Chapter 3

Learning Objective 1 (LO1):

 Many countries, including Canada, face a shortage of female engineers due to

inaccurate perceptions and low expectations that discourage women from
pursuing this career.
 Self-concept refers to an individual's self-beliefs and self-evaluations, answering
questions like "Who am I?" and "How do I feel about myself?"
 Self-concept is defined at three levels: individual (personal traits), relational
(connections to others), and collective (roles in teams, organizations, and social
groups).

Self-Concept Complexity, Consistency, and Clarity:

 Self-concept has three characteristics: complexity, consistency, and clarity.

 Complexity refers to the number of distinct and important roles or identities a
person perceives about themselves.
 High complexity is beneficial as it provides protection for self-esteem when
certain roles are threatened.
 Consistency is the degree to which a person's various self-views require similar
personal attributes.
 High consistency is associated with better well-being and reduced internal
tension and conflict.
 Clarity is the degree to which a person's self-concept is clear, confidently defined,
and stable.
 Clarity increases with age and is influenced by self-concept complexity and
consistency.

Effects of Self-Concept Characteristics on Well-Being and Behavior:

 Psychological well-being tends to be higher for individuals with distinct multiple

selves, well-established identities, and consistent attributes.
 People with low complexity or highly interconnected selves are more vulnerable
to negative events affecting a large part of themselves.
 Self-concept complexity and consistency contribute to better well-being and
adaptive behavior.
 Self-concept clarity is essential for leadership roles and performance.
 Very high clarity may lead to role inflexibility in changing situations.
Four Processes Shaping Self-Concept:

1. Self-Enhancement: People are motivated to perceive themselves as competent,

attractive, lucky, ethical, and important. This leads to overestimation of abilities
and a "can do" attitude.
2. Self-Verification: Individuals seek to confirm and maintain their existing self-
concept, which stabilizes their self-view and influences their thoughts and
actions.
3. Self-Evaluation: Self-evaluation is composed of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and
locus of control, and it affects an individual's overall self-concept.
 Self-esteem reflects how much people like, respect, and are satisfied with
themselves.
 Self-efficacy pertains to a person's belief in their ability to successfully
complete tasks.
 Locus of control defines a person's general beliefs about the control they
have over life events.
4. The Social Self: Self-concept exists at three levels—individual, relational, and
collective. The social self, or social identity, is influenced by the need for
distinctiveness (personal identity) and the need for affiliation (relational and
collective self-concepts).
 Social identity is shaped by group memberships and hierarchy of
importance.
 A person's group's status plays a role in social identity.

Self-Concept and Organizational Behavior:

 Self-concept influences perceptions, decision making, motivation, stress, team

dynamics, leadership development, and other topics in organizational behavior.

This information helps us understand how individuals perceive themselves, their

motivations, and how self-concept affects their behavior in various contexts, including
work and career choices.

Learning Objective 2 (LO2):

 Most of our perceptual energy is directed toward understanding the external

world.
 Perception is the process of receiving and making sense of environmental
information.
  It involves determining which information to notice, how to categorize it, and
how to interpret it within our existing knowledge framework.

The Perceptual Process:

 Perception begins when we receive environmental stimuli through our senses.

 Selective attention is the process of attending to some information while ignoring
others.
 Selective attention is influenced by characteristics of the stimuli (e.g., size,
intensity, motion, novelty), the context, and the perceiver's characteristics.
 Expectations and assumptions can influence selective attention, causing us to
notice or overlook certain information.
 Confirmation bias is the tendency to ignore information contrary to our beliefs
and values while accepting information that confirms them.

Perceptual Organization and Interpretation:

 Perceptual grouping strategies help us make sense of complex stimuli.

 Categorical thinking is the process of organizing people and objects into
preconceived categories based on observable similarity or proximity.
 We fill in missing information through assumptions and past experiences.
 People tend to see patterns in random events, such as believing that a sports
player with a winning streak is more likely to win again.
 Interpretation of incoming information is influenced by emotional markers
attached to stimuli, making quick judgments about their significance.
 Selective attention, perceptual organization, and interpretation happen rapidly
and often unconsciously.

