EMOTIONS & SLA

Emotions & SLA

Ivan L., Laura M. and Ivanela P. Students

University of Zadar
Introduction

The landscape of second language acquisition (SLA) research has traditionally

emphasized language knowledge and usage, often sidelining the role of affect and emotion in the
language learning process. Despite early recognition by linguistic scholars, the historical
trajectory of second language acquisition research has, until recently, given primacy to cognitive
aspects, leaving affective dimensions in the shadows. This paper seeks to bridge this historical
gap by providing a comprehensive understanding of emotions, emphasizing their pivotal role in
shaping language learning experiences. In framing this exploration, the broader context of
psychology introduces the integral role of emotions, both positive and negative ones.

The structure of this paper reflects a holistic approach, encompassing a historical

overview, an examination of positive and negative emotions, and their pedagogical implications.
In the historical overview, the evolution of SLA research will be traced, highlighting the limited
attention given to affective domains despite their early recognition by linguistic scholars.
Moving forward, the exploration into positive and negative emotions in SLA sheds light on their
multifaceted nature. This section aims to provide a nuanced understanding of how emotions
impact learners' experiences and outcomes. The pedagogical implications section synthesizes
recent research insights and explores practical strategies for educators. This section is motivated
by the overarching goal of contributing to a more nuanced understanding of emotions in
language learning.

This paper aims to explore the influence of emotions in second language acquisition,
examining their historical trajectory and multifaceted nature. It seeks to bridge the historical gap
in SLA research by emphasizing the role of positive and negative emotions in shaping language
learning experiences. The focus on affective dimensions challenges prevailing assumptions that
have primarily centred on cognitive aspects. Beyond historical perspectives, the exploration of
positive and negative emotions aims to provide insights into their manifestations and
implications for language learners.

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Historical Overview

In the historical trajectory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research, there have
not been many attempts to explore affect and emotion, despite its recognition in functional and
anthropological linguistics, as stated by Sapir (1921) and Hymes (1972). The place of affect and
emotion was still unsure of. We can see this through Garrett and Young’s (2009) observation
which underscores that SLA literature has traditionally prioritized discussions on language
knowledge and usage, meaning that affect and emotion have little to no importance in a foreign
language learning classroom.

According to Scovel the understanding of the role that affect and emotion have in SLA
remains one of the least illuminated areas (1978). Affect and motivation have traditionally
received less emphasis in SLA handbooks, however practical linguists working in the field of
teaching second languages have shown a greater interest in this area. One of the views regarding
this was Arnold's, in the preface to her edited book she emphasises that affective awareness is
not a magic bullet for every learning issue. However, she suggests that language teachers can
benefit by occasionally exploring affective factors, suggesting that simultaneous attention to both
cognitive and affective aspects may lead to more successful second language acquisition (1999).

Recognising that affect plays a pivotal role in moulding individual differences in learning
outcomes, SLA scholars have broadened the definition of "affective variables". According to
Ellis this extension deepens personality traits and includes motivational and emotional
components as well (1994). But the thorough examination of emotions as a crucial element is
still lacking from the interpretation of research on second language acquisition.

Emotions and moods are classified as key components of affect when speaking in the
broader context of psychology. Forgas states that emotions are distinguished by their strength,
brevity, and explicit cognitive content, as opposed to moods, which are distinguished by their
low intensity, diffuse nature, and long-lasting emotional states without a clear preceding cause
(1992, p. 230). According to this psychological view, SLA researchers frequently define
emotions as the central feature of affect which is often paired up with feelings and moods.

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However, Pavlenko says that in SLA research, these emotions are frequently reduced into
decontextualized sociopsychological notions such as attitudes, motivation, anxiety, self-esteem,
empathy, risk-taking, and ambiguity tolerance etc. (2005, p. 34).

Previous efforts have shown the progress they have made in understanding certain
affective aspects in SLA. However, further attention should be paid to a broader range of
emotions for a complete understanding of the role and significance of affect in language
learning. According to Stevick a learner's success is inextricably tied to interpersonal dynamics
within the classroom, rather than just instructional strategies and resources which in turn would
require investigating emotions in their social context (1980, p. 4). As a result, it is critical to
enhance the knowledge base accumulated via earlier SLA research, which has primarily focused
on individual characteristics. What we have observed from past SLA research, mainly focused
on individual aspects.

