TRANSPORTATION The advantages of gas in dense phase are because the dense phase system is oper- FIGURE 2

reduced pipe size and pumping installa-
ated closer to atmospheric temperatures. PIPELINE EQUATIONS
tions. Disadvantages are low operating 2) The refrigeration requirements to prepare
temperatures requiring refrigeration and natural gas for transportation in a dense
Flow Equation (Conservation of Momentum)
exotic metallurgy. Economic trade-off phase system, and to maintain it in that
between reduced size and increased com- condition in the pipeline, are only one third dP + dz + 2fv2 dx = 0
gD
plexity, in comparison to a conventional the refrigeration requirements for LNG.
where,
pipeline, is investigated. 3) The metallurgical difficulties for a dense
iTTE -
phase pipeline are less severe than for 3.7 D Re > Ncrit

LNG. The pipe steel for the dense phase

system is therefore less expensive. -4 log f1-411711 if ,
R. Nerit
MR.
4) The viscosity of dense phase gas is less

'Dense Phase -14ismiss than that of LNG and greater flow efficiency
can therefore be obtained.
Temperature Profile Equation (Conservation of Energy)

dH + dz = dq
g
5) The transportation of heavy hydrocarbons where.

of NaturE0 Gas such as propanes and butanes is possible

in a dense phase system, whereas an LNG
dR Cp (dT + JdP)

{1n(2ti/D+1) cosh-1(2h/D)1-1
dq
system suffers from solid formation prob- g Ki 2n K (T-Tg)dx

lems.
Chilled conventional pipelines also exhibit many STATION EQUATIONS

of these advantages over both dense phase and Compressor Horsepower Equation (Conservation of Momentum)

LNG pipelines. Because of lower operating tempe- 2

by DONALD L. KATZ, NP dP + dh + dx ] pc
The University of Michigan, ratures, dense phase pipelines have some important
and advantages over chilled conventional pipelines Refrigeration Heat Transfer (Conservation of Energy)

GRAEME KING, which are listed below: + dHRP a

Northern Engineering Services Company Limited
DEFINITIONS
Definitions, although arbitrary, are needed in the
communication process. "LNG" (or "Liquefied
Natural Gas") normally refers to gas which is stored
as a liquid at atmospheric pressure. The term "LNG
pipeline" is therefore used to denote a pipeline sys-
tem which carries natural gas at a temperature suit-
able for storing the gas as a liquid at atmospheric
pressure. An example of an LNG pipeline is given
in this paper in which the gas has a density around
30 lb/cu. ft. and a temperature of about -250°F.
The term "dense phase" fluid is used for fluids
which are in the single phase but which exhibit
properties which are between those of a liquid and
a gas. The dense phase pipeline example of this
report transports gas with a density of about 20
lb/cu. ft. at a temperature of -115°F.
expensive method of transporting the gas to market.
As part of this search, at the beginning of 1970,
one author was asked his views concerning an LNG
pipeline from the Arctic. The response came in the
form of a preliminary feasibility study of low tempe-
rature transmission of natural gas in March 1970,
called "LNG and Dense Fluid Natural Gas
Pipelines." Subsequently, in 1971 the authors were
associated with a study to optimize pipeline systems
carrying gas from the Arctic, which concentrated
on dense phase and chilled conventional systems.
This paper is intended to explain the physical
characteristics of a dense phase pipeline and to
show its advantages and disadvantages in relation
to other comparable pipelines which are operated
outside the dense phase region. The costs that are
qr
J
1) The greater density at low pressures of the
Refrigeration Horsepower (Minimum Work)
dense phase gas permits a smaller, thinner
T. - T I ,
walled pipe than does the chilled conven- qr T
r
/Er
r
tional gas. •
2)‘ The relative incompressibility and greater
density of dense phase gas means that it
requires less compression or pumping realized because of minimum wall thickness
energy than a chilled conventional system. requirements.
3) The transportation of heavy hydrocarbon
components is possible in the dense phase DESIGN OF ARCTIC PIPELINE
gas but the chilled conventional system is It is common knowledge that transporting natural
limited because of problems with liquid for- gas from the Arcticto market requires a large diame-
mation and two-phase flow. ter, large flow pipeline in order to obtain desirable
LNG pipelines also display the first two of these economics. It is also necessary to minimize distur-
advantages over dense phase and chilled conven- bances to the environment, particularly in perma-
tional pipelines, but the savings in pipe are not fully frost areas.
An obvious way of stabilizing the permafrost ter-
rain is to build pipelines which will operate at tempe-
FIGURE I

