iGCSE Chemistry Y10

Topic 2: Atoms, Elements, and Compounds

ELEMENT: A pure substance made from only one type of atom

ATOM: The smallest particle of an element, the building blocks of matter

COMPOUND: 2 or more elements chemically bonded

MIXTURE: 2 or more substances mixed but NOT chemically combined → can separate

Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons

Relative mass Relative charge Location

Proton 1 amu Positive (+) nucleus

Neutron 1 amu Neutral/no charge nucleus

(0)

Electron 1/1840 amu Negative (-) shells

Proton number = atomic number

Atomic mass-atomic number = number of neutrons

Number of electrons = number of protons (without ions)

IONS
When an atom gains or loses electrons

Ionic bonding = metals, Covalent bonding = nonmetals

Ionic bonding properties → metals → high conductivity of heat and electricity (WHEN
MOLTEN OR AQUEOUS → delocalised electrons), high melting point due to strong
electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions —> more energy needed to
overcome strong bonds
Covalent bonds = nonmetals
- Bonding held between the attractive forces between the shared electrons and the
nuclei of each atom

Simple molecular → weak intramolecular force

- Low melting and boiling points due to weak intramolecular force between the
-

Macromolecular
Allotropes of carbon → billions of nonmetal atoms which are each joined to adjacent atoms
→ GIANT LATTICE STRUCTURE
- HIGH melting and boiling points → many strong covalent bonds

Diamond = tetrahedral
- Each carbon is bonded to four other carbons
- No free electrons → all outer electrons are in the bondings = no conducting elec.
- All bonds are strong → strong intermolecular force
- Hard and dense
- Used as cutting tools

Graphite = hexagonal, layers connected by weak intermolecular force

- Each carbon bonded to three others
- CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY - ONE FREE ELECTRON per carbon
- Free electron is in between layers of graphite and free to move and carry
charger
- High melting point, electricity, less dense, soft and slippery
- Used as lubricant
SiO2 Structure
● Each oxygen atom forms covalent bonds with 2 silicon atoms and each
silicon atom in turn forms covalent bonds with 4 oxygen atoms
● A tetrahedron is formed with one silicon atom and four oxygen atoms, similar
to diamond
● SiO2 has lots of very strong covalent bonds and no intermolecular forces so it
has similar properties to diamond
 ● It is very hard, has a very high boiling point, is insoluble in water and does not
conduct electricity

Metallic bonding
- Metallic lattice
- Atoms lose electron from outer shell and become delocalised
- attraction between the positive metal ions and the negatively charged
delocalised electrons
- Malleable and ductile → slide over one another

Topic 3: Stoichiometry

FORMULAS

1. Avogadro’s constant → one mole = 6.022 x 1023 particles

2. #moles = mass/molecular mass
3. Conc = moles/volume (IN DM3)
4. 1dm3 = 1000cm3
5. Volume = moles x 24

EMPIRICAL FORMULA

Topic 5: Chemical Energetics

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

EXOTHERMIC: A reaction where there is a net transfer of heat energy to the

surroundings from a substance, which increases the temperature of the surroundings
and results in a negative change in enthalpy of the substance.
HEAT RELEASE → ΔH = NEGATIVE

Examples
- Combustion
ENDOTHERMIC: A reaction where there is a net transfer of heat energy to the substance
from the surroundings, which decreases the temperature of the surroundings and results
in a positive change in enthalpy of the substance.
HEAT ABSORBED → ΔH = POSITIVE

Enthalpy (ΔH) : The amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction carried out at
constant pressure.

Bonds

During a reaction, bonds are broken and made

- Breaking bonds requires energy = endothermic
- Forming bonds releases energy to surroundings = exothermic

ΔH = ∑(bonds broken) - ∑(bonds formed)

The sum of bonds broken minus bonds formed is the change in enthalpy

Topic 6: Chemical Reactions

**Ea DOES NOT DECREASE, COLLISION RATE INCREASES

Factors in increasing the rate of reaction

1. Temperature of reactants
2. Concentration
3. Pressure
4. Particle size
5. Catalyst
Topic 8: The Periodic Table
Use of periodic table: to easily refer to every element’s properties such as the
atomic mass or number.

