The Walls of Jericho: An Alternative Interpretation

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Bar-Yosef, O. 1986. The Walls of Jericho: An Alternative Interpretation. Current Anthropology 27,
no. 2: 157-162.

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doi:10.1086/203413

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REPORTS
The Walls of Jericho:An Alternative
Interpretation'
by 0. BAR-YOSEF
Institute of Archaeology,Hebrew University,Jerusalem
91905, Israel. 30 VI 85
"The walls of Jericho"immediatelyremindus of the biblical
storydescribingthe conquestof this ancienttown by Joshua
and the invadingIsraelitearmy.Like theHomericepic about
the destructionof Troy, which motivatedH. Schliemannto
conductone of the firstexcavationsin the Near East, so the
tale of Jerichohas made the site attractiveto scholarsinter-
ested in revealing biblical remains beneath the dust. The
mound of Tell es-Sultanin the JordanValley has long been
confidently equated withthe biblicalJericho,and the wish to
uncoverthe walls that collapsed at the blast of the Israelite
trumpets has led to a seriesofexcavationsat themound(fig.1).
The pioneerwas C. Warren,who dug a fewholes in 1873 but
thenabandonedthesiteand wenton to excavatein Jerusalem.
The Germans E. Sellin and C. Watzingerdug a series of
trenchesbetween1907 and 1909, and theywere followedby
J. Garstang,1930-36, and K. Kenyon,1952-58.
While the townwalls destroyedby Joshua'sarmyhave not
been found,a seriesof Early Bronze-and Middle Bronze-Age
walls and an impressiveramparthave been uncoveredand
studiedin detail. BeneaththebiblicalJericho,firstGarstang's
and later the major excavationsof Kenyon uncoveredthick
depositsofveryearlyPre-Pottery Neolithicoccupation.A par-
ticularlysurprisingdiscoverymade by Kenyon in the basal
layersof thisoccupationwas the existenceof a massivestone
perimeter wall. It is withtheinterpretation ofthiswall and the
towerassociatedwithit thatthispaper is concerned.The re-
cent publicationof the finalarchaeologicalreports,a project
forwhichT. A. Holland is to be congratulated, makesitpossi-
ble to reexamineKenyon'sconclusionsusingherown detailed
observations(Kenyon1981; Kenyonand Holland 1982, 1983).
The oldest remains at Jerichoare dated to the Natufian
culture,thoughnotto itslatestphase as recentlydefined(Bar-
Yosef 1981a, Valla 1984). Then, followinga gap of nearlya
millennium (ca. 9200-8350 B.C.), thesitewas settledbyone of
theearlyfarmingcommunities.The occupiedarea was a mod-
eratelyslopingplain formedby the retreatof the Late Pleis-
toceneLisan Lake (fig.1). The plain is coveredby brownsoils
and gravelswashedin byWadi Nuceima,Wadi el-Mafjar,and
Wadi Qilt, formingthe arable land of theJerichooasis.
Table 1 summarizesthe main construction and destruction
eventsin the area of Trench I and squares FI, DI, and DII,
wherethe walls, the tower,and adjacent buildingswere par-
tiallyexposed.Figure2 tentatively reconstructsthemaindepo-
' ? 1986 by The Wenner-Gren FoundationforAnthropological Re-
search,all rightsreserved0011-3204/86/2702-0005$1.00.
The reexami-
nationofsomeofthearchaeologicalproblemsofJerichostemmedfrom
researchon Early Neolithicsites in the Lower JordanValley. Field-
workwas fundedby the Wenner-GrenFoundationforAnthropolog-
ical Research (1980-81) and by the National Geographic Society
(1983-84), to whomI am verygratefulfortheirsupport.I would like
to thankP. Goldbergand A. Gopherof theInstituteof Archaeology,
Hebrew University, formanyusefuldiscussionsin thefield;GI. Isaac
and J. Merkelof the Peabody Museum, Harvard University,and Z.
Herzog of theInstituteofArchaeology,Tel Aviv University,fortheir
helpfulcommentson an earlierdraft;and B. Isaac forthedrawings.I
am, however,fullyresponsiblefor any shortcomings of the present
version.
Vol. 27 * No. 2 * April 1986
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sitionaleventsin this area; thesesectionsare based on Ken-