A conventional gas pipeline which is operated
at temperatures below 32°F is referred to here as
a "chilled conventional" pipeline. The chilled con-
ventional example transports gas v.-ith a density of
about 10 lb/cu. ft. at temperatures in the range of
0°F to 15°F.
used in this paper are intended to reflect general
Arctic conditions and apply to pipelines that trans-
port gas from a gathering point in the Arctic to a Ictuat
losieltietation
distribution point in southern Canada.
ADVANTAGES OF DENSE PHASE
PIPELINE SCRENATIC
ratures below 32°F and permanently maintain the
frozen ground around the pipeline. The LNG, dense
phase and chilled conventional systems are all
0 0
3astlicattan
responses to these needs in that they all operate
ataeltbe at temperatures below 32°F and achieve favourable
Segment
economics at large flowing volumes such as are
contemplated for Arctic gas pipelines.
PIPELINE SEGOENT SCHEMATIC

A dense phase pipeline benefits from all the Neat Panay,

ORIGIN AND PURPOSE OF STUDY
The discovery of large quantities of natural gas
advantages of an LNG pipeline but minimizes the
rt. NCI r Igor a nt
disadvantages. The advantages of a dense phase Kgak .sees
The conceptual and engineering design of a
pipeline recognizes that it will be composed of a
series of segments as shown in Figure 1. Each seg-

•
in the Arctic has stimulated the search for the least system compared with an LNG system result from lark a00ea ment comprises a pipeline section, a device for add-
by Turbine

higher operating temperatures and are listed below: H121 Ala.

X tat Repowe0
grOrtGas ing work to overcome frictional losses by raising
6teall
the pressure, and a device for removing heat
Presented at Canadian Gas Association 1973 National Technical
1) insulation requirements of a dense phase 0
1
0 NVAP 0, C011e(eSSOr
absorbed from the environment plus the heat equi-
Conference held in October, 1973 in Calgary, Alberta. pipeline are less than for an LNG pipeline Pisa us*
SeattOn
Station Reft,etellOn
Station
valent of the work to overcome friction.
36 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 37
 The device to overcome frictional losses is nor- Each system needs some form of initial refrigera- The thermodynamics of fluid flow make no dis- FIGURE 4
.

mally thought of as a compressor for the chilled tion to cool the gas to the required flowing tempera- tinctions between the three systems in the calcula- VISCOSITY OF METHANE
(DATA OF KOWA ET AL)
conventional pipeline and a pump for dense phase ture of the pipeline. The gas is treated before it tion of friction, work to overcome friction and heat 1300

and LNG pipelines. Since present concepts for rais- enters the pipeline to reduce water vapour, carbon exchange between the system and the environment. 1100

ing the pressure are generally limited to centrifugal dioxide and other impurities to required levels. It Accordingly, the same basic equations are used for
units with turbine prime movers, the units which is assumed for the purposes of this study that this each of the three systems. The equations are given
,
impart work to the flowing fluid to overcome friction initial treatment plant produces gas at 15°F and in Figure 2. 1000 N.

are similar in character for the three cases, and therefore only the dense phase and LNG systems 5
7ao

vary only by degree depending upon the density require further initial refrigeration. 2i.
.
.0
and the compressibility of the flowing fluid. I `, 0 a
'411144441141

At the delivery point of the pipeline, the gas is PSI,

The device for removing heat from the flowing assumed to be transferred to conventional vapour
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS ,.f. 300
cp-
00„
l ,4
fluid is also similar in each of the three examples phase pipelines and some form of regasification Fluids under pressure in pipelines have properties 200

except that the LNG system requires three refrigera- is required. This is no special problem for the chilled which are not easily visualized. The combined effect 150 1 1 09
I 0 ,, ,
tion stages, the dense phase system at the tempera- conventional pipeline where the absence of refrige- of low temperature and high pressure on the density - II ......-....---..
oo _
ture level studied requires two stages and the chilled ration at several compressor stations is sufficient of a real gas may not be familiar to those who think so
to
bT1 p714

conventional system only one. Mixed refrigerant to raise the temperature to conventional levels. in terms of what can be seen at atmospheric condi- 70
130
__—.2
1 5V-

cycles could also be utilized. The pipeline sections However, both the dense phase and LNG pipelines tions and the ideal gas laws. Natural gas can be 50 '''.
—300 —200 —150 —100 — so 0 so
are similar in all cases except for the metallurgy require some form of regasification plant. The alter- compressed from normal atmospheric pressure and TEMPERATURE('F )

