Higher Technological Institute (HTI)

10th of Ramadan city

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mechanical Advanced
Summer Training Course

By
Ahmed Gamal Abdulrazik 20210754

Supervisor
DR: Ahmed Samy

2023
 Abstract
GB Academy , located in Abu Rawash - Giza - opened its
doors in June 2013 Since January 2017 , GB Academy has
been managed by the German SIS-Middle East
GmbH (Saxony International School) , The Academy’s
vision is “setting the pace in a world of lifelong learning ”

This course is ‘’ Mechanical Advanced Course ‘’ and The Content of course is about
studying All automotive systems
- Automatic Transmission
- Engine
- Automotive Electricity
- ABS + TCS + ESP
- Wheel Alignment Angles

2
 Acknowledgment
At first, Thanks to ALLAH the most merciful the most gracious, for this moment
has come and this work has been accomplished.
Thanks to the Higher Technological Institute of 10th Ramdan for preparing me to
be a successful Engineer and lifting me up to achieve this training in an
environment that’s full of encouragement and motivation.
Deepest gratitude is to be delivered to Dr. [Ahmed Samy], my role model in
engineering. He understood the nature of my thoughts and guided me step by step
till this work brought to light. Endless trust in my potentials guided me till the end.
Thank you.
Special thanks to Eng. [Ahmed Elgazzar , Ahmed Hussien , Omar and
Abdelrahman] for there help and knowledge in the field of training. There
professional touches are sensed within every phase of this summer training.
I’d like to thank my father [Gamal Abdulsamad] , my mother and my SH who are
my motivators, visionaries and great supporter ever. they always pushes me up and
drives me to the success.
Not to forget everyone who helped me, prayed for me, wished me luck or pushed
me forwards and beard a lot to help this work come to life. Thanks to my
colleagues, friends, labors, technaician and everyone else for everything they did.
Last but never forgotten, Thanks to my dear family, for being supportive and
always by my side. No words can express my deepest and sincere gratitude
towards the love and care you have granted me in my hardest times. May ALLAH
fill your hearts with happiness when we share this success together.

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 List of Contents

Table Of Contents
Chapter 1 ............................................................................................... 5
• INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 5
Chapter 2 ............................................................................................. 10
• Automatic Transmission ............................................................... 10
Chapter 3 ............................................................................................. 28
• Automotive Engine ........................................................................ 28
Chapter 4 ............................................................................................. 30
• Automotive Electricity .................................................................. 30
Chapter 5 ............................................................................................. 36
• Automotive Safety ......................................................................... 36
( ABS + EBD + TCS + ESP ) .............................................................. 36
Chapter 6 ............................................................................................. 51
• Wheel Alignment Angles ............................................................... 51
Chapter 7 ............................................................................................. 69
• Conclusion ...................................................................................... 69
References............................................................................................ 70
Certificate of recognition .................................................................... 72

4
 Chapter 1
• INTRODUCTION
1. Automotive technology :

Figure 1.1

Automotive technology has advanced rapidly in recent years, with innovations

improving safety, efficiency, and overall performance. Automatic transmissions,
engines, automotive electricity, ABS, TCS, ESP, and wheel alignment angles are
just a few examples of these technological advancements. Automatic transmissions
have become increasingly popular due to their ease of use and fuel efficiency.
Engines have evolved to become more powerful, efficient, and environmentally
friendly. Automotive electricity has become more complex, with the use of sensors
and electronic systems to control various functions, from engine timing to climate
control. ABS, TCS, and ESP are safety features that help prevent accidents by
controlling the vehicle's braking and stability.

5
 2. Engine:

Figure 1.2

The engine is the heart of a vehicle, converting fuel into the power needed to move
the vehicle. Over the years, engines have evolved significantly, becoming more
powerful, efficient, and environmentally friendly. Advances in engine design have
led to the development of direct injection, variable valve timing, and cylinder
deactivation, among other technologies. Hybrid and electric powertrains have also
emerged as alternatives to traditional gasoline engines, combining gasoline and
electricity to reduce emissions and improve fuel economy. In this context,
understanding how an engine works and how to maintain it is essential for
automotive technicians to provide effective service and repairs. This introduction

6
will provide an overview of automotive engines, their components, and how they
work in modern vehicles.

3. Wheel Alignment Angles :

Figure 1.3

wheel alignment angles play a crucial role in maintaining proper tire wear and
handling. With the rapid pace of technological advancements, it is essential for
automotive professionals to stay up-to-date with the latest developments to provide
the best possible service to their customers.

4. Automatic Transmission :

Figure 1.4

Automatic transmissions have become increasingly popular in recent years due to

their ease of use and fuel efficiency. They allow drivers to focus more on the road
and less on shifting gears, which can be especially beneficial in heavy traffic.
Automatic transmissions use a complex system of hydraulics and electronics to
shift gears and control the engine's RPMs. Some modern automatic transmissions
7
even feature paddle shifters or a manual mode, allowing drivers to take more
control of the shifting process.

5. Automotive Electricity :

Figure 1.5

Automotive electricity is a critical aspect of modern vehicles, powering everything

from the engine management system to the climate control system. Over the years,
automotive electrical systems have become increasingly complex, with the use of
sensors and electronic systems to control various functions. These systems have
improved vehicle performance, fuel efficiency, and safety, making them an
essential component of any modern vehicle. In this context, automotive technicians
need to have a thorough understanding of automotive electrical systems to
diagnose and repair electrical issues effectively. This introduction will provide an
overview of automotive electricity, its components, and how it works in
modern vehicles.

8
 6. Automotive Safety ( ABS + TCS + ESP ) :

Figure 1.6

Automotive safety is a top priority for drivers, passengers, and pedestrians. Anti-
lock braking systems (ABS), traction control systems (TCS), and electronic
stability programs (ESP) are advanced safety features that work together to help
prevent accidents by controlling the vehicle's braking and stability. ABS prevents
the wheels from locking up during hard braking, while TCS prevents wheel spin
during acceleration, particularly on slippery surfaces. ESP detects when the vehicle
is about to skid or lose control and applies the brakes or reduces engine power to
prevent it from happening. In modern vehicles, these safety features have become
standard, significantly improving safety and reducing the risk of accidents. This
introduction will provide an overview of ABS, TCS, and ESP, their functions, and
how they work together in modern vehicles to enhance safety and stability.
9
 Chapter 2
• Automatic Transmission
1. What is Automatic Transmission
Automatic transmissions are a popular type of transmission found in modern
vehicles. They use a complex system of hydraulics and electronics to shift gears
automatically, without the need for a clutch pedal. Automatic transmissions have
several advantages over manual transmissions, including ease of use, improved
fuel efficiency, and smooth shifting. In this context, understanding the various parts
of an automatic transmission and how to diagnose common issues is essential
for automotive technicians.
It is a multi-speed transmission used in motor vehicles that does not require any
input from the driver to change forward gears under normal driving conditions.
The most common type of automatic transmission is the hydraulic automatic,
which uses a planetary gearset, hydraulic controls, and a torque converter. Other
types of automatic transmissions include continuously variable
transmissions (CVT), automated manual transmissions (AMT), and dual-clutch
transmissions (DCT).
The 1904 Sturtevant "horseless carriage gearbox" is often considered to be the first
true automatic transmission. The first mass-produced automatic transmission is the
General Motors Hydramatic four-speed hydraulic automatic, which was introduced
in 1939.

