MONITORING

Monitoring
• Monitoring refers to the process of observing, collecting data, and tracking the
changes, conditions, or activities of a system, process, environment, or entity over
time.
• The goal of monitoring is to gather information that allows for informed decision-
making, analysis, and assessment of the situation being observed.
• Geotechnical monitoring involves the systematic observation and measurement of
various geotechnical factors and properties within the ground, such as soil, rock,
and groundwater, to understand their behavior, stability, and potential impacts on
engineering projects and structures.
• This type of monitoring is essential to ensure the safety, performance, and
longevity of construction projects and infrastructure built on or within the ground.
• Geotechnical monitoring provides insights into changes that may occur over time
and helps engineers and geologists make informed decisions to mitigate risks
andoptimize project outcomes.
Key Aspects of Monitoring for Geotechnical
Engineering
• Deformation Monitoring
• Settlement Monitoring
• Pore Water Pressure Monitoring
• Load Testing
• Vibration Monitoring
• Environmental Monitoring
• Real-time Monitoring
• Risk Assessment
Monitoring Displacement of Foundations and
Structures
The term "displacement of foundation"
typically refers to the movement or shift in
the position of a building or structure's
foundation. This displacement can occur for
various reasons and is a critical consideration
in civil engineering and construction. Several
factors can contribute to foundation
displacement, including:
A. Settlement
B. Expansive Soil
C. Poor Construction Practice
D. Earthquakes
E. Slope Instability
Monitoring Displacement of Foundations and
Structures
• Horizontal Displacement:
• Total Station Surveying:
• Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS):
• Inclinometers
• Geodetic Monitoring Systems
• Strain Gauges
• Vertical Displacement:
• Leveling Instruments
• Differential Global Navigation
Satellite System (DGNSS)
• Water Level Indicators
• Tiltmeters
• Piezometers.
• Load Cells
Total Station Surveying
• Total stations are optical
instruments used in surveying
and construction to measure
horizontal and vertical angles.
They can be used to track the
movement of reference points
over time.
• The instrument emits a laser
beam, which reflects off a
prism or target at the target
point, and then returns to the
total station. The instrument
measures the time it takes for
the beam to make the round
trip and uses this information,
along with the speed of light,
to calculate the distance to the
target point
Global Navigation Satellite System
• A global navigation satellite system (GNSS) is a network of satellites broadcasting
timing and orbital information used for navigation and positioning measurements.
• GNSS receivers can be used to monitor the horizontal movement of a foundation.
This involves placing GNSS receivers on stable points and tracking their positions
over time.
• GNSS is built to realize real-time monitoring of bucket structure displacement and
can measure the static displacements at millimeter level accuracy.
• GNSS based deformation monitoring technology meets both the long-term monitoring
and short-term monitoring requirements of structures. Compared with traditional
monitoring technology, GNSS-based deformation monitoring has the following
advantages:
• No need for visibility between monitoring points.
• Real-time monitoring.
• Weather independence.
• High precision.
• Dynamic deformation monitoring.
• Long-term deformation monitoring.
 Inclinometers
• Inclinometers measure the tilt or slope of a
structure. They can be installed at various depths
to monitor horizontal movements.
• Inclinometers use an accelerometer to measure
these angles. They monitor the effect of gravity
on a small mass suspended in an elastic support
structure so that when the device tilts, this mass
moves and causes a change of capacitance
between the mass and the support.
• Tiltmeters measure the rotation of a structure and
can be used to detect horizontal as well as
vertical displacement.
Inclinometers
They are of various types:
• Accelerometer-based
Inclinometers
• Gyroscopic Inclinometers
• MEMS
(Microelectromechanical
Systems) Inclinometer
• Fluid Based
Inclinometers
• Potentiometric
Inclinometers
INCLINOMETER
Geodetic Monitoring System
• A geodetic monitoring system is a network of instruments and technologies
designed to measure, monitor, and analyze changes in the Earth's shape,
position, and orientation over time.
• This type of system is crucial for understanding and managing various
geophysical phenomena, including tectonic movements, subsidence,
landslides, and sea level changes.
• Geodetic monitoring provides valuable information for geophysical
research, infrastructure stability assessment, environmental monitoring, and
other applications.
• These systems involve a network of geodetic markers and instruments that
can detect changes in position. Optical and electronic measurements are
often used.
GEODETIC MONITORING SYSTEM
Strain Gauge
• Strain gauges can be attached to key structural
elements to detect deformation or movement.
• A strain gauge is a sensor used to measure the
amount of deformation or strain in an object.
• It works on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a material changes when it is
subjected to mechanical strain.
• Strain gauges are commonly used in various fields,
including engineering, materials science, and
geophysics, to monitor and quantify the amount of
stress or strain experienced by a structure. Construction: A strain gauge is typically a thin
• The fundamental principle behind a strain gauge is wire or foil pattern (sometimes in the form of a grid
the dependence of electrical resistance on the or a coil) that is attached to the surface of the object
mechanical deformation of a material. When a being measured. The strain gauge is made of a
material is strained (stretched or compressed), its
dimensions change, which, in turn, alters its material with a known resistance, such as metal or
electrical resistance. semiconductor materials.
• Traditional leveling instruments, such as auto
levels or digital levels, can be used to
measure changes in elevation at specific
points.
 DGNSS