and that both the dense phase system and the LNG native of allowing the temperature to rise naturally temperature, cooled and then decompressed until
system are insulated to reduce the heat load on over a long length of pipeline is not considered it reaches a liquid condition at atmospheric pres-
the refrigeration cycles. here and is outside the scope of this paper. sure and -260°F without changing phase.
available for predicting these phase relationships,
The thermodynamic properties of the gas during but with certain complex mixtures it may be desir-
this process, change in a continuous fashion and able to take physical measurements of specific sys-
no sudden break between gas and liquid states is tems.
observed. During this cooling process in the single
One advantage of the dense phase system is that
1

phase, the gas passes through a broad transition

FIGURE 3 intermediate constituents between crude oil and
*IR area where it behaves like a gas except that
DENSITY OF NATURAL GAS methane may be included in the dense phase system
, increases in pressure do not have a proportional
with beneficial effects of moving the bubble point
effect upon the density. This broad transition area
line, in Figure 5, to the right. This permits higher
between gas and liquid in the single phase region
operating temperatures and lower operating pres-
is referred to as the "dense phase."
. ,
sures, both of which lower the cost of the scheme.
.,, DENSE
The density and viscosity of real gases are pre- The density and viscosity are increased nominally
..,-....
.
PHASE
sented in Figures 3 and 4 for the range of tempera-
REGION tures and pressures under consideration. In Figure
3 the conditions for the chilled conventional
FIGURE 5
pipeline are indicated together with the conditions PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF METHANE
LNG REGIO 9-
0
v for the dense phase and the LNG pipeline regions. 1700
AND NATURAL GAS

The considerable increase in density at the lower

DEN SIT Y ( 1.0/C U. FT. )

O ETOPIF
1500
',' o temperatures is the phenomenon which changes CH LLED CON
", 4', • YE iT I ON, 1
id 1500
.* .,,, the relationship between the pipe diameter and flow OPilikill(G
CT:LE
%,,),
rate among the systems under consideration. 1400

Pipelines are normally operated in a single phase. 1300

TWO PHASE

REDIOR
That is, they are operated at pressures and tempera- 1200
--..
r., tures such that vapour and liquid cannot exist at 1100
25':'
the same time. The terminology implies that gas
000 gyp`
in the chilled conventional pipeline would not be ,.,
E:ANPLI
DI DEN: E
i

BILLED

CANYENT I ON A L
permitted to reach its dew point to form condensate 200 PT AGE
VERA( MG
i(
REGION of either hydrocarbon or water. The dense phase sac,
CfCLE
/ 74
M

and LNG systems are operated such that the pres- 700
7,
sure does not fall below the bubble point where i f.
M

500
vapour would form in the system. E AMPL
0 LNG
-................ 500
,...1........
—.......
The addition of other hydrocarbqns such as C CLE i
ti
400
...."----"--"'"---.----__,_12LJsia ethane, propane, butane, etc., to methane, causes
the system to take on the two-phase envelope as 300 4.
-"----......,..., 400 As ia
indicated in Figure 5. The conventional or chilled 200 4
..---T 100 psia
conventional systems are operated at temperatures 100
\
I,
..240 -220 --200 -180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -SO 60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
above the dew point line while the dense phase
TEMPERATURE( ° F )
and LNG systems operate at temperatures and pres-
' —1— ' I_._.L._1 .- ---..
TEMPERATURE (4 F)
sures above the bubble point curve. Procedures are

38 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 39

 , tures is similar to that required to bring it to dense
FIGURE
FIGURE & RU116E10.71E11 CYCLES phase condition. As a general rule then, the initial
PRESSURE ENTHALPY DIAGRAM refrigeration horsepower requirements for LNG
NATURAL GAS
pipelines will be about three times as much as that
2000
for a dense phase pipeline.
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
Consider now a segment of a pipeline system as
1 u-
...
shown in Figure 1. The pipeline will absorb heat
,\ "- N
'' ,o 0 by conduction through the ground and the insula-
= '•V N -a•

1500
... I •
c.#
cAn
I
,-- —
tion. This energy must be removed at the end of
I 1 1
0
co
each segment of the pipeline. In addition, the heat
6. 1:1
. .4.- 0
0
UP
0
-t 4
0
equivalent of the work of the compressor along with
/-' L. 0 ......
...
.-
1. 0 0 -4 the compressor inefficiency must be removed.
0 0 C5
''
41 C,
C7 C, CV i
These two sources of energy input between the inlet
1000 of a segment and the outlet, must be removed in
..,
..c
the station refrigeration unit. The air coolers, accor-
c,,
."
u,
.