Figure 2.1.1

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 Cutaway view

Figure 2.1.2

Cutaway view

Figure 2.1.3

Typical gear selector for an automatic transmission

11
2. Parts Of Automatic Transmission

• Transmission Casing
• Torque Converter
• Automatic Transmission Fluid
• Oil Pump
• Planetary Gear Set
• Clutch Pack
• Output Shaft & Input Shaft
• Brake Band
• Valve Body
• Transmission Control Module

12
 2.1 Transmission Casing
The Transmission Housing is a load-bearing part. It is generally made of die cast
aluminum alloy (Al-Si-Cu series alloy) through special molds. On the one hand, it
has high strength, good pressure resistance, low hot brittleness, good mechanical
properties and Machinability, and on the other hand, it has good castability and
pressure resistance, which is suitable for manufacturing large-scale die castings
with irregular shapes and more complex shapes

Figure 2.2.1

13
 2.2 Torque Converter

Figure 2.2.2.1

- Basics Of Torque Converter

A torque converter is a type of fluid coupling, which allows the engine to spin
somewhat independently of the transmission. If the engine is turning slowly, such
as when the car is idling at a stoplight, the amount of torque passed through the
torque converter is very small, so keeping the car still requires only a light pressure
on the brake pedal
If you were to step on the gas pedal while the car is stopped, you would have
to press harder on the brake to keep the car from moving. This is because when
you step on the gas, the engine speeds up and pumps more fluid into the torque
converter, causing more torque to be transmitted to the wheels

14
 - Inside a Torque Converter

Figure 2.2.2.2

There are four components inside the very strong housing of the torque converter
o Impeller
o Turbine
o Stator
o Transmission Fluid
The housing of the torque converter is bolted to the flywheel of the engine, so it
turns at whatever speed the engine is running at. The fins that make up the pump of
the torque converter are attached to the housing, so they also turn at the same speed

15
as the engine. The cutaway below shows how everything is connected inside the
torque converter.
The impeller inside a torque converter is a type of centrifugal pump. As it spins,
fluid is flung to the outside, much as the spin cycle of a washing machine flings
water and clothes to the outside of the wash tub. As fluid is flung to the outside, a
vacuum is created that draws more fluid in at the center.
The fluid then enters the blades of the turbine, which is connected to the
transmission. The turbine causes the transmission to spin, sending power through
shafts, differentials, and out to the driving wheels. You can see in the graphic at left
that the blades of the turbine are curved. This means that the fluid, which enters the
turbine from the outside, has to change direction before it exits the center of the
turbine. It is this directional change that causes the turbine to spin.
In order to change the direction of a moving object, you must apply a force to that
object — it doesn't matter if the object is a car or a drop of fluid. And whatever
applies the force that causes the object to turn must also feel that force, but in the
opposite direction. So, as the turbine causes the fluid to change direction, the fluid
causes the turbine to spin.
The fluid exits the turbine at the center, moving in a different direction than when
it entered. The fluid exits the turbine moving opposite the direction that the pump
(and engine) are turning. If the fluid were allowed to hit the pump, it would slow
the engine down, wasting power. This is why a torque converter has a stator
The stator resides in the very center of the torque converter. Its job is to redirect
the fluid returning from the turbine before it hits the pump again. This dramatically
increases the efficiency of the torque converter.

The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses the
direction of the fluid. A one-way clutch (inside the stator) connects the stator to a
fixed shaft in the transmission (the direction that the clutch allows the stator to spin
is noted in the figure above). Because of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin
with the fluid — it can spin only in the opposite direction, forcing the fluid to
change direction as it hits the stator blades.

16
Something a little bit tricky happens when the car gets moving. At highway speed,
both the impeller and the turbine are spinning at almost the same rate (the pump
always spins slightly faster). At this point, the fluid returns from the turbine,
entering the pump already moving in the same direction as the pump, so the stator
is not needed.

Even though the turbine changes the direction of the fluid and flings it out the
back, the fluid still ends up moving in the direction that the turbine is spinning
because the turbine is spinning faster in one direction than the fluid is being
pumped in the other direction. If you were standing in the back of a pickup moving
at 60 mph (96 kph), and you threw a ball out the back of that pickup at 40 mph (64
kph), the ball would still be going forward at 20 mph (32 kph). This is similar to
what happens in the turbine: The fluid is being flung out the back in one direction,
but not as fast as it was going to start with in the other direction.

At these speeds, the fluid actually strikes the back sides of the stator blades,
causing the stator to freewheel on its one-way clutch so it doesn't hinder the fluid
moving through it.

- Benefits and Weak Points of Torque Converters

In addition to the very important job of allowing your car to come to a complete
stop without stalling the engine, the torque converter actually gives your car more
torque when you accelerate out of a stop. Modern torque converters can multiply
the torque of the engine by two to three times. This effect only happens when the
engine is turning much faster than the transmission.

In some performance applications, cars will have installed what's called a high-stall
torque converter. Compared to a normal street converter, this component will send
power to the wheels at a much higher RPM (revolutions per minute). This means
that the torque multiplicative effect of the converter happens when the engine is
making close to its peak power, allowing it to accelerate hard off the line.
However, this effect is not desirable in day-to-day traffic.

17
At higher speeds, the transmission spins at about 90 percent of the engine speed.
Ideally, though, the transmission would move at exactly the same speed as the
engine, because this difference in speed wastes power and causes the assembly to
shed heat. This is part of the reason why cars with automatic transmissions
sometimes get worse gas mileage than cars with manual transmissions.

To counter this effect, some cars have a torque converter with a lockup clutch.
When the two halves of the torque converter get up to speed, this clutch locks them
together, ensuring that the engine and gearbox spin at the same speed and
minimizing power loss. Many modern automatics have also added up to 10
forward gears in order to optimize power delivery and match the efficiency of
older manual designs.