Similar to GNSS, DGNSS can be used to monitor vertical movements by tracking changes in elevation over time.
Water Level Indicators
• Water level indicators are devices used to measure the water level in a particular
location, such as a well, tank, or reservoir.
• In situations where groundwater levels are critical, measuring changes in water
levels can provide insights into vertical movements.
• While water level indicators themselves are not designed to measure structural
displacement, changes in water level in certain contexts can indirectly indicate
potential structural issues.
• A sudden or unexpected drop in the water level in a well or borehole adjacent to a
structure may suggest subsidence or settlement in the foundation.
• In areas prone to landslides, monitoring changes in water levels in wells or
piezometers can help detect ground movement and instability.
• In some cases, changes in groundwater levels can be associated with geological or
structural changes in the subsurface
PIEZOMETER
Load Cell
• A load cell is a transducer that converts a mechanical force or load into an
electrical signal.
• Load cells are commonly used to measure the deformation or strain in structures
and foundations by detecting the applied force. They play a crucial role in
monitoring the structural integrity of buildings, bridges, dams, and other civil
engineering structures.
• Load cells operate on the principle of strain measurement. Load cells are designed
to detect and quantify this strain.
• Most load cells contain strain gauges, which are small devices that change their
electrical resistance when subjected to mechanical deformation. Strain gauges are
typically bonded or attached to the surface of the load cell in a specific pattern.
• The output signal from the load cell is used to quantify the deformation or strain in
the structure or foundation. This information is valuable for assessing the load
distribution, structural integrity, and safety of the monitored system.
Monitoring Displacement of Foundations and
Structures
• Remote Sensing Technologies:
• Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR): InSAR uses satellite radar
images to detect ground movements, including vertical and horizontal
displacement. The radar antenna continuously transmits microwaves towards the
Earth's surface and record waves reflected back to the antenna position
• Laser Scanning (LiDAR): LiDAR technology can be used to create detailed 3D
models of structures and detect changes in their geometry over time. Laser light is
sent from a source (transmitter) and reflected from objects in the scene. The
reflected light is detected by the system receiver and the time of flight (TOF) is
used to develop a distance map of the objects in the scene.
Monitoring Slope/Rock Mass Movement
• Different types of slope movement, such as fall, topple, slide, spread, and flow, can
occur in a variety of materials and degrees of slopes.
• Specific types of landslides, such as rockfall, earth slump, and debris flow, can occur
depending upon the types of geologic materials and movement.
Monitoring Slope/Rock Mass Movement
Monitoring Slope/Rock Mass Movement
• Photogrammetry
• Seismic Monitoring
• Remote Sensing from Satellites
• Acoustic Monitoring
• Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT)
• Ground-Based Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (GB-InSAR)
• Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS):GNSS receivers can be
installed on stable points across a slope to monitor changes in position.
Real-time kinematic (RTK) GNSS provides high-precision measurements.
• Inclinometers: Inclinometers measure the tilt or slope of the ground. They
are often installed in boreholes or inclinometer casings, allowing for the
detection of subsurface movements.
Monitoring Slope/Rock Mass Movement
• Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) or LiDAR: TLS or LiDAR technology can be
used to create detailed 3D models of the slope. Changes in the model over time
indicate potential movements.
• Surface Markers or Targets: Placing markers or targets on the slope and regularly
measuring their position can provide a simple but effective way to detect surface
movements.
• Deformation Monitoring Prisms: Placing prisms on the slope and using a total
station to regularly measure their positions can provide accurate information on
slope movements.
• Pore Pressure Monitoring: Installing piezometers to measure changes in pore
water pressure can help assess the influence of water on slope stability.
 GB-InSAR
• GB-InSAR technology allows, in
addition to identifying slopes and areas
with a high degree of instability, to
accurately measure both the historical
behavior of the slope and the
movements prior to landslide events.
• This information combined with other
sources of information (such as terrain
slope, geology, precipitation…) allows
the implementation of early warning
systems of great value for the
prevention of these disasters.
• GB-InSAR systems use radar to detect
ground movements over time. They
can provide continuous monitoring and
are effective for large-area
assessments.

