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Active components
An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit. Active elements have
the ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All electronic circuits must contain at
least one active component.
Eg: diode, transistor, SCR

Passive components
A passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can either
dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form
of electrical power to operate.
Eg: resistors, inductors, capacitors

Resistors
Those components and devices which are specially designed to have a certain amount of resistance and
used to oppose or limit the electric current flowing through it are called resistors.
Normally resistors can be classified into two types namely linear resistor and non-linear resistor.

Linear Resistors
The resistors whose value changes with the applied temperature and voltage, are called linear resistors.
Most types of resistors are linear devices that produce a voltage drop across themselves when a current
flows through them There are two basic types of resistors with linear properties namely fixed resistors and
variable resistors.

Fixed resistors
Fixed resistors are resistors with a specific value. Fixed resistors one of the most widely used types of
resistor. Fixed resistors are used in electronics circuits to set the correct conditions in a circuit.

Types of Fixed Resistors

Wire Wound Resistors
Metal Film Resistors
Carbon Composition Resistors.etc
Wire wound Resistors
Wire wound resistor is made from the insulating core or rod by wrapping around a resistive wire. The
resistance wire is generally Tungsten, manganin, Nichrome or nickel or nickel chromium alloy and the
insulating core is made of porcelain, Bakelite, press bond paper or ceramic clay material.

Carbon-composition resistors -
They are made of finely divided carbon or graphite mixed with a powdered insulating material as a binder
in the proportions need for the desired resistance value.

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Metal film resistors

A metal-film resistor is a resistor in which a thin film of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate and
then cut into a spiral body.

Variable Resistors
Variable Resistors consist of a slider which taps onto the main resistor element and a fixed resistor element.
Simply we can say that a variable resistor is a potentiometer with only 2 connecting wires instead of 3.

Types of Variable Resistors

Potentiometer
Rheostat
Trimmer Resistor

Non-Linear Resistor
Non-linear resistors are those types of resistors where the electric current flowing through it changes with
the exchange in applied voltage or temperature and does not change according to Ohm’s law. There are
several types of non-linear resistors, but the most commonly used are
Thermistors
Varistors
Surface mount resistors
Light dependent resistors etc

Capacitors

 A capacitor is defined as a passive component which is used for storing electrical energy. A capacitor
is made of two conductors that are separated by the dielectric material. These dielectric materials
are in the form of plates which can accumulate charges.
 One plate is for a positive charge while the other is for a negative charge.
 Capacitance is the effect of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of electric charge Q to
the voltage V and it is expressed as

C = Q/V
 Where,
 Q is the electric charge measured in coulombs
 C is the capacitance measured in farad
 V is the voltage across the plates measured in volts.

Types of Capacitors
Let us now know various types of capacitors. Capacitors are categorized into 2 mechanical groups. Fixed
Capacitors consist of fixed capacitance value and variable capacitance with variable capacitance value.
Beneath are a brief description of various capacitor types and their properties.

 Ceramic Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Electrolytic Capacitors
 Ceramic capacitors
 Paper capacitors

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Ceramic Capacitors
A ceramic capacitor is considered to be one of the most commonly used capacitors. The material used in this
capacitor type is dielectric. Also, ceramic capacitors are non-polar devices which means that they can be
used in any direction in the circuit.

Film Capacitors
Film capacitors are also known as a polymer film, plastic film, or film dielectric. The advantage of film
capacitors is that they are inexpensive and come with limitless shelf life. The film capacitor uses a thin
dielectric material with the other side of the capacitor metalized. Depending on the application, the film
capacitor is rolled into thin films. The general voltage range of these capacitors is from 50 V to 2 kV.

Electrolytic Capacitors
In an electrolytic capacitor metallic anode coated with an oxidized layer used as a dielectric. These
capacitors are polarized. Electrolytic capacitors are categorized based on their dielectric.

 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors – aluminum oxide (dielectric).

 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors – tantalum pentoxide (dielectric).
 Niobium electrolytic capacitors – niobium pentoxide (dielectric).
Paper Capacitor
Paper capacitor is also known as a fixed capacitor in which paper is used as the dielectric material. The
amount of electric charge stored by the paper capacitor is fixed. It consists of two metallic plates, and
paper, which is used as a dielectric material, is placed between these plates.