Element arrangement: can predict every element’s properties

- Horizontally - in periods by increasing atomic number → increasing
number of protons
- Each period is when a new shell is filling with electrons e.g. period
one (1st shell) has two electrons, so there are two elements in
period 1
- Vertically - by groups of similar properties
- Metals are found on the left side of the table and form ions by losing
electrons
- Nonmetals are found on the right side of the table and form ions by
gaining electrons
- Change from metals to nonmetals seen from period 3 onwards

Group 1: Alkali metals → forms alkaline solutions with water

1. Each has one outer shell electron
2. Reactivity increases down the group → distance of outer shell electron is
further
3. Why reactive? = only needs to lose one electron to become stable (full
outer shell) → strong drive to lose electron
 4. Low melting point: melting point decreases down the group because
atoms increase in size, making the distance between nuclei and electrons
increase, decreasing the intramolecular force
5. Low densities
6. First three are safe, but the rest are too reactive and violent → francium is
radioactive
7. When reacting with other elements/atoms, the group 1 metals become
positive ions (cation) → product is ionic compound e.g. NaCl lattice
a. All white solids and dissolve in water forming colourless solutions

Physical characteristics (soft & silvery metals)

- Grey externally by silvery inside → grey coat formed by oxidation
- Soft and easily cut

1. Li
a. Silvery white, soft, stored in kerosene or mineral oil, reacts intensely
w/ water forming LiOH flame
2. Na
a. Silver white, soft, stored in kerosene or mineral oil, creates a ball on
the surface of water that moves and fizzes around → can see
effervescence
3. K
a. Silvery white, crust is tough but inside is soft, stored in mineral oil,
creates lilac flame and sparks with water → fast, violent reaction

Equation for group 1 reacting with water

2X (g) + 2H2O → 2XOH + H2

Group 7: Halogens

1. Nonmetal elements → covalent bonds

2. Reactivity decreases down the group → forces between nuclei and outer
shell is further, attraction decreases →
3. Poisonous
4. Different colours
 5. Diatomic (contains two atoms) e.g. F2
6. Boiling and melting points increase down group →
a. Atoms become larger, intermolecular force increases → more energy
required to overcome forces
7. High reactivity → only need 1 electron to become stable → high drive

PROPERTIES

1. Cl2
a. At RTP = pale yellow-green GAS
b. Solution - pale green
c. Vapour - green-yellow
d. Ion in solution - colourless
2. Br2
a. At RTP = red-brown LIQUID
b. Solution - orange
c. Vapour - red-brown
3. I2
a. RTP = Grey-black SOLID
b. Solution - red brown
c. Vapour - purple
4. F2
a. RTP = yellow gas
b. Vapour - yellow

Halogens reacting with halides

Halogens reacting with metals:

Halides → halogens react with metals → halide ions
- Ionic compounds

Halogens reacting with nonmetals

Covalent → share electrons

Transition metals
1. High density
2. Strong
 3. Forms coloured compounds
4. Used as catalysts

Topic 10: Chemistry of the Environment

10.1.1: Chemical tests for water

1. Cobalt (II) Chloride

a. When CO2 is present: Turns blue to pink
b. anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride + water → hydrated cobalt(II) chloride
i. CoCl2 (s) + 6H2O (l) → CoCl2.6H2O (s)
2. Copper (II) Sulfate
a. Anhydrous copper sulphate (absolutely no water present in compound)
turns to blue in presence of water
b. anhydrous copper(II) sulphate + water→ hydrated copper(II)sulphate
i. CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l) → CuSO4.5H2O (s)
3. Purity of water
a. Water is pure when its boiling and melting points are specific and sharp
i. Pure water has an exact boiling point of 100 degrees celsius and
melting point of 0 degrees celsius
b. IMPURE WATER: boils at above 100 degrees, melts below 0 degrees
4. Distilled water
a. water that has been heated to form a vapour, and then condensed back
to a liquid
b. It contains very few impurities
c. Distilled water is used in practical chemistry because of its high purity
d. Tap water contains more impurities which could interfere with
chemical reactions so is typically not used
i. Simple distillation:
ii. Fractional distillation
5. PURIFICATION OF WATER
a. Water from lakes and rivers is not pure. It may contain bacteria, dead
animals and plants, dirt etc.
b. Filtration is used to separate insoluble substances from the water.
Afterwards, the water is chlorinated (treated with chlorine) to get rid of
bacteria that couldn’t be removed through filtration.
 - Equipment → funnel, filter paper