GB-InSar measurement at the Aknes Rockslide, Norway

Photogrammetry
Taking regular aerial photographs and analyzing them using photogrammetric
techniques can reveal changes in the slope's surface.
Seismic Monitoring
• Seismic monitoring provides independent and complementary data to
the more direct monitoring systems.
• Seismic instruments can be installed to detect ground vibrations and
movements. Sudden changes or trends in seismic data may indicate
slope instability.
• Increased seismic activity in periods of heavy rain fall or snow melt,
when laser ranging data and extensometer readings indicate temporary
acceleration phases of the slope can be observed.
Photogrammetry Seismic Monitoring
 Remote Sensing
• The application of remote sensing techniques such as LiDAR, radar, and photogrammetry to
rock slope analysis have allowed for the rapid and safe acquisition of a huge amount of high-
quality information.
• Satellite imagery, especially high-resolution optical or synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
imagery, can be used to analyze changes in the landscape and identify potential slope
movements.
• Photogrammetric (TDP and SfM) and laser scanner techniques (TLS and ALS) are routinely
employed for the characterization of rock slopes and rock masses at various scales.
• Steepness of the slopes, rock fall activity, difficult terrain, and other safety concerns are some
of the factors that may prevent collection of geological, structural, geomorphological, and
hydrogeological data using traditional field methods.
• However, traditional field methods are still required to collect extremely important geological
and geotechnical data, including intact rock strength, discontinuity infill characteristics, and
joint conditions.
• Remote sensing techniques should not be considered a substitute for traditional geotechnical
field techniques, rather as complementary tools that can greatly enhance our understanding of
the processes and mechanisms governing the stability of rock slopes and landslides.
Acoustic Monitoring : Acoustic sensors can
detect the sounds associated with slope
movements or rockfalls, providing early
warning of potential instability.
Electrical Resistivity Tomography
• The ERT method is an electrical testing
method where current is induced in the ground
using two current electrodes.
• The electrical potential drop is then read using two
other electrodes.
• ERT can be used to map geologic variations
including: soil lithology (e.g., clay versus gravel),
presence of ground water, fracture zones,
variations in soil saturation, areas of increased
salinity or, in some cases, ground water
contamination.
• ERT measures the electrical
resistivity of subsurface materials.
Changes in resistivity can indicate
the presence of water or
movement within the slope.
Monitoring Pore Water Pressure

