TOM Manual 2022

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL
UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-RGPV, BHOPAL
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Theory of Machines & Mechanism

(ME303/ AU303)
Lab Manual
Name …………………………………………………
Session ……………Semester …………………….
Enrollment No. ………………………………………
Compiled by
Mr. Brijendra Kumar Gond,
Asst. Prof. MED-UIT-RGPV, Bhopal
Theory of Machines
Contents
1. Vision Mission of the Institute.
2. Vision Mission of the Department.
3. PEOs
4. PSOs
5. COs
6. Laboratory General Instructions, Safety and Security Rules.
7. List of Experiments/Index.
8. Experiments
1 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Theory of Machines
Vision of the Institute

To disseminate affordable quality technical education for producing globally
competent, technically tempered and socially responsible technical
manpower to meet global challenges
Mission of the Institute

To estabilish UIT-RGPV as a center of excellence for inparting technical
education throgh technological iverventions for the ecomomic development
of the country.
Vision of Department
To impart quality under Graduate & Post Graduate Education & Promote
Research in Industrially Relevant field with World Class Infrastructure &
Ambience.
Mission of Department
Mechanical Engineering Department is committed to-
 Prepare Effective & Responsible Graduate & Post Graduate
Engineers for Global requirements by providing Quality Education.
 Constantly Strive to Improve Pedagogical Method employed in

delivering the Academic Programs.
 Respond effectively to the need of industry & Changing World.
 Conduct Basics & Applied Research & to Generate Intellectual

Property.
 Provide Consultancy to the Neighbourhood & Cultivate the Spirit of

Entrepreneurship.

Theory of Machines
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO1:-Graduates will Excel in Engineering, Science & Technology for a
Successful Career in Mechanical Engineering.
PEO2:-Graduates will Do Effective Collaborations to Become Entrepreneurs

to Address Social, Technical and Engineering Challenges.
PEO3:-Graduates will engage in Professional Development through

Research and Higher Professional Studies.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
PSO1:-Develop Approaches to Solve Problems Related to Internal

Combustion Engines with Emphasis on Emission Reduction &
Alternate Automotive Green Fuels.
PSO2:-Investigate Environmentally Sustainable Solutions in field of Field of

Refrigeration and Air-conditioning.
PSO3:-Apply Latest design Software’s for Industrial requirements.
Course outcomes (Cos)

After the completion of course student will be able to
CO1: Analyze different types of mechanisms, their motions, applications. And underlying
kinetic principles
CO2: Analyze different types of gears and gear trains on the basis kinematic principles
CO3: Understand power transmitting devices
CO4: Design and draw cam profile for different cam and follower arrangements
CO5: Illustrate gyroscopic effect and compute gyroscopic couple in the cases of ship,
airplane and automobile.

Theory of Machines
Laboratory General Instructions, Safety and Security Rules

 Always wear shoes before entering the lab.
 Do not touch anything without the permission of the instructor/ lab assistant.
 Read carefully the lab manual before performing experiments.
 Do not tamper measuring instruments.
 Do not open the casing of the equipment.
 Switch off the power supply to the experimental setup on completion of the
experiment.
 Maintain clean and orderly laboratories and work area.
 Be aware of the various experiment controls (start button, stop button, speed
control) for each experiment.
 Do not leave experiments running unattended.
 Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
 Boys should tuck in the shirts.
 Long hair should be protected, let it not be loose specially near rotating
machineries.
 Any other machines/ equipment should not be operated other than the prescribed
one for that day.
 Tools, apparatus and gauge sets are to be returned before leaving the laboratory.
 Headings and detail should be neatly written:
 Aim of the Experiment.
(I) Apparatus/Tools/Instruments Required.
(II) Procedure / Theory /Program.
(III) Model Calculations.
(IV) Neat Diagram/ Flowcharts.
(V) Specification / Design Details.
(VI) Tabulation and Graph.
(VII) Result / Discussions.
 Before doing the experiment, the student should get the circuit/ program approval
by the faculty in charge.
 Experiment date should be written in the appropriate place.
 After completing the experiments the answer to the viva voice questions should be
neatly written in the workbook.
 Students are supposed to wear Lab Aprons.
 The use of cell phones is prohibited in the lab.

Theory of Machines
List of Experiments
S. No. Index Date Grade Signature
1. To study various types of kinematic links, pairs,
chains and mechanisms.
2. To plot inversions of the Grashof’s four bar
linkage
3. To find degree of freedom of mechanisms.
4. To finds out gyroscopic couple.
5. To study inversions of slider crank chain and

double slider crank chain.
6. To find velocity and acceleration of given a
mechanism
7. To study the various types of steering
mechanism.
8. To draw the cam profile and various types of cam
and follower arrangements
9. To draw in-volute profile of a gear by generating
method and various types of gear Arrangement
system.
10. To find out velocity ratio of various gear trains
11. To Measure the various parameters comprising

the Corioli’s component of acceleration
Compiled by
Mr. Brijendra Kumar Gond,
Asst. Prof. MED-UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 1
AIM: To study various types of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms.
APPARATUS USED: Kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms, pencil, compass.
Method:
Step 1. Read the various types of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms from the
book.
Step 2. List all types of items as read in step 1.
Step 3. Search and take the picture (photographs) by camera in the labs or available
vehicles
Step 4. Draw sketches of the exposed pictures.
Step 5. Prepare a file including pictures, sketches and information about the studied
items.
THEORY:
Kinematics: - Kinematics is the study of motion (position, velocity, acceleration).
Kinetics: - Kinetics is the study of effect of forces on moving bodies.
Kinematic Link: - Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known
as kinematic link or element. In other words a link is defined as a member or a combination
of members of a mechanism connecting other members and having relative motion
between them. The link may consist of one or more resistant bodies. A link may be called as
kinematic link or element.
Examples: - A slider-crank mechanism (figure 1.1) consists of four links: frame and guides,
crank connecting rod and slider, the crank link may have crankshaft and flywheel also,
forming one link having no relative motion of these.
Figure 1.1 Slider-crank mechanisms
Classification of kinematic link: -

1. Binary link.
2. Ternary link.
3. Quaternary link.
Joint: - A connection between two links that allows motion between the links. The motion
allowed may be rotational (revolute joint), translational (sliding or prismatic joint), or a
combination of the two (roll-slide joint).

Theory of Machines
Kinematic pair: - Kinematic pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them.
The types of kinematic pair are classified according to
1. Nature of contact ( lower pair, Higher pair)
i) Lower pair (links have surface or area contact).

Examples- Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a bearing, universal joint etc.
ii) Higher pair (Point or line contact between the links).
Examples: - When rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair, tooth gears, ball and
roller bearings etc.
2. Nature of mechanical contact ( Closed pair, unclosed pair)
i) Closed pair (when the elements of a pair are held together mechanically).
Examples: - all the lower pairs and some of the higher pair.
ii) Unclosed pair (when two links of a pair are in contact either due to force of gravity
or some spring action). Example: - Cam and Follower pair.
Fig. (a) Closed pair, (b) Unclosed pair
3. Nature of relative motion ( Sliding pair, turning pair, rolling pair, screw pair, spherical
pair)
1) Sliding or Prismatic pair: - A sliding and prismatic pair consents only a relative translation
between 1 & 2 elements, which can be articulated by a single coordinate ‘s’, and it has one
degree of freedom As shown in Figure (a).
(a) Sliding or Prismatic pair (b)Turning or Revolute

