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Histopathology and morphology of the tissue stages of

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Histopathology and morphology of

the tissue stages of Haemoproteus
columbae causing mortality in
Columbiformes
a b a c
R. A. Earle , Stella S. Bastianello , G. F. Bennett & R. C.
a
Krecek
a
Section of Pathology , Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute ,
Onderstepoort, 0110, Republic of South Africa
b
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science ,
University of Pretoria , Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110,
Republic of South Africa
c
International Reference Centre for Avian Haematozoa ,
Memorial University of Newfoundland , St. John's
Newfoundland, Canada , A1B 3X9
Published online: 12 Nov 2007.

To cite this article: R. A. Earle , Stella S. Bastianello , G. F. Bennett & R. C. Krecek (1993)
Histopathology and morphology of the tissue stages of Haemoproteus columbae causing
mortality in Columbiformes, Avian Pathology, 22:1, 67-80, DOI: 10.1080/03079459308418901

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 Avian Pathology (1993) 22, 67-80

Histopathology and morphology of the tissue

stages of Haemoproteus columbae causing
mortality in Columbiformes

R. A. EARLE1, STELLA S. BASTIANELLO 2 , G. F. BENNETT 1,3 &

R. C. KRECEK1
1
Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of
Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort,2 Section of Pathology, Onderstepoort
Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort, 0110 Republic of South Africa and
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3
International Reference Centre for Avian Haematozoa, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John's Newfoundland, Canada A1B 3X9

SUMMARY
Two doves from the same aviary died following heavy infections with Haemoproteus
columbae. Histopathological examination of various organs revealed numerous
schizonts and megaloschizonts. There seemed to be two cycles of schizogony, one
within the muscles and another in a wide range of tissues. The shape and size of the
schizonts appeared to be a function of the site of formation. The rupture of
megaloschizonts, especially in the striated muscles caused extensive fibre necrosis
and the resultant muscle damage, is believed to be the major cause of mortality.

INTRODUCTION
The avian haemosporidian parasites are a diverse group of some 250 species
distributed throughout the apicomplexan families Leucocytozoidae, Plasmodiidae
and Haemoproteidae (Bennett et al., 1982). Some of these species, especially
Leucocytozoon simondi, L. smithi and L. (Akiba) caulleryi can cause considerable
mortality in domestic flocks of ducks and geese, turkeys and domestic fowl,
respectively (O'Roke, 1930; Chernin, 1952; Newberne, 1955; Kocan, 1968;
Novilla et al., 1971). Species of Plasmodium, especially P. relictum, P. elongatum,
P. gallinaceum and P. durae cause mortalities in zoo birds such as penguins, in
domestic fowl and in turkey flocks (Stoskopf & Beier, 1979; Cranfield et al.,
1990; Huchzermeyer, 1976,1988,1991). Species of Haemoproteus have, however,
always been considered relatively benign parasites with little impact on their
avian hosts (Garnham, 1966) and only five reported incidents of mortality
(Malkani, 1936; Garnham, 1950; Markus & Oosthuizen, 1972; Kucera et al,

Received 10 February 1992; Accepted 27 July 1992.

67
 68 R. A. EARLEBr/4L.

1982; Hartley, 1992). Atkinson et al. (1986), in the most thorough study of the
effects of Haemoproteus on its vertebrate host reported that H. meleagridis had a
severe impact on developing turkey poults.
During 1990 a high mortality rate was recorded in doves from an aviary near
Pretoria, South Africa. A dead Bleeding Heart Dove (Gallicolumba luzonica) was
submitted for necropsy and tissues from a second bird for histopathological
examination. Examination of the post-mortem blood smear revealed a massive
infection of H. columbae. This paper reports on the blood smear and pathological
findings in these birds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Dove No. 1
An adult female Bleeding Heart Dove which died suddenly was presented for
necropsy examination. Thin blood smears were made from the heart blood, air
dried, fixed with May-Grunwald-Giemsa and stained with Giemsa. The smears
were examined under oil immersion and the number of parasites per field
containing a mean of 102 erythrocytes were counted. Specimens of skeletal
muscle from the breast, wings and legs as well as the heart, brain, liver, lung,
spleen, kidney and various portions of the gastro-intestinal tract were collected in
a 10% buffered formalin solution for histopathological examination. Blocks of the
above tissues were routinely processed, sectioned and stained with haemotoxylin
and eosin.