2.3 Automatic Transmission Fluid

Figure 2.2.3

Automatic transmission fluid (ATF) is a type of hydraulic fluid used in vehicles

with automatic transmissions. It is typically coloured red or green to distinguish it
from motor oil and other fluids in the vehicle.
The fluid is optimized[1] for the special requirements of a transmission, such as
valve operation, brake band friction, and the torque converter, as well as gear
lubrication.
ATF is also used as a hydraulic fluid in some power steering systems, as a lubricant
in some 4WD transfer cases, and in some modern manual transmissions.
18
 2.4 Oil Pump

Figure 2.2.4

Heart of the Automatic Transmission

An oil pump is placed inside the transmission to drive the engine to rotate. As an
automobile component, an oil pump pressurizes automatic transmission fluid
(ATF) to supply oil to the hydraulic actuator and torque converter and to lubricate
other components.

We provide high-performance oil pumps that make the most of our proprietary
technologies of oil pressure control, torque reduction, and weight reduction. The
casted housing cover is accurately and sophisticatedly machined. With an
optimally designed oil passage, our oil pumps have high productivity and thus can
be made at low costs.

19
 2.5 Planetary Gear Set

Figure 2.2.5.1

A planetary gearset is a component of an automatic transmission system that

consists of two gears that are combined into a single component. The gears are
mounted in a way that allows the center of one of the gears to revolve around the
center of the other.
Generally, the center of the two gears are connected by a moveable arm or carrier
that rotates and carries the planet gear around the sun gear or sun wheel. Because
the gears revolve around the sun wheel similar to the way planets revolve around
the sun, the gear aptly received its name: the “planetary gearset.”

20
 - The role of a planetary gearset in an automatic transmission
A planetary gearset creates all the gear ratios that a transmission can produce. It
gives vehicles with automatic transmission systems the ability to change gears
smoothly as a vehicle reaches different speeds without having to move the gear
shift like in a manual system. In other words, it facilitates the chief function of an
automatic transmission system by allowing the system to change gear ratios
without the need to engage or disengage individual gears.

- Components of a planetary gearset

Figure 2.2.5.2

Planetary gearsets consist of three primary components:

The sun gear
The planet gear
The ring gear
The gear ratio for the gearset is determined by which of these component plays
which role—either serving as the input (the gear that is generating the power),
output (the gear that receives power), or as a stationary element. Locking different
parts will produce different gear ratios.
21
2.6 Clutch Pack

Figure 2.2.6

An automatic transmission uses clutch packs to control the

movement of planetary gear sets to enable the transmission to engage
the correct gear. Clutch packs are several thin discs squeezed together
by a piston inside the transmission. These discs are either steel discs
or friction discs designed to work in pairs. When these discs are
pressed together, they rotate as one, transmitting power from the
engine. In addition, the discs can be released from each other,
disengaging the engine from the transmission and allowing it to spin
freely without creating torque or motion.

22
2.7 Output Shaft & Input Shaft

Figure 2.2.7

An output shaft connects the drive wheels to the automatic gearbox in your
vehicle. The output shaft is the component that carries the power out of the
transmission to the wheels.

Depending on the speed you select and the gear that the automatic transmission
sets, the output shaft will turn at the speed you determine. Compared to the
input shaft, the output shaft typically turns at a slower rate in order to ensure
that the wheels continue to turn at a manageable and safe speed.

23
 2.8 Brake Band

Figure 2.2.8

The brake band is included in the planetary gear control system together with
friction discs, one-way clutch, etc. The automatic transmission brake band is
necessary to block planetary gear elements for a short time. The composition of
bands includes metal lined with organic friction material. This element locks the
ring or sun gear or allows them spinning. Its operation is controlled by a hydraulic
unit.
The band is installed on the gearbox casing: one end of the band is connected to
the casing itself, while its 2-nd end is linked up with a running piston of the servo
unit. Changing of the band state has a direct impact on the operation of the drum
half of the clutch pack with the planet gear of the other half of the clutch pack.
That’s how an automatics shift gears in compliance with the RPM rate.
The principle of the planetary mechanism holding/locking is similar to the
principle of operation of the brake shoes. All automatic units are driven by ATF.
When ATF reaches the servo mechanism, its piston starts moving under the
pressure created by this fluid. As a result, the brake band tightens and locks
elements of the planetary mechanism for a certain period of time. Once that time
has elapsed, the planetary gear set gets unlocked and ATF shuts down the servo
mechanism. As the fluid pressure equalizes, the band weakens, a special back-
moving spring starts affecting the piston, and it returns to the initial position. The
band returns to its free state.
A band serves as a reaction mechanism, with the concept of operation similar to
multiple clutch discs and one-way clutches. But there is one key distinction. A
transmission band is strictly a stopping and holding component, while clutches are
intended for holding and running parts of the planetary gear set.
24
 2.9 Valve Body

Figure 2.2.9

he valve body and its solenoids serve as the heart and brain of the automatic
transmission. Why are they so important and unfortunately SO costly to repair or
replace? Since the invention of the automatic transmission in 1921 and the first
hydraulic transmission in 1932, manufacturers have worked to improve driver
comfort, vehicle performance, and gas mileage. The latter, fuel economy, has
become increasingly important in recent years due to environmental concerns. As
a result, automatic transmissions have undergone great changes and have become
incredibly complex systems. While older transmissions had 2, 3 or 4 speeds or
“gears,” modern automatics have seen 10 speeds or more along with multiple
reverse gears. Modern electronic systems monitor performance and control the
transmission while driving. The valve body and solenoids play a central role in the
operations of these modern transmissions, which we will look at in greater detail.

25
 2.10 Transmission Control Module

Figure 2.2.10

An Automatic Transmission Control Module (TCM) is a computerized control unit

that manages the shifting of an automatic transmission. It is responsible for
monitoring various sensors and inputs, and using that information to determine
when to shift gears and control the clutch engagement.

The TCM typically receives input from various sensors, such as the vehicle speed
sensor, throttle position sensor, and transmission fluid temperature sensor, among
others. The TCM uses this information to determine the appropriate shift points,
which can improve fuel efficiency and overall performance.

The TCM also controls the engagement and disengagement of the clutch, which is
necessary for smooth shifting. It does this by sending signals to the solenoids

26
within the transmission, which control the flow of hydraulic fluid that activates the
clutch.