Diode

It is a 2 terminal electronic component. It is a uni-directional device, because it allows only the flow of
current in one direction only.it is formed by jointing P type material and N type material.
Working principle of a diode

Diode is a PN junction device formed by jointing P type and N type semiconductor. In P type semiconductor,
majority charge carrier is holes and In N type semiconductor, majority charge carrier is free electrons.
When they joined to form diode, at the P-N junction area, holes in P type semiconductor moves to N type
semiconductor and free electrons in N type semiconductor moves to P type semiconductor region due to
concentration deference. Due to this flow of holes and electrons a depletion region is formed with a barrier
potential at PN junction area. This barrier potential prevents the further flow of electrons and holes.

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Forward biased PN junction

A diode is said to be forward biased when P type semiconductor part of diode is connected to positive
terminal of the battery and N type semiconductor part of diode is connected to Negative terminal of the
battery as shown in figure. In this condition, holes on the P type region is attracted to negative terminal of
the battery. So, it moves towards the N type region by crossing PN junction. Similarly, free electrons in the
N type region is attracted by the positive terminal of the battery, so it moves towards the P type region by
crossing. Due to the flow of this majority carriers across the junction, the width of depletion region reduces.
So, during forward biased condition, current in the diode is due to majority charge carriers.

Reverse biased PN junction

A diode is said to be Reverse biased when P type semiconductor part of diode is connected to negative
terminal of the battery and N type semiconductor part of diode is connected to positive terminal of the
battery as shown in figure.
In this condition, holes on the P type region is attracted to negative terminal of the battery and free
electrons in the N type region is attracted by the positive terminal of the battery. Due to this holes in P type
region and free electron in N type region are moved away from PN junction. So width of depletion layer
increases. In this reverse biased condition only minority charge carriers in the P type and N type region
crosses the PN junction and contribute to the flow of current. This current is very small and it is due to
minority charge carriers in the diode. majority charge carriers.

1. Halfwave rectifier
Rectifier diode

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Above circuit diagram shows the Half wave rectifier. during positive half cycle of input AC supply, diode will be
forward biased. So, diode conduct. So output is obtained across the load. During negative half cycle diode is
reverse biased. So, diode can’t conduct. So, no output is obtained across the load. Figure below shows the wave
forms in half wave rectifier.

 Peak inverse voltage across diode is Vm only

 DC output is =Vm/π only

1. Full wave rectifier

a. Centre tapped rectifier or Full wave rectifier using 2 diodes

 During positive half cycle of input, D1 will be forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. So D1 conduct.
Now the current flow through the load resistor is from A to B.
 During negative half cycle of input, D2 will be forward biased and D1 is reverse biased. So D2
conduct. Now the current flow through the load resistor is from A to B.
In both positive half cycle and negative half cycle of input, the direction of output current is same. Hence DC
output is obtained. figure below shows the Full wave rectifier using 2 diodes
 Peak inverse volateg =2Vm
 DC output=2 Vm/π

b. Full wave rectifier using 4 diodes or Bridge rectifier

Bridge rectifier circuit is shown below. It uses four diodes to rectify AC into DC.

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 During positive half cycle of input supply, both diode D1 and D2 are forward biased and D3and
D4 are reverse biased. So current flows in the path of D1-A-B-D2.
 During negative half cycle of input supply, both diode D3 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and
D2 are reverse biased. So current flows in the path of D4-A-B-D3.
 Here we can see that, in both half cycle of input supply, the direction of current in the load is
same. Hence DC output is obtained
 figure below shows the Full wave rectifier using 2 diodes

 Peak inverse volateg =2Vm

 DC output=2 Vm/π

TRANSISTOR or BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR(BJT)

 It is a three-layer semiconductor device. Example: PNP and NPN
 It has three terminals. Emitter, base and collector
 There are two types of transistor

NPN PNP

Transistor as switch
Using a transistor as a switch is the simplest application of the device. A transistor can be extensively used for
switching operation either for opening or closing of a circuit. Meanwhile, the basic concept behind the
operation of a transistor as a switch relies on its mode of operation. Generally, the low voltage DC is turned
on or off by transistors in this mode.
Both PNP and NPN transistors can be utilized as switches. A basic terminal transistor can be handled
differently from a signal amplifier by biasing both NPN and PNP bipolar transistors by an “ON / OFF” static
switch. One of the main uses of the transistor to transform a DC signal “On” or “OFF” is solid-state switches.

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Some devices, including LEDs, only require several milliamperes of DC voltages at the logical level and can
be directly controlled via the logical gate output. High-power devices such as generators, solenoids or lamps
usually need more power to use transistor switches than the usual logic gate.