To cover this overview of research papers a bit more concretely, we will use Scovel's
definition of affective factors as the "emotional reactions and motivations of the learner,"
indicating the limbic system's involvement in learning tasks, to outline common misconceptions
in SLA research regarding affective factors (1978, p. 131). The three main affective categories
included in this overview will be language anxiety, second language motivation, and
neurobiological causes.

Oxford and other researchers have identified language anxiety as the most influential
emotional factor in SLA (1999). The observations made are that it is usually situation-specific
and can include worries about academic performance, fear of social rejection, or anxiety about
communicating. Scaled self-report questionnaires have been used in the development of
measurement instruments, such as the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale by Horwitz,
Horwitz, & Cope. It was highlighted that anxiety need not be only negative rather that helpful
anxiety exists also, this is why the notion of tension is introduced to address its various roles in
language learning.

The second aspect we’ve mentioned is L2 motivation which has also traditionally been
studied using the integrative/instrumental and intrinsic/extrinsic dichotomies. For someone to

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acquire second language successfully it is thought that intrinsic and integrative motivation serve
as indicators of this. Other theories about indicators of a successfully acquired second language
like the want to communicate and self-determination theory. The impact of motivation on
language learning outcomes is commonly studied quantitatively, treating motivation as a
measurable variable. According to academics like McGroarty, qualitative and ethnographic
research should be used in addition to quantitative methods (2001).

Based on research from the neurobiological and psychophysiological fields, Schumann

suggests that stimulus assessment is the foundation of motivation, which affects language
acquisition performance (1998, 2001). Evaluations that are positive encourage progress, whereas
those that are unfavourable impede it. Differences in neurobiological functioning are linked to
individual differences in motivation and achievement.

This historical review exposes underlying presumptions that were common in SLA
research that explored affective factors, this being the "predecessors" of emotions-focused study.
Learning is typically understood to be the search and processing of information or the gain of
knowledge and skills. To summarise what we have covered by now is that the main points of
focus of SLA research on affective factors are cognitive, individualistic, dichotomous, and
product oriented.

Motivation for language learning has been thoroughly researched in SLA, deducing
emotions as primary motivators. Intercultural communication and attitudes are frequently
considered to be the precursors to motivation. In his work, MacIntyre contends that attitudes by
themselves are inadequate, highlighting the need to investigate feelings students encounter while
learning a second language in order to understand the distinctions between engaged and
disengaged learners (2002). According to MacIntyre, if we can comprehend emotion, it can help
explain situations in which students are not against some approaches but may not feel motivated
to take action or in which emotional arousal prevents them from acting.

To conclude we can say that even though affect-based studies in SLA offer insightful
information, they merely scratch the surface of the intricate relationship of emotions and
language acquisition.

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Positive and Negative Emotions and Pedagogical Implications

Positive emotions in SLA

In the realm of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), learners navigate a complex

tapestry of emotions that extend to their perceptions of self, interactions with teachers and peers,
the use of English within the classroom, assessments of the teachers' language proficiency, the
effectiveness of instructional methods employed, and the utility of teaching resources like
textbooks and digital materials. It is important to acknowledge the symbiotic interplay of positive
and negative emotions, as it is crucial for comprehending the nuanced dynamics that shape
learners' experiences and outcomes (Richards, 2022).

Positive emotions contribute to heightened awareness and attentiveness to the

surroundings. In the context of language learning, this involves an increased sensitivity to
language input (White, 2018). There are many different positive emotions in the second language
context and some of them are: joy, gratitude, interest/curiosity, hope, pride, amusement,
inspiration, etc. (MacIntyre and Vincze, 2017). Positive emotions play a pivotal role in shaping
the language learning experience. When learners experience positive emotions, such as finding a
topic interesting or enjoyable, these emotional states serve as powerful catalysts for motivation
and curiosity. The heightened sense of engagement resulting from positive emotions not only
fosters a more profound connection with the learning materials but also significantly enhances
memory retention. Learners are more likely to remember details and concepts when their
emotional response is positive, creating a positive feedback loop that reinforces their motivation
to learn. Moreover, positive emotions, particularly interest and enjoyment, provide a solid
foundation for sustained engagement and active involvement in the language learning journey.
This emotional positivity stimulates cognitive processes, encouraging learners to delve deeper
into the subject matter and fostering a more profound understanding of language nuances. The
influence of positive emotions extends beyond individual learners to impact the dynamics of
teacher-student relationships. In an environment characterized by positive emotional interactions,
built on trust and support, students are more likely to feel comfortable and open in their
communication with teachers (Mustafina, Ilina and Shcherbakova, 2020).