In modern vehicles, the TCM is often integrated with other control modules, such
as the Engine Control Module (ECM) or the Powertrain Control Module (PCM), as
part of a larger network of systems that work together to manage the vehicle's
performance.

If a problem arises with the TCM, it can cause issues with shifting, such as delayed
or harsh shifts, or even prevent the transmission from shifting altogether. In such
cases, diagnosis and repair should be performed by a qualified mechanic with
experience in automatic transmission systems.

27
 Chapter 3
• Automotive Engine

Figure 3.1

28
The engine is the heart of your car. It is a complex machine built to convert heat
from burning gas into the force that turns the road wheels.

The chain of reactions which achieve that objective is set in motion by a spark ,
which ignites a mixture of petrol vapour and compressed air inside a momentarily
sealed cylinder and causes it to burn rapidly. That is why the machine is called an
internal combustion engine . As the mixture burns it expands, providing power to
drive the car.

To withstand its heavy workload, the engine must be a robust structure. It consists
of two basic parts: the lower, heavier section is the cylinder block, a casing for the
engine’s main moving parts; the detachable upper cover is the cylinder head .

The cylinder head contains valve-controlled passages through which the air and
fuel mixture enters the cylinders, and others through which the gases produced by
their combustion are expelled.

The block houses the crankshaft , which converts the reciprocating motion of the
pistons into rotary motion at the crankshaft. Often the block also houses the
camshaft , which operates mechanisms that open and close the valves in the
cylinder head. Sometimes the camshaft is in the head or mounted above it.

29
 Chapter 4
• Automotive Electricity
- Series & Parallel Connections

Figure 4.1

Series and parallel connections are both used in automotive electrical systems to
connect various components and devices within the vehicle.
In series connections, components are connected end-to-end, so that the current
flows through each component in succession. For example, in a series circuit
consisting of a battery, a switch, and a light bulb, the current flows from the battery
through the switch and then through the light bulb, before returning to the battery.
In automotive applications, series connections are commonly used for lighting
circuits and other low-power applications.
In parallel connections, components are connected side-by-side, so that the current
can flow through each component independently. For example, in a parallel circuit
consisting of a battery, two light bulbs, and a switch, the current can flow through

30
each light bulb independently, even if one bulb fails. In automotive applications,
parallel connections are commonly used for high-power devices such as starters,
alternators, and power distribution systems.
In automotive electrical systems, both series and parallel connections are used in
combination, depending on the specific application. For example, the individual
cells within a battery are connected in series to provide the required voltage, while
multiple batteries may be connected in parallel to provide the required current for
high-power applications.
It is important to understand the differences between series and parallel
connections in order to properly diagnose and repair automotive electrical systems.
Incorrect wiring or connections can result in electrical faults, damage to
components, and even fires or other safety hazards. As such, it is recommended
that automotive electrical work be performed by qualified professionals with the
proper training and equipment.

- Relays

Figure 4.2

31
Relays are commonly used in automotive electrical systems to control high-current
circuits with low-current signals. They are essentially switches that are operated
electrically, rather than mechanically. A relay consists of a coil, typically made of
copper wire, and a set of contacts that are opened or closed by the movement of the
coil.

When a low-current signal is applied to the relay coil, it creates a magnetic field
that attracts the contacts, closing the circuit and allowing high-current power to
flow through the relay. This allows the relay to be used to control circuits that
would otherwise require a large, high-current switch, which may not be practical or
safe.

In automotive applications, relays are commonly used to control the power supply
to various components, such as headlights, fuel pumps, cooling fans, and starter
motors, among others. They are also used to protect sensitive electronic
components from damage by high-voltage or high-current surges.

Relays are available in a variety of configurations, including single-pole, double-

pole, and multi-pole versions, as well as normally open or normally closed
contacts. They may also be equipped with diodes or other components to protect
against back EMF (electromotive force) generated by inductive loads.

Proper diagnosis and repair of automotive electrical systems requires a thorough

understanding of relays and their operation. In some cases, a faulty relay may be
the root cause of an electrical problem, while in other cases, a faulty relay may be a
symptom of a larger issue within the electrical system. As such, it is recommended
that automotive electrical work be performed by qualified professionals with the
proper training and equipment.

32
 1. Relay types: In addition to the basic single-pole and double-pole relays,
there are also specialized relays used for specific functions, such as time-
delay relays, voltage-sensitive relays, and latching relays.

2. Relay location: Relays are often located in the engine compartment or under
the dashboard, depending on the specific application. They may be mounted
on a relay panel, or integrated into other components such as the fuse box.

3. Relay testing: Relays can be tested with a multimeter or other diagnostic

equipment to determine if they are functioning correctly. Common tests
include checking for continuity, measuring the resistance of the coil, and
checking for proper operation of the contacts.

4. Relay replacement: If a faulty relay is identified, it can usually be replaced

relatively easily. However, it is important to ensure that the replacement
relay has the same specifications (such as voltage and current ratings) as the
original relay.

5. Common relay issues: Some common issues with relays in automotive

applications include corrosion or damage to the contacts, worn or damaged
coil windings, and broken or damaged relay housings. These issues can lead
to a variety of symptoms, such as dim or flickering headlights, intermittent
operation of components, or complete failure of the affected circuit.

Overall, relays are an important component in many automotive electrical systems,

allowing for efficient and safe control of high-power circuits. However, proper
diagnosis and repair of relay-related issues requires specialized knowledge and
equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals.

33
 - Using a Multimeter to Diagnose Automotive
Electrical Issues

Figure 4.3

Diagnosing automotive electrical issues can be challenging, but there are a number
of steps you can take to help you quickly identify and resolve the problem. Here
are some basic checks you can make to diagnose automotive electrical faults.
You'll need a Multimeter that reads DC voltage, can measure resistance and
continuity, and is rated for the appropriate voltage.

Identify the Symptoms: Start by identifying the symptoms of the problem. This
could be anything from a dead battery to a malfunctioning starter. Pay attention to
any strange sounds, smells, or other indicators that could help pinpoint the issue.

34
Check the Battery: A dead or weak battery is a common cause of electrical
problems. Use a multimeter to test the voltage of the battery. If the voltage is low,
the battery may need to be charged or replaced.

Check the Fuses: A blown fuse can cause a variety of electrical issues. Check the
fuses in the fuse box using a multimeter. If a fuse is blown, replace it with a new
one of the same amperage.

Check the Alternator: The alternator is responsible for charging the battery and
powering the electrical system. Use a multimeter to test the alternator's output
voltage. If the voltage is low or fluctuating, the alternator may need to be replaced.