• Pore water pressure (sometimes abbreviated to pwp) refers to the pressure of

groundwater held within a soil or rock, in gaps between particles (pores).
• Pore water pressures below the phreatic level of the groundwater are
measured with piezometers.
• The vertical pore water pressure distribution in aquifers can generally be
assumed to be close to hydrostatic.
Monitoring Pore Water Pressure
Pressure develops due to:
• Water elevation difference: water flowing from a higher elevation to a lower
elevation and causing a velocity head, or with water flow, as exemplified in
Bernoulli's energy equations.
• Hydrostatic water pressure: resulting from the weight of material above the point
measured.
• Osmotic pressure: inhomogeneous aggregation of ion concentrations, which
causes a force in water particles as they attract by the molecular laws of attraction.
• Absorption pressure: attraction of surrounding soil particles to one another by
adsorbed water films.
• Matric suction: the defining trait of unsaturated soil, this term corresponds to the
pressure dry soil exerts on the surrounding material to equalise the moisture
content in the overall block of soil and is defined as the difference between pore
air pressure, and pore water pressure.
Instruments to Monitor Pore Water Pressure
• Piezometers
• Total Pressure Cells
• Multipiezo Systems: consist of multiple piezometers at different depths
within a single borehole. This allows for monitoring pore water pressure at
various depths within the subsurface.
• Borehole Pressure Transducers: instruments placed within boreholes to
measure pressure at specific depths. They often use sensors to detect
changes in pressure and transmit the data electronically.
• Inclinometers: indirectly provide information about pore water pressure
changes, especially in situations where changes in pressure influence the
slope stability.
• Deep Wells: installed to access water at significant depths. The water level
in the well reflects the pore water pressure. This method is often used in
areas with deep-seated stability concerns.
Monitoring Pore Water Pressure
• Remote Monitoring Systems: allow remote access to data, providing real-time
information on pore water pressure. This is particularly useful in areas prone to
rapid changes or during critical construction phases.
• Satellite-Based Monitoring: In areas where traditional monitoring methods are
challenging, satellite-based technologies can be employed to indirectly infer
changes in pore water pressure. For instance, satellite radar data can be used to
monitor surface deformation.
• Geophysical Methods: Seismic and electrical geophysical methods can be used to
indirectly infer pore water pressure changes by examining the physical properties
of the subsurface materials.
• Laboratory Testing: Laboratory tests, such as consolidation tests, can be
performed on soil samples to determine their compressibility and estimate pore
water pressure changes under loading.
Piezometer
• Piezometer is used to measure
underground water pressure.
• Principle: Bernoulli’s Principle
• They consist of a casing with a
porous element placed at the desired
depth.
• The water level within the
piezometer reflects the pore water
pressure.
• Different types include standpipe
piezometers, pneumatic piezometers,
and vibrating wire piezometers.
 Pneumatic Piezometer
• A pneumatic piezometer consists of a
valve, a water filled chamber and a
porous filter.
• The valve is opened pneumatically by a
gas pressure, which is applied through
gas-filled tubes and closed by the pore
water pressure. The pressure required to
close the valve is measured through the
gas filled tubes.
• Pneumatic piezometers are installed into
boreholes or fill and are surrounded by a
sand pack.
Pneumatic Piezometer
Vibrating Wire Piezometers

• VIBRATING WIRE PIEZOMETERS ARE USED TO MONITOR PORE-WATER PRESSURE IN

SOILS. THEY ARE TYPICALLY SEALED IN BOREHOLES BUT CAN ALSO BE EMBEDDED IN
FILLS, OR SUSPENDED IN A WELL.
• Typical applications include evaluating slope stability, dewatering and drainage schemes, overpressure
in silt and clay soils, permeability and hydraulic gradients in dams, and also ground water levels.
• They can also be used to monitor up-lift pressures in gravity dams.
Hydraulic
Piezometer