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 Negative emotions in SLA

Venturing into the intricate dynamics of emotions and their profound role in language
acquisition, this exploration unveils a comprehensive understanding. Beyond the uplifting impact
of positive emotions lies an equally crucial examination of the nuanced significance inherent in
negative emotion.

Negative emotions can make learners feel less motivated when they don't achieve their
goals. This can result in a loss of confidence, making them less likely to invest more time and
effort in learning the language (Richards, 2022). In a classroom setting, learners often experience
various negative emotions. Some of them are: anger, anxiety, boredom, shame, contempt,
disgust, embarrassment, guilt, hate, sadness, fear, and stress (MacIntyre and Vincze, 2017).

Negative emotions emerge as formidable adversaries, wielding substantial influence over

students' educational journeys and linguistic development. Factors like test anxiety, the
disheartening feelings associated with perceived achievement failures, or the monotony
experienced during language lessons can significantly hinder students' engagement in the
learning process. This emotional turbulence not only threatens immediate academic outcomes,
such as performance in exams or completion of assignments, but also poses a profound threat to
the broader trajectory of language acquisition. Students grappling with these negative emotions
may find themselves veering away from the path that aligns with their linguistic potential and
interests. Moreover, the impact extends beyond academic realms, affecting the nuanced
development of language skills and contributing to the intricate tapestry of students' overall well-
being. To address this complex challenge, educators must adopt a holistic approach that not only
tackles linguistic hurdles but also recognizes and navigates the intricate interplay between
negative emotions and the pursuit of proficiency in a second language (Pekrun, 2014).

Research insights

The effect of emotions in SLA have been mostly researched and viewed through a
cognitive, social, or sociocognitive theories of language acquisition. They confront each other on
what influences SLA most; does language learning happen outside of social contexts, or does it
and affection shape the way language is learned more (Bown and White, 2010)? The third
stance, sociocognitive theories, Vygotskian in nature, imply that cognitive mental functioning is

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a mediated process that best developed when engaged in interaction through social and material
environments, such as family life, peer group interaction or other institutional settings (Lantolf
and Thorne, 2007).

In recent years, the focus shifted to distinguishing the effect of positive and negative
emotions on SLA in a holistic sense through the lens of positive psychology, which provided
researchers with rich research topics, tools, and approaches. MacIntyre and Charos (1996)
argued that the main purpose of language learning as a process is to being able to use language to
communicate, and Lee and Chen Hsieh (2019) proved that emotions greatly influence the
communicative competence, and through it the learner’s willingness to communicate in their
second language (L2WTC). Another major finding of that study is that L2 learners rarely feel
anxiety when communicating through digital means, implying that different communicating
contexts change the way emotions influence the L2WTC, also meaning that the pedagogical
influence can greatly shape how confident or anxious learners are when communicating. Most
studies concerning the relationship of emotions and L2WTC, even in recent years, were dealing
with the effect of negative emotions on L2WTC, with L2 anxiety being the most researched of
those with other emotions being given scant attention (Dewaele and Li, 2020). A number of
studies focusing on both positive and negative emotions and their relationship with L2WTC was
conducted and published, and it represents the upwards momentum of the holistic approach in
SLA research.

As an example, the study conducted by Alrabai on Saudi English majors (2022) whose
findings support the feasibility of a holistic perspective of positive psychology in SLA by which
positive and negative emotional/affective variables directly affect L2WTC through classroom
pedagogical interventions for emotion regulation. The study grouped emotions into ones falling
under foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), as
did Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) in their seminal research that was confirmed by later studies
as well. It was found that rather than being emotions on a continuum, FLE and FLCA are two
separate emotions, and one could experience high levels of both, or neither. FLE was shown to
have a positive corelation with L2WTC, while FLCA had a negative one. Another interesting
result of the study was that positive and negative emotions, as well as motivation, can interrelate
and exchange roles in language learning and in predicting L2WTC, with the approach combining

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them yielding better results than the one singling them out. The fact that this was more of a long-
term study proves that the effects of FLE and FLCA do have a lasting impact, but also they
pointed out that more short-term studies would be beneficial. The use of the PLS-SEM method
was implied to be quite successful in exploring emotions in SLA, as it is more useful in proving
corelations rather than proving theories, but the increase of using this method is yet to be seen.