pair

Theory of Machines
2) Turning or Revolute pair: - A turning and revolute pair are shown in Figure (b). It is seen
that this pair consents only one relative rotation between 1 and 2 elements, which can be
articulated by a single coordinate ‘θ’. Thus, a revolute pair has a single degree of freedom.
3) Rolling or Cylindrical Pair: - A rolling and cylindrical pair consents both rotation and
translation parallel to the axis of rotation between 1 & 2 elements. These relative
movements can be articulated by two independent coordinates ‘θ’ or‘s’ because they are
not related with each other. In this case are equal to two Degrees of freedom as shown in
Figure (c).
(c) Rolling or Cylindrical Pair (d) Screw Pair
4) Screw pair (Helical pair): - A crew pair allows rotation as well as translation but these two
movements are related to each other. Therefore, screw pair has one degree of freedom as
shown in Figure (d), because the relative movement between 1 and 2 can be articulated by
a single coordinate ‘θ’ or‘s.
5) Spherical pair: - A ball and socket joint, as shown in Figure (e), forms a spherical pair. Any
rotation of element 2 relative to 1 can be resolved in the three components. Therefore, the
complete description of motion requires three independent coordinates. Two of these
coordinates ‘α’ and ‘β’ are required to specify the position of axis OA and the third
coordinate ‘θ’ describes the rotation about the axis of OA. This pair has three degrees of
freedom.
Figure (e) Spherical Pair
Kinematic chain: - When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is
joined to the first link to transmit definite motion it is called a kinematic chain (completely
and successfully constrained motion).
Example: The crank shaft of an engine forms a kinematic pair with the bearings which are
fixed in a pair, the connecting rod with the crank forms a second kinematic pair, and the

Theory of Machines
piston with the connecting rod forms a third pair and the piston with the cylinder forms the
fourth pair. The total combination of these links is a kinematic chain. Eg: Lawn mover
Whether a given link is a kinematic chain or not; following two formulas can be used
𝑙 = 2𝑝 − 4
And
3 ℎ
𝑗= 𝑙−2−
2 2
Where: 𝑙 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠

𝑗 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑙 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠, ℎ = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠
Mechanism: - When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as
Mechanism. It may be used for transmitting or transforming motion. If motion of any of the
movable links results in definite motions of the others the linkage is known as mechanism
Machine: - Machine is a device which received energy and transforms it into the some use
full work. When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type of
work it then becomes a machine.
(a) Four bar link (b) Five bar link (c) Six bar link
OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION:-

1. Comparison between kinematics links, Pairs, chains & Mechanisms.
2. Type of Motion to be named
3. Hence the study of various types of kinematics links, pairs, chains & Mechanisms is
completed.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 2
AIM: To plot inversions of the Grashof`s four bar linkage.
APPARATUS USED: straws, pins, pencil, compass.
Method:
1. Shortest link is fixed: if the shortest link is a fixed, the adjacent links b and d would
make complete revolution of the mechanism thus obtained is known as crank-rocker
or double crank-rocker or drag crank mechanism or rotary-rotary convertor.
2. Link opposite to shortest link fixed: if the shortest is a made couple and the link
opposite to it i.e. c is fixed the other two links b and d would oscillate. The mechanism
is known as rocker-rocker or double-rocker or double lever mechanism or an
oscillating convertor.
3. When the sum of the length of longest and the shortest links is more than the sum of
the other two links, the linkage is known as case IInd, four bar linkage. In such a
linkage, fixing of any of the links always result in a rocker-rocker mechanism.
4. Parallel crank four bar linkage: In a four bar linkage, two opposite links are parallel
and equal in length, then any one of the links can be made fixed. The two links
adjacent to the fixed link will always act as two cranks. The four bar links from a
parallelogram in all the positions of the cranks, provided the crank rotate in same.
THEORY:
Four bar chain: It consists of four turning pairs.
Grashof`s law: In four bar mechanism, sum of the shortest and longest link lengths should
not be greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is to be continuous
relative motion between the two links.
Inversions of four bar chain:

1. Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism )
2. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism )
3. Watt`s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism )
For the class I case,

𝑺+𝑳<𝑃+𝑄
 Ground either link adjacent to the shortest and you get a crank-rocker, in
which the shortest link will fully rotate and the other link pivoted to
ground will oscillate.
 Ground the shortest link and you will get a double-crank, in which both
links pivoted to ground make complete revolutions as doe’s coupler.
 Ground the link opposite the shortest and you will get a grashof double-
rocker.
Show in fig. below the four possible inversions of the Grashof case: two crank –rocker, a
double-rocker (also called a drag link), and a double-rocker with rotating coupler. Two
crank-rockers give similar motions and so are not distinct from one another.

Theory of Machines
For class II case,

𝑺+𝑳=𝑷+𝑸
All inversions will be triple-rocker in which no link can fully rotate.

Show in fig. below the four non-distinct inversions, all triple-rockers of a non-Grashof link.
For class III case,
𝑺+𝑳 >𝑃+𝑸
Referred to as special-case Grashof and also as a class III kinematic chain, all inversion will
be either double-cranks or crank-rocker but will have “change point” twice per revolution of
the input crank when the links all become collinear. At these change points the output
behaviour will become determinate. The linkage behaviour is then unpredictable as it may
assume either of two configurations. Its motion must be limited to avoid reaching the
change points or an additional, out-of-phase link provided to guarantee “carry through” of
change point.
Show in fig. below the parallelogram and anti-parallelogram configurations of the special-
case Grashof linkage. The parallelogram linkage is quite useful as it exactly duplicates the
rotary motion of the driver crank at the driven crank. One common use is to couple the two
windshield wiper output rockers the across the width of the windshield on an automobile.

Theory of Machines
All four-bar mechanisms fall into one of the four categories listed in Table below:
Table Classifications of Four-Bar Mechanisms

Case l + s v/s. p + q Shortest Bar Type
1 < Frame Double-crank
2 < Side Rocker-crank
3 < Coupler Double- rocker
4 = Any Change point
5 > Any Double-rocker
If the Grashof’s Law condition is satisfied i.e. S+L ≤ P+Q, then depending on whether
shortest link ‘S’ is connected to the ground by one end, two ends, or no end there are 5
possible mechanisms. They are:
1. Double crank mechanism
2. Double-rocker mechanism and
3. Crank and Rocker Mechanism
4. Crank
5. Rocker
Where,
S = length of shortest bar
L = length of longest bar
P, Q = lengths of intermediate bar
1. Double crank mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links revolve, it is
called a double-crank mechanism. The shortest link ‘S’ is a ground link. Both input
crank and output crank rotate at 360°.

Theory of Machines
Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+ l > p+ q
2. Double-rocker
rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if both of the side links rock, it is
called a double-rocker
rocker mechanism. The shortest link ‘S’ is coupler link. The coupler
link can rotate 360°.
Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+ l > p+ q
3. Crank and rocker mechanism: In a four bar linkage, if the shorter side link revolves
and the other one rock (i.e., oscillates), it is called a crank
crank-rocker
rocker mechanism In crank
and
nd rocker mechanism, the shortest link “S’ is input crank or output crank. Input
crank or output crank rotates 360°.
Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+l < p+ q
13 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV,

UIT Bhopal
Theory of Machines
4. Parallel linkage mechanism: the parallel linkage mechanism is a special case of

Grashof’s criteria, where the sum of the shortest link ‘S’ and longest link ‘L’ of a
planar quadrilateral linkage is less than or equal to the sum of the remaining two
links ‘P+Q’.
5. Crank:: A side link which revolves relative to the frame is called a cra
crank.
6. Rocker:: Any link which does not revolve is called a rocker
rocker.
Grashof’s condition for parallel linkage mechanism: s+l = p+ q
Grashof's theorem states that a four

four-bar
bar mechanism has at least one revolving link if
s + l < = p + q (1) and all three mobil

mobilee links will rock if
s + l > p + q (2)
The inequality 1 is Grashof's criterion

criterion.
 The link opposite the frame is called the coupler link,, and the links which are hinged
to the frame are called side links.
 A link which is free to rotate through 360° degree with respect to a second link will
be said to revolve relative to the second link (not necessarily a frame).
 If it is possible for all four bars to become simultaneously aligned, such a state is
called a change point..
CONCLUSION
The Grashof`s four bar lin
linkage is verified by plotting all inversions.
inversions