Check the Starter: The starter is responsible for cranking the engine. If the engine
won't start, check the starter using a multimeter. If the starter is malfunctioning, it
may need to be repaired or replaced.

Check the Wiring: Faulty wiring can cause a variety of electrical problems. Check
the wiring for any signs of damage, corrosion, or loose connections. Repair or
replace any damaged wiring as needed.

Seek Professional Help: If you are unable to diagnose or repair the issue, it may be
necessary to seek professional help from a mechanic or auto electrician. They have
specialized knowledge and equipment to help identify and fix the problem.

35
 Chapter 5
• Automotive Safety
( ABS + EBD + TCS + ESP )

Figure 5.1

36
 - ABS ( Anti-Clock Brake System )

Figure 5.2

Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) is a safety feature commonly used in modern

automotive braking systems. It is designed to prevent the wheels from locking up
during hard braking, which can cause skidding and loss of control.

The ABS system works by using sensors to monitor the speed of each wheel, and a
computer to control the brake pressure applied to each wheel. When the ABS
system detects that a wheel is about to lock up, it rapidly applies and releases the
brake pressure, allowing the wheel to continue rotating and maintain traction with
the road surface.

37
The ABS system typically consists of several components, including wheel speed
sensors, hydraulic control unit, electronic control unit, and brake pressure
modulator valves. The wheel speed sensors are usually located at each wheel, and
provide information about the speed and position of the wheels to the electronic
control unit.

The hydraulic control unit is responsible for controlling the brake pressure applied
to each wheel, while the electronic control unit uses the information from the
wheel speed sensors to determine when to activate the ABS system. The brake
pressure modulator valves are used to rapidly adjust the brake pressure to each
wheel, as directed by the electronic control unit.

In addition to preventing wheel lockup, ABS can also help improve braking
performance on slippery or uneven road surfaces. It can also help reduce stopping
distances, particularly on wet or slippery roads.

Proper diagnosis and repair of ABS systems requires specialized knowledge and
equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals. Common issues
with ABS systems include faulty wheel speed sensors, malfunctioning hydraulic
control units, and problems with the electronic control unit. If an issue is detected
with the ABS system, it should be addressed promptly to ensure the safety of the
vehicle and its occupants.

1. Types of ABS: There are several different types of ABS systems, including
four-channel, three-channel, and two-channel systems. Four-channel ABS is
the most advanced type, as it controls the brake pressure to each wheel
independently. Three-channel ABS uses a similar approach, but combines
the rear wheels into a single channel. Two-channel ABS only operates on the
front wheels.

38
2. ABS warning light: If there is an issue with the ABS system, the ABS
warning light on the dashboard will illuminate. This may indicate a problem
with the sensors, control unit, or other components of the system. It is
important to have the system diagnosed and repaired promptly if the warning
light comes on.

3. ABS in conjunction with other systems: ABS is often used in conjunction

with other safety systems, such as traction control, stability control, and
brake assist. These systems work together to help maintain control of the
vehicle during hard braking or other emergency maneuvers.

4. Maintenance and inspection: ABS systems require regular maintenance

and inspection to ensure proper operation. This may include checking the
sensors, inspecting the brake lines and hoses, and testing the system for
proper function. It is important to follow the manufacturer's recommended
maintenance schedule to ensure the system is functioning correctly.

5. Benefits of ABS: ABS provides several important benefits, including

improved vehicle control and stability during hard braking, shorter stopping
distances, and reduced risk of skidding or loss of control. These benefits can
help reduce the risk of accidents and improve overall safety for the vehicle
and its occupants.

Figure 5.3

39
 - EBD ( Electronic Brake Force Distribution )

Figure 5.4

Electronic Brakeforce Distribution (EBD) is a technology used in modern

automotive braking systems to improve the distribution of braking force between
the front and rear wheels. It works by adjusting the brake pressure to each wheel
based on a variety of factors, such as vehicle weight, braking force, and road
conditions.

The EBD system typically consists of several components, including wheel speed
sensors, a control module, and a hydraulic control unit. The wheel speed sensors
are used to measure the speed and position of each wheel, while the control module
uses this information to determine the appropriate amount of brake force to apply
to each wheel.

40
The hydraulic control unit is responsible for adjusting the brake pressure to each
wheel, based on the signals received from the control module. It can adjust the
brake pressure to each wheel independently, in order to optimize the distribution of
braking force between the front and rear wheels.

One of the key benefits of EBD is that it helps prevent wheel lockup during hard
braking, which can cause loss of control and skidding. By adjusting the brake
pressure to each wheel, EBD can help ensure that the braking force is distributed
evenly, allowing the vehicle to maintain stability and control during emergency
braking maneuvers.

EBD can also help improve braking performance on slippery or uneven road
surfaces, by adjusting the brake pressure to each wheel based on the available
traction. This can help reduce stopping distances and improve overall safety.

Proper diagnosis and repair of EBD systems requires specialized knowledge and
equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals. Common issues
with EBD systems include faulty wheel speed sensors, malfunctioning control
modules, and problems with the hydraulic control unit. If an issue is detected with
the EBD system, it should be addressed promptly to ensure the safety of the
vehicle and its occupants.
1. EBD vs ABS: EBD is often used in conjunction with Anti-lock Braking
System (ABS), but the two technologies are not the same. While ABS is
designed to prevent wheel lockup during hard braking, EBD is designed to
optimize the distribution of braking force between the front and rear wheels.
EBD can help improve the effectiveness of ABS by ensuring that the braking
force is distributed evenly between the front and rear wheels.

2. EBD control strategies: EBD can use a variety of control strategies to

adjust the brake pressure to each wheel, including proportional, integral, and
derivative control. These strategies use different mathematical algorithms to
determine the appropriate amount of braking force to apply to each wheel,

41
 based on the available information from the wheel speed sensors and other
sensors.

3. EBD in conjunction with other systems: EBD is often used in conjunction

with other safety systems, such as ABS, traction control, and stability
control. These systems work together to help maintain control of the vehicle
during hard braking or other emergency maneuvers.

4. Maintenance and inspection: EBD systems require regular maintenance

and inspection to ensure proper operation. This may include checking the
wheel speed sensors, inspecting the brake lines and hoses, and testing the
system for proper function. It is important to follow the manufacturer's
recommended maintenance schedule to ensure the system is functioning
correctly.

5. Benefits of EBD: EBD provides several important benefits, including

improved vehicle control and stability during hard braking, shorter stopping
distances, and reduced risk of skidding or loss of control. These benefits can
help reduce the risk of accidents and improve overall safety for the vehicle
and its occupants.