• Hydraulic piezometers are typically installed in fill materials (e.g. embankments) but can
be installed in boreholes too.
• They consist of a high air entry (HAE) filter tip and water reservoir that are connected to
a pressure measuring device using water filled tubes, which can be run for long distances
and are used for circulating water into and removing air from the reservoir.
• Air can be present inside the piezometer if the pore pressures in the ground are negative
(i.e. suction), which is often the case in compacted clays.
• It is vital to remove the air so that the water connection between the reservoir and the
pressure measuring device can be maintained and the piezometer can thereby remain
responsive and accurate.
Open Standpipe Piezometer
• This is a small (usually 19mm) diameter plastic
pipe with a porous section at the bottom.
• The pipe is installed inside a borehole and the
porous section is positioned at the depth where
the pore water pressure is to be measured.
• The annulus between the porous filter and the
borehole is filled with sand, the top and bottom
surfaces of the sand are sealed with bentonite
and the rest of the borehole is filled with a
cement/bentonite grout.
• The pressure of the ground water pushes water
into and up the standpipe until the level of water
inside the standpipe (h) is equivalent to the pore
water pressure in the ground at the elevation of
the porous filter.
 Flushable Piezometer
• Hydraulic piezometers consist of a
porous filter enclosing a reservoir of
water, which is separated from a
pressure gauge by flexible, water filled
tubes.
• The tubes are used to circulate water
through the system, removing air and
ensuring that the reservoir remains full
of water.
• Flushable piezometers are installed in
fully grouted boreholes and the grout
acts as a secondary filter, helping to
maintain saturation of the piezometer
under the influence of suction.
• If air forms in the piezometer it can be
removed by circulating water through
the hydraulic tubes.
 Electric Piezometer
• Electric piezometers consist of a deflecting
diaphragm and a porous filter separated by a
small reservoir of water. Deflections of the
diaphragm are detected using a vibrating wire or
a strain gauge and are converted to an equivalent
pressure using a suitable calibration.
• The piezometer is inserted into a borehole and
the annulus between the porous filter and the
borehole is filled with either sand or
cement/bentonite grout.
• Water from the ground forces its way into the
reservoir and causes the diaphragm to deflect
until the pressure inside the reservoir is the same
as the pore water pressure in the ground at the
elevation of the porous filter.
Selection of piezometers
1.Casagrande-Type Standpipe Piezometer: Suitable for cohesive soils, this piezometer
consists of a slotted or porous casing installed in a borehole. It allows water to enter the
casing from the surrounding soil, providing a measure of pore water pressure.
2.Vibrating Wire Piezometer: versatile and can be used in various ground conditions..
3.Open Standpipe Piezometer: Similar to the Casagrande-type, open standpipe piezometers
are used in permeable soils. They consist of an open-ended pipe installed in a borehole to
measure water levels and pore water pressure.
4.Pneumatic Piezometer: Pneumatic piezometers use gas pressure to measure pore water
pressure. They are suitable for various ground conditions and are often used in
combination with vibrating wire technology.
5. Hydraulic Piezometers= Hydraulic piezometers are typically installed in fill materials
(e.g. embankments) but can be installed in boreholes too.
6. Flushable Diaphragm-Piezometers= Flushable piezometers are a special case of hydraulic
piezometers, for use in boreholes.
 Total Pressure Cell
• Total pressure cells are used to monitor the combined
pressure of effective stress and pore-water pressure.
Typical applications include:• Understanding the
magnitude, distribution, and orientation of stresses in
embankments and fills. • Monitoring total pressure
exerted on a structure to verify design assumptions.
Operating Principle: Total pressure cells are formed from
two circular plates of stainless steel. The edges of the
plates are welded together to form a cavity which is later
filled with hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid transmits
pressure acting on the plates to a pressure transducer.
The transducer converts pressure to an electrical signal
which is recorded by a data logger and processed later
on a computer.
Monitoring Pressures/Load in Earth
• Piezometers
• Deep-Sea Submersibles
• Geophysical Methods
• Borehole Pressure Transducers: measure pressure at specific depths in
the subsurface of boreholes.
• Extensometers with Pneumatic Cells: extensometers equipped with
pneumatic cells that measure pore water pressure changes as the
surrounding soil or rock deforms.
Monitoring Pressures/Load in Earth: Walls
and Structures
1. Strain Gauges
2. Load Cells
3. Pressure Cells
4. Settlement Gauges
5. Piezometers
6. Geotechnical Instrumentation Arrays: Combining various instruments into an array allows for a
comprehensive monitoring system. This may include a combination of strain gauges, load cells,
inclinometers, settlement gauges, and other sensors strategically placed to provide a detailed
understanding of the structural behavior.
7. Remote Sensing and Instrumentation Networks: Modern technologies, such as satellite-based
remote sensing and wireless sensor networks, can be used to monitor earth structures remotely.
These systems provide real-time data and enable continuous monitoring without the need for
physical access to the site.
8. Inclinometers: Inclinometers measure the tilt or inclination of a structure. By monitoring changes
in inclination, engineers can assess the stability of earth walls and slopes. Inclinometers are
particularly useful for detecting potential sliding or rotational movements.
Strain Gauge
• Strain gauges are devices that measure the
deformation or strain in a material.
• It is a sensor whose measured electrical
resistance varies with changes in strain.
• Placing strain gauges at critical locations
on a structure allows engineers to monitor
the strain and infer the stress.
• This information is valuable for assessing
the load distribution and potential
weaknesses in the structure.
 Load Cell
• Load cells are sensors designed
to measure forces or loads.
• They can be installed at specific
points within a structure to
directly measure the applied
loads.
• Load cells come in various
types, such as hydraulic,
pneumatic, and electronic load
cells, depending on the
application.
 Pressure Cell
• Pressure cells are one of those geotechnical
instruments that are designed to monitor
stress or pressure on concrete structures,
retaining walls, abutments, embankments,
buildings, tunnel linings, etc.
• A pressure cell is a type of sensor that converts stress or pressure into a measurable and readable
electrical unit.
• A pressure sensor converts the stress or applied pressure into measurable electrical output.
• The applications of pressure cells (stress cells) are as below-
a. Pressure cells are designed to monitor radial and tangential stresses in shotcrete tunnel linings, underground
excavations, unlined caverns, foundations.
b. Pressure Cells are used to assess the adequacy of the shotcrete lining.
c. They are used to monitor mine backfill.
d. To measure the orientation and magnitude of total pressure and stress distribution within dam embankments and
the interface of soil and concrete.
e. To determine contact pressure on retaining and diaphragm walls, piers, and abutments.
Settlement Gauge
• Settlement gauges are instruments used to monitor
vertical movements in the ground or structure.
• Measuring settlement is essential for assessing the
overall stability and performance of foundations
and earth-retaining structures.
• Settlement gauges are designed to be installed
under foundations, on buildings or inside
embankments or dams.
• The most common applications for settlement
gauges are tunnels, dams, embankments, deep
excavations, foundations, retaining walls, buildings
affected by possible differential settlements, and
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM).
Settlement Gauge: Schematic Diagram