Transistor Switch’s Working Regions or Operating Modes

Meanwhile, the saturation zone and cut-off area are known as the transistor switch’s working regions. This
implies that, by switching between its “top-off” (saturation) and “absolute OFF,” the transistor is used as a
switch to basically overwrite its Q-Point and the voltage dividers circuit that is needed for amplification.

Cut-Off Region
The “cut-off” area is at the bottom of the curves, the blue, shaded area and the yellow zone on the left is the
transistor “saturation” region.
The transistor’s operating specifications include the base current (IB), the collector current (IC) and the emitter-
collector voltage (VCE).

Characteristics of Cut-off Region

 The transistor is used as an “open switch”
 The bases and input are grounded (0v)
 The base emission voltage is VBE > 0.7 V
 The basic emitter is reversed
 The full-OFF (cut-off area) transistor (“Collector Flow = 0”) • VOUT = VCC = “1′′”
 No collector current flows (IC = 0)
Instead, we can describe the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode,” both in reverse bias, with Vb < 0.7 V and IC = 0,
when using a bipolar transistor as a switch

Saturation Region
In this mode or region the highest base current is applied, leading to the overall collector current causing the
average collector-emitter voltage to fall and the leakage surface as small as possible and the maximum current
that flows across this transistor. That is why the “Fully ON” transistor is triggered.

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When Vi is low and the transistor is unable to forward-bias, Vo is high(= VCC).
If Vi is sufficiently high to saturate the transistor, Vo is very low (~0).
It is also switched off when a transistor is not conducting. On the other side, it is turned at when it is in the
state of depletion. Bringing these components together, imagine a resistor that determines the low and high
values below and above those points of voltage
Such levels suit the transistor’s cutoff and saturation. We might say in such a situation that a small input turns
off the transistor and a high input switches on it. These circuits are designed to prevent the transistor from
staying in an active state. That’s how a transistor can act as a switch
SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)

 It is a four-layer PNPN semiconductor device having three junctions.

 It has three terminals. Anode, cathode and gate

Working principle of SCR

it works in 3 modes
1. Forward blocking mode

 In this mode, Anode is connected to positive terminal of input supply and cathode is
connected to negative terminal of input supply. No input is given to gate terminal.
 So, junction J1 and J3 of SCR becomes forward biased and Junction J2 becomes reverse biased.
 So only very small current flows from anode to cathode.
 If we increase the voltage between anode and cathode above a certain limit, a breakdown will
happen. This voltage at which breakdown of SCR takes place is called forward breakover voltage( VBO)
2. Reverse blocking mode
 In this mode, Anode is connected to negative terminal of input supply and cathode is
connected to positive terminal of input supply. No input is given to gate terminal.
 So, junction J1 and J3 of SCR becomes reverse biased and Junction J2 becomes biased.
 So only very small current flows. It is due to minority charge carriers from cathode to anode. This
current is called reverse leakage current.
If we increase the voltage between anode and cathode above a certain limit, a breakdown will happen. This voltage
at which breakdown of SCR takes place is called reverse breakdownvoltage( VBR)

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3. Forward conduction mode

 In this mode, Anode is connected to positive terminal of input supply and cathode is
connected to negative terminal of input supply.
 So, junction J1 and J3 of SCR becomes forward biased
 In this mode of operation, a positive input is given to gate terminal. So, junction J2 also becomes forward
biased. So, a current flow from anode to cathode. Now SCR conducts.

ELECTRIC DRIVES
An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical energy to mechanical energy
to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various kindsof process control

Power Source: This unit is responsible for providing the power which is needed by the system to do the
desired operation.
Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given work or task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.
Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to the motion
The common function of the power modulator is,
 They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits during the
transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal etc.
 They converts the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
 Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are regenerative.

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Control Unit
The control unit is mainly used to control the power modulator, and this modulator can operate at power
levels as well as small voltage. And it also works the power modulator as preferred. This unit produces the
rules for the safety of the motor as well as power modulator.
Sensing Unit
The sensing unit in the block diagram is used to sense the particular drive factor such as speed, motor
current. This unit is mainly used for the operation of closed loop otherwise protection.
Motor
The electric motor for the specific application can be chosen by various features such as price,
reaching the level of power & performance necessary by the load . Mostly DC motors used in the
electric drive systems are in series, shunt, or compound form while AC motors used are slip ring
induction motors. Sometimes stepper motors or brushless DC motors are also used in special cases.

EV charging system

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