Uses of water

- Domestic: cooking, drinking, gardening, sanitation

- Agricultural: drink for animals and watering crops
- Industrial: used as solvent for chemicals, coolant (stop industrial processes
from getting too hot), and heated to make steam which generate electricity
(by turning turbines), or using generating electricity in hydroelectric power
stations (flow of water from reservoir to turn turbines and generate electricity)

Water from natural sources

● Found in lakes, rives, underground resources (groundwater)

○ Rock that stores water = aquifer
● Contains
○ Dissolved oxygen
○ Metal compounds
○ Plastics
○ Sewage
○ Harmful microbes
○ Nitrates from fertilisers
○ Phosphates from fertilisers and detergents
● How do they enter water?
○ Rain falls and washes them into water sources e.g. lakes, directly from
human activities e.g. and some are naturally occurring
● Benefits of substances found in water
○ Dissolved oxygen → essential for aquatic life
○ Metal compounds → essential minerals which are needed for life
■ e.g . calcium or magnesium
● Harm of substances in water
○ Some metal compounds are toxic
 ○
■ E.g. aluminium or lead]
○ Some plastics → Harmful to aquatic life
■ E.g. getting trapped in plastic waste, dying of starvation due to
stomach filled with plastic
○ Sewage → harmful microbes → causes diseases
○ Nitrate and phosphates from fertilisers → promotes growth of aquatic
plants → deoxygenation of water → causes damage to aquatic life by
process called eutrophication
● **Metals compounds can be both beneficial and harmful → depends on the
metal of the compound
○ calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are all metals which are
essential for life. Harmful metals include lead, arsenic and mercury.

Water treatment
● Untreated water → contains soluble and insoluble impurities
○ Insoluble: soil, pieces of plants and other organic matter
○ Soluble: dissolved calcium, metallic compounds and inorganic
pollutants

1. Water pumped into sedimentation tanks → water allowed to stand for few
hours
2. Sedimentation: mud, sand and other particles fall to bottom of tank due to
gravity → forms a layer of sediment
3. Filtration: process to remove smaller particles by passing water through layers
of sand and gravel filters which trap solid particles
a. Separating insoluble (solid) substances
4. Water being passed through carbon in the form of charcoal can remove
odours and tastes
5. Chlorination: careful addition of chlorine to water supply → kills bacteria and
unwanted microorganisms
a. These are too small to be trapped by filters
6. What happens when untreated water is consumed
a. Bacterial diseases: cholera and typhoid
Fertilisers

Contains NPK: Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium

- Nitrogen: makes chlorophyll and protein → healthy leaves
- Phosphorous: promotes healthy roots
- Potassium: promotes growth and healthy fruit and flowers

Water-soluble ions in fertiliser compounds

- Ammonium ions, NH4+ and nitrate ions, NO3-, are sources of soluble nitrogen
- Phosphate ions, PO43- are a source of soluble phosphorus
- Most common potassium compounds dissolve in water to produce
potassium ions, K+

Common compounds

- Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3

- Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
- Potassium sulphate, K2SO4

● Ammonium salts and nitrates are commonly used as fertilisers

● Different fertilisers contain different amounts of fertiliser compounds so each
● contains different proportions of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous

Most effective fertiliser = compounds containing the most elements of NPK

AIR

Composition of air

Atmospheric (unpolluted, dry):

Use of air

● Noble gases →
●

Dealing with Climate Change

● The production of greenhouse gases needs to be reduced drastically to avoid

or at least slow climate change
● CO2 emissions can be reduced by using hydrogen and renewable energy
supplies such as solar or wind energy instead of burning fossil fuels
● Reducing the amount of livestock farming would decrease the methane
emissions produced from digestion in animals
● Planting more trees would remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere

Dealing with Acid Rain

● Acid rain is caused by oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide

● The effects of acid rain can be reduced by decreasing the amount of oxides of
nitrogen and sulfur dioxide that are produced
● Catalytic convertors in vehicles can be used to remove oxides of nitrogen
● Emissions of sulfur dioxide can be reduced by either:
○ Using fuels which contain low levels of sulfur
○ Flue gas desulfurisation - this involves reacting the sulfur dioxide
emitted from burning fuels containing sulfur, with calcium oxide
therefore removing it from the flue gas