yon's fielddrawingsand writtendescriptions(Kenyon 1981).
The available 14Cdates as reportedby Burleigh(1981, 1983)
are shownin boththetable and thefigure.The firstNeolithic
occupationswere labelled "Proto-Neolithic" by KenyQn,but
thelithicanalysisof Crowfoot-Payne (1983) has demonstrated
thattheassemblage,mainlyderivedfroma limitedexcavation
in Square M, does not differfromthe restof the Pre-Pottery
NeolithicA (henceforthPPNA) assemblages. This industry
was renamed"Sultanian" and has since been found at two
additionalsitesin theJordanValley-Gilgal (Noy, Schulden-
rein, and Tchernov 1980) and Netiv Hagdud (Bar-Yosef,
Gopher,and Goring-Morris 1980).
It is onlysubsequentto theearliestoccupationsthatthefree-
standingwall and towerwere built. The firstperimeterwall,
3.6 m high,was 1.8 m thickat its base and only 1.1 m at its
preservedtop. The tower,placed insidethe perimeterof the
settlement, was 8.2 m high(ca. 9 m in diameterat thebase and
7 m at thetop)and builtofundressedstones.It had a staircase
leading to the top with 22 steps built of dressed slabs. Its
preservedoutletseems to be the originalone. No roomswere
foundinsidethe tower.The available 14Cdates indicatethat
the constructionoccurredbetween8300 B.C. and 7800 B.C.,
whichmay mean around 8000 B.C. as estimatedby Kenyon.
Stages IV-V consistedof the buildingof an additionalwall
(or onlythe thickeningof the firstwall) and the diggingof a
ditch in frontof it, probablybecause the continuousrapid
alluviationwas endangeringtheexistingstructures. The tower
was an extremely heavystructure (about 1,000tons)and prob-
ablyexperienceddifferential subsidenceoftheunderlying slip-
perymarl.There is clear archaeologicalevidencethatithad to
be repairedat thisstage.
The ditch was filledrapidly,motivatingthe additionof a
thirdwall, and at the same periodthe staircasewas blocked
(StagesVI and VIA). Continuousaccumulationson bothsides
consistingof naturalaggradationenrichedwith occupational
debris on the westernface and occupationalremainson the
easternfacecaused thewalls to go outofuse, leavingthetower
stillsomewhatelevatedabove its surroundings. The 14Cread-
ingspointto a date of ca. 7400-7300 B.C. In thefinalstageof
the PPNA periodthe perimeterwall was entirelyburied.
The lower courses of the PPNA perimeterwall were also
foundin the northerntrench(TrenchII) and were somewhat
betterpreservedin the southerntrench(TrenchIII). In these
instancesthe wall was thinner,only 1.4 m and 1.6 m respec-
tively.At thenorthern end ofthesettlement theperimeter wall
was heavilydamaged by a floodingwadi whichleftonlythe
lowercourseof stonesundera wadi channelsome 15 m wide
and about 1.5 m deep in itscentralthalweg.That thewadi was
able to wash away a supposedlystonewall is somewhatunex-
pected,giventhe presenceof softoccupationlevels on either
side; perhapsitwas a mud-brickconstruction on stonefounda-
tions. In the southerntrenchthe truncationof the already
buried PPNA layers is interpretedas resultingfromsevere
floodingin Wadi el-Mafjar.
Kenyonconcludedthatthe oval moundof Jerichowas en-
circledby a defensivewall enclosingan area of 2.4 hectares
(originallymiscalculatedas 4.0). Her estimateof 3,000-4,000
forthe site's populationis too high in view of the size of the
site, and the resultsof recentethnoarchaeologicalresearch
(Kramer 1982) point to an estimateof 400-900. Additional
walls, also interpreted by Kenyonas "town walls," were un-
coveredin the westerntrenchand dated to the followingpe-
riod,the Pre-Pottery NeolithicB (ca. 7300-6000 B.C.). These
were slantingwalls built of large undressedstones,retaining
theearlierlevels. Both thepicturesof thewalls and thedraw-
ingofthetrench-section clearlyshow that,as has been pointed
out by Mellaart (1975:59),thesewere retainingwalls.
Kenyon'sinterpretations of her strikingdiscoveriesmay be
summarizedas follows:
157
 'I~~~~~~Q

\) ,

.0 0 0 o..
JFF~ICHO`
*.o .