• The settlement gauge comprises of a plate with attached measuring rods.

• The plate is positioned at the depth at which the settlement is prearranged to be measured and the plate
level is recorded.
Deep Sea Submersible
In marine environments, deep-sea submersibles equipped with pressure sensors are used to measure pressure at various depths
beneath the ocean floor.
Monitoring Stress in Rock
1.In-Situ Measurement Methods:
• Core Discing
• Borehole Breakout Analysis
• Acoustic Emission Monitoring
2. Hydraulic Methods:
• Conventional Hydraulic Fracture Technique (HF)
• Hydraulic Tests on Pre-Existing Fractures (HTPF)
3. Relief Methods
• Flat jack Test
• Surface Relief Methods
• Borehole Relief Methods: Borehole Deformation Instruments (BDIs) , Borehole Slotting,
Overcoring
Core Discing
Core Discing
• Core discing (or core disking) is an indicator of the in-situ stress state of rocks.
• When drilling a core, if the ratio of the induced stress to the strength of the rock is high
enough, there is a change in stress.
• This stress change induced by excavation can lead to crack initiation, propagation, and
coalescence causing rock failure such as core discing, damage, and spalling.
• In the core discing phenomenon, there is a discing of the core with uniform spacing and
shape due to the transient change in stress and the release of stress during drilling.
• Core discing can be used to establish principal stress directions and to indicate far-field
stress magnitudes in combination with other stress indicators and stress measurements.
• The shape of the disc gives a good estimate of the directions of the principal stress and is
a good indicator of in-situ stress in regions where the horizontal in-situ stress is high.
• There are three major failure mechanisms of core discing namely:
• Tensile failure.
• Shear failure.
• Extension strain failure.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring
used to monitor rock fractures and deformation. By analyzing the acoustic emissions, it is possible to
gain information about the in-situ stress state.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring
• Acoustic Emission (AE) refers to the generation of transient elastic waves produced by a sudden
redistribution of stress in a material.
• When a structure is subjected to an external stimulus (change in pressure, load, or temperature),
localized sources trigger the release of energy, in the form of stress waves, which propagate to the
surface and are recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order of
picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified.
• Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and rockbursts to the initiation and
growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase transformations in
metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic
emissions.
• AE’s have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other
materials.
• Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and
importance of a discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing
(AET), it has many industrial applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws,
testing for leaks, or monitoringweld quality) and is used extensively as a research tool.
• Acoustic emissions are suitable for rock at shallow depth where principal stress magnitudes are
lower than rock strength.
Borehole Breakout
Analysis