Mental Models:

 Mental models are knowledge structures that describe, explain, and predict the
world around us.
 They consist of visual or relational images in our mind, helping us navigate our
environment.
 Mental models rely on perceptual grouping and fill in missing information,
including causal connections among events.
 Mental models are crucial for sense-making but can limit our ability to see the
world differently.

  Changing mental models is challenging but can be achieved by questioning
assumptions, being aware of existing mental models, and collaborating with
people from diverse backgrounds.

Understanding the perceptual process and the role of selective attention, perceptual
organization, and mental models is essential for comprehending how we make sense of
the external world and how our existing beliefs and assumptions can influence our
perception and interpretation of information.

Learning Objective 3 (LO3):

 Specific perceptual processes and associated biases within the broader

perceptual process.
 Implications of these processes and biases for organizational behavior.

Stereotyping in Organizations:

 Stereotyping involves assigning characteristics to an identifiable group and

applying these traits to individuals within that group.
 Stereotypes are often formed through personal experiences and are reinforced
by media and cultural prototypes.
 Stereotypes may have some basis in reality but are often exaggerated and
distorted.
 Stereotyping discourages diversity and can lead to bias, discrimination, and
unequal opportunities.

Why People Stereotype:

 Stereotyping simplifies understanding and reduces mental effort.

 People rely on stereotypes to anticipate behavior when limited information is
available.
 Stereotyping is driven by the need for social identity and self-enhancement,
leading to categorization, homogenization, and differentiation.

Problems with Stereotyping:

 Stereotypes are often inaccurate and do not represent all individuals within a
group.
  Stereotype threat occurs when people conform to stereotypes due to anxiety
about confirming negative traits.
 Stereotyping results in unintentional systemic discrimination, affecting
employment opportunities and salaries.
 Intentional discrimination, driven by negative attitudes, is still prevalent in
organizations.

Attribution Theory:

 Attribution involves forming beliefs about the causes of behavior or events.

 Attributions can be internal (related to the individual) or external (related to the
environment).
 Three attribution rules: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus, help
determine attributions.

Attribution Errors:

 Self-serving bias leads individuals to attribute their successes to internal factors

and failures to external factors.
 Fundamental attribution error involves overemphasizing internal causes for
others' behavior while neglecting external factors.
 Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations about an individual's behavior
influence that person to act accordingly.

Contingencies of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

 Self-fulfilling prophecy is more potent in the early stages of relationships and

when several people share the same expectations.
 It has a stronger effect on individuals with a history of low achievement and lower
self-esteem.
 Organizations can promote positive self-fulfilling prophecies by maintaining
realistic and positive expectations.

Other Perceptual Effects:

 Halo Effect: A general impression of a person based on one characteristic distorts

the perception of other qualities.
 False-Consensus Effect: People overestimate the similarity of others' beliefs and
behaviors to their own.
  Recency Effect: The most recent information dominates perceptions, especially in
complex decision-making.
 Primacy Effect: Initial information received influences the formation of lasting
impressions.

Understanding these specific perceptual processes and biases is crucial in recognizing

how they influence our understanding of others and the resulting behaviors within an
organizational context. Awareness of these processes can help individuals and
organizations reduce bias and discrimination and improve relationships and decision-
making.

Learning Objective 5 (LO5):

 Understanding the concept of a global mindset and its significance in today's

organizations.
 Components of a global mindset and how they relate to perceiving, knowing, and
processing information across cultures.

Defining Global Mindset:

 A global mindset is an individual's ability to perceive, acquire knowledge about,

and process information across diverse cultures.
 It encompasses four key elements:

1. Adopting a Global Perspective:

 Prioritizes a global frame of reference over local or parochial perspectives.

 Involves appreciating and accumulating knowledge of different cultures without
bias based on national or ethnic origins.

2. Empathizing and Acting Effectively Across Cultures:

 Entails understanding the emotions and perceptions of co-workers from different

cultures in various situations.
 Translates this empathy into using words and behaviors that align with local
cultural norms.

3. Processing Complex Information About Novel Environments:

  Necessitates the cognitive ability to rapidly receive and analyze vast amounts of
information in unfamiliar and diverse settings.

4. Developing New Multilevel Mental Models:

 Involves creating useful mental models of situations at both local and global
levels of analysis.
 Enables individuals to apply diverse levels of understanding to workplace issues
in multicultural settings.