I
dingly, must be designed to handle the heat which
cc
cu
ll
is absorbed from the ground and the work input
of the gas compressor, as well as the heat equivalent
TWO POSE
500
of the work done on the refrigeration system by
. RFR IN
its own compressors.

In other words, the air coolers must be designed

to remove the heat transfer from the ground plus
0
110 130 170 190 210 230
the heat equivalent of all pumping and refrigeration
-150 -110 -90 -70 -50 -30 - 0 '10 30 50 70 90 150 250 270
Or4ra11 Ell1C18/1Cy (f,).26' horsepower. Because the refrigeration horsepower
ENTHALPY {BTU/LB—R) LIG
required at an LNG refrigeration station is three
times that required for a dense phase refrigeration
station, air cooled heat exchangers will be three
times larger. Since the aerial coolers, the turbines
by adding such constituents, but there are no limits On the other hand, small amounts of the heavier to unity. The minimum work is equal to the energy and the compressors are the major cost items, a
to the amount of propane, butane, or even pentane hydrocarbons such as hexanes or heptanes can to be removed at the lower temperature multiplied typical LNG refrigeration station costs about three
which can be carried. cause small amounts of liquid to form in the chilled by the temperature rise necessary to be able to times as much as an equivalent dense phase sta-
conventional pipeline. Fortunately, the use of a exhaust the heat to the environment divided by the tion. The total installed horsepower at each dense
3620 minimum pressure as high as 1150 psia_in the chilled lower temperature. Figure 7 shows the curve of the phase station is approximately the same as for a
conventional system keeps most of these liquid con- chilled conventional system, and hence equivalent
3400 theoretical minimum work required to remove a
stituents in the gaseous phase due to the retrograde dense phase and chilled conventional stations cost
PI 9 URE
million btu's at a given temperature and exhaust approximately the same.
3200
vaporization phenomenon. it at another temperature. In actual practice, some
REF RI GER A TION 1
0200EPOWER
3000 It is assumed, for the physical and economic com- temperature drop must take place in the heat
(PROPANE CONDENSER TEMPERATURE ., 104)

2600
parisons given in this paper, that the gas available transfer at both ends of the cycle, and this must INSULATION
from the Arctic is not rich in intermediate and heavy be taken into account when using the minimum
1\1
\
Insulation is desirable in order to reduce the heat
". 2600
molecular weight hydrocarbons and that the three work equation. flow between the pipe and the ground, especially
systems carry the same gas. The potential advan- The work required in a real refrigeration cycle
,C 2400
for LNG pipelines. The refrigeration stations of the
tage of the dense phase system to carry inter- is some factor higher than the minimum work. LNG pipeline are three times larger than for a dense
22 00
mediate and heavy molecular weight hydrocarbons Figure 8 shows several refrigeration cycles such
F:
t phase pipeline, and hence any reduction in the
c2
is therefore not considered. as might be used for the initial refrigeration of the
ID 2000
amount of heat transfer between the ground and
7-- leo°
A pressure-enthalpy diagram representing the gas and for cooling the gas along the pipeline route. the pipe achieves greater savings in the size and
gas properties which were actually used in the cal- For the chilled conventional system with discharge cost of the LNG refrigeration stations. Calculations
; 1000

-
...J g
,
culations is shown in Figure 6. temperatures of 15°F, a propane refrigeration cycle have been performed which show that the optimum
'100 E is sufficient. For the dense phase system at tempera- insulation thickness for a dense phase system is
2

1200
":,
y
REFRIGERATION tures of -115°F, an ethane refrigeration system can about four inches and is zero for the chilled conven-
All three systems make important use of refrigera- be used with the ethane being condensed by a prop- tional case. The result appears to be relatively insen-
1000
tion, both at the entrance to the pipeline and for ane cycle. This dual-cycle type of refrigeration unit sitive to most parameters and is affected principally
800 the after-cooling following pumping at the pipeline lowers the overall efficiency as indicated on Figure by the flowing temperature. The optimum thickness
stations. In the design of a refrigeration system, it 8. for an LNG line is about eight inches.
BOO APRON ROTORS.