• Breakouts occur when a

borehole is drilled in a
stressed rock formation.
• Analyzing the shape and
extent of borehole
breakouts provides
information about the
direction and magnitude
of the maximum
horizontal stress.
Borehole Breakout Analysis
• Once a hole is drilled underground, the in-situ stress
field is disturbed and the compressive stress is
concentrated on the rock around the borehole.
• When the compressive stress overcomes the rock
strength, the failure of rock occurs at opposite areas
around the borehole wall.
• Induced void created by rock detachments or flakes
is so-called ‘borehole breakout’, which initiates and
propagates along the minimum principal stress
direction.
• To measure breakouts, logging systems are required
to start from the surface of the borehole to the
maximum depth.
• Most frequently used apparatus are borehole
televiewer, formation scanner and calliper.
 Hydraulic Fracturing
• Conventional hydraulic fracturing utilises the
hydraulic pressure created by fluid injection to
form tensile fractures around the borehole to
estimate the in situ stress
• A hydraulic fracturing test is a two-step procedure
consisting of pressurization of the borehole and
delineation of the induced fracture.
• It takes two trips down the borehole to complete
the tests. The test section should be in intact rock.
• Hydraulic fracturing uses vertically drilled holes -a
short segment sealed with a straddle packer, set in
a primary stress state, and pressurized using water.
• For the packing system to work effectively, the
seals must have a 2 MPa higher pressure than the
test section.
• This increased pressure keeps the water from
leaking around the seals during the test.
Hydraulic Fracturing
• Workers pump water into the test area using high-pressure tubing.
• The water pressure continues to increase until a new rock fracture occurs.
• Workers take measurements off of one stress point directly.
• The second stress point runs perpendicular to the initial stress point and is calculated
using an elastic solution.
• As the hydraulic test is performed on a vertical borehole, equations assume that vertical
stress is gravitational.
• This assumption allows for principle stress orientation and stress component
interpretation to come directly from the measurements.
• Conventional hydraulic fracturing provides a simple way to measure stress magnitudes.
• This method also offers a reliable and direct measurement of minimum horizontal
principal stress at an accuracy of ± 5% (Ljunggren, et al., 2003).
• One inevitable shortcoming of this technique is the accuracy on maximum horizontal
principal stress calculation. The variation of estimation can be over ± 20%
Hydraulic Tests on Pre-Existing Fractures (HTPF)
• Hydraulic Tests on Pre-existing Fractures (HTPF) is a method of measuring
the horizontal stress in the rock mass by using hydraulic pressure to reopen
existing fractures in the rock.
• It is used to determine the depth and orientation of existing fractures, and to
measure the in-situ stress in the surrounding rock.
• The HTPF method can be used to measure the stress in the horizontal,
vertical, and diagonal directions, and can provide information about the
magnitude of the stresses in the rock.
• Valette and Cornet presented both the theoretical foundations and practical
implementation of HTPF, eliminating the need to create new fractures in the
rock mass by instead re-opening existing fractures.
Stress distribution and HF around a borehole.
Vertical down hole in situ stress measurement by (a) HF (b) HTPF.
 Overcoring
• Overcoring is also a widely used stress measurement
technique, particularly in mining industries.
• This method involves drilling a borehole into the rock
and then coring out a cylindrical sample, which
induces a relief of stress around the borehole.
• Strain gauges or other instruments can be installed in
the cored hole to measure the induced stress relief,
from which the in-situ stress can be inferred.
• The estimation is based on the strain deformation
within a pilot hole. To overcome different limitations,
a range of methods were developed with similar
procedures and the same principal, i.e. linear
elasticity.
• Depending on instrumentations and requirements of
pilot holes, these methods can be divided into three
types:
• Displacement Measurement
• Soft Stress Cells
• Overcoring without Pilot Holes
 Flat Jack Test
• Flat jacks are devices inserted into pre-existing
fractures in the rock. The jacks are then
pressurized, causing the rock to deform and
allowing for stress measurements.
• This method is suitable for measuring horizontal
stress components.
• Stress is calculated based on the pressurisation of
a flat jack in a slot. Two points A and B are
selected and measured continuously by strain
gauges which are followed by a nearby slot
cutting.
• Afterwards, a flat jack is inserted into the slot and • This method is simple, cheap and easy to be
pressurised until the distance between A and B is carried out while the elastic modulus is not
back to the original distance. The pressure at this required for the calculation.
point, the cancellation pressure, is assumed to be
the average normal stress across the slot and • Conversely, flat jack is only applicable at
subsequently the stress field can be interpreted by the surface of the excavation where the rock
multiple tests. is closely to be overstressed.
 Borehole Slotting
• Borehole slotting is a 2-D stress measurement
method for in-situ stress in a borehole based on the
principle of local stress relief.
• vertical slots are cut into the borehole wall to create
artificial fractures. The rock's response to the
slotting is then measured to determine the in-situ
stress.
• The method involves sawing relief slots parallel to
the borehole axis.
• Itis cost-effective and designed for quick operation
in boreholes for high-density measurements. The
equipment can be fully recovered.
• The borehole slotting method to determine in-situ
stress was developed due to some issues in other
methods like overcoring, borehole breakout
analysis, and hydraulic fracturing.
Borehole Slotting: Principle
• Borehole slotting helps determine in-situ stresses in rocks by locally releasing tangential
stresses at a borehole surface.
• This local stress-relief is achieved by cutting a half-moon-shaped radial slot into the wall
of the borehole using a small saw impregnated with diamonds.
• The saw is driven pneumatically while being hydraulically moved against the borehole
wall. The slot measures about 1 mm wide and 25 mm deep.
• The tangential strain is measured before, during, and after slotting in the immediate area
around the slot where there is full stress relief, i.e. within a 15° arc.
• The measurement is done using a highly sensitive recoverable contact strain sensor, which
is a part of the borehole slotter.
• The slotting test is done successively with slots in different directions in a borehole. The
minimum requirement for a single 2D stress measurement is three slots, 120° apart.
• However, three more slots are cut 100 mm away from the first three slots. It is also
possible to cut additional slots if there is insufficient internal consistency.
Borehole Pressure Cell

