental and Control Groups-

(a) Experimental group- A group in which members are exposed to independent
variable manipulation.
(b) Control group- A comparison group that is treated in every way like the
experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it.

8. Advantages and Disadvantages-

(a) Advantages- Can provide, relatively speaking, a convincing evidence cause-
effect relationship between two or more variables.
(b) Disadvantages/Limitations-
(i) Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or
practise effects which may influence the results of the study and make
the interpretation of the findings difficult.
(ii) Experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory
situation, so they only simulate situations that exist in the outside
world.
(iii) Experiments may produce results that do not generalise well or apply
to real situations. (Have low external validity).
(iv) It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
(v) It is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.

9. Field and Quasi Experiments-

(a) Field Experiments-
(i) If a researcher wants to have high generalizability or to conduct studies
which are not possible in laboratory settings, he/she may go to the field
or the natural setting where the particular phenomenon actually exists.
 (ii) In these types of experiments, the control over relevant variables is less
than what we find in laboratory experiments.
(iii) Disadvantage- More time consuming and expensive.
(b) Quasi Experiments-
(i) In such types of experiments, the independent variable is selected
rather than varied or manipulated by the experimenter.
(ii) A Quasi experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in
a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental
and control groups.

(C) CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH-

1. Used to find the relationship between two variables for:

(i) Prediction purposes; and
(ii) To determine whether they are associated, or covary or not.
2. The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is
represented by a umber, known as correlation coefficient. Its value can range from
+1.0 through 0.0 to -1.0.
3. Three types of coefficient correlation-
(i) Positive correlation- Indicates that as the value of one variable (x)
increases, the value of the other variable (y) will also increase, and vice
versa. The stronger the association the closer the number would be to +1.0.
(ii) Negative correlation- Tells us that as the value of variable (x) increases,
the value of the other (y) decreases, and vice versa.
(iii) Zero correlation- Sometimes no correlation exists between two variables.
Generally, it is difficult to find zero correlation but the correlations found
may be close to zero, e.g., -.02 or +.03.

(D) SURVEY RESEARCH-

1. Survey research is used to study opinions, attitudes and social facts.
2. The main concern is to find out the baseline or reality.
3. It is also used to find out the attitude of people towards various issues that concern
the society.
4. The survey method has now evolved into a sophisticated technique which helps in
inferring various kinds of casual relationships.
5. It uses different techniques for collecting information. They are as follows:-
(a) Personal Interviews-
(i) One of the most frequently used methods for obtaining information
from people.
(ii) In an interview two or more persons sit face-to-face witch each other,
in which one person (generally called interviewer) asks the questions
and the other person (called interviewee or respondent) answers the
questions related to a problem.
(iii) An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual
information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons for particular
behaviour, etc. from the respondents.
(iv) Generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes also over the phone.
(v) Types of interviews-
- Structured/ Standardized:
 List of questions prepared before conducting an interview is
called an interview schedule.
 An interview where the questions in the schedule are
written clearly and in a particular sequence.
 The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in
the wordings of the questions or the order in which they are
to be asked. These are called close-ended questions.
 The responses to the questions are also, in some cases,
specified in advance.
- Unstructured/ Non-Standardized:
 In such interviews the interviewer has the flexibility to take
decisions about he questions to be asked, the wording of the
questions, and the sequence in which these questions are to
be asked.
 Since responses are not specified in such types of
interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the
way he/ she chooses to. Such questions are called open-
ended questions.
(vi) Different types of combinations of participants in an interview
situation:-
- Individual to Group: In this situation, one interviewer interviews a
group of persons. One variant of it is called a Focus Group
Discussion (FGD).
- Individual to Individual: A situation where one interviewer
interviews another person.
- Group to Individuals: Where one group of interviewers interview
one person. E.g.: When one appears for job interviews.
- Group to Group: Where one group of interviewers interviews
another group of interviewees.
(vii) Interviewing as a skill-
 Requires proper training.
 A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease
and get the optimal answer.
 He/she remains sensitive to the way a person responds and, if
needed, probes for more information.
 If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try
to get specific and concrete answers.
 (viii) Advantages and Disadvantages-
 Advantages-
 Helps in obtaining in-depth information.
 Flexible and adaptable to individual situations.
 Can be used even with children and non-literate
persons.
 Interviewer can paraphrase the questions.
 Disadvantages-
 Requires time.
 May not be cost effective.