1.1111101 THORETICAL HORSEPOWER is important to understand that there is a minimum It should be noted from Figure 7 that the refrigera- Problems associated with application of the insu-
HORSEPOWER
400
amount of work required to remove heat energy tion for LNG at -258°F requires more than three lation, the use of vapour barriers, weighting of an
200 at some low temperature and exhaust it to the envi- times as much horsepower to remove a million btu's insulated pipeline to stop it floating, crushing of
I ronment at some higher temperature. than the dense phase refrigeration cycle. In addi- the insulation during cool-down and by ground
0
410 •380 -010 -280 -210 -160 -1 0 -80 -10 40 90 t40
The formula for minimum work is given in Equa- tion, the heat to be removed in cooling the fluid movements have not been fully investigated at this
CHiLliMG IENPCRATORE.( 'F)
tion 9 in Figure 2, if the efficiency (Er) is set equal from dense phase temperatures to LNG tempera- time. These special problems have not been taken
An ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 41
into account in the installation cost data shown in The wall thickness of the LNG system is limited For all systems, an average daily flow of 4.5 Bcfd station suction piping, the gas chillers and the sta-
Table 3. by construction difficulties which arise with thin was assumed to be available at a temperature of tion discharge piping.
wall pipes. For a pipe diameter of 36 inches, the 15°F and at the maximum line pressure of the sys- The results of the design calculations are given
METALLURGY minimum wall thickness has been set at 0.281 tem. For both the LNG and dense phase systems, in Table 2. The comparison shows the principal fea-
inches for this study. This wall thickness for the an initial refrigeration system is installed at the Arc-
Because it is necessary to avoid brittle fracture tures of each system. Both the dense phase and
36-inch LNG pipe is therefore greater than is dic- tic gathering point to reduce the temperature to chilled conventional systems use similar total horse-
phenomena, the metallurgy of the pipeline and
tated by the internal pressure. Shrinkage problems -250°F and -115°F, respectively. The fuel used by power, although the dense phase system has less
pump or compressor station depends upon the low-
associated with the initial cool-down of the LNG the initial refrigeration station is subtracted from
est expected operating temperature in the system. pumping horsepower. This is because of the larger
pipe have not been allowed for in the examples the assumed 4.5 Bcfd flow available at the gathering
In general the lower the transition temperature is refrigeration horsepower requirement of the dense
presented here. Stress analysis calculations show point before the gas enters the pipeline. A constant
set, the more expensive the steel becomes. For the phase system compared with the chilled conven-
chilled conventional system the pipe would have that some form of expansion loop design will be load factor of 93 per cent was used in the design tional system. The difference between the dense
necessary for LNG pipelines. Our calculations show of the three systems. phase system and the chilled conventional system
a specification below 0°F, whereas the dense phase
that the dense phase system does not require
system requires a specification of around -125°F lies principally in the metallurgy.
expansion loops.
and the LNG system requires a specification of Table 1 summarizes the physical parameters of The LNG system requires about three times the
about -260°F. MECHANICAL DESIGN refrigeration horsepower and twice the amount of
each system. Each LNG and dense phase pumping
In general, the three and one half percent nickel The three pipeline systems were designed using station is powered by an 8,750 horsepower (ISO) insulation as the dense phase system for the cases
class of steel is expected to be satisfactory at the a computer program which utilizes the equations gas turbine and the chilled conventional compres- studied. It is therefore obvious that such a system
dense phase conditions reported in this paper, but given in Figure 2. The pipeline route under conside- sor stations are powered by 30,000 horsepower is not desirable because its only advantage, namely
more advanced technology may be available using ration runs for 1300 miles from the Arctic to a point (ISO) units. The power output of all turbine units that it uses less steel, cannot be realized because
quenched steels with special metallurgical compo- in southern Canada where it is assumed to connect is adjusted for station elevation and ambient tempe- of the minimum wall thickness limitation that is
nents which will reduce the cost of steel for dense with conventional pipeline systems. Simulated rature. The flow program spaces the stations so imposed by construction considerations. This
phase systems considerably and make them more elevation, air temperature and ground temperature minimum wall thickness for the LNG system is set
that all the available pumping or compressor horse-
competitive. For the LNG case it is expected that profiles were used for the three cases. Each pipeline at 0.281 inches for a 36-inch pipe.
power can be utilized at each station when all
a five percent plus nickel class of steel would be was assumed to be buried six feet to centreline the units are running. The three systems are there- Except for the initial refrigeration, both the dense
suitable. below the ground surface. fore well balanced hydraulically, make equally phase and chilled conventional systems use similar
efficient use of their installed horsepower and quantities of fuel because they have similar total
hence can be compared on an equal basis. Station installed horsepower. The LNG system uses con-
TABLE 1—SYSTEM PARAMETERS losses of 15 psi were allowed for in each system. siderably more fuel than either of the other two sys-
This loss is made up of pressure losses through tems.
Liquid Dense Ll-AGied
Natural Phase Conventional
Units Gas Gas Gas
Parameter
1,300 1,300
Length of Pipeline miles 1,300
42 48
From
inches 36
Pipe Outside Diameter
inches .281 .404 .720 these few components,
Pipe Wall Thickness
4
Insulation Thickness inches
72 72
we build words
inches 72
Depth to Pipe Centre
to sell you,
1,2A7 2,540
Total Weight of Steel lb x 106 743 your product,
ft3 x 106 47 25
Total Volume of Insulation
lb x 106 130 68 your community.
Total Weight of Insulation
We will write,
inches .0003 .0003 .0003
Roughness Projections
Steel Yield Strength psi 65,000 65,000 70,000 edit, design,
Percent Nickel % Ni 5 3 print and
% SMYS 80 80
i3 UsEIGHILML/In&AMISnA4i
Sanford Evans Services Ltd. !
Design Factor
psig 600 1,000 1,680 'XY mail your 1077 ST. JAMES STREET, P.O. BOX 6900
Maximum Line Pressure WINNIPEG, CANADA R3C 3B1
650 1,150
Minimum Pressure psia company or PHONE (204) 775-0201