• The Borehole Pressure Cell (BPC) is designed to monitor stress changes in

rock materials, including hard rocks, coal, rock-salt, potash, etc.
• It consists of a flat jack made from two steel plates welded together at their
edges with the intervening space filled with hydraulic oil.
• The cell has a "dog bone" cross section, allowing it to expand easily over a
large range without splitting apart.
• Cells are provided already filled with de-aired oil. De-airing is done because
the cell is more responsive the more rigid it is.
• Setting rods are provided to push the BPC into the borehole and correctly
orient it.
 Borehole Pressure Cell

• In use the cell is grouted into a borehole drilled into the rock and when the grout
has hardened the cell is connected to a hydraulic pump and pressurized to a
pressure level equal to the estimated in-situ stress level, plus 10%. (A check valve
prevents the cell pressure from being lost when the hydraulic pump is
disconnected.)
• Stress changes within the host material are transmitted to the cell causing a
proportionate change in the internal hydraulic pressure, which is recorded on the
pressure gage and/or pressure transducer, (vibrating wire or semi-conductor).
 Boreholes to measure in-situ stress in rocks
• Grouting Technique: A borehole may be grouted, and the stress in the grouted rock
mass is measured. The grout can act as a stress-transmitting medium, allowing for
stress measurements.
• Multi-Stage Borehole Deformation (MSBD) Tests: Involves applying controlled
loads to the borehole walls at different stages. The deformation response is then
measured to infer the state of stress in the rock.
• Fracture Grouting and Hydraulic Fracturing: Involves injecting fluids into the
borehole to induce fractures in the surrounding rock. The resulting fractures and
their characteristics provide information about the in-situ stress.
Borehole Deformation Gauge= Instruments like hydraulic Triaxial Testing= subjecting rock core samples to controlled
fracturing equipment or BDIs are used to induce fractures stress conditions in the laboratory. While not strictly in-situ,
in the rock by injecting fluid at high pressure. The resulting the results can provide insights into the stress-strain
stress relief is measured to determine the in-situ stress. behavior of the rock.
Monitoring In-Situ Stress: An overview
• It is clear that hydraulic fracturing is the most suitable method in
normal faulting, whereas overcoring is widely used in mining
industries providing reliable measurement.
• On the contrary, most methods only provide point measurement per
test, the complete stress field profile over depth has to be obtained
through a series of successful tests.
• Practically, it is economically unfavorable and time consuming to
conduct multiple tests at different depths for ground controls.
Recording and Data Handling