Dove No. 2
Sections of liver, lung, kidney and heart were received and processed as above.

RESULTS
Blood smears
In dove No. 1, 55% of the erythrocytes harboured at least one H. columbae
parasite. Multiple invasions of host cells were common and there was a mean of
61.0 parasites per 100 erythrocytes (n = 25; SD = 7.3; Range = 52-74). Three
exo-erythrocytic schizonts were seen in the blood smears (Figure 1).

Gross pathology
There was severe generalized congestion in dove no. 1. Several wide yellow-white
bands of necrosis measuring up to 15 mm in diameter were visible running
obliquely across the breast muscles in the direction of the muscle fibres. Similar,
less pronounced streaks or bands were evident in the larger muscles of the wings
 MORTALITY DUE TO HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE 69
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Figure 1. Blood smear. Numerous mature and immature gametocytes of Haemoproteus

columbae in erythrocytes (—>) as well as an exo-erythrocytic schizont (—>—>). (May-
Grunwald-Giemsa. Bar:

and legs. Interspersed between the larger bands of necrosis were numerous fine
yellow-white streaks a few millimetres in length. These were present in all the
skeletal muscles including the finer muscles at the distal ends of the limbs.
Petechiae and ecchymoses often accompanied the above lesions.

Histopathology
Dove No. 1
Skeletal muscle. There were extensive multifocal areas of necrosis evidenced by
swelling, coagulation, hyalinization, fragmentation, loss of striations and partial or
complete lysis of fibres (Figure 2). Some of the necrotic fibres contained granular
basophilic calcified material.
There was minimal cell infiltration, but occasionally a few monocytes, lympho-
cytes and fibroblasts were seen interspersed between the necrotic muscle fibres.
Numerous megaloschizonts lined by an indistinct, fairly thick translucent
homogenous eosinophilic membrane were scattered within both the necrotic and
intact muscle fibres. The majority of megaloschizonts were viable, but some
revealed signs of disintegration. In the areas of extensive necrosis many megalos-
chizonts were necrotic.
Megaloschizonts were unilocular (Figure 3), but more commonly multilocular
and septate (Figure 4). The number of compartments varied greatly, up to 21
being encountered in one megaloschizont. The septa resembled the outer walls of
the megaloschizont. Occasionally incomplete septa were seen (Figure 5).
 70 R. A. EARLE ETAL.
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Figure 2. Skeletal muscle. Extensive necrosis of breast muscles of Bleeding Heart Dove.
(H&E. Bar: SOjum.)

Figure 3. Skeletal muscle. Unilocular megaloschizont containing a mixture of forms in

skeletal muscle. Note necrosis of adjacent myofibres. (H&E. Bar: 50 /int.)

Megaloschizonts contained tightly packed rounded merozoites, approximately 1

in diameter with a central dark core of nuclear material and an outer rim of
clear staining cytoplasm (Figure 6) or amorphous dark-staining irregular shaped
forms (Figure 7). Others contained a mixture of the above two forms as well as
rounded structures resembling cytomeres and clumps of finely granular protozoal
cytoplasm some with an outer rim of cytoplasm.
 MORTALITY DUE TO HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE 71
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Figure 4. Skeletal muscle. Multilocular megaloschizont in skeletal muscle. (H&E. Bar:

100 /urn.)

llil? *
^-ti.1
!
iK^ m
if.' «|1F

ft U (9^

Figure 5. Skeletal muscle. Megaloschizont with incomplete septa (—>). (H&E. Bar: 50
pan.)

Degenerative changes evidenced by vacuolar spaces some of which contained

fibrillar material were present in many megaloschizonts. Others had ballooned out
(Figure 8) or exhibited focal disintegration or buckling of the wall. A large
proportion of megaloschizonts were filled with erythrocytes (Figure 8) or a
mixture of erythrocytes and merozoites (Figure 6). Schizonts or loose merozoites
were often present within blood vessels in the vicinity of the disintegrating or
ruptured megaloschizonts.
 72 R. A. EKRLEETAL.
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Figure 6. Skeletal muscle. A megaloschizont containing tightly packed merozoites com-

posed of darkly staining centres and an outer rim of clear-staining cytoplasm (—*). The
megaloschizont is partially filled with erythrocytes. (H&E. Bar: 50 jim.)