Benefits of a Global Mindset:

 Valuable for both organizations and an individual's career prospects.

 Facilitates better relationships with colleagues and partners from diverse cultural
backgrounds.
 Enhances the ability to navigate complex and ambiguous information in
multinational relationships.
 Promotes rapid resource exchange and networking across borders.
 Increases sensitivity to and responsiveness to emerging global opportunities.

Developing a Global Mindset:

 Begins with awareness of the concept and progresses to self-awareness of one's

current level of development.
 Self-awareness involves understanding one's beliefs, values, and attitudes,
leading to open-mindedness and non-judgmental thinking in complex decision-
making.
 Organizations foster a global mindset by creating opportunities for employees to
compare their mental models with those from other global regions.
 Deep knowledge of people and cultures comes through formal programs like
diversity training and immersion in cultural settings.
 Immersion may include following local practices, consuming local food, and using
the local language, leading to a better understanding of perspectives and
attitudes in other cultures.

Case Example - EY Cultivates a Global Mindset Through International

Secondments:

 EY (formerly Ernst & Young) encourages employees to take temporary transfers

to offices in different global locations.
  International secondments help employees develop a global mindset by working
with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.
 Exposure to different perspectives and insights enriches an individual's
perception and abilities.
 EY actively seeks candidates with a global mindset, emphasizing the importance
of working effectively in teams and thinking globally.

A global mindset is a valuable competency in today's interconnected world, benefiting

individuals and organizations by promoting understanding and effective interactions
across diverse cultures. Developing this mindset involves awareness, self-awareness, and
meaningful interaction, along with formal training and immersion experiences.

Chapter 4.
Learning Objective 1 (LO1):

 Recognizing the significance of emotions in the workplace.

 Understanding the impact of emotions on individuals and their behavior within
organizational settings.

The Influence of Emotions:

 Emotions play a crucial role in the workplace, a concept not widely acknowledged
by organizational behavior experts until recent years.
 Traditional organizational behavior theories primarily emphasized the role of
cognition (logical thinking) in governing thoughts and actions.
 Groundbreaking neuroscience discoveries have demonstrated that emotions
significantly influence perceptions, attitudes, decisions, and behavior in addition
to cognition.

Definition of Emotions:

 Emotions are brief physiological, behavioral, and psychological experiences

related to an object, person, or event, creating a state of readiness.
 Emotions are directed toward someone or something; for instance, joy, fear, and
anger can be directed towards tasks, customers, or even technology.
 Moods, in contrast to emotions, are more long-lasting background emotional
states not directed towards anything specific.
The Connection between Emotions and Workplace Lighting:

 Recent studies indicate that workplace lighting intensity and warmth can
influence employees' emotions and moods.
 Bright white lighting increases alertness and vitality, resulting in faster reaction
times.
 Moderate intensity warm lighting enhances interpersonal relations.
 Low-intensity cool lighting reduces socially oriented emotions and motivation.
 The combination of light intensity and warmth influences how employees
regulate their emotions in a given setting.

Understanding Emotions:

 Emotions are experiences that induce changes in physiological, psychological,

and behavioral states.
 Emotions can be subtle and often occur without conscious awareness.
 Emotions prepare individuals for action, creating a state of readiness, and trigger
conscious awareness of threats or opportunities in the external environment.
 Emotions are a fundamental engine of motivation (discussed in Chapter 5).

Types of Emotions:

 Emotions vary in their level of activation, and most of them make individuals
more aware of their environment.
 All emotions evaluate situations as positive or negative, signaling whether the
perceived object or event should be approached or avoided.
 Negative emotions tend to be more intense and have a stronger influence on
actions, potentially because they protect individuals from harm.

Emotions, Attitudes, and Behavior:

 Attitudes are a cluster of beliefs, feelings, and behavioral intentions toward an

object, person, or event (attitude object).
 Emotions are distinct from attitudes as they represent experiences rather than
judgments.
 Attitudes can operate nonconsciously, but emotions are typically fleeting.
 Attitudes tend to be more stable over time.