°F +15 +15 +15 community

System Supply Temperature
+15
Pipeline Supply Temperature °F -250 -115
+15
magazine, newspaper,
°F +15 +15
System Delivery Temperature
oF -250 -115 +15
promotion publication,
Station Discharge Temperature
house organ or
30 20 10
Station Discharge Density lb/ft3
15 15 15
brochure.
Station Pressure Losses psi
Refrigeration Stages 3 2 1 Sanford Evans:
.80 .80 .80
Compression Efficiency
.28 .44 .55 Publication Experts!
Refrig. Thermal Efficiency
Conductivity of Insulation BTU/ft °F hr. 0.0217 0.0217 Enquire now.
Conductivity of Ground BTU/ft °F hr. 1 1

* Determined by minimum wall thickness for construction reasons.

-111•111=11
Circle 56 on Service Card
42 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 43
COSTS
In order to make a fair cost comparison of the
three systems, the same unit costs were used for
the three systems wherever possible. The unit costs
are shown in Table 2.
The three systems all have approximately the
same outside diameter when the insulation is
included. The LNG system diameter is 52 inches,
the dense phase system diameter is 50 inches and
TABLE 2-PHYSICAL COMPARISON
Parameter
Station Data
the chilled conventional system diameter is 48 The LNG pipe is the smallest diameter and is The pump or compressor stations are divided into
inches. The pipeline base costs, which include therefore the easiest to handle. Although there is three cost components. The fixed costs include all
easement, damages, ditching and backfilling have a weldability problem with the five per cent nickel items which are independent of the size of the sta-
therefore been assumed to be the same for all steel, the LNG pipe has the thinnest wall. Also the traps, station
tion such as the airport, roadways, pig
three cases. The pipeline base cost also includes installation of insulation provides special problems piping and valves, buildings and ancillary facilities.
communications measurement facilities, stockpile for the LNG and dense phase systems. The unit The second cost component reflects those costs
sites and operation and maintenance facilities costs for installation take these factors into account which are a function of the number of units such
which are also assumed to be the same for the and a comparison shows a slight advantage per as compressor unit piping and compressor build-
three cases. foot for the installation of the smaller diameter, ings, as well as the fixed cost of the turbines and
thinner wall LNG and dense phase pipes. The unit pumps or compressors. The third unit cost reflects
cost of steel and insulation are based on quotations those costs which are proportional to horsepower.
received from suppliers and represent cost deli- The cost structure of the refrigeration stations
vered to the site. At the present time, steels to meet is somewhat more complex than the pump or com-
the cold temperature specifications of LNG and pressor stations because of the wider diversity of
Liquid Dense Chilled
dense phase systems are three to four times more functional components. The horsepower is costed
Natural Phase Conventional
Units Gas Gas Gas
expensive than steels for chilled conventional sys- in the same way as the mainline pumps or compres-
tems, and have never been produced in quantity. sors. The aerial heat exchangers take up more site

Average Station Spacing miles 40 40 42

Gas Pumps or Compressors 1 1 1
TABLE 3-UNIT COST ASSUMPTIONS
Gas Horsepower HP 8,750 8,750 30,000

Refrigeration Compressors 4 1 Chilled

2 Liquid Dense
Conventional
Propane Horsepower HP 44,500 16,100 14,900 Natural Phase
HP Item Units Gas
Ethylene Horsepower 33,600 9,700 Gas Gas
Methane Horsepower HP 24,000
HP 102,100 25,800 14,900 1. Pipeline
Total Refrigeration Horsepower