Oxides of nitrogen

● These compounds (NO and NO2) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen react
in the high pressure and temperature conditions of internal combustion
engines and blast furnaces
● Exhaust gases also contain unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
● Cars are fitted with catalytic converters which form a part of their exhaust
systems
● Their function is to render these exhaust gases harmless

Catalytic converters

● They contain a series of transition metal catalysts including platinum and

rhodium
● The metal catalysts are in a honeycomb within the converter to increase the
surface area available for reaction
● A series of redox reactions occurs which neutralises the pollutant gases
● Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide:

2CO + O2 → 2CO2

● Oxides of nitrogen are reduced to N2 gas:

2NO → N2 + O2

2NO2 → N2 + 2O2

● A single reaction can summarise the reaction of nitrogen monoxide and

carbon monoxide within a catalytic convertor:

2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2

12

● the substance that dissolves is called the solute

● the liquid in which it dissolves is called the solvent
● the liquid formed is a solution
● a saturated solution is a solution into which no more solute can be dissolved

Chromatography: an experiment used to separate substances with different solubilities in a

given solvent (e.g. different inks to make a certain shade of ink)
- Used for determining purity and identifying colourless substances
1. Draw a baseline using pencil
2. Drap the solution onto the chromatography paper on the baseline
3. Decant small volume of solvent into beaker
4. Lower paper into the solvent in beaker (under the baseline) (The paper is then
lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line sits above
the level of the solvent so the samples don´t wash into the solvent container)
5. Wait for solvent to travel up paper
 6. Analyse the chromatogram
1. The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the
coloured substances with it
2. Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates,
causing the substances to spread apart. Those substances with higher
solubility will travel further than the others

Rf value = retention factor used to identify components of mixtures

Rf = Distance travelled by substance/ distance travelled by solvent

Baseline must be drawn in pencil because

- pencil is not soluble
- pencil does not run
- Pencil doesn't smudge and change results
- Ink would run into chromatogram
locating agent is used to analyze colourless substances in paper
chromatography. It is generally a chemical that reacts with the colourless
substances in order to form colourful products that are visible for inspection purpose.
One such example of a locating agent is ninhydrin spray.

Equipment

A: Mortar and pestle

B: Tripod
C: funnel/filter for filtration

APPARATUS

Volume

1. Measuring cylinder = Approximate volumes where high accuracy is not

needed
2. Pipettes = most accurate way of measuring fixed volume usually 10-25cm3
 3. Burettes = most accurate for measuring a variable volume of 0-50cm3 (in a
titration)
a. For burettes, remember to read the scale from top to bottom as 0.00
cm3 is at the top of the column

Volume of gas

1. Inverted cylinder → gas isn't water soluble

2. Gas syringe
3. Upright cylinder → when gas is denser than air and is coloured

Indicators

1. Methyl orange
a. Yellow when basic/alkaline
b. Orange when neutral
c. Red when acidic
2. Thymolphthalein
a. Colourless when acidic
b. Blue when basic
3. Phenolphthalein
a. Colourless when acidic
b. Pink when basic
4. Bicarbonate
a. Yellow when CO2 present
b. Purple when CO2 decreases
c. Orange when no change
5. Universal indicator
a. Red orange yellow = acidic
b. Green = neutral
c. Blue purple/violet = alkaline

Crystallisation
● Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is more soluble in hot
solvent than in cold (e.g. copper sulphate from a solution of copper (II) sulphate in water)
● The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate and leaving a saturated solution
behind
● You can test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution
○ If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod when it is removed and
allowed to cool
● The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly and solids will come out of the solution as
the solubility decreases, and crystals will grow
● Crystals are collected by filtering the solution
● They are then washed with distilled water to remove any impurities and then allowed to dry

Simple distillation
 ● Used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g. water from a solution of
saltwater) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
● The solution is heated and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises through the
neck of the round-bottomed flask
● The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into pure
water which is collected in a beaker
● After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left behind

Fractional distillation

● Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (e.g. ethanol and
water from a mixture of the two)
● The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point
● This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a condenser, where
they cool and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker
● All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other components(s) of
the mixture
● For water and ethanol: ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC. The mixture
is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at which point the ethanol boils and distils out of the mixture
and condenses into the beaker
● When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water and
ethanol are now separated