EBD calibration: EBD systems require calibration to ensure proper

operation. The calibration process involves testing the system under various
conditions to ensure that the brake pressure is being distributed evenly
between the front and rear wheels. If the calibration is off, it can cause the
system to apply too much or too little brake force to one or more wheels,
which can affect the vehicle's stability and control.

EBD in electric vehicles: EBD is important in electric vehicles (EVs) due to

their unique weight distribution and braking characteristics. EVs have a
higher proportion of weight in the rear due to the battery pack, which can
affect the distribution of braking force between the front and rear wheels.
EBD can help ensure that the braking force is distributed evenly, allowing
for safe and stable braking performance.

42
EBD in trailers: EBD is also used in trailers to help improve braking
performance. Trailer EBD systems work by adjusting the brake pressure to
each axle based on the weight distribution of the trailer. This helps ensure
that the trailer brakes are applied evenly, improving stability and control
during braking.

EBD warning light: If there is an issue with the EBD system, a warning
light on the dashboard will illuminate. This may indicate a problem with the
wheel speed sensors, control module, or other components of the system. It
is important to have the system diagnosed and repaired promptly if the
warning light comes on.

EBD vs brake bias: EBD is often confused with brake bias, which is the
proportion of braking force applied to the front and rear wheels. While brake
bias can be adjusted manually in some vehicles, EBD is a more advanced
system that adjusts the brake pressure to each wheel independently based on
a variety of factors.

Overall, EBD is an important safety feature in modern automotive braking

systems that helps improve the distribution of braking force between the
front and rear wheels. Proper diagnosis, maintenance, and repair of EBD
systems requires specialized knowledge and equipment, and should be
performed by qualified professionals to ensure the system is functioning
correctly.

Figure 5.5

43
 - TCS ( Traction Control System )

Figure 5.6

Traction Control System (TCS) is a technology used in modern automotive

systems to improve traction and control on slippery or uneven road surfaces. It
works by detecting when a wheel is spinning faster than the others, and adjusting
the power or braking force to that wheel to reduce the slip and improve traction.

The TCS system typically consists of several components, including wheel speed
sensors, a control module, and a hydraulic control unit. The wheel speed sensors
are used to measure the speed and position of each wheel, while the control module
uses this information to determine when a wheel is slipping.

The hydraulic control unit is responsible for adjusting the power or brake force to
the slipping wheel, based on the signals received from the control module. It can
adjust the power or brake force to each wheel independently, in order to optimize
the distribution of traction and improve overall stability.

44
One of the key benefits of TCS is that it helps prevent wheel slip during
acceleration, which can cause loss of control and skidding. By adjusting the power
or brake force to the slipping wheel, TCS can help ensure that the vehicle
maintains stability and control during acceleration on slippery or uneven surfaces.

TCS can also help improve braking performance on slippery or uneven road
surfaces, by adjusting the brake force to each wheel based on the available traction.
This can help reduce stopping distances and improve overall safety.

Proper diagnosis and repair of TCS systems requires specialized knowledge and
equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals. Common issues
with TCS systems include faulty wheel speed sensors, malfunctioning control
modules, and problems with the hydraulic control unit. If an issue is detected with
the TCS system, it should be addressed promptly to ensure the safety of the vehicle
and its occupants.

Overall, TCS is an important safety feature in modern automotive systems that

helps improve traction and stability on slippery or uneven road surfaces. Proper
diagnosis, maintenance, and repair of TCS systems requires specialized knowledge
and equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals to ensure the
system is functioning correctly.

Figure 5.7

45
Figure 5.8

46
 - ESP ( Electronic Stability Program )

Figure 5.9

Electronic Stability Control (ESC), also known as Electronic Stability Program

(ESP), is a technology used in modern automotive systems to improve vehicle
stability and prevent loss of control during emergency maneuvers or in slippery
road conditions. It works by monitoring the vehicle's dynamics and adjusting the
brake force and power to each wheel to prevent oversteer or understeer and
maintain stability.

47
The ESP system typically consists of several components, including wheel speed
sensors, a yaw rate sensor, a steering angle sensor, a control module, and a
hydraulic control unit. The wheel speed sensors are used to measure the speed and
position of each wheel, while the yaw rate sensor and steering angle sensor provide
information about the vehicle's direction and steering input.

The control module uses this information to determine the vehicle's dynamics and
detect any loss of control or instability. If the control module detects that the
vehicle is starting to oversteer or understeer, it sends a signal to the hydraulic
control unit to adjust the brake force and power to the appropriate wheels to
maintain stability.

The hydraulic control unit is responsible for adjusting the brake force and power to
each wheel, based on the signals received from the control module. It can adjust
the brake force and power to each wheel independently, in order to optimize the
distribution of force and improve overall stability.

One of the key benefits of ESP is that it helps prevent loss of control and skidding
during emergency maneuvers or in slippery road conditions. By adjusting the brake
force and power to each wheel, ESP can help ensure that the vehicle maintains
stability and control during sudden turns or evasive maneuvers.

ESP can also help improve braking performance on slippery or uneven road
surfaces, by adjusting the brake force to each wheel based on the available traction.
This can help reduce stopping distances and improve overall safety.

Proper diagnosis and repair of ESP systems requires specialized knowledge and
equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals. Common issues
with ESP systems include faulty sensors, malfunctioning control modules, and
problems with the hydraulic control unit. If an issue is detected with the ESP
system, it should be addressed promptly to ensure the safety of the vehicle and its
occupants.

48
ESP vs TCS: While Traction Control System (TCS) and Electronic Stability
Control (ESC/ESP) are often used interchangeably, they are not the same
technology. TCS is designed to improve traction during acceleration, while ESP is
designed to maintain vehicle stability during emergency maneuvers and in slippery
conditions.

Active and passive systems: ESP can be classified as an active or passive system,
depending on its function. Active systems use sensors and other inputs to adjust
brake force and power to each wheel in real-time, while passive systems use pre-
set parameters to adjust brake force and power to each wheel.

ESC/ESP in conjunction with other safety systems: ESP is often used in

conjunction with other safety systems, such as Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)
and Traction Control System (TCS). These systems work together to improve
vehicle stability and prevent loss of control in emergency maneuvers.

Benefits of ESP: ESP provides several important benefits, including improved

vehicle stability and control during sudden turns or evasive maneuvers, reduced
risk of skidding or loss of control, and improved overall safety. These benefits can
help reduce the risk of accidents and improve overall safety for the vehicle and its
occupants.