UIT Bhopal
Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 3
AIM: To find degree of freedom of mechanisms.
APPARATUS USED: Given following Mechanis

Mechanisms:
(i)Oldham
Oldham Coupling (v) Knee joint
(ii)Folding
Folding iron board (vi) Knuckle joint
(iii)Stephan
Stephan coupling (vii)) Plan Mechanism
(iv) Folding beach chair (viii) Ankle joint
Method:
Step 1. Draw sketch of the given mechanism
Step 2. Count the no. Of links in given mechanism
Step 3. Count the no. Of joints and pairs of the given mec
mechanism.
Step 4. Use the Grubler’s equations to find degree of freedom.
THEORY:
Degrees of Freedom: It is defined as the number of input parameters which must be
independently controlled in order to bring the mechanism in to useful engineering
purposes.
It is also
so defined as the number of independent relative motions, both translational and
rotational, a pair can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 – no. of restraints.
To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism we have

Grubler’s equation
𝑭 = 𝟑(𝒍 − 𝟏) − 𝟐𝒋 − 𝒉
Where;
F = number of degrees of freedom or Mobility
𝑙 = Number of links including frame
j = No. of Joints
ℎ = No. of higher pairs
Conditions
F > 0, results in a mechanism with ‘F’ degrees of freedom,
F = 0, results in a staticall
statically determinate structure,
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

UIT Bhopal
Theory of Machines
Plan Mechanism Ankle joint Folding Beach chair
Knuckle Joint Folding Ironic Board Oldham Coupling
Stephan Coupling
CONCLUSION
The degree of freedom the given mechanism is calculated.............. Also, this degree of
freedom is verified by operating the mechanism.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 4
AIM: To finds out gyroscopic couple. And To verify the relation T=I.ω.ωp. for gyroscope.
Equipment:
Motorized Gyroscope
Formula Used:
1. Gyroscopic couple C = I x w x wp
2. Applied Torque (T) = W X r’
FIGURE- GYROSCOPE
Procedure of Experiment:
Part I:
The spinning body exerts a torque or a couple in such a direction which tends to make the
Axis of spin coincides with that of the precession. To study the phenomenon of forced
precession following procedure is adopted.
1. Balance initial horizontal position of rotor.
2. Start the motor and adjust the voltage to get the constant speed.
3. Press the yoke frame about the vertical axis by applying the necessary force by hand
in the clockwise direction viewed from the top.
4. It will be observed that rotor frame swing about the horizontal axis so that the motor
side moves upwards.
5. Rotating the yoke axis in the opposite direction causes the rotor frame to move in
the opposite direction.
Part II:
The spinning body processes in such a way that to make the axis of spin to coincide with
that of the applied couple.
The direction is verified by following the procedure given below and using the apparatus as
well as the relation for the magnitude of the couple.
1. Balance the rotor in the horizontal plane.
2. Start the motor and adjust the speed with the help of voltage regulation. The Speed
is measured using a tachometer.
3. Put weights on the side opposite to the motor.
4. The yoke start precessing.

Theory of Machines
5. Note down the direction of precession.

6. Verify this direction
7. Measure the velocity of precession using the pointer provided the yoke and Stop
watch.
8. Verify the relation C = I X W X wp
Observations: Part I
1. Direction of spin axis: CLOCKWISE/ANTICLOCKWISE
2. Direction of forced precession: DOWNWORD
3. Direction of couple acting on the frame: CLOCKWISE/ANTICLOCKWISES
Part II:
1. Mass of rotor (m) : 3kg
2. Thickness of rotor : 19mm
3. Rotor diameter (d) : 220mm
4. Moment arm (r') : 200mm
5. Motor power : 120w
6. 6. Speed of motor : 0 – 500 rpm
Observation Table:
S. No. Weight Spin Speed Angle turned Time second(t) Direction
(W) rpm(N) degrees (θ) of rotation
Calculations:
1. Moment of Inertia (I) = Kg.m²
2. w = 2πN / 60 = rad/s
3. wp = θ / t X π / 180 = rad/s
4. Gyroscopic Couple © = I X w X wp = N – m.
5. Applied Torque (T) = Wr' = N – m.
Result Table:
S. No. Spin velocity Precessional velocity Gyroscopic Applied torque
w(rad/s) wp Couple C (N. m) (N. m.)
Conclusions:
 Comments are to be written based on the observations of direction observed during
Part I and Part II of the experiment.
 The values tabulated in the result table are to be compared (i.e. the values of C & T
are compared) and comments on the variation are to be written.
 Different case where the gyroscopic couple is observed is to be mentioned.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 5
AIM: To study inversions of slider crank chain and double slider crank chain.
APPARATUS USED: Models of four-Bar Mechanisms, slider crank chain and double slider
crank chain.
Method:
Step 1. Read the various types of inversions of four-Bar Mechanisms, single slider crank
chain and double slider crank chain Mechanisms from the book.
machines.
Step 4. Draw sketches of the taken pictures.
items.
THEORY:
Inversions: - The method of obtaining different mechanisms by fixing different links in a
kinematic chain is known as inversion.
Four bar Mechanism: - A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental of the
plane kinematics linkages. It is a much preferred mechanical device for the mechanization
and control of motion due to its simplicity and versatility. Basically it consists of four rigid
links which are connected in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin joints. A link that makes
complete revolutions is the crank, the link opposite to the fixed link is the coupler and the
fourth link a lever or rocker if oscillates or an another crank, if rotate. By fixing the link:-
 Shortest Link Fixed.
 Link opposite to Shortest Link fixed.
Fig. Four bar mechanism
INVERSIONS OF 4-BAR CHAIN MECHANISM: -

1. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism): - In this mechanism, the
links AB and DC acts as cranks and are connected to the respective wheels. The link
BC acting as a coupling rod and the
link AD is a fixed link in order to
maintain constant centre to centre
distance between them. This
mechanism is meant for transmitting
rotary motion from one wheel to
another wheel. Fig. 3. Coupling Rod of Locomotive

Theory of Machines
2. Beam engine (crank and lever mechanism): - A part of the mechanism of a beam
engine (also known as crank and lever mechanism) which consist of four links. In this
mechanism when the crank rotates about the fixed centre A, the lever oscillates
about the fixed centre D.
Fig. Beam engine
3. Watt’s mechanism (Double lever mechanism): - It is a crossed four bar chain

mechanism and was used by watt for the early steam engines to guide the piston rod
in a cylinder to have an approximate straight line motion.
Fig. Watt’s mechanism
SINGLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN:-

A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bars chain. It consists of one
sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is, usually, found in reciprocating steam engine
mechanism. This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and
vice versa. In a single slider crank chain, as shown in Fig, the links 1 and 2, links 2 and 3, and
links 3 and 4 form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1 form a sliding pair. The link 1
corresponds to the frame of the engine, which is fixed. The link 2 corresponds to the crank;
link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod and link 4 corresponds to cross-head. As the crank
rotates, the cross-head reciprocates in the guides and thus the piston reciprocates in the
cylinder.
Fig. Single Slider Crank Chain

Theory of Machines
INVERSIONS OF SINGLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN: -