00 O~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~0 kml

. ....... *--~~~~~~~~~~~JERICHO

westofthetell,borderedby Wadi Nuceimain thenorth

FIG. 1. The topographicsituationofthetellofJericho.Note thelow ridge,immediately
and Wadi el-Mafjarin the south.Topographyis shownin 10-rncontours.Today's springriseson the mid-easteredge of the tell.

1. The presenceof a thick,free-standing wall and a tower
indicatea communaleffort to fortify
thesettlement. (The effort
requiredto build the perimeterwall was later calculatedby
Dorrell[1978]as about a week'sworthfor200 men;a recalcu-
lationbased on a morerealisticestimateof0.5 m3perman per
dayyieldsa figureof 10,400workdaysor about 104workdays
for100 men).
2. As a walled site,Jerichodeservesto be called a "town"
and is thereforecomparableto thelaterNear Easternfortified
towns.
Both in the site reportsand in her popularsummary(Ken-
yon 1957), Kenyon avoided a certainnumberof intriguing
questions:
1. Who were the enemiesofJerichothatjustifiedthiscom-
munal effort, especiallythe investment in erectingthe tower?
2. When the walls and the towerof the PPNA periodwent
out of use because ofthenaturalaccumulationofhouse debris
and refusebothinsideand outsidethesettlement, whydid the
inhabitantsnot at once build new "townwalls"?
3. Whywas a terracewall sufficient fortification
duringthe
PPNB period?
4. Whyis thereno recordof otherfortified sitesin theNear
East eitherat the timeor thereafterup to about 5500 B.C.?
5. Whywas the towerat Jerichobuiltnoton the outsideof
the wall, whereits projectionwould enable the defendersto
shootattackerstryingto climbit, but on the inside?
To reconsiderKenyon'sinterpretation we mustexplorethe
generalevolutionof prehistoricculturesin the Near East at
that period and the specific location of Jerichoand the
geomorphicprocessesthatmay have influencedits history.
The evolutionof prehistoricentitiesas representedin the
archaeologicalrecordhas recentlybeen studiedin depthin the
various geographicunitsof the Near East (Sinai, the Negev,
Edom, the Jordan Valley, the Damascus plateau, the El
Kowm basin, and theMiddle EuphratesValley). On thebasis
of such featuresas site size, lithicand faunal assemblages,
topographiclocations, and zonal distribution,some general
trendshave been discerned(Cauvin 1978;Bar-Yosef1981a,b;
Henry 1983; Moore 1985). Withoutelaboration,thesemajor
developmentsmay be summarizedas a sequence of changes
which took place from 11/12,000B.C. through6000 B.C.
mainlyin the Mediterraneanand Irano-Turanianvegetation
zones, which shiftedbecause of climaticfluctuations (Butzer
1978, Van Zeist, and Bottema 1982, Bintliff1982).
The firstchange took place when small mobile groupsof
hunter-gatherersbecamepartiallyor fullysedentary; long-term
occupiedsitesaccommodatedlargerbands (perhapsup to 50-
80 persons).This change is associatedwiththe emergenceof
the Natufianculture,best recordedfromthe excavationsof
base camps such as Eynan (Ain Mallaha), HayonimCave and
Terrace,El-Wad Cave and Terrace,and Nahal Oren Terrace
(Perrot1966, Valla 1984, Bar-Yosefand Goren 1973, Garrod
and Bate 1937, Noy, Legge, and Higgs 1973). The Natufian
economywas based on gathering(forwhich the evidence is
ratherscantydue to poorpreservation in Mediterraneansoils),
hunting(mainlygazelle,fallowdeer,roedeer,wildboar, ibex,

158 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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 TABLE 1
SEQUENCE OF STAGES IN THE WESTERN SECTOR OF JERICHO

STRUCTURE

STAGE Walls Tower OtherStructures 14C DATE B.C.