Maintenance and inspection: ESP systems require regular maintenance and

inspection to ensure proper operation. This may include checking the sensors,
testing the system for proper function, and calibrating the system as needed. It is
important to follow the manufacturer's recommended maintenance schedule to
ensure the system is functioning correctly.

Overall, ESP is an important safety feature in modern automotive systems that

helps improve vehicle stability and prevent loss of control during emergency
maneuvers or in slippery road conditions. Proper diagnosis, maintenance, and

49
repair of ESP systems requires specialized knowledge and equipment, and should
be performed by qualified professionals to ensure the system is functioning
correctly.

Figure 5.10

50
 Chapter 6
• Wheel Alignment Angles

Figure 6.1

51
Figure 6.2

52
 • ( Camber + Caster + Toe )
- Camber

Figure 6.3

Camber angle is an important concept in automotive engineering that refers to the

angle between the vertical axis of a wheel and the plane of the wheel's motion. It is
typically measured in degrees and can have a significant impact on the handling,
stability, and tire wear of a vehicle.

53
Positive camber occurs when the top of the wheel is tilted outward from the
vehicle, while negative camber occurs when the top of the wheel is tilted inward
towards the vehicle. Zero camber occurs when the wheel is perpendicular to the
ground.

Camber angle is typically adjusted during the alignment process, which involves
adjusting the suspension components to ensure that the wheels are properly aligned
and angled. Camber angle can be adjusted by changing the length of the
suspension arms or by using adjustable camber plates or bolts.

Positive camber can improve stability and handling in certain situations, such as
high-speed cornering or on rough roads. However, it can also cause uneven tire
wear and reduce traction during braking and acceleration. Negative camber can
improve traction and handling during cornering, but can also cause uneven tire
wear and reduce stability during high-speed driving.

The optimal camber angle for a vehicle depends on a variety of factors, including
the vehicle's weight distribution, tire size and type, and intended use. Camber angle
can be adjusted to suit specific driving conditions or preferences, but it is important
to ensure that the adjustments are within the manufacturer's recommended
specifications.

Improper camber angle can cause a variety of handling and stability issues,
including uneven tire wear, reduced traction, and increased risk of hydroplaning. It
can also cause premature failure of suspension components and affect the overall
safety and performance of the vehicle.

In summary, camber angle is an important concept in automotive engineering that

can have a significant impact on the handling, stability, and tire wear of a vehicle.
Proper diagnosis, adjustment, and maintenance of camber angle requires

54
specialized knowledge and equipment, and should be performed by qualified
professionals to ensure the vehicle is safe and performing optimally.

Effect on handling : Camber angle alters the handling qualities of some

suspension designs; in particular, negative camber improves grip in corners
especially with a short long arms suspension.[citation needed] This is because it
places the tire at a better angle to the road, transmitting the centrifugal forces
through the vertical plane of the tire rather than through a shear force across
it.[citation needed] The centrifugal (outwards) force is compensated for by
applying negative camber, which turns the contact surface of the tire outwards to
match, maximizing the contact patch area. Note that this is only true for the outside
tire during the turn; the inside tire would benefit most from positive camber –
again, only with a short long arms system. However, due to the weight transfer
inherent while turning, the outside wheels bear more of the force of turning and
negative camber will improve handling overall. Caster angle will also compensate
for this to a degree, as the top of the outside tire will tilt slightly inward, and the
inner tire will respectively tilt outward. However, any camber affects the contact
patch of the tire while driving in a straight line. Zero camber gives the best traction
as it maximises the contact patch between the road and the tires and puts the tire
tread flat on the road. Therefore excessive camber impairs straight driving in rain
and snow and when accelerating hard.

Proper management of camber angle is a major factor in suspension design, and

must incorporate not only idealized geometric models, but also real-life behavior
of the components; flex, distortion, elasticity, etc. What was once an art has
become much more scientific with the use of computers, which can optimize all of
the variables mathematically instead of relying on the designer's intuition and
experience. As a result, the handling of even low-priced automobiles has improved
dramatically.[citation needed] Heavy-duty vehicles, such as tractors, trucks, etc.,
tend to have more positive camber angle, so that when they are loaded and the
whole vehicle lowers, the wheels are almost vertical

55
Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

56
 - Caster

Figure 6.6

The caster angle or castor angle is the angular displacement of the steering axis
from the vertical axis of a steered wheel in a car, motorcycle, bicycle, other vehicle
or a vessel, as seen from the side of the vehicle. The steering axis in a car with dual
ball joint suspension is an imaginary line that runs through the center of the upper
ball joint to the center of the lower ball joint, or through the center of the kingpin
for vehicles having a kingpin.

Caster causes a wheel to align with the direction of travel, and can be
accomplished either by caster displacement or caster angle. Caster displacement
moves the steering axis ahead of the axis of wheel rotation, as with the front
wheels of a shopping cart. Caster angle moves the steering axis from vertical.[3]

57
In automobile racing, the caster angle may be adjusted to optimize handling
characteristics for a particular venue. This is all connected to the front wheels.
Caster is the measure of how far forward or behind the steering axis is to the
vertical axis, viewed from the side. This is measured by drawing a line between the
top and bottom pivot points of the front upright. The angle between the drawn line
and vertical is the caster angle.
There are 3 types of caster angle:
• Positive Caster
• Neutral Caster
• Negative Caster

Positive caster is when the top upright mounting point is more rearward of the car
than the bottom mounting point when looking at the side view.
Another way to get positive caster is when the two mounting points are on the
same vertical line as each other but are both infront of the centre line of the wheel.
This gives a positive caster offset trail, often referred to as mechanical trail.
Positive caster creates a self-aligning torque. This increases the stability of the
vehicle in straight line situations, increasingly important at high speeds. The firm
and stable steering provides the driver with confidence and allows them to drive at
higher straight line speeds as they are not fighting the steering wheel. This self-
aligning torque also pulls the wheels back to a straight line when exiting a corner
allowing the driver to be much smoother on corner exit, controlling the rate that the
wheels return to centre.
The main disadvantage to positive caster is that the steering requires a higher
amount of input effort to turn the wheel. However with power steering systems this
is not an issue. Also, for a racing driver where there often is no power steering, the
heavy input is tolerated for the increased stability and smoother corner exits.
Positive caster also creates a jacking effect when the wheels are turned. The front
inside wheel rises and the front outside wheel falls. This creates a jacking effect
putting more mass on the rear outside wheel when cornering. This can create
positive turn in effect as it helps to rotate the car on corner entry. However, too
much caster can lead to oversteer due to the jacking effects.