Figure 7. Skeletal muscle, A thick-walled megaloschizont containing merozoites and larger

rounded cytomeres (—>). Note the adjacent degenerating schizont (—>—>) and surrounding
necrotic fibres. (H&E. Bar: 50 /im.)

Heart. Moderate numbers of viable unilocular or septate, blood-filled or occa-

sionally degenerating megaloschizonts similar in morphology and composition to
those in the skeletal muscles were present within muscle fibres throughout the
myocardin. The majority contained amorphous protozoal cytoplasmic clumps
(Figure 9) or darkly staining forms (Figure 10). An inflammatory reaction was
seldom noted around the megaloschizonts, but in a few instances there was mild
 MORTALITY DUE TO HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE 73
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Figure 8. Skeletal muscle. A swollen multilocular megaloschtzont releasing merozoites and

a smaller megaloschizont filled with erythrocytes. (H&E. Bar: 100 /urn.)

degeneration or necrosis of the cardiac fibres at the poles of the megaloschizonts.

No widespread necrosis of muscle fibres was evident.

Figure 9. Heart muscle. Megaloschizonts containing amphophilic cytoplasm clumps, mero-

zoites and cytomeres. (H&E. Bar: 50 fim.)

Gizzard. A single viable thick-walled unilocular merozoite-filled megaloschizont

was noted in the muscular layer of the gizzard. No evidence of necrosis or
inflammation was present around the megaloschizont.

Proventriculus. Several thin-walled schizonts were evident in the mucosal capil-

laries. These filled the lumens completely and were rounded or elongated
depending on the course of the parasitized capillary. Due to autolysis the
morphology of the internal structures could not be discerned.
 74 R. A.
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Figure 10. Liver. Irregularly-shaped thin-walled aseptate megaloschizont within a sinu-

soid and containing darkly staining forms of organisms. The hepatocytes surrounding the
schizont reveal vacuolar degeneration and karyorrhexis. (H&E. Bar: 50fim.)

Other tissues. Besides a moderate nephrosis and congestion, no notable pathology

or schizonts were evident in the other tissues examined.

Dove No. 2
Heart. Several predominantly unilocular as well as septate megaloschizonts
similar to those seen in the first dove were scattered throughout the myocardium.
The parasitized muscle fibres were distorted in shape, but did not reveal signs of
necrosis or degeneration. Capillaries in the vicinity of some megaloschizonts
occasionally contained merozoite-filled schizonts the shape of which conformed
to the course of the capillary.
Liver. There was diffuse congestion, leucocytosis and mild degeneration of the
hepatocytes. Isolated rounded or irregularly shaped thin-walled aseptate megalo-
schizonts containing dark staining forms were present in dilated sinusoids (Figure
10). The surrounding hepatocytes frequently revealed vacuolation, granulation or
karyorrhexis.
Kidney. There was a moderate nephrosis and congestion with a focal interstitial
plasmacytic nephritis. Megaloschizonts similar to those described for the liver
were scattered within cortical vessels.
Lung. The alveolar capillaries and pulmonary vessels were severely congested.
Several rounded or elongated thin-walled aseptate schizonts containing darkly
staining forms were evident in capillaries or larger bronchial vessels. Occasionally
schizonts were peripherally situated and appeared to be in endothelial cells
(Figure 11).
Brain. No schizonts were evident.
 MORTALITY DUE TO HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE 75
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Figure 11. Lung. Multiple schizonts at the periphery of a bronchial blood vessel (—>).
(H&E. Bar: SO urn.)

DISCUSSION
Although Haemoproteus infections occur commonly in wild birds, they are seldom
reported to cause mortality. Hartley (1992) however, reported mortalities in wild
currawongs {Strepera graculind) in Australia. The heavy infection in the present
study was probably caused by repeated re-infection with H, columbae under
captive conditions where the louse fly, Pseudolynchia canariensis, a known vector
of H. columbae (Bennett & Peirce, 1990), was abundant.
The extensive necrotic lesions in the muscles of the breast, wings and legs
resembled lesions of nutritional myopathy due to vitamin E or selenium defi-
ciency. Histological examination however, revealed an association between the
muscle lesions and the tissue stages of H. columbae megaloschizonts. Several
authors have noted a similar association (Opitz et ah, 1982; Gardiner et al., 1984;
Atkinson et al, 1986; Atkinson & Forrester, 1987; Simpson, 1991).
Thin-walled aseptate elongated, rounded or irregularly-shaped schizonts con-
taining merozoites, cytomeres or other forms as illustrated by Huff (1942) and
Kucera et al. (1982), were seen within the lumina of blood vessels in the skeletal
muscles, lung, liver, kidney and proventriculus in the doves of this study.
Although no association could be found between schizonts and endothelial cells in
this study there was evidence of schizonts at the periphery of vessels in the lungs
suggesting development within endothelial cells (Figure 11). It seems likely that
each schizont may initially develop in an endothelial cell and once they become
too large break out of the cell and lie loose in the lumen of the capillary or other
blood vessel. According to Atkinson et al. (1986) there are at least two
generations of schizogony in striated muscles of turkeys experimentally infected
with H. meleagridis.
Unilocular second generation schizonts of H. meleagridis apparently grow
 76 R. A. BAKLE ETAL.