Components of Attitudes:
  Beliefs are established perceptions about the attitude object.
 Feelings represent conscious evaluations (positive or negative) of the attitude
object.
 Behavioral intentions reflect motivation to engage in specific behaviors related to
the attitude object.

Attitude-Behavior Contingencies:

 Predicting behavior from each component of an individual's attitude can be

complex due to contingencies.
 The link between beliefs and feelings may vary because different people have
different valences for the same beliefs.
 The relationship between feelings and behavioral intentions depends on an
individual's personality, values, and personal characteristics.
 Behavioral intentions are the best predictors of behavior, but situational factors
and role perceptions also influence the link.

How Emotions Influence Attitudes and Behavior:

 Emotions play a central role in attitude formation and dynamics, along with
cognitive reasoning.
 Incoming sensory information is tagged with emotional markers based on
evaluations of whether the information supports or threatens innate drives.
 These emotional markers are not calculated feelings but automatic responses
based on sensory input.
 Emotions influence conscious evaluations of the attitude object.
 Sometimes, there is a conflict between emotional responses and logical analysis,
creating an internal tug-of-war, and making decisions challenging.

Generating Positive Emotions at Work:

 Many organizations aim to create a positive emotional experience for employees

as it influences attitudes.
 Various companies offer perks and activities to generate positive emotions,
boosting employee morale.
 Even everyday occurrences and fun activities can offset negative emotions at
work.
 Emotions are critical as they shape employee attitudes, which, in turn, affect
work-related behavior.
Cognitive Dissonance:

 Cognitive dissonance occurs when beliefs, feelings, and behavior are incongruent,
leading to feelings of inconsistency.
 People aim to reduce cognitive dissonance by changing beliefs and feelings,
amplifying positive features of their choices, or emphasizing the negative aspects
of unchosen alternatives.

Emotions and Personality:

 An individual's personality, particularly emotional stability and extraversion, can

affect their emotional experiences.
 Positive emotional traits are associated with higher emotional stability and
extraversion, while negative emotions relate to neuroticism and introverted
personalities.
 Workplace situations have a stronger influence on attitudes and behavior than
personality traits, emphasizing the role of emotions in organizational settings.

Debating Point: Is Having Fun at Work Really a Good Idea?:

 While fostering fun at work can improve employee attitudes, some argue that
contrived fun events can backfire, offend some employees, or make them feel
forced.
 The value of fun at work may vary across generations, and organizations should
not lose sight of their core objectives and profitability.

Learning Objective 2 (LO2):

 Understanding the concept of emotional labor and its significance in the

workplace.
 Recognizing the challenges and implications of managing emotions, including
the impact on employees' well-being.

Emotional Labor:

 Employees are required to manage their emotions at work to conform to

organizational expectations.
 This entails concealing genuine emotions, displaying desired emotions, and
complying with "display rules" – norms and explicit rules regarding the
expression of emotions during interpersonal interactions.
Display Rules and Emotional Labor:

 Emotional labor demands vary based on the diversity and intensity of emotions
required in specific job roles.
 Jobs with frequent client interactions, longer customer engagements, and strict
adherence to display rules often involve higher emotional labor.
 Incongruence between displayed and actual emotions, such as showing patience
to an irritating customer while feeling dislike, creates emotional tension and
requires substantial mental effort.
 This incongruence can lead to psychological separation from self and result in job
dissatisfaction.

Cultural Variation in Emotional Display Norms:

 The extent to which employees are expected to hide their true emotions varies
across cultures.
 Some cultures emphasize subdued emotional expression, monotonic voice
intonation, and avoiding physical movements and touching.
 Other cultures encourage vivid emotional display, open expression of thoughts
and feelings, and animated nonverbal behaviors.
 Cultural variation in emotional norms impacts how employees experience
emotional labor and stress.

Cross-Cultural Insights: Smiling in Russia:

 Russians have a reputation for not frequently smiling compared to Western

societies.
 Smiling is interpreted differently in various cultures; in Russia, it may be seen as a
sign of lower intelligence.
 High levels of corruption in some societies are associated with viewing people
who smile often as less honest.
 Smiling in Russia can require more emotional labor due to cultural differences in
interpreting facial expressions.