Different mechanisms obtained by fixing di different
fferent links of a kinematics chain are known as
its inversions.
A slider –crank
crank chain has the following inversions:
inversions:-
1. Pendulum pump or Bull engine: -In In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by
fixing the cylinder or link 4 (i.e. sliding pair), in tthe
he case, when the crank (link2)
rotates, the connecting rod (link3)oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4 at
A and the piston attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates. Duplex pump which
is used to supply feed water to boilers have two piston attached to link 1, as shown
fig.
Fig. Pendulums pump Fig. Oscillate cylinder engine
2. Oscillate cylinder engine: -The The arrangement of the oscillating cylinder engine
mechanism is used to cconvert
onvert reciprocating motion in to rotary motion. In this case
mechanism, the link 3 forming the turning pair is fixed. The link 3 corresponds to the
connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine mechanism. When the crank (link 2)
rotates, the piston attac
attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder
(link 4) oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link at A.
3. Rotary internal combustion engines or Gnome engine: -SometimesSometimes back, rotary

internal combustion engines were used in aviation. But now-a-daysdays gas turbines are
used in its place. It consists of seven cylinders in one plane and all revolves about
fixed centre D,, while the crank (link 2) is fixed. In this mechanism, when the
connecting rod (link 4) rotates, the piston (link 3) reciproca
reciprocates
tes inside the cylinders
forming link 1.
Fig. Rotary internal combustion engines
4. Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism: -This

This mechanism is mostly
used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary internal combustion

UIT Bhopal
Theory of Machines
engines. In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the turning pair is fixed,
as shown in Fig. The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating
steam engine. The driving crank CB revolves with uniform angular speed about the
fixed centre C. A sliding block attached to the crankpin at B slides along the slotted
bar AP and thus causes AP to oscillate about the pivoted point A. A short link PR
transmits the motion from AP to the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates
along the line of stroke R1R2. The line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is
perpendicular to AC produced.
Fig. Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism
5. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism: This mechanism is mostly used in

shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2) forming the
turning pair is fixed, as shown in Fig. The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a
reciprocating steam engine. The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular
speed. The slider (link 4) attached to the crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar
PA (link 1) which oscillates at a pivoted point D. The connecting rod PR carries the
ram at R to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of the tool is constrained along
the line RD produced, i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular to CD.
Fig. Whitworth quick return motion mechanism
DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN: -

A four-bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same
kind are adjacent is known as a double-slider-crank chain.

Theory of Machines
INVERSIONS OF DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN: -

The following are its inversions:
1. Elliptical trammels: It is an instrument used for drawing ellipses. This inversion is
obtained by fixing the slotted plate (link 4), as shown in Fig. The fixed plate or link 4
has two straight grooves cut in it, at right angles to each other. The link 1 and link 3
are known as sliders and form sliding pairs with link 4. The link A B (link 2) is a bar
which forms turning pair with links 1 and 3. When the links 1 and 3 slide along their
respective grooves, any point on the link 2 such as P traces out an ellipse on the
surface of link 4, as shown in Fig. 5.34 (a). A little consideration will show that AP and
BP are the semi-major axis and semi-minor axis of the ellipse respectively. This can
be proved as follows :
Fig. Elliptical Trammels
2. Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism is used for converting rotary motion into a
reciprocating motion. The inversion is obtained by fixing either the link 1 or link 3. In
Fig. Link1 is fixed. In this mechanism, when the link 2 (which corresponds to crank)
rotates about B as centre, the link4 (which corresponds to a frame) reciprocates. The
fixed link 1 guides the frame.
Fig. Scotch yoke mechanism
3. Oldham’s coupling: An oldham's coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts
whose axes are at a small distance apart. The shafts are coupled in such a way that if
one shaft rotates, the other shaft also rotates at the same speed. This inversion is
obtained by fixing the link 2, as shown in Fig. (a). The shafts to be connected have
two flanges (link 1 and link 3) rigidly fastened at their ends by forging. The link 1 and
link 3 form turning pairs with link 2. These flanges have diametrical slots cut in their
inner faces, as shown in Fig. (b). the intermediate piece (link 4) which is a circular
disc, have two tongues (i.e. diametrical projections) T1 and T2 on each face at right

Theory of Machines
angles to each other, as shown in Fig. (c). the tongues on the link 4 closely fit into the
slots in the two flanges (link 1 and link 3). The link 4 can slide or reciprocate in the
slots in the flanges.
Fig.Oldham’s coupling
APPLICATIONS:
1. in reciprocating engine.
2. in reciprocating compressor.
3. In Whitworth quick – return mechanism and Rotary engine.
4. in oscillating cylinder engine and crank & slotted-lever mechanism.
5. in hand pump.
6. in scotch yoke.
OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION:

1. Comparison between 4 Bar, Single & Double slider cranks mechanisms.
2. Type of Motion to be named.
3. All these various type of inversions of single slider crank chain and double slider crank
chain Mechanisms are experimentally calculated.............. Also, verified by operating
the mechanism.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 6
AIM: To find velocity and acceleration of given a mechanism
APPARATUS USED: pencil, Scale, compass.
Method: Though there are many methods for determining the velocity of any point on a link
in a mechanism whose direction of motion (i.e. path) and velocity of some other point on
the same link is known in magnitude and direction, yet the following two methods.
1. Relative velocity method: relative velocity method is based upon the relative
velocity of the various points of the link.
Consider two points A and B on a link as shown in Fig. (a). Let the absolute velocity of the
point A i.e. v A is known in magnitude and direction and the absolute velocity of the point B
i.e. v Bis known in direction only. Then the velocity diagram is drawn as follows:
1. Take some convenient point o, known as the pole.

2. Through o, draw oa parallel and equal to v A , to some suitable scale.
3. Through a, draw line perpendicular to AB of Fig. (a). This line will represent the
velocity of B with respect to i.e. v AB.
4. Through o, draw a line parallel to v A intersecting the line of v AB at b.
5. Measure ob, which gives the required velocity of point B (vB), to the scale.
2. Velocity of Instantaneous centre method: The instantaneous centre method of

analyzing the motion in a mechanism is based upon the concept that any
displacement of a body (or a rigid link) having motion in one plane, can be
considered as a pure rotational motion of a rigid link as a whole about some centre,
known as instantaneous centre or virtual centre of rotation.
Consider two points A and B on a rigid link. Let vA and vB be the velocities of points A and B,
whose directions are given by angles α and β as shown in Fig. If vA is known in magnitude
and direction and vB in direction only, then the magnitude of vB may be determined by the
instantaneous centre method as discussed below : Draw AI and BI perpendiculars to the
directions vA and vB respectively. Let these lines intersect at l, which is known as
instantaneous Centre or virtual Centre of the link. The complete rigid link is to rotate or turn
about the center.
Since A and B are the points on a rigid link, therefore there cannot be any relative motion
between them along the line AB.

Theory of Machines
Now resolving the velocities along AB,

𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
or
( ° )
= = (i)
( ° )
Applying Lami’s theorem to triangle ABI,

𝐴𝐼 𝐵𝐼
=
sin(90° − 𝛽) sin(90° − 𝛼)
( ° )
= (ii)
( ° )
From equation (i) and (ii),

= or = = 𝜔 (iii)
Where
ω = Angular velocity of the rigid link.
If C is any other point on the link, then

= = (iv)
From the above equation, we see that

1. If vA is known in magnitude and direction and vB in direction only, then velocity of
point B or any other point C lying on the same link may be determined in magnitude
and direction.
2. The magnitude of velocities of the points on a rigid link is inversely proportional to
the distances from the points to the instantaneous centre and is perpendicular to
the line joining the point to the instantaneous centre.
The following rules may be used in locating the instantaneous centres in a mechanism:
1. When the two links are connected by a pin joint (or pivot joint), the instantaneous
centre lies on the centre of the pin as shown in Fig. 6.6 (a). Such a instantaneous
centre is of permanent nature, but if one of the links is fixed, the instantaneous
centre will be of fixed type.
2. When the two links have a pure rolling contact (i.e. link 2 rolls without slipping upon
the fixed link 1 which may be straight or curved), the instantaneous centre lies on
their point of contact, as shown in Fig.(b). The velocity of any point A on the link 2
relative to fixed link 1 will be perpendicular to I12 A and is proportional to I12A. In
other words
=
3. When the two links have a sliding contact, the instantaneous centre lies on the
common normal at the point of contact. We shall consider the following three cases:

Theory of Machines
(a) When the link 2 (slider) moves on fixed link 1 having straight surface as shown in
Fig.(c), the instantaneous centre lies at infinity and each point on the slider have
the same velocity.
(b) When the link 2 (slider) moves on fixed link 1 having curved surface as shown in
Fig. (d), the instantaneous centre lies on the centre of curvature of the curvilinear
path in the configuration at that instant.
(c) When the link 2 (slider) moves on fixed link 1 having constant radius of curvature
as shown in Fig.(e), the instantaneous centre lies at the centre of curvature i.e.
the centre of the circle, for all configuration of the links.
Fig. Location of Instantaneous centre
Acceleration: - Consider two points A and B on the rigid link, as shown in Fig. (a). Let the
acceleration of a point A i.e. aA is known in magnitude and direction and the direction of
path of B is given. The acceleration of point B is determined in magnitude and direction by
drawing the acceleration diagram as discussed below:
1. From the any point o’, draw o’a’ parallel to the direction of absolute acceleration at
point A i.e. aA, to some suitable scale, as shown in Fig. (b).
2. We know that the acceleration of point B with respect to A i.e. aBA has the following
two components.
(i) Redial component of the acceleration of B w. r. t. A i.e. arBA, and
(ii) Tangential component of the acceleration B with respect to A i.e. atBA.
These two components are mutually perpendicular.
3. Draw vector a’x parallel to the link AB (because radial component of the
acceleration of B w. r. t. A will pass through AB). Such that
𝑉
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 =
𝐵𝐴
Where vBA =velocity of B w. r. t. A
4. From point x, draw vector xb’ perpendicular to AB or vector a’x (because
tangential component of B w. r. t. A i.e.atBA, is perpendicular to radial component
arBA) and through o’ draw a line parallel to the path B to represent the absolute of
point B i.e. aB. The vector b’x and o’b’ intersect at b’. Now the value of aB
andatBAmay be measured, to the scale.

Theory of Machines
Fig. Single Slider Crank Chain
CONCLUSION
Hence the velocity and acceleration of given mechanism can be obtained by these
diagrams. Velocity of the link is.........................and acceleration is...............

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 7
AIM: - To study the various types of steering mechanism.
APPARATUS USED: - Steering Mechanism Apparatus.
METHODS:
Step 1. Read the various types of Steering Mechanism from the book.
machines.
items.
THEORY:-
1. Definition of. Steering mechanisms.
2. Classification of steering mechanisms.
3. Diagrams of different types of steering mechanisms.
4. Working & Construction of different types of steering.
5. Mechanisms.
STEERING GEAR: - When an automobile takes turn on a road all the wheels should make
concentric circle to ensure that they roll on the road smoothly and there is line contact
between the tyres and the surface of the path, preventing the excess wear of the tyres. This
is achieved by mounting the two front wheels on two short axles, known as stub axles. The
stub axles are pin-jointed with the main front axle which is rigidly attached to the rear axle.
Thus the steering is affected by the use of front wheels only.
TYPES OF STEERING GEARS:-

There are two main types of steering gears:
1. The Davis steering gear.
2. The Ackermann steering gear.
DAVIS STEERING GEAR: - A Davis steering gear has sliding pairs which means more friction
and easy wearing. The gear fulfils the fundamental equation of gearing in all the positions.
However, due to easy wearing it becomes inaccurate after some time. A Davis steering
shown in fig. consists of two arms PK and QL fixed to the stub axles PC and QD to form two
similar bell crank levers CPK and DQL pivoted at P and Q respectively. A cross link AB,
constrained to slide parallel to PQ, is pin-jointed at its ends to two sliders. The sliders S1 and
S2 are free to slide on the links PK and QL respectively. During the straight motion of the
vehicle, the gear is in the mid-position with equal inclination of the arms PK and QL with
PQ.

Theory of Machines
Fig. Davis Steering Gear
As the vehicle turns right, the cross-arm AB also moves right through a distance x from the
mod-position as shown in fig. the bell crank levers assume the positions C´ P K´ and D´QL´
tan α = w/2l (l = wheel base, w = distance between the pivots of front axle) usual value of
w/l is between 0.4 to 0.5 and that of α from 11 to 14 degrees.
ACKERMANN STEERING GEAR: - An Ackermann steering gear has only turning pairs and thus
is preferred. Its drawback is that it fulfils the fundamental equation of correct gearing at the
middle and the two extreme positions and not in all positions. This steering gear consists of
a four link mechanism PABQ having four-turning pairs
Fig. Ackermann Steering Gear
Three positions of the correct gearing are-

1. When the vehicle moves straight.
2. When the vehicle moves at a correct angle to the right, and
3. When the vehicle moves at a correct angle to the left.
RESULT:
Study about Steering Mechanisms; Davis and Ackerman. Has been made
CONCLUSION

Theory of Machines
Hence the study of various types of Steering Mechanisms is completed.
EXPERIMENT No. 8
AIM: - To draw the cam profile and various types of cam and follower arrangements.
APPARATUS USED: - Cam and follower arrangements.
Method:
Step 1. Read the various types of Cam and follower arrangements from the book.
machines.
items.
THEORY: -
CAM & FOLLOWER: - A cam is a rotating machine element which gives reciprocating or
oscillating motion to another element known as follower. The cam and the follower have a
line contact and constitute a higher pair. The cams are usually rotated at uniform speed by a
shaft, but the follower motion is predetermined and will be according to the shape of the
cam.
The cam and follower is one of the simplest as well as one of the most important
mechanisms found in modern machinery today. The cams are widely used for operating the
inlet and exhaust valves of internal combustion engines, automatic attachment of
machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning and weaving textile machineries, feed
mechanism of automatic lathes etc.
A cam and the follower combination belong to the category of higher pairs.
• A driver member known as the cam.
• A driven member called the follower
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLLOWERS: -
The followers may be classified as discussed below:
1. According to the surface in contact. The followers, according to the surface in contact,
are as follows :
(a) Knife edge follower. When the contacting end of the follower has a sharp knife edge,
it is called a knife edge follower, as shown in Fig.(a). The sliding motion takes place
between the contacting surfaces (i.e. the knife edge and the cam surface). It is
seldom used in practice because the small area of contacting surface results in
excessive wear. In knife edge followers, a considerable side thrust exists between
the follower and the guide.
(b) (b) Roller follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a roller, it is called a
roller follower, as shown in Fig. (b). since the rolling motion takes place between the
contacting surfaces (i.e. the roller and the cam), therefore the rate of wear is greatly
reduced. In roller followers also the side thrust exists between the follower and the
guide. The roller followers are extensively used where more space is available such
as in stationary gas and oil engines and aircraft engines.
(c) Flat faced or mushroom follower. When the contacting end of the follower is a
perfectly flat face, it is called a flat-faced follower, as shown in Fig. (c). It may be

Theory of Machines
noted that the side thrust between the follower and the guide is much reduced in
case of flat faced followers. The only side thrust is due to friction between the
contact surfaces of the follower and the cam. The relative motion between these
surfaces is largely of sliding nature but wear may be reduced by off-setting the axis
of the follower, as shown in Fig. (f ) so that when the cam rotates, the follower also
rotates about its own axis. The flat faced followers are generally used where space is
limited such as in cams which operate the valves of automobile engines.
Note: When the flat faced follower is circular, it is then called a mushroom follower.
(d) Spherical faced follower. When the contacting end of the follower is of spherical
shape, it is called a spherical faced follower, as shown in Fig. 20.1 (d). It may be
noted that when a flat-faced follower is used in automobile engines, high surface
stresses are produced. In order to minimise these stresses, the flat end of the
follower is machined to a spherical shape.
Fig. Classification of followers
2. According to the motion of the follower. The followers, according to its motion, are
of the following two types:
(a) Reciprocating or translating follower. When the follower reciprocates in guides as
the cam rotates uniformly, it is known as reciprocating or translating follower. The
followers as shown in Fig. (a) To (d) are all reciprocating or translating followers.
(b) Oscillating or rotating follower. When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is
converted into predetermined oscillatory motion of the follower, it is called
oscillating or rotating follower. The follower, as shown in Fig (e), is an oscillating or
rotating follower.
3. According to the path of motion of the follower. The followers, according to its path
of motion, are of the following two types:

