Class 2) January 17, 2023

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY:

- It is important to contextualize where these theories came from and the times they originated from.
- Psychology has contributed greatly to racial inequity (Henrietta Lacks, Eugenics)
- Psychology has also been unethical (Stanford Prison Experiment, Little Albert)

CHAPTER 2
What is a theory?

- Help to organize knowledge and make predictions of what may happen

- Explanation for observations
- Need to repeat it constantly and get some results

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: SIGMUND FREUD

“We do what we do, because of our biology.”

According to Freud, we are all born with an id, which consists of our basic instinctual drives. The id seeks immediate
gratification for all its urges. Infants want what they want when they want it. As children grow older, they become aware of the
reality of the world around them and begin to develop the ability to think and control their emotions. This ability to negotiate
between the demands of basic drives and the real world is the job of the ego. Finally, sometime between the ages of 5 and 7,
children begin to incorporate moral principles that work against the drive motivated functioning of the id. These moral
principles are maintained by the superego.

Psychosexual Stages: (related to sexual urges)

- Oral Stage (0-1): Erogenous zone is the mouth therefore, if the parent does not provide necessary food or
pleasure to this zone, there will be a fixation and trust will not be built.

- Anal Stage (18 mths-3): Erogenous zones are the anus and bladder. Parental response is necessary in
this stage otherwise anal-retentive personality or anal-explosive personality can be developed.

- Phallic Stage (3-6): Erogenous zone are the genitals (discovery of genitals). Oedipus complex (boys
want to replace their dad and want to marry their mom). Electra complex (girls want to replace their mom
and want to marry their dad). Freud also says that little girls have “penis envy” and “castration anxiety”.

- Latency Stage (6-12): There is a pause. Children are now focusing their peers and education.

- Genital Stage (12+): The erogenous zone are the genitals (for actual sexual pleasure).
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: ERIK ERIKSON (PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES)

Stage 1) Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 mths): We are learnt to trust people. If a caregiver is being warm, consistent, we
will learn to trust them. However, if they are inconsistent, cold, or mean, a sense of mistrust will be developed.

Stage 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 mths- 3): If a parent is being very supportive in a safe environment,
they will develop a sense of autonomy. However, if a parent is not supportive, the child will never want to do so and
be doubtful of themselves.

Stage 3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5): This is when they are at school and begin making friendships. Children will grow
up to be initiative, they will have an easy time making friends.

Stage 4) Industry vs. Inferiority (5-12): This is about competency and self-esteem. Am I smart or good at things?
Developing self-confidence versus feeling inferior if they are constantly being ridiculed.

Stage 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18): Who do I want to be when I grow up? This is where children are
given opportunities to experiment with their identities.

LEARNING THEORY: JOHN B. WATSON’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Based off Pavlov’s experiment with the dogs.

Classical Conditioning can lead to phobias (Little Albert experiment)

Classical Conditioning can also be conditioning can also be used to reverse phobias.
LEARNING THEORY: B.F. SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING

Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (allowing a child to play outside)

Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (removing homework for
behaving)

Positive Punishment: Adding unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behaviour (giving the child lines for misbehaving)

Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior (removing the iPad)

Applied Behavior Analysis: ABA is based on operant conditioning and is used in schools

LEARNING THEORY: ALBERT BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Bobo Doll experiment

Bandura claims that behaviour is learned.

Self-efficacy: “I can do whatever I put my mind to”

Focusing on what they can do rather than what their limitations are.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY: LEV-VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Zone of Proximal Development: The grey area between what a child can do and what they cannot yet do without
support.

Scaffolding: Hold up the child, help them stabilize and get them to the next level without giving them the
information.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY: URIE BROFENBRENNER

The child is at the heart of the ecological system

Microsystem: Includes their family, siblings, close friends, and other things that they interact with daily.

Mesosystem: The interactions between two aspects that contain the child and indirectly affect the child.

Exosystem: Settings that the child never enters (parental workplace)

Macrosystem: The attitudes, norms, beliefs within the society a child lives in.

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT:

Level 1) Preconventional: Oriented based off self-interest (younger than 6 yrs)

- Step 1: Punishment and obedience orientation, obey rules to avoid punishment

- Step 2: Naïve hedonism, conforms to get rewards and to have favors returned

Level 2) Conventional: Oriented based off consequences (7-11 yrs)

- Step 3: Good boy/girl morality, conforms to avoid disapproval or dislike by others

- Step 4: Conforms to avid censure by authorities

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- JEAN PIAGET:

Schemas: Unit used to organize information

Assimilation: Calling a cat a dog (existing schema)

Accommodating: Making a new schema for that information

Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs): Object permanence is being developed during this stage. They are learning how everything
works and how they are different from the environment.

Pre-operational (2-6 yrs): They are starting to learn about

Concrete Operational (6-12)

Formal Operational (12+)