rapidly within skeletal muscle fibres and develop into large thick-walled megalo-
schizonts (Atkinson et al., 1986; Atkinson & Forrester, 1987). Similar megalo-
schizonts were encountered within skeletal and cardiac muscle fibres and in the
muscular wall of the gizzard in the present study. Multilocular megaloschizonts
were commonly observed in this study. These have been seen in cases of aberrant
leucocytozoonosis (Simpson, 1991), Arthrocystis galli (Levine et al., 1970) and/f.
desseri (H. handai) (Miltgen et al., 1981). Illustrations by Gardiner et al. (1984)
of such septated aberrant leucocytozoonosis cysts of a pied currawong appear to
be cysts of Haemoproteus which can cause massive seasonal skeletal muscle
myopathy in wild currawongs (Hartley, 1992). A. galli described by Levine et al.
(1970) as a distinct species thus probably also represent megaloschizonts of
Haemoproteus sp.
The exact nature and stages of development of the structures within the
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megaloschizonts could not always be determined. Clumps of undifferentiated

cytoplasm and the darkly staining forms may represent immature forms of
development. The presence of a rim of structures resembling merozoites at the
edges of many clumps of cytoplasm suggest that merozoites may develop from
subdivisions along the edges of these cytoplasmic masses. Similar cytoplasmic
masses have been observed in the cysts of H. meleagridis and an unidentified
haemosporozoan parasite (Gardiner et ah, 1984; Atkinson et ah, 1986). The
rounded basophilic globular masses resemble what Gardiner et al. (1984) referred
to as cytomeres. The division of the megaloschizont into compartments probably
arose by ingrowths from the outer walls as evidenced by the presence of a few
incomplete septa of similar appearance to the outer walls. The morphology of the
merozoites in both doves correlated well with the descriptions for merozoites of
H. columbae and other Haemoproteus species (Mohammed, 1967; Gardiner et al.,
1984; Atkinson et al, 1986; Atkinson & Forrester, 1987).
The presence of merozoite-filled, swollen cysts with buckled or disintegrating
walls as well as ruptured cysts partly or completely filled with erythrocytes
suggests that there is initially swelling of the megaloschizonts followed by rupture
and release of merozoites and ultimately filling thereof by erythrocytes. Gardiner
et al. (1984), on the other hand, mentioned that mature megaloschizonts become
filled with blood and only subsequently rupture to release the merozoites.
Earlier studies on the schizogony of H. columbae reported the formation of
schizonts in the lung tissue only (Aragao, 1908; Acton & Knowles, 1914;
Mohammed, 1967; Ahmed & Mohammed, 1977), although Mohammed (1967)
detected some schizonts in a liver smear of a heavily infected squab. This is
contrary to our findings where schizonts were noted in various tissues, including
striated muscle. Atkinson et al. (1986) and Farmer (1965) found the megaloschi-
zonts of H. meleagridis and H. sacharovi to be unseptated and thick-walled.
This study has shown that H. columbae forms schizonts or megaloschizonts in
many organs and that the shape thereof is for the most part a product of the site
of formation contrary to Ahmed & Mohammed (1977) who described schizonts
as Y-shaped and bilobed. Previously thick-walled megaloschizonts of H. meleag-
ridis have only been noted in skeletal muscle (Atkinson et al., 1986), but in this
 MORTALITY DUE TO HAEMOPROTEUS COLUMBAE 77