I "Proto-Neolithic,"
no (BM-106) 8350 ? 200
structures
II PPNA houses
III "Town Wall" I Tower (BM-105) 8300 + 200
IV FI, DII enclosures (P-378) 7825 ? 110
(BM-1327) 7610 + 65
IVA DI "silo" (BM-1322) 7430 + 85
V "Town Wall" II added, (BM-250) 8350 + 500
infillingchippedfrom
ditchin frontof it
VI Ditch siltedup "Skin Wall" added Enclosuresdestroyed (BM-251) 7440 + 150
(P1. 236 JIll)
VIA Staircaseblocked, 12 "Silo" burned;rounded (P-379) 7705 ? 84
bodies inserted house built (BM-1323) 7430 + 85
VII "Town Wall" III added "Skin Wall" rebuilt Houses alteredand rebuilt;
on top of I and II House AE builtover
"Town Wall" III
VIIA "Town Walls" out of use
VIIIA Top rebuilt(?) Houses rebuilt;erosionbegins (BM-1787) 7330 + 100
(BM-1321) 7280 + 80
(BM-1326) 7280 + 220
(BM-152) 7330 + 150
VIIIB Tower out of use Fire
VIIIC Ceremonialstructure
in Fl
IX Fill almostreachestop Domesticstructures (BM-110) 8230 + 200
of tower (BM-1789) 7250 + 70
X Contractionof site,
domesticstructures
XI Expansion,housesin
TrenchI (westof
tower)
Erosionalphase
SOURCES. Kenyon(1981), Kenyonand Holland (1982, 1983)

mainlyin inlandlakes suchas Hula Lake, on

etc.),and fishing,
the shoresof which the site of Eynan was established(Bar-
Yosef 1983).
Despite the expansion of the Natufianculturenorthward
intotheMiddle EuphratesValleyand southwardto theNegev,
small groupsof hunter-gatherers persistedin the deserticre-
gions.
The establishment of farmingcommunities cultivatingboth
pulses and cereals (wheat and barley)took place duringthe
PPNA period ('4C-dated ca. 8300-7300 B.C.). Huntingwas
onlypartiallyreplacedduringthePPNB period(ca. 7300-6000
B.C.) by the introductionof domesticatedsheep and goats
(Clutton-Brock1981, Davis 1982, Smith,Bar-Yosef,and Sil-
len 1984). Presumablythese were herded fromthe Zagros
(Iran) area, wherethe evidence fortheirdomesticationfrom
local game is substantial,intotheLevantinelandscape(Hesse
1982).However,itis notimpossiblethatgoats,althoughonlya
verysmall fractionof the previouslyhuntedLevantinefauna,
were domesticatedlocally..The economyof the PPNB sites,
situated in fertileareas such as the Euphrates Valley, the
Damascus plain, theTrans-Jordanian plateau,and theJordan
and JezreelValleys,was based on legumesand cerealcultiva-
tionwithsome huntingand herding.In its finalphase, at the
end of the 7thmillenniumB.C., cattleraisingcommenced.
Duringthisperiod,climaticameliorationfavouredthe con-
tinued occupationof the desertsby hunter-gatherers. Their
sitesare foundeverywherein theNegev, Sinai, and the Syro-
Arabian desert. It is quite possible that the "desertkites,"
trappingdevices forherdanimalsconsistingof two long low-
lyingwalls leadingto an enclosure(oftenbelow a small cliff),
wereconstructed in orderto supplymeatto thefarmersofthe
Vol. 27 * No. 2 * April 1986
"FertileCrescent."Many commonfeaturesin art,ritual,mor-
tuarypractices,and the use of prestigegoods, not detailed
here,pointto thepresenceofclosecontactsthroughgiftgiving,
exchange,and "down-the-line" trade over most of the Near
East and especiallyin the Levant (Renfrewand Dixon 1976,
Mellaart 1975, Cauvin 1978, Moore 1985).
There is no archaeologicalevidence,in the formof burned
settlements, the remainsof mass massacres,or fortifications,
forthe existenceof social aggressionin the Levant beforethe
6th millenniumB.C. This is not to say that therewere no
rivalriesthat ended in some fighting, but the archaeological
recordas shown in the deep stratigraphies of manytell sites
(such as Mureybet,Abu Hureyra,Bouqras, Ramad, Asswad,
Jericho,Ain Ghazal, and Netiv Hagdud) was mainlyformed
by the naturalcollapse and subsequentrebuildingof adobe or
mud-brickhouses. The noncontemporary erectionof mud
houses (sometimeson stone foundations)created what is
knownin archaeologicaljargon as "spiral stratigraphy"; new
buildinglayersare not recognizableover the entirearea of a
given tell, each excavationarea having its own sequence of
buildingevents(Kramer1983).On rareoccasionsgeneralplan-
ningcan be seen (as in thecase ofTell Bouqras), but it is in no
way interpretable as rebuildingaftertotaldestructioncaused
by warfare(Akkermans,Fokkens,and Waterbolk1981).
Most LevantineNeolithicsites are partiallyand sometimes
even completelyburiedin alluvial deposits.This is thecase in
the Jordan Valley, where sites like Beisamoun, Tell cEli,
ShacarHaGolan, Munhatta,and Netiv Hagdud have at least
theirbasal layersbeneaththe surfacelevel ofthesurrounding
Holocene depositsand in manycases are entirelycoveredby
these deposits (Lechevallier 1978, Prausnitz 1970, Stekelis
159