Theory of Machines
(a) Radial follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis passing through
the centre of the cam, it is known as radial follower. The followers, as shown in Fig.
(a) To (e), are all radial followers?
(b) Off-set follower. When the motion of the follower is along an axis away from the
axis of the cam centre, it is called off-set follower. The follower, as shown in Fig.
20.1 (f), is an off-set follower.
Note: In all cases, the follower must be constrained to follow the cam. This may be done by
springs, gravity or hydraulic means. In some types of cams, the follower may ride in a
groove.
CLASSIFICATION OF CAMS: -
Though the cams may be classified in many ways, yet the following two types are important
from the subject point of view:
1. According to shape
(a) Wedge and flat Cams: - A wedge cam has a wedge W which, in general, has a
translational motion. The follower. The follower F can either translate or oscillate.
(b) Radial or Disc Cams: - A cam in which the follower moves radially from the centre of
rotation of the cam is known as a radial or a disc cam.
(c) Spiral cams: - A spiral cam is a face cam in which a groove is cut in the form of a
spiral as shown in fig. the spiral groove consists of teeth which mesh with a pin gear
follower.
(d) Cylindrical cams: - In a cylindrical cam, a cylinder which has a circumferential

contour cut in the surface, rotate about its axis.
(e) Conjugate cams: - A conjugate cam is a double – disc cam, the two discs being keyed
together and is in constant touch with the two rollers of a follower. It is used for low
noise, high speed and dynamic loads.
(f) Globoidal cams: - A globoidal cam can have two types of surfaces, convex or
concave. A circumferential contour is cut on the surface of rotation of the cam to
impart motion to the follower which has an oscillatory motion.
(g) Spherical cams: - In a spherical cam, the follower oscillates about an axis
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the cam.
Fig. Cylindrical cam

Theory of Machines
2. According to Follower Movement

(a) Rise-Return-Rise (R-R-R):- In this, there is alternate rise and return of the follower
with no periods of dwells. Its use is very limited in the industry. The follower has a
linear or an angular displacement.
(b) Dwell-Rise-Return-Dwell (D-R-R-D):- In such a type of cam, there is rise and return of
the follower after a dwell. This type is used more frequently than the R-R-R type of
cam.
(c) Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return (D-R-D-R):- It is most widely used type of cam. The dwelling
of the cam is followed by rise and dwell and subsequently by return and dwell as
shown in fig.
3. According to Manner of Constraint of the Follower
(a) Pre-loaded Spring Cam
(b) Positive-Drive Cam
(c) Gravity Cam
Types of Follower motion:

(1)Simple Harmonic Motion
(2) Uniform Velocity
(3) Uniform Acceleration and Retardation
(4) Cycloidal Motion.
1. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Uniform
Velocity: The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when a knife-edged follower
moves with uniform velocity are shown in Fig.1
2. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Simple
Harmonic Motion: The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the follower
moves with simple harmonic motion are shown in above Fig.2

Theory of Machines
3. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
Uniform Acceleration and Retardation: The displacement, velocity and acceleration
diagrams when the follower moves with uniform acceleration and retardation are
shown in Fig.3

Theory of Machines
4. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with
Cycloidal Motion: The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the
follower moves with cycloidal motion are shown in Fig.4
OBSERVATION:-
1. Comparison between Cam & Follower.
2. Type of Motion to be named.
APPLICATIONS:-
1. Cams are used in Automatic machines
2. In internal combustion engine
3. In machine tools
4. Printing Control mechanisms
CONCLUSION:
1. Various plot of follower displacement vs cam rotation for Cam Follower systems
were studied.
2. Hence the study of cam and follower arrangement is completed.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 9
AIM: - To draw in-volute profile of a gear by generating method and various types of gear
Arrangement system.
APPARATUS USED: - Arrangement of gear system.
Method:
Step 1. Read the various types of gears-Helical, cross-helical, worm, bevel gear
arrangements from the book.
machines.
items.
THEORY: - A gear is a kind of machine element in which teeth are cut around cylindrical or
cone shaped surfaces with equal spacing. By meshing a pair of these elements, they are
used to transmit rotations and forces from the driving shaft to the driven shaft. The history
of gears is old and the use of gears already performs in early Greece in B.C. in the writing of
Archimedes.
“Gear is used to transmit motion from one shaft to another shaft or between a shaft and
slide. This is accomplished by successively engaging teeth”.
CLASSIFICATION OF GEAR: - Gears can be classified according to the relative position of

their shaft axis are follows:
A: PARALLEL SHAFT
i. Spur gear.
ii. Spur rack and pinion.
iii. Helical gears or helical spur gear.
iv. Double- helical and Herringbone gear.
B: INTER SECTING SHAFT

i. Straight bevel gear.
ii. Spiral bevel gear.
iii. Zerol bevel gear
C: SKEW SHAFT
i. Crossed- helical gear.
ii. Worm gears ( Non-throated, Single throated, Double throated)
TYPES OF GEARS: - There are many types of gears such as spur gears, helical gears, bevel
gears, worm gears, gear rack, etc. These can be broadly classified by looking at the positions
of axes such as parallel shafts, intersecting shafts and non-intersecting shafts.
Spur Gear: - They have straight teeth parallel to the axes and thus are not subjected to axial
thrust due to teeth load. Spur gears are the most common type of gears. They have straight
teeth, and are mounted on parallel shafts. Sometimes, many spur gears are used at once to

Theory of Machines
create very large gear reductions. Each time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other gear,
the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It also increases the stress on the gear
teeth. Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth,
which are perpendicular to the face of the gear. Spur gears are most commonly available,
and are generally the least expensive.
Fig. Spur gears
Helical Gears: - In helical gears, the teeth are curved, each being helical in shape. Two
mating gears have the same helix angle, but have teeth of opposite hands. At the beginning
of engagement, contact occurs only at the point of leading edge of the curved teeth. As the
gears rotate, the contact extends along a diagonal line across the teeth. Thus the load
application is gradual which result in now impact stresses and reduction in noise. Therefore,
the helical gears can be used at higher velocities then the spur gears and have greater load –
carrying capacity. The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear.
When two teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact starts at one end of the tooth
and gradually spreads as the gears rotate, until the two teeth are in full engagement. This
gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly than
spur gears. For this reason, helical gears are used in almost all car transmission. Because of
the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they
mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings that can support this thrust load.
Fig. Helical Gears
Double Helical and Herring Bone Gears: - A- double- helical gear is equivalent to a pair of
helical gears secured together, one having a right – hand helix and the other a left hand
helix. The tooth of two raw is separated by a grooved used for too run out.
If the left and the right inclinations of a double – helical gear meet at a common apex and
there is no groove in between, the gear is known as herring bone gear.