50
Total Horsepower HP 110,900 34,500 45,000 Base Cost $/ft. 50 50
0.35
Materials $/lb. 1.50 1.00
Propane/Air Heat Exchange tons 25,000 9,000 11,300 Insulation VI b. 1.00 1.00
30
Ethylene or gas/Propane Exch. tons 15,600 5,650 8,000 Installation $/ft. 25* 27.5*
Methane or gas/Ethylene Exch. tons 8,500 3,600
2. Pump or Compressor Stations
Gas/Methane Exchange tons 3,400

Fixed Costs 8,500

Total Heat Exchange tons 52,500 18,300 19,300 $000/sta. 8,500 8,500
Turbine/Pump Base Cost 2,000
$000/unit 2,000 2,000
Horsepower 85
Totals $/HP 85 85

31 3. Refrigeration Stations
Number of Stations 33 33
Gas Pumps or Compressors 33 33 31
2,000
Gas Horsepower HPx 103 290 290 930 Turbine-Compressor Base Cost $000/unit 2,000 2,000
85
Horsepower $/HP 85 85
400
Refrigeration Compressors 132 66 31 Propane/Air Exchangers $/ton 400 400
200
Propane Horsepower HPx 103 1,470 530 460 Ethylene or Gas/Propane Exch. $/ton 200 200
Ethylene Horsepower HPx 103 1,110 320 Methane or Gas/Ethylene Exch. $/ton 550 550
Methane Horsepower HP x 103 790 Gas/Methane Exchangers $/ton 870
Total Refrigeration Horsepower HP x 103 3,370 850 460
4. Initial Refrigeration $000,000 2,100 650
Total Horsepower HPx 103 3,660 1,140 1,400
5. Regasification Vton 800 800
Propane/Air Heat Exchange tons x 103 820 300 350
6. Indirect Costs 25% of Items 1-5
Ethylene or Gas/Propane Exch. tons x 103 510 190 250
Methane or Gas/Ethylene Exch. tons x 103 280 120
7. Total Annual Cost 15% of Items 1-6
Gas/Methane Exchange tons x 103 110

600 0.30
Total Heat Exchange tons x 103 1,720 610 8. Well Head Gas $/Mscf 0.30 0.30

4,500 25
Average System Supply MMscfd 4,500 4,500 9. Escalation (for 5 years) 25 25
Initial Refrigeration H.P. HPx 103 1,730 875
Average Pipeline Supply MMscfd 4,170 4,330 4,500 Note: These costs are intended to reflect average Arctic conditions for
Average Pipeline Delivery MMscfd 3,580 4,130 4,270 a pipeline that transports gas from a gathering point in the Arctic
Regasification Heat Exchange tons x 103 190 120 to a distribution point in southern Canada.
Average System Delivery MMscfd 3,500 4,080 4,270

* Does not take into account the special problems mentioned

Total System Fuel MMscfd 1,000 420 230
in the paper,

44 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA-November-December, 1973