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 STAGES III-IV (ca.8000-7800bc _7_| 4 STAGES Vll-VIl (ca.7500-7400 bc)r_ ? - l
g 5
;+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r--- --n

House AE in Sq FT
"Town Wall"I.

2 STAGE V (ca. 7800-7600bc) - - | 5 STAGE Vill (ca.7400-7300 bc)

\'?II ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~Si

Wall"

/
- /1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~z
- - - \ I, T -7

3 STAGES Vl-VII (ca7600-7500bc) 6 STAGES IX-XI (ca.7300-7200 bc)

House

"Town Wall"iW

11 ~~~~~~~~~~NIA

WEST "EAST

FIG. 2. Reconstructedsequence of depositionaland buildingeventsas identified by K. Kenyonin TrenchI. Major stages are indicated. The
ofthewalls
givenin table 1. The brokenline marksthesuggestedreconstructions
estimateddates are derivedfromthe listof '4C determinations
and a shrine(?).

1972, Perrot 1964, Bar-Yosef, Gopher, and Goring-Morris
1980). Similar phenomenahave been observed in the hilly
areas, at Abu Ghoshand Yiftahel(Lechevallier1978,Lamdan
and Davis 1983), in the Negev, at Nahal Issaron (Goring-
Morrisand Gopher1983),and alongthecoastal plain,at Neve
Yam (Wreschner1977). The same situationhas apparently
been observedin otherregionsoftheNear East. Indeed, even
sites of later periods, when located in proximityto wadi
courses,are partiallyor entirelyburied.Such is the case with
the Chalcolithicsites in Wadi Fazael (JordanValley), along
Nahal Beer Sheva and Nahal Besor (northern Negev), and on
the coastal plain (e.g., Olesh). The Early Bronze I siteof cEn
Shadud (JezreelValley) indicatesthat even sites as late as
around 3000 B.C. may have been buried(Braun and Gibson
1984). The sectiondrawingfromTrench I in Jerichoclearly
shows that Kenyon observedthis phenomenon.Alluvial de-
positsfilledtheditchdug by theNeolithicinhabitants.Stream
flowremovedthe PPNA wall on the northern edge of the tell
and levelledthe top of the PPNA depositsin TrenchIII.
The situationof Neolithicsites, especiallythe early ones,
near watercoursesand in low-lyingareas possiblyreflectsthe
desireoftheirinhabitantsto have drinkingand washingwater
immediately available and to live close to fieldsthatmade use
ofreadilycultivatedsoilson alluvialfansand terraces.In some
cases the potentialfor simple irrigationmay have been an
added incentive.Despite the limitednumberof palynological
recordsfromlakes (Van Zeist and Bottema 1982) and their
partial disagreement,it seems that both PPNA and PPNB
periodshad more favourableclimaticconditionsthan today.
Average annual temperatureswere somewhatlower, the sea
was continuallyrising,achievingits maximumheightonlya
millenniumlater,and the distribution of annual precipitation
resultedin betterspread of Mediterraneanforestsand richer
Irano-Turaniansteppes.Geomorphological evidencesupports
thisgeneralpictureand indicatesthatthe 7thmiLllennium B.C.
was wetterthanthepreviousor followingones, permitting the
existenceof inland lakes in Syria,Trans-Jordan,Arabia, the
JordanValley, and otherintermontane valleys.The aggrada-