Strategies for Displaying Expected Emotions:

 Emotional labor involves displaying expected emotions through facial expressions

and behavior.
 Two general approaches are surface acting (pretending to have expected
emotions) and deep acting (actually experiencing expected emotions).
  Surface acting can be stressful and challenging, as genuine emotions
automatically activate complex facial and bodily responses that are difficult to
replicate.
 Deep acting involves consciously altering perceptions and situations to naturally
generate desired emotions and behaviors.
 Five strategies for regulating emotions: changing the situation, modifying the
situation, suppressing or amplifying emotions, shifting attention, and reframing
the situation.
 Employees who genuinely experience expected emotions are engaging in deep
acting, which is crucial for effective emotional labor.
 Successful emotion regulation requires emotional intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EI):

 EI is essential for effectively managing emotions and engaging in deep acting.

 It encompasses understanding and recognizing one's emotions and the emotions
of others.
 High EI allows employees to navigate emotional labor more effectively, improve
interactions, and reduce the negative impact of incongruence between displayed
and felt emotions.

Conclusion:

 Managing emotions at work is a critical aspect of employee behavior and well-

being.
 Emotional labor, the process of adhering to display rules, can have significant
implications for job satisfaction, stress levels, and cross-cultural communication.
 Strategies for managing emotions, particularly deep acting, play a vital role in the
effectiveness and overall success of emotional labor.
 Developing emotional intelligence is key to mastering the art of emotional labor
and enhancing workplace interactions.

Learning Objective 3 (LO3):

 Understanding the concept of job satisfaction and its significance in the

workplace.
 Exploring the factors affecting job satisfaction, its implications for behavior,
performance, and organizational outcomes.

Defining Job Satisfaction:

  Job satisfaction refers to a person's evaluation of their job and work context,
involving their perception of job characteristics, work environment, and
emotional experiences at work.
 Job satisfaction encompasses attitudes toward various aspects of the job, such as
co-workers and workload.

Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction:

 Job satisfaction varies across individuals, workplaces, and countries.

 Global surveys indicate that job satisfaction tends to be higher in countries like
India, Mexico, Denmark, and Norway, while lower in Asian countries like Japan,
Hong Kong, and Singapore.
 Job satisfaction surveys may be influenced by cultural values, economic
conditions, and the way questions are framed.

The Impact of Job Satisfaction on Behavior:

 Job satisfaction influences various workplace behaviors, including task

performance, organizational citizenship, quitting, and absenteeism.
 The exit-voice-loyalty-neglect (EVLN) model offers four ways employees respond
to dissatisfaction: exit (leaving), voice (trying to change the situation), loyalty
(waiting for resolution), and neglect (reducing work effort).

Individual and Situational Factors in EVLN Responses:

 The choice of EVLN response depends on individual factors, such as personality

traits, past experiences, and loyalty.
 Situational factors like job prospects, organizational encouragement, and
awareness of co-workers' dependence also affect the chosen response.

Job Satisfaction and Job Performance:

 The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance is moderately

positive, suggesting that happier workers tend to be more productive.
 General attitudes, such as job satisfaction, may not predict specific behaviors
effectively.
 Performance may also cause job satisfaction if higher performers receive more
rewards and recognition.

Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction:

  The service profit chain model links job satisfaction to customer service quality,
leading to profitability.
 Satisfied employees are more likely to be in a positive mood, resulting in
friendliness and positive emotions toward customers.
 Job satisfaction reduces turnover, which means employees have more experience
and can provide consistent service.

Job Satisfaction and Business Ethics:

 Job satisfaction is an ethical issue that impacts the organization's reputation.

 Many societies expect companies to offer safe and enjoyable work environments,
leading to high employee satisfaction.
 Employers with low job satisfaction often hide this fact, while those with a good
reputation tend to gain goodwill from employees and the community.

Conclusion:

 Job satisfaction is a crucial aspect of the work experience, affecting individual

behavior, organizational performance, and the company's reputation.
 Understanding the factors that influence job satisfaction and its consequences is
vital for enhancing employee well-being and overall organizational success.

Understanding Organizational Commitment:

 Organizational commitment, specifically affective organizational commitment, is a

critical aspect of overall job attitude, complementing job satisfaction.
 Affective commitment represents an employee's emotional attachment,
involvement, and identification with an organization.
 It is an autonomous form of commitment, motivated by internal factors like self-
concept and values alignment.