study these were evident in skeletal and cardiac muscles and the muscular wall of
the gizzard. These differences are probably an indication of the severity of the
infection in this study rather than the limitations of Haemoproteus to form
schizonts in different tissues.
The large number of H. columbae gametocytes present in the peripheral blood
indicates that the septate schizonts in the tissues were indeed those of H.
columbae in the present case and not those of a Leucocytozoon sp. as suggested by
Gardiner et al. (1984).
There have been numerous reports of lethal Leucocytozoon-like infections
affecting captive birds, especially parakeets (Psittacidae) (Fowler & Forbes,
1972; Smith, 1972; Walker & Garnham, 1972; Simpson, 1991) and other bird
species (Hartley et al., 1981). None of these studies included blood smears to
determine whether Leucocytozoon gametes were present in the peripheral blood,
which could have been an indication of the identity of the parasite. It seems likely
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that at least some of these 'aberrant' Leucocytozoon infections may have been
caused by Haemoproteus. There seems to be very little known difference between
the schizogony of Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus, and without mature gameto-
cytes in the peripheral blood it is probably impossible to distinguish between
these two genera. In this study, unilocular and multilocular thick-walled megalos-
chizonts similar to those described by Simpson (1991) were present in the
skeletal, heart and gizzard muscles. This further supports the idea that the
aberrant Leucocytozoon reported by various authors (Fowler & Forbes, 1972;
Smith, 1972; Walker & Garnham, 1972; Gardiner et al, 1984; Simpson, 1991)
may well be Haemoproteus.
In both the present study and that of Gardiner et al. (1984) where H. columbae
and H. lophortyx parasitized their natural hosts, there was sufficient tissue
damage for the infection to be lethal. Even in wild populations of birds the
damaging effects of the tissue stages of Haemoproteus have now been recognized
(Atkinson & Forrester, 1987; Hartley, 1992) and only if the bird survives the
acute myopathy do the gametocytes appear in the peripheral blood.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to thank Drs L. Lopez Rebollar and F. W. Huchzermeyer for the
Spanish, German and French summary translations, Mrs L. Limper for the
photographic developments, Mrs A. Lubbe for typing the manuscript and the
technicians of the Section of Pathology, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute for
processing the histopathological sections.

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Record, 91, 70-72.

RESUME
Histopathologie et morphologie des stades tissulaires d'Haemoproteus
columbae, cause de mortalité chez les Colombiformes
Deux colombes de la même volière sont mortes après une sévère infection à Haemoproteus
columbae. L'examen histopathologique des différents organes a mis en évidence la présence de
nombreux schizontes et mégaloschizontes. Il semblerait qu'il y ait eu deux cycles de schizo-
gonie, l'un dans les muscles et l'autre dans de multiples tissus. La forme et la taille des
schizontes semblaient varier en fonction du lieu de formation. Il est généralement admis que
les mégaloschizontes dans les muscles striés mènent à une nécrose étendue des fibres,
provoquant la mort des oiseaux.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Histopathologie und Morphologie der Gewebestadian von Haemoproteus
columbae, die bei Columbiformes Mortalität verursachen
Zwei Tauben aus derselben Voliere starben nach schweren Infektionen mit Haemoproteus
columbae. Bei der histopathologischen Untersuchung verschiedener Organe wurden zahlreiche
Schizonten und Megaloschizonten gefunden. Es schienen zwei Schizogoniezyklen vorzukom-
men, einer in der Muskulatur and der andere in vielen verschiedenen Geweben. Form und
Größe der Schizonten schienen davon abhängig zu sein, wo sie gebildet wurden. Die Ruptur
der Megaloschizonten in der quergestreiften Muskulatur verursachte ausgedehnte Muskel-
fasernekrosen. Der dadurch entstandene Muskelschaden wird als Ursache der Mortalität
angesehen.

RESUMEN
Histopatología y morfología de los estadios tisulares de Haemoproteus
columbae causante de mortalidad en columbiformes
Dos palomas de la misma granja murieron tras sufrir una infestación intensa con Haemopro-
teus columbae. El examen histopatológico de diversos órganos mostró numerosos esquizontes y
 80 R.A. EKRLE ET AL.

megaloesquizontes. Aparentemente existían dos ciclos de esquizogonia, uno en los músculos y

otro en una amplia variedad de tejidos. La forma y el tamaño de los esquizontes parecía estar
en función del lugar de formación. Se concluye que los megaloesquizontes en los músculos
estriados dieron lugar a una extensa necrosis fibrilar con la consiguiente muerte de las aves.
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