160 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY

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tionaldepositsin alluvial fansshow fewlargeboulderssuch as
thosecarriedbyseverefloodsin historicaland presenttimes.It
seems that the annual floodingof terracesand alluvial fans
provideda new veneerof soil whichin the absenceof organic
fertilizersmade possible almost continuouscultivation.This
kind of annual or semiannualsheetwashand mudflow,how-
ever,requiredsome kind of protectionforsettlements located
amongstthefields.A defensesystemprovidingprotection from
natural activitiescan be a simple one-a water-diverting
trench-or a moresophisticatedone, giventhe situationand
the capabilitiesof the inhabitants.
The tellofJerichois, as I have said, locatedon whatused to
be a moderatelyslopingplain whichformedtheresidualland-
scape ofa recedinglake. The marlswhichformthebedrockat
Jerichoaccumulatedin this lake, which regressedfromthis
area ca. 11,000B.C. On thewestside, theJerichosectorofthe
slopeis protectedby a low ridge,ca. 2 kmlong,whichmoreor
less encirclesthe area (fig. 1). Two wadis borderthis ridge,
Wadi Nuceimaat the northern end and Wadi el-Mafjarat the
southern.Wadi el-MafjardescendsfromtheJudeanHills and
has a small drainagebasin (ca. 20 kM2); theapex ofits former
alluvialfanis onlyabout 500 m fromthetell.That thewadis of
the regiononce carriedmorewaterthan theydo todayseems
obviousfromthe erosionreportedby Kenyonon the northern
edge of themound.Heavy sedimentdischargefromthewadis
would be expectedwithan increasein directprecipitation on
theJudeanHills but perhapsalso would have come as a result
of vegetationaldestructioncaused by the local inhabitants.
The cuttingof wood (e.g., poplar,tamarisk,willow,oak, fig)
and bushesis evidentnotonlyin thelargeamountsofcharcoal
in the archaeologicaldepositsbut also in the use-wearvisible
on the cuttingedges of the axes-adzes (Western1983, Keeley
1983). To what extentfirebecame a tool forland clearingis
unknown, although botanical studies following fires in
Mediterraneanmaquis have shown that it has none of the
advantagestherethatit has in tropicalor temperatezones.
Given all the available data, it seems thata plausiblealter-
nativeinterpretation forthe Neolithicwalls ofJerichois that
theywerebuiltin stagesas a defensesystemagainstfloodsand
mudflows.The PPNA inhabitantsofJerichochoseto live near
a copious spring on a sloping plain which was subject to
mudflowsand sheetwash.Their responsewas to build a wall
and then,whennecessary,dig a ditch.The necessityforbetter
protection on thewesternside wouldexplainthevaryingthick-
ness of thewall, whichduringStages IV-VI was ca. 3.5 m in
the west but remainedonly 1.4-1.6 m in the northand the
south.The dangersoferosionare evidentin thedestruction of
the wall on the northernedge of Jerichoat the end of the
PPNA or before.Later, in PPNB days, the tell was presum-
ably highenoughto stand above the floods,and such protec-
tion as may have been necessarywas providedby a simple
terracerevetment. Moreover,thisterracewall couldhave been
just a structuraldevice to provide sound foundationsfor
houseson the top level above it and at its base.
Testingof thisalternativeexplanationat Jerichoand other
sites is needed. One may predict(1) that the PPNA wall at
Jerichoonly partiallyprotectedthe early occupations,(2) its
heightand thicknessvaryin responseto unevenalluviationor
flowingwater, and (3) similardevices will be uncoveredat
othersitesof the period.
Kenyonfailedto finda continuationofthewall on thewest-
ernedge, whereshe openedan additionalexcavation(Site M).
The easternend of the moundis partiallydestroyedand cov-
ered by the main north-south JordanValley road. (A rough
estimateindicatesthat the easternwall, if therewas one on
thatside, would be about 4-7 m below Area H.)
One otherexcavatedNeolithicsiteat whichthe edge of the
site has been exposed is Beidha, located northwestof Petra
(Jordan)and situatedin a wide wadi, deeplyentrenchedin
Nubian sandstone(Kirkbride1968). There the excavatorex-
Vol. 27 * No. 2 * April 1986
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posed a terracewall, 2 m highand at least 50 m long,which
protectedthewadi terraceon whichthesitewas builtfromthe