Theory of Machines
Crossed–Helical Gear: - The used of crossed helical gear or spiral gears is limited to light
loads. By a suitable choice of helix angle for the mating gears, the two shafts can be set at
any angle.
Worm Gear: - A screw shape cut on a shaft is the worm, the mating gear is the worm wheel,
and together on non-intersecting shafts is called a worm gear. Worms and worm wheels are
not limited to cylindrical shapes. There is the hour-glass type which can increase the contact
ratio, but production becomes more difficult. Due to the sliding contact of the gear surfaces,
it is necessary to reduce friction. For this reason, generally a hard material is used for the
worm, and a soft material is used for worm wheel. Even though the efficiency is low due to
the sliding contact, the rotation is smooth and quiet. When the lead angle of the worm is
small, it creates a self-locking feature.
Fig. Worm Gear
Bevel Gear: - Bevel gears have a cone shaped appearance and are used to transmit force
between two shafts which intersect at one point (intersecting shafts). A bevel gear has a
cone as its pitch surface and its teeth are cut along the cone. Kinds of bevel gears include
straight bevel gears, helical bevel gears, spiral bevel gears, miter gears, angular bevel gears,
crown gears, zerol bevel gears and hypoid gears.
The motion between two intersecting shafts is equivalent to the rolling of two cones,
assuming no slipping. The gears, in general, are known as bevel gear. When teeth formed on
the cones are straight, the gears are known as straight bevel and when inclined, they are
known as spiral or helical bevel.
Fig. Bevel Gear
Gear Racks: -Same sized and shaped teeth cut at equal distances along a flat surface or a
straight rod is called a gear rack. A gear rack is a cylindrical gear with the radius of the pitch
cylinder being infinite. By meshing with a cylindrical gear pinion, it converts rotational
motion into linear motion. Gear racks can be broadly divided into straight tooth racks and

Theory of Machines
helical tooth racks, but both have straight tooth lines. By machining the ends of gear racks, it
is possible to connect gear racks end to end.
Fig. Gear Racks
Spiral Bevel Gears: -Spiral bevel gears are bevel gears with curved tooth lines. Due to higher
tooth contact ratio, they are superior to straight bevel gears in efficiency, strength, vibration
and noise. On the other hand, they are more difficult to produce. Also, because the teeth
are curved, they cause thrust forces in the axial direction. Within the spiral bevel gears, the
one with the zero twisting angles is called zerol bevel gear.
Fig. Spiral Bevel Gears
Screw gears: - Screw gears are a pair of same hand helical gears with the twist angle of 45°
on non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts. Because the tooth contact is a point, their load
carrying capacity is low and they are not suitable for large power transmission. Since power
is transmitted by the sliding of the tooth surfaces, it is necessary to pay attention to
lubrication when using screw gears. There are no restrictions as far as the combinations of
number of teeth.
Fig. Screw gears

Theory of Machines
Miter Gears: - Miter gears are bevel gears with a speed ratio of 1. They are used to change
the direction of power transmission without changing speed. There are straight miter and
spiral miter gears. When using the spiral miter gears it becomes necessary to consider using
thrust bearings since they produce thrust force in the axial direction. Besides the usual miter
gears with 90° shaft angles, miter gears with any other shaft angles are called angular miter
gears.
Fig Miter Gears
Internal gears: - Internal gears have teeth cut on the inside of cylinders or cones and are
paired with external gears. The main uses of internal gears are for planetary gear drives and
gear type shaft couplings. There are limitations in the number of teeth differences between
internal and external gears due to involute interference, trochoid interference and trimming
problems. The rotational directions of the internal and external gears in mesh are the same
while they are opposite when two external gears are in mesh.
Fig Internal gears

Theory of Machines
Fig An overview of gears

APPLICATION:-
a. Bevel gears are used for the drive to the differential of automobiles.
b. Spur rack and pinion are used in a lathe.
c. Helical gears are used for greater load at higher velocities.
d. Gears are used in different machinery.
The involute System

The curved surface of the gear tooth profile must be of a definite geometric form if the
gears are to operate smoothly with a minimum of noise and vibration. The most common
form in use today is the involute profile. In the involute system, the shape of the tooth
depends basically upon the pressure angle. The pressure angle is either 14, degrees or 20
degrees. The pressure angle determines the size of the base circle. The involute curve is
generated from the base circle.
Calculations-
Pitch Circle diameter = -----?
Circular Pitch = ----------------?
Addendum = ----------------?
Clearance = -----------------?
Addendum circle diameter = -----?
Dedendum =---------------------------?
Dedendum circle diameter = ------?
Tooth Thickness = ---------------------?
Construction Steps -
1. With centre O, draw the pitch circle of PCD calculated.
2. At any point P on it, draw a tangent TT’.
3. Again through P, draw the line of action LL’ inclined at θ (equal to 200) to TT’.
4. Through O, draw a line OE inclined at θ to OP (it will be perpendicular to LL’).
5. With centre O and radius OE, draw the base circle.
6. Draw the addendum and dedendum circles of diameters calculated.

Theory of Machines
7. On the pitch circle, mark points 1, 2, 3 etc., distance equal to tooth thickness.
8. To draw involute as shown in figure 2 of involute profile, draw the lines 1’1, 2’2, 3’3,
etc. which are tangential to the circle and equal in length to the arc lengths, P’ 1’, 2’
etc. are the involute.
9. Place the tracing paper in such a manner that the arc AB coincides with base circle.
While the curve passes through say the point 1.
10. Pick a few points on the curve between the addendum circle and the base circle join
these points by means of French curve.
11. Complete one side of the tooth profile by drawing a radial line below the base circle
and then join it with the bottom of the tooth space by a fillet of radius r equal to =
tooth thickness/4
12. Reverse the tracing paper and plot the curve through the point 2 in the same manner,
thus completing a tooth profile.
13. Repeat the construction for each tooth.
Figure: tooth profile
Problem – Draw the profile of an in volute teeth for a gear having 24 teeth and module
equal to 8.33 mm and assuming a pressure angle of 200.
Solution…………?
Solution CONCLUSION: - Hence the study of gears is completed.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 10
AIM: - To study various types of gear trains-simple, compound, reverted and epicyclic
gear arrangements.
APPARATUS USED: - Models of Gear train system.
Method: -
Step1. Read the various types of gears trains-simple, compound, reverted and epicyclic gear
arrangements from the book.
Step2. List all types of items as read in step 1.
Step3. Search and take the picture (photographs) by camera in the labs or available
machines.
Step4. Draw sketches of the taken pictures.
Step5. Prepare a file including pictures, sketches and information about the studied items.
THEORY: -
GEAR TRAIN: - A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft
to another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain large speed reduction within
a small space. The following are the main types of gear trains:
(i) Simple gear train.
(ii) Compound gear train.
(iii) Reverted gear train.
(iv) Planetary or epicyclic gear train.
SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN: - A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from
one gear to another is called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear axes remain fixed relative
to the frame and each gear is on a separate shaft.
Train Value = Number of teeth on driving gear

Number of teeth on driven gear
Figure Simple Gear Train

Theory of Machines
COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN: - When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or
more gears rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound
gear train.
Figure Compound Gear Train
REVERTED GEAR TRAIN: - If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound gear
coincide; it is called a reverted gear train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in
simple lathes where ‘back gear’ is used to give a slow speed to the chuck.
Figure Reverted Gear Train
PLANETARY OR EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN: - When there exists a relative motion of axis in gear
train, it is called a planetary or an epicyclic gear train (or simply epicyclic gear or train). Thus
in an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears also moves relative to the frame.
Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axis of which are connected by an arm a. if the arm
‘a’ is fixed, the wheels S and P constitute a simple train. However, if the wheel s is fixed so

Theory of Machines
that the arm can rotate about the axis of S, the wheel P would also move around S.
therefore, it is an epicyclic train.
Figure Epicyclic Gear Train
OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION: -

1. To calculate the train value.
2. To calculate the speed of any gear.
APPLICATIONS:-
1. Gear trains are used in automobiles.
2. Epicyclic gear train is used in transmission, computing devices.
3. Reverted gear train are used in clock and simple lathe
4. Gears are used in different machinery.
Question:-
In an epicyclic gear train, an arm carries two gears A and B having 36 and 45 teeth
respectively. If the arm rotates at 150 r.p.m. in the anticlockwise direction about the centre
of the gear A which is fixed, determine the speed of gear B. If the gear A instead of being
fixed, makes 300 r.p.m. in the clockwise direction, what will be the speed of gear B?
Solve by both the methods i.e. algebraic method and tabular method.
Solution Given: TA = 36; TB = 45; NC = 150 r.p.m. (anticlockwise)

The gear train is shown in above Fig.
We shall solve this example, first by tabular method and
then by algebraic method.
1. Tabular method
First of all prepare the table of motions as given below:
Table of motions

Theory of Machines
Speed of gear B when gear A is fixed

Since the speed of arm is 150 r.p.m. anticlockwise, therefore from the fourth row of the
table,
y = + 150 r.p.m.
Also the gear A is fixed, therefore
x + y = 0 or x = – y = – 150 r.p.m.
∴ Speed of gear B, A
= 270 r.p.m. (anticlockwise) Ans.
Speed of gear B when gear A makes 300 r.p.m. clockwise
Since the gear A makes 300 r.p.m. clockwise, therefore from the fourth row of the table,
x + y = – 300 or x = – 300 – y = – 300 – 150 = – 450 r.p.m.
∴ Speed of gear B,
= 510 r.p.m. (anticlockwise) Ans.
2. Solve Algebraic method

Calculation ……………………..
CONCLUSION: - Hence the study of gear trains is completed.