58
Neutral caster is when the upright mounting points are on the same vertical plane
as each other as well as being on the same vertical plane as the centre line of the
hub and wheel.
One advantage of using zero caster is that it retains the slight reduction in kingpin
torque before reaching the limit of adhesion, which is useful for a driver to know
when the limit is near. Also, zero caster provides easy steering input without the
extreme unstability of using negative caster.

Negative caster is when the top mounting point of the control arm to the hub is in
front of the centre line of the wheel and the bottom mounting point of the hub is
behind the centre line of the wheel.

Another way to obtain negative caster is for both mounting points to be on the
same vertical line as each other but behind the centre line of the wheel.

Negative caster gives no feedback to the driver in terms of wheel position. It is also
the type of caster that is used on a shopping trolley and is the reason why wheels
can wobble and turn with ease. A further disadvantage of negative caster is that it
will increase under braking conditions making the steering more unstable due to
the car pitching forward. This can however be solved with anti-dive steering
geometry.

The only notable advantage to having negative caster is that the steering input
effort required is very low making the steering very easy to turn.

The Purpose Of Caster : Caster is a member of steering geometry and works

during cornering and in a straight line. Positive caster is the most used type of
caster in the automotive industry due to its many benefits. There are 3 types of
caster. Each has their own advantages and disadvantages

59
Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

60
 - Toe

Figure 6.9

Toe angle is another important concept in automotive engineering, and refers to the
angle between the longitudinal axis of a wheel and the direction of travel. It is
typically measured in degrees and can have a significant impact on the handling,
stability, and tire wear of a vehicle.

Toe angle can be either positive or negative. Positive toe occurs when the wheels
are angled inwards towards the center of the vehicle, while negative toe occurs
when the wheels are angled outwards away from the center of the vehicle. Zero toe
occurs when the wheels are parallel to the direction of travel.

61
Toe angle can be adjusted during the alignment process, which involves adjusting
the suspension components to ensure that the wheels are properly aligned and
angled. Toe angle can be adjusted by changing the length of the tie rods or by using
adjustable tie rod ends.

Toe angle can have a significant impact on tire wear, particularly on the inside or
outside edges of the tire. Excessive positive or negative toe can cause uneven tire
wear, which can lead to reduced tire life, poor traction, and increased risk of
blowouts.

Toe angle can also affect the handling and stability of a vehicle. Excessive toe can
cause the vehicle to wander or pull to one side, while negative toe can improve
high-speed stability and reduce understeer.

The optimal toe angle for a vehicle depends on a variety of factors, including the
vehicle's weight distribution, tire size and type, and intended use. Toe angle can be
adjusted to suit specific driving conditions or preferences, but it is important to
ensure that the adjustments are within the manufacturer's recommended
specifications.

Improper toe angle can cause a variety of handling and stability issues, including
uneven tire wear, reduced traction, and increased risk of hydroplaning. It can also
cause premature failure of suspension components and affect the overall safety and
performance of the vehicle.

In summary, toe angle is an important concept in automotive engineering that can

have a significant impact on the handling, stability, and tire wear of a vehicle.
Proper diagnosis, adjustment, and maintenance of toe angle requires specialized
knowledge and equipment, and should be performed by qualified professionals to
ensure the vehicle is safe and performing optimally.

62
Figure 6.10

Figure 6.11

63
 • Some Photos From GB Academy
About How To Adjust Wheel Angles

Figure 6.12

64
Figure 6.13

65
Figure 6.14

66
Figure 6.15

67
Figure 6.16

68
 Chapter 7
• Conclusion

In conclusion, automatic transmission, automotive engine, automotive electricity

system, automotive safety (ABS, EBD, TCS, ESP), and wheel alignment angles are
all important concepts in automotive engineering that are critical to the safety,
performance, and efficiency of a vehicle.
Automatic transmission systems allow for smooth shifting and efficient power
transfer, while engines provide the necessary power to propel the vehicle.
Automotive electricity systems provide the electrical power for the vehicle's
various systems and components, including lighting, air conditioning, and
entertainment systems.
Automotive safety features such as ABS, EBD, TCS, and ESP are designed to
prevent accidents and improve handling and stability in a variety of driving
conditions. These systems work together to improve braking performance, reduce
skidding and loss of control, and maintain stability during cornering and other
maneuvers.
Wheel alignment angles, including camber and toe angles, are critical to the
handling, stability, and tire wear of a vehicle. Proper diagnosis, adjustment, and
maintenance of these angles requires specialized knowledge and equipment, and
should be performed by qualified professionals to ensure the vehicle is safe and
performing optimally.
Overall, a thorough understanding of these concepts and the ability to diagnose,
adjust, and maintain them is essential for anyone working in automotive
engineering or maintenance. By ensuring that these systems and components are
functioning optimally, we can improve the safety, performance, and efficiency of
the vehicles we use and rely on every day.

69
 References
1. Automatic Transmission:
"Automatic Transmission Systems," National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA), https://www.nhtsa.gov/automatic-transmission-systems
"How Automatic Transmissions Work,"
HowStuffWorks, https://auto.howstuffworks.com/automatic-transmission.htm
2. Automotive Engine:
"How Car Engines Work,"
HowStuffWorks, https://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine.htm
"Internal Combustion Engine Basics," Department of Energy
(DOE), https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/internal-combustion-engine-
basics
3. Automotive Electricity System:
"Automotive Electrical Systems - Part 1: Basic Concepts," Battery
University, https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/automotive_electrical_system
s_part_1
"Automotive Electrical Systems - Part 2: How Alternators Work," Battery
University, https://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/automotive_electrical_system
s_part_2
4. Automotive Safety (ABS, EBD, TCS, ESP):
"Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS)," National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA), https://www.nhtsa.gov/anti-lock-brakes
"Electronic Stability Control (ESC)," National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA), https://www.nhtsa.gov/electronic-stability-control
5. Wheel Alignment Angles:
"Vehicle Wheel Alignment," National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence
(ASE), https://www.ase.com/Tests/ASE-Certification-Tests/Test-
Preparation/Recertification-App-Tests/Vehicle-Wheel-Alignment.aspx

70
"Wheel Alignment Fundamentals," Hunter Engineering
Company, https://www.hunter.com/wheel-alignment-fundamentals

Websites & Books

[1] [ Wikipedia , completecar.ca , auto.howstuffworks , transpartswarehouse ]
[2] [ rmsautocare , milta , go4trans , advancedtransmission , howacarworks ]
[3] [ studentlesson , onallcylinders , Automotive Technology by James D.
Halderman ]

71
Certificate of recognition

Figure 6.17

Thank you

72