Fr\f r121:V IDDiThr- CCCIAIrZte- A MA NA 45
space than the other heat exchanger components,
and they also require fans and associated power
generation. Their unit cost is therefore much higher
than the gas to propane exchangers. The gas to
ethylene exchangers are also more expensive than
the gas to propane exchangers. In this case it is
because of the more expensive, low temperature
metallurgy. The gas to methane exchangers are the
most expensive for the same reason.
The costs of the initial refrigeration plants are
not presented in any detail, but were derived from
detailed cost estimates. The same trends apply here
as for the refrigeration stations discussed earlier.
The regasification unit cost was also determined
from detailed cost estimates. Engineering, cont-
ingencies and interest during construction are
covered under indirect costs and are treated as a
percentage of the capital costs.
The physical comparison given in Tables 1 and
2, and the unit cost comparison given in Table 3,
TABLE 4—COST COMPARISONS in $000,000
Item
are combined to give the total cost comparison
shown in Table 4. Again it becomes obvious that
the total pumping and refrigeration costs of the
dense phase and chilled conventional systems are
similar. The main differences between these sys-
tems is the cost of initial refrigeration and the cost
of steel. The amount of steel in the dense phase
system is approximately half that of the chilled con-
ventional system.
Therefore, the dense phase system might be
economical if there were no need of initial refrigera-
tion due to a prior mode of transportation (such
as LNG tanker), and if suitable steel were only twice
as expensive as steel for the chilled conventional
system instead of about three times as used here.
If the cost of the initial refrigeration plant is included
in the cost of transporting the gas, then the chilled
conventional system is clearly more economical
than the dense phase system. The LNG system is
Mar" expensive in all the cost categories and it is
Dense Chilled
Liquid
Natural Phase Conventional
Gas Gas Gas
clear that such a system cannot compete econo-
mically with the others for this application.
CONCLUSIONS
The transportation of dense phase natural gas
combines most of the advantages that LNG trans-
portation enjoys and minimizes most of the disad-
vantages. The dense phase system achieves most
of the reduction in pipe size and compression horse-
power of the LNG system, but it can use less
expensive steel, less insulation and less refrigera-
tion. It is therefore superior on an economic basis.
Unless the LNG exists at the entry to the pipeline
by virtue of a previous LNG transportation mode,
and unless it is also required at the delivery point
as LNG for storage purposes, an LNG pipeline would
not be considered.
Although the dense phase pipeline has the advan-
tages that it uses less steel and less compression
horsepower than a comparable chilled conventional
pipeline, it exhibits some important counterbalanc-
ing disadvantages.
The disadvantages arise from the high cost of
low temperature metallurgy and the high demand
for refrigeration along the pipeline. The savings in
compression horsepower are counterbalanced by
the increase in refrigeration horsepower. The sav-
ings due to the use of less steel are more than over-
come by the use of more expensive metallurgy. The
cost of initial refrigeration is an extra cost which
is not shared by the chilled conventional system.
It is conceivable that future developments in
metallurgy will reduce the cost of steel for dense
phase applications to a level comparable with steel
for the chilled conventional schemes. Similarly,
advances in insulation would be required. Under
these circumstances, the dense phase system could
possibly compete economically with the chilled
scheme if initial refrigeration of the gas to a low
temperature were required for some other purpose
such as transportation by tanker or for storage. But
for Arctic applications, refrigeration to a low tempe-
rature is not necessary and the dense phase pipeline
would still be less economical than the chilled con-
ventional pipeline.
If significant quantities of intermediate and heavy
molecular weight hydrocarbons were found in the
Arctic, and if a premium were to be paid for them
in the south, then the possibility of carrying them
in a dense phase system might become an important
factor by allowing considerable increases in the
operating temperature and by increasing the value
of the delivered product.
REFERENCES
1. Katz, D.L., and Hashemi, H.T., March 3, 1971. -Bringing LNG
Inland from Ports by Pipeline," AIChE meeting, Houston,
Texas.

1. Pipeline
Bose Cost $ 343 $ 343 $ 343

Now
Materials 1,115 1,247 889
Insulation 130 68
Installation 172 189 206

Subtotal, Pipeline $1,760 $1,847 $1,438

2. Pump or Compressor Stations

Available!
Fixed Costs $ 280 $ 280 $ 264
Turbine/Pumps Base Cost 66 66 62
Horsepower 25 25 79

Subtotal, Pump or Compressor Station $ 371 371 405

3. Refrigeration Stations

•
Turbine/Compressor Base
Horsepower
Propane/Air Exchangers
$ 264
286
328
$ 132
72
120
62
39
140
San lord Evans' Direct Mail
Ethylene or Gas/Propane Exchangers
Methane or Gas/Ethylene Exchangers
103
156
39
66
50
LIS CATALOGUE 1974.
Gos/Metha ne Exchangers 96
Direct Mail properly used, is a powerful Write in for your free copy of Canada's
Subtotal, Refrigeration Stations $1,233 $ 429 $ 291
and effective advertising medium. Di- most complete Direct Mail List
rect Mail programs are only as good Catalogue (includes the largest listings
Subtotal, Pumps and Refrigeration $1,604 $ 800 $ 696
as the mailing lists used and Sanford of mail order buyers available in
4. Initial Refrigeration $2,100 $ 650
Evans' lists are the best available! Canada)—the Sanford Evans Gold Book
of Mailing Lists!
5. Regasification 150 95

6. Total (Excl. Indirect Costs etc.) $5,614 $3,392 $2,134

Sanford Evans Services Ltd.
BOX 6900, 1077 ST. JAMES STREET, WINNIPEG, MANITOBA R3C 3B1 TELEPHONE (204) 775-0201
7. Cost of Transportation
(cents/Mscf/100 miles) (Escalated) 8.4 4.2 2.5
Circle 57 on Service Card

rmrPr.v Ponr-FSSING/CANADA—November-December. 1973 ENERGY PROCESSING/CANADA—November-December, 1973 47