In an earlier study done by MacIntyre and Vincze in secondary schools (2017) that
explored relationships between a set of basic positive and negative emotions and motivational
factors in a second language context. The discrepancy on the number of research into positive
emotions in SLA versus the number of research of negative emotions in SLA was also noted,
with prevalence of studies focusing on negative ones. This can be attributed to the fact that they
seemed to pose more of a threat to learners who attempted to learn a L2. The study itself proved
that there is a significant correlation between language learning and positive and negative
emotions, with positive emotions correlating more often than negative ones with motivation. It
was also found that the adaptive value of both positive and negative emotion is best considered
as a conjoint, intertwined process that best yields results when all its parts are utilized
indiscriminately, especially within one group of learners (MacIntyre and Vincze, 2017). This
proves that a narrow approach focusing on only parts cannot account for all variations and
possibilities when considering emotions as a driving force in L2 language learning, and that a
holistic approach is truly needed.

Another study focusing on advanced English majors was concerned with teacher
feedback and its effect on the affective factor (Ni, 2012). The results confirmed all of the
beforementioned. Teacher feedback and guidance were mostly viewed positively, and the
affective factor in the end decides the input and intake of language learners, which is why
teacher training should prepare teachers to adequately motivate students without pushing their
affective factor, or even try and to encourage a lower affective factor. While it may seem that
those two are the same, a lower affective factor provides more diverse opportunities for learner
to intake language content, while attempting to not trigger it hinders and narrows learning
opportunities that can be presented to the learner. Another study that indirectly highlights the
importance of positive and negative emotions is by Teimouri (2017). This study focused on
language learners’ emotional experiences through the lens of Dörnyei’s L2 future self-guides. It

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found that the inclusion of learners’ emotions into the modified L2 motivational self system as
mediating factors helped broaden the understanding of learners’ motivational behaviours while
learning the L2. This is also one of the many studies that have consistently, through time and
different frameworks highlighted the impact motivation has on emotions in SLA, and vice versa.
When taking into account that the learner’s ideal L2 self and ought to L2 self differ in
motivations, it is also understandable that same emotions impact the learner’s motivation and
L2WTC differently.

Dewaele and Li (2020) gave some of the most recent critical overview and research
agenda in the field of emotions in SLA, and focus on the beforementioned holistic approach to
emotions in SLA, providing positive psychology as the reason for the trend, and give a set of
possible points of interest that can be examined in future research. According to them, research
has proven that both positive and negative emotions are proven to play a significant role in the
language learning process, in both a motivating and inhibiting manner, they influence far more
than motivation, but the exact scope is yet uncertain. They did concede that there is a large
possibility of mistakes in these early studies, but also reminded that SLA is a young discipline
that needs to broaden its horizons and will learn through trying and failing in certain regards. The
article discussed the three phases of emotion research in SLA according to them, and their scope
and topics, the main foundations of emotion-related theories or assumptions in SLA, and the
methodological and epistemological possibilities of emotion research in SLA.

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Conclusion

This paper presents a thorough examination of the development of second language

acquisition research throughout the years, illuminating the long-standing disregard for affect and
emotion in favor of cognitive elements. The study has advanced a thorough understanding of
emotions' crucial role in language learning by posing questions to established theories and
highlighting the complexity of emotions.

The historical overview traced the evolution of SLA research, underscoring the limited
attention given to affective domains and identifying key factors such as language anxiety, and
motivation. While past studies have made strides in unravelling specific affective factors, there is
a call for increased attention to a broader array of emotions for a more thorough comprehension
of the role and significance of affect in SLA. The analysis of both positive as well as negative
emotions in SLA revealed their significant influence on the experiences and results of learners.
While negative emotions presented significant hurdles, impeding engagement and potentially
derailing the language learning path, positive emotions emerged as catalysts for motivation,
boosting engagement and improving memory retention. Research insights have shifted toward a
holistic approach, recognizing the interplay of positive and negative emotions through the lens of
positive psychology. The findings underscore the need for a nuanced understanding of emotions
in SLA, acknowledging their impact on motivation, communication, and overall language
proficiency. As educators strive to create effective language learning environments, the
pedagogical implications section synthesized recent research insights, offering practical
strategies for addressing both positive and negative emotions in the classroom.

Finally, this paper advocates for a paradigm shift in SLA research, urging scholars and
educators to embrace a holistic perspective that acknowledges the pivotal role of affect and
emotion in language learning. By bridging the historical gap and exploring the multifaceted
nature of emotions, this review contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the intricate
relationship between affect and second language acquisition.

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