flowingwater.Kirkbrideneverclaimedthatthiswall was part
ofa defensivesystem,because in herfirstsoundingshe founda
staircasebuilton its outerface. She interpreted the wall as a
supportforthe sandy terraceon which this PPNB -sitewas
built, but in realityit could have been a protectionagainst
constantdenudationby water undercutting the terrace.Fi-
nally,eitherin PPNB timesor latertheentirewadi was filled
up and the terracewall buriedin a sandy-graveldeposit.
Undoubtedlymoretestingis neededat othersites,and good
candidatesforsuch an operationwill be thoselocated in the
JordanValley. For example,the PPNA moundof Netiv Hag-
dud is situated350 m fromthe apex of an alluvial fan, just
wherethewadi comesout ontotheplain (Bar-Yosef,Gopher,
and Goring-Morris 1980). This shallowtell(ca. 4 m high)was
totallycoveredon itswesternside by sand and gravelaccumu-
lations.The resultsof past water activityare visible,and the
questionis, Did the inhabitantsof Netiv Hagdud need to do
somethingabout it? Onlyfurther excavationswillenable us to
resolvethisquestion.
Untilnow an alternativeinterpretation forthetowerhas not
been discussed.The laterhistoryofNear Easternfortifications
seemsto ruleout itsuse as partof a fortress. Perhapsthemost
intriguing thingabout it is its finestateof preservation.
In view of theerosionalphase whichoccupiedthetimegap
betweenthePPNA periodand theonsetofthePPNB period,it
is surprisingthat such a building remained almost intact.
Moreover,whiletheheightofPPNA depositsin otherpartsof
the mound is 3.5-4.5 m, in the area of the towerthe total
thicknessamounts to 8.5 m (includingthe so-called Proto-
Neolithic). The special mud-brickstructuresuncoveredby
Kenyonon thenorthern side ofthetowerhave been described
as "watertanks"whichlaterservedas silos (Kenyon1981) or
"tanningvats" (Marshall 1982). The constructionof water
reservoirsonly80 m froma bountifulspringseemshighlyun-
likelyand indicatesthatKenyon'sinterpretation was based on
herview thatJerichowas a fortified townwhich,like thoseof
the Iron Age, needed water supplies inside the walls. The
locationof thespringon theeasternedge of themoundpoints
to thepossibilityofitsbeingincludedwithintheperimeter wall
circumference, if thiswall did indeed encirclethe entiresite.
The archaeologicalremainsindicatethat the towerwas a
special structureand perhapsheld a special place withinthe
settlement. A preliminary compositenorth-south cross-section
of the tell, based on the available drawn sections(Kenyon
1981), indicatesthatthe towercreateda bump in the general
topographicconfiguration of the tell, and I would ventureto
predict that there was only one tower in the Pre-Pottery
NeolithicA of Jericho.The preservationof its top would be
explainedifone postulatedthatit had been capped by a mud-
bricksuperstructure (fig.2). The presenceofthestoragefacili-
tiesattachedto it in itsearlydays mayhintthatitwas publicly
owned or at the serviceof the community.It is quite possible
thatit was also a place or a centerforritualactivities.Some
evidence in supportof this suggestionis given by Kenyon's
findsin Square Fl (immediately northofthetower)in theform
of peculiar structureswhich suggested"a ceremonialsignifi-
cance" (Kenyon1981:50).Finally,it shouldbe mentionedthat
thetoweris close to thespring.Unfortunately, Kenyondid not
have timeor fundsto finishherexcavationat SiteH (only50 m
fromthe tower),whichwas aimed at reachingthe prehistoric
outletof the spring.
The climaticoptimumof the earlyHolocene made possible
theemergenceand growthoffarmingcommunities in theNear
East. Agriculture as a new subsistencestrategysucceededbe-
cause the environmentalconditionswere appropriatewhile
new social structureswere in the processof beingformed.It
was onlylater,duringthe 6th millenniumB.C., thatclimatic
fluctuations, demographicpressures,the developmentof pas-
161
toralsocieties,and the collapse of simplesocial organizations
in partsoftheNear East caused thegroupaggressionthatwas
metby new means of defensein the formof fortification sys-
tems.It seemsthatthePre-Pottery NeolithicA walls ofJericho
were built in a period when the people had otherthingsin
mind,namely,protecting theirsettlement fromthevagariesof
nature.
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