(b) Questionnaire Survey-

(i) Most common, simple, versatile and low-cost self-report method of
collecting information.
(ii) Consists of pre-determined set of questions.
(iii) The respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on
paper rather than respond verbally to the interviewer.
(iv) Can be distributed to a group of persons at a time who write down their
answers to the questions and return to the researcher or can be sent
through mail.
(v) Types of questions used in the questionnaire-
 Open-ended: The respondent is free to write whatever answer
he/she consider appropriate.
 Close-ended: The questions and their probable answers are
given and the respondent to select the correct answer. E.g.-
Yes/No, True/False, Multiple Choice etc.
(vi) Used for collecting background and demographic information,
information about past behaviour, attitudes and opinions, knowledge
about a particular topic and expectations and aspirations of the persons.
(vii) Main problem: Poor response from respondents.

(c) Telephone Survey-

(i) Advantages-
 Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from
thousands of persons.
 Since information can be gathered quickly, public opinions on
new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues arise.

(ii) Disadvantages-
 Since the respondents do not know the interviewer, the
technique is fraught with uncooperativeness, reluctance and
superficial answers by the respondents.
  People may give inaccurate information because of memory
lapses or they may not want to let the researcher know what
they really believe about a particular issue.
 People also sometimes offer responses they think the researcher
wants to hear.
 There is also a possibility that those responding may differ
from those not responding, e.g., on age, gender, income levels
etc. This will lead to very biased results.

(E) PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING-

1. Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment
of various human characteristics, such as:-
 Intelligence
 Aptitude
 Personality
 Interest
 Attitudes
 Values
 Educational achievements; etc.
2. These tests are used for various purposes, such as:-
 Personnel selection
 Placement
 Training
 Guidance
 Diagnosis; etc.
3. These tests are used in multiple contexts, including the following:-
 Educational institutions
 Guidance clinics
 Industries
 Defence establishments
4. A test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable
responses, which are related to a particular human characteristic or
attribute.
5. Often a test is meant for a particular age group.
6. It may/may not have a fixed time limit for answering the questions.
7. A psychological test is a standardized and objective instrument which
is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some
mental or behavioural characteristic.
8. Necessary precautions-
 It is essential that items should be worded in such a manner that
they communicate the same meaning to different readers.
 Also the instructions to the test takers about how to answer the
test items should be specified in advance.
 9. Important terms-
 Reliability: Refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an
individual on the same test on two different occasions.
 Test-retest reliability: Indicates the temporal stability or
stability of the test scores over time.
 Split-half reliability: Gives an indication about the degree of
internal consistency of the test.
 Validity: Refers to whether the test measures what it claims to
measure.
 Norms: Normal average performance of the group.
10. Types of tests-
 On the basis of test items-
 Verbal: The respondent responds verbally.
 Non-Verbal: It contains items in the form of symbols
or/and pictures. It is basically a paper-pencil test.
 Performance: Involves movement of objects from one
respective place to another (like in a puzzle game).
 On the basis of mode of administration-
 Individual
 Group
 On the basis of time limit-
 Speed
 Power
 Mixed
 On the basis of culture-
 Culture bias
 Culture fair

(F) CASE STUDY-

1. An in-depth study of a particular case.
2. Provides critical information to understand a phenomenon.
3. Cases are unique and rich in information.
4. Employs interviews, observations and psychological tests in collecting
information from respondents, associated with case.
5. Helps a psychologist to understand a person’s mind, hopes, fears, fantasies,
upbringing and their current conditions.
6. Provides a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in
people’s lives.
7. Valuable research tool in clinical psychology and human development.
8. Freud said that we must maintain the records of individual cases. Case studies
help us understand the pattern of socialization among children.
9. Two methodological approaches for analysis of data:-
 Quantitative Method
  Qualitative Method

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Limitations of Psychological Enquiry:-

1. Lack of true zero point.

2. Relative nature of Psychological tools.
3. Subjective interpretation of quantitative data.

Some important terms:-

 Sample- A group of people who are used to represent the total population.
 Random sample- Sampling technique in which members of the controlled and
experimental group are randomly selected from a large population. This ensures that
each individual has a fair chance of selection.
 Longitudinal study- Research that follows the same group of people over a period of
time.
 Cross-sectional study- Research that assesses different people of different ages at the
same time.
 Cross-sequential- Research that assesses the people in cross-sectional study two or
more times.