Differentiating Types of Commitment:

 Affective commitment is distinct from continuance commitment, which is driven

by external factors, such as social or economic sacrifices associated with leaving
an organization.
 Normative commitment is based on a sense of moral duty and reciprocity with
the organization, somewhat overlapping with affective commitment.

Consequences of Affective and Continuance Commitment:

  Affective commitment provides competitive advantages as it leads to lower
turnover, reduced absenteeism, higher motivation, organizational citizenship
behaviors, and better customer satisfaction.
 However, very high loyalty may lead to conformity and even illegal activities in
defense of the organization.
 Continuance commitment is associated with lower performance, reduced
organizational citizenship behaviors, and a preference for formal grievances
during conflicts.

Building Affective Commitment:

 Strategies for building and maintaining affective commitment include:

1. Justice and support: Organizations fostering organizational justice and
employee well-being tend to have higher affective commitment.
2. Shared values: Employees' identification with the organization is stronger
when their personal values align with the organization's values and
actions.
3. Trust: Trust in organizational leaders is crucial for fostering affective
commitment. Layoffs can negatively impact trust.
4. Organizational comprehension: Employees should have a clear
understanding of the organization, its direction, dynamics, and layout.
5. Employee involvement: Involving employees in decision-making
enhances their psychological ownership and social identity with the
organization, building loyalty and trust.

Conclusion:

 Organizational commitment is an essential concept in the workplace,

representing employees' emotional attachment and identification with their
organizations.
 Understanding the types of commitment and how to build affective commitment
is crucial for improving employee retention, performance, and overall
organizational succes

Understanding Work-Related Stress:

 Stress is a common experience in the workplace, usually described as an adaptive response

to challenging or threatening situations.
 It's both a physiological and psychological condition, preparing the body to adapt to hostile
environmental conditions.
General Adaptation Syndrome:

 Developed by Canadian researcher Hans Selye, the General Adaptation Syndrome explains
the physiological response to stress.
 It consists of three stages: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. Extended stress can
lead to exhaustion and potential health issues.

Consequences of Distress:

 Stress has physical consequences, including tension headaches, muscle pain, cardiovascular
diseases, and potential links to some cancers.
 It also leads to psychological consequences such as job dissatisfaction, moodiness,
depression, and lower organizational commitment.
 Behavioral outcomes of stress include lower job performance, poor decision making,
increased workplace accidents, aggression, and absenteeism.

Job Burnout:

 Job burnout is a consequence of chronic stress, characterized by emotional exhaustion,

cynicism, and reduced feelings of personal accomplishment.
 Employees suffering from job burnout often feel tired, detached from their work, and
ineffective in their roles.

Causes of Work-Related Stress (Stressors):

 Organizational constraints: These include a lack of resources, information, and support

needed to perform tasks.
 Interpersonal conflict: Disagreements among employees, often arising from structural
sources like ambiguous rules or resource shortages.
 Work overload: Employees struggling with excessive workload, often due to increased
expectations, technology, and globalization.
 Low task control: Stressors related to an employee's inability to control their work pace or
schedule, often leading to high stress levels.

Individual Differences in Stress:

 Individuals exposed to the same stressor can experience different levels of stress based on
physical health, coping strategies, and personality.
 People with low neuroticism (high emotional stability), extraversion, and a positive self-
concept tend to experience lower stress.
 Conversely, workaholics, individuals with an uncontrollable work motivation, often experience
higher stress levels.

Managing Work-Related Stress:

 Strategies for managing work-related stress include removing the stressor, withdrawing from
the stressor, changing stress perceptions, controlling stress consequences, and receiving
social support.
 Removing stressors can involve job matching, reducing workplace noise, addressing
harassment, and offering work–life integration initiatives.
 Temporary or permanent withdrawal from stressors, like vacations or job transfers, is a
common approach.
 Changing stress perceptions involves improving self-concept, goal setting, and self-
reinforcement practices.
 Control stress consequences through physical fitness, lifestyle, wellness programs, and
employee assistance programs.
 Seek social support from co-workers, supervisors, friends, and family to reduce stress and
improve self-confidence and optimism.