Theory of Machines
EXPERIMENT No. 11
Aim: To Measure the various parameters comprising the Corioli’s component of
acceleration.
APPARATUS USED: - working models of Corioli’s system.
Theory:
The apparatus has been designed to enable the student to measure the various parameters
comprising the Corioli’s component of acceleration. To maintain this acceleration long
enough for measurements to be taken the conventional slider mechanism is replaced by
two streams of water flowing radially outwards from an inverted T shape tube which rotates
about its vertical axis so that the water in passing along the tube is subjected to Corioli’s
component acceleration.
Consider the motion of the slider B on the crank OA. Let OA rotates with constant angular
velocity rad/ sec. and slider B have the velocity v radially outwards relative v outwards
relative to the crank centre O. The velocity diagram for the slider in two position separated
by angular displacement d
On the same diagram v1 represents the resultant choice of velocity of slider. This velocity
has two components vu and vu in radial and tangential directions respectively.
Tangential Component = vu = vs + sμ
= r sin + (r + r)
= r + r ………… (1)
Rate of change of tangential velocity =
= r + r = 2 r ………… (2)

Equation (2) represents the Corioli’s component of acceleration .This acceleration is made
up of two components, one due to the increase of radius and other from changing direction
of the crank.
Hydraulic Analogy:
Consider the diagram, short column of fluid if length dr at a distance r from axis of rotation
of the tube, as shown in figure, then velocity of fluid relative to the tube r and the angular
velocity of the tube is , the Corioli’s component of acceleration of the column is 2r in a
direction perpendicular to, and in a place of rotation of the tube .The torque δT applied by
the tube to produce this acceleration then,
Where
δ is the weight of the short column of fluid.
If w is the specific weight of the fluid and a is the cross sectional area of the tube outlet,
then
δ =  a δ r
δT =2rWarδr/g

Theory of Machines
and the complete torque applied to column of length 1 is given by

T =2rWarδr/g
T = Wral2/g
or Corioli’s component of acceleration

Ca = 2gT /ral2 (Considering both tubes)
Apparatus:
The apparatus consist of two brass tube, projected radialiy from centre Perspex header
tube, are rotated by direct D.C motor, mounted vertically in a ball bearing housing. The
torque supplied by the motor is measured by a voltmeter and ammeter provided in the
central panel. The speed of rotation of the motor is measured by RPM meter. Water from
the pump flows to the header tube through the flow control valve. A rotameter is provided
to measure the water flow rate. The water leaving the radial tubes returns to the via pump
via sump. The splash tank and all the accessories mounted on the fabricated frame
Procedure:
1. Check the bypass valve is fully open
2. Check the position of dimmerstat, it must be zero position
3. After switching the main switch, with the help of dimmerstat increase the speed of
motor up to certain speed.
4. Now start the water pump and with the help of bypass valve adjust water level
constant (any level) in the vertical header tube.
5. Take the reading on the voltmeter, ammeter, rpm indicator, rotameter.
6. Now switch off the pump and take reading of voltmeter and ammeter
7. Repeat the procedure by varying speed of the shaft and take the readings.
Observations:
Length of Rotating Arm: 0.3 m
Dia. of the tube outlet = 9 mm
Cross Sectional area of tube = 6.36 X 10-6
N = No of Revolutions (RPM Indicator)
V = Velocity through the tube
P = Power, T= Torque,  = Density of water, L = Length of arm
V = Voltmeter reading, I = Ammeter reading, a = area of the tube
g = gravitational constant
1. Observation Table: Pump on Position

S. No. Speed ( rpm ) Flow rate (LPH) Voltmeter Ammeter

Theory of Machines
2. Observation Table: Pump off Position

S. No. Speed ( rpm ) Flow rate (LPH) Voltmeter Ammeter
Calculation:
Torque T1,
We have, P =V I
P =2πNT/60 Watt
T1 =v × I × 60/2πN (off condition)
Frictional Torque (T2) =

T2 =v × I × 60/2πN (on condition)
Net Torque T= (T1 − T2)
Now Corioli’s Component of Acceleration
Now calculating Corioli’s component of Acceleration theoretically:
V = q / a m/sec
Where
V = Velocity through the tube
q = Volumetric flow rate
a = Cross Sectional area of tube
Ca theoretical = 2 ×  × V
=2πN/60 rad/sec
Calculation:
CONCLUSION: - Hence the experiments of the Corioli’s component of Acceleration are

completed.

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RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL

UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-RGPV, BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Theory of Machines & Mechanism

1 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Vision of the Institute

Mission of the Institute

 Constantly Strive to Improve Pedagogical Method employed in

 Respond effectively to the need of industry & Changing World.

 Conduct Basics & Applied Research & to Generate Intellectual

 Provide Consultancy to the Neighbourhood & Cultivate the Spirit of

2 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO2:-Graduates will Do Effective Collaborations to Become Entrepreneurs

PEO3:-Graduates will engage in Professional Development through

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1:-Develop Approaches to Solve Problems Related to Internal

PSO2:-Investigate Environmentally Sustainable Solutions in field of Field of

PSO3:-Apply Latest design Software’s for Industrial requirements.

Course outcomes (Cos)

3 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Laboratory General Instructions, Safety and Security Rules

4 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

4. To finds out gyroscopic couple.

5. To study inversions of slider crank chain and

11. To Measure the various parameters comprising

5 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Kinetics: - Kinetics is the study of effect of forces on moving bodies.

Figure 1.1 Slider-crank mechanisms

Classification of kinematic link: -

6 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

1. Nature of contact ( lower pair, Higher pair)

i) Lower pair (links have surface or area contact).

Fig. (a) Closed pair, (b) Unclosed pair

(a) Sliding or Prismatic pair (b)Turning or Revolute

7 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

(c) Rolling or Cylindrical Pair (d) Screw Pair

Figure (e) Spherical Pair

8 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Where: 𝑙 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠

OBSERVATION & CONCLUSION:-

9 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

APPARATUS USED: straws, pins, pencil, compass.

Four bar chain: It consists of four turning pairs.

Inversions of four bar chain:

For the class I case,

10 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

For class II case,

All inversions will be triple-rocker in which no link can fully rotate.

For class III case,

11 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Table Classifications of Four-Bar Mechanisms

12 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV, Bhopal

Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+ l > p+ q

Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+ l > p+ q

Grashof’s condition for double crank mechanism: s+l < p+ q

13 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV,

4. Parallel linkage mechanism: the parallel linkage mechanism is a special case of

Grashof’s condition for parallel linkage mechanism: s+l = p+ q

Grashof's theorem states that a four

s + l < = p + q (1) and all three mobil

The inequality 1 is Grashof's criterion

14 Laboratory Manual Prof. Brijendra Kumar Gond, MED, UIT-RGPV,