EARTH SCIENCE
 biosphere
COVERAGE:
1. earths vital statistic and
system
2. layers of the Earth and its
Composition
 Earth science
o is the study of the dynamic Earth and its
processes, properties, structures, and its
relationship with its neighbors in space.
FOUR MAIN DISCIPLINES
 geology
o the study of earth materials
 meteorology
o the study of the atmosphere
 oceanography
o the study of oceans
 astronomy
o the study of celestial bodies
EARTHS VITAL STATISTIC AND SYSTEM
the Earth is composed of systems or “spheres”,
each having their own unique properties, that
continuously interact with one another
WE CAN DIVIDE THEM INTO FOUR MAJOR
SPHERES
 atmosphere
The atmosphere is a collective layer of gas
o
that envelopes the Earth
- it shields the Earth and its
inhabitants from harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the Sun;
- maintains the warmth of the Earth’s
surface
- contains all of the essential gasses
needed to support life.
 hydrosphere
o the hydrosphere refers to the bodies of
water consisting of freely flowing bodies of
water found on the surface of the Earth
o as well as water reservoirs stored below the
ground as groundwater
o this sphere covers nearly 71% of the Earth’s
surface.
o nearly 97.4% of the composed of saline or
salt, the remaining 2.6% is made up of fresh
water,
o the biosphere refers to the narrow
band on the Earth’s surface where
all biological life resides.
o this could range from bustling cities,
lush tropical rainforests, arid deserts,
or even extreme environments like
the bottom of the ocean floor.
 geosphere
o the geosphere is the largest out of
all the spheres
o extending from the surface of the
Earth down to its center.
o it is composed of external processes
that we can observe on the surface
and internal processes that happen
deep within.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH AND ITS COMPOSITION
Earth can be subdivided into layers based on two
criteria: (1) composition (density) differences and
(2) physical properties.
BASED ON COMPOSITIONAL DIFFERENCES
 crust
o this is the thinnest and outermost
layer of the earth.
o there are two types of crust– the
continental crust and the oceanic
crust.
 the continental crust is the older and more
buoyant type of crust,
o composition consisting of granite
 the oceanic crust is the younger and
denser type
o it is composed of basalt
 mantle
o the mantle comprises the majority of the
earth’s volume (more than 80%) and begins
where the crust ends, down to a depth of
2,900 km.
o the boundary between the crust and mantle
is called the mohorovičić discontinuity
EARTH SCIENCE
o it can be divided into two parts: the upper
mantle and the lower mantle
- separated by the repetti
discontinuity.
core
o the core begins at the mantle-core
boundary, the gutenberg discontinuity,
located at the 2,900 km depth.
o scientific investigations led to the conclusion
that its composition is made up of a fe-ni
(iron and nickel) alloy.
BASED ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 lithosphere
o the lithosphere (from the greek word lithos
meaning “stone”)
o is a thick and brittle layer that comprises the
entire crust and uppermost layer of the
upper mantle.
 asthenosphere
o the asthenosphere (from the greek word
asthenēs meaning “weak”)
o is a mechanically weak layer consisting of
the lower portion of the upper mantle,
extending down to 660 km.
o it is not a “sea of molten rock”. the upper
mantle is actually composed of an mg- and
fe-rich rock called peridotite.
o at this depth, the temperature and pressure
conditions are high enough that rocks
become ductile and deform easily.
- because of this, the asthenosphere
flows more like very, very viscous
fluid (but remember: it is not liquid!)
and moves independently from the
overlying lithosphere. this is a very
important mechanism for plate
tectonics
 mesosphere
o beneath the asthenosphere is the
mesosphere (from the greek word mesos
meaning “middle”),
o made up of the lower mantle, and reaches
down to the 2,900 km depth.
o the dominant rock type in this layer is a
silicate rock called perovskite.
o unlike the asthenosphere, the mesosphere
is much stronger and flows with more
resistance. because of the immense
pressure from the overlying layers, the
strength of this layer increases with depth.
 outer core
o unlike all the other mechanical layers, the
outer core is the only one made out of liquid
— melted fe-ni alloy, to be exact.
o the liquid nature of this layer can be
attributed to extremely high temperatures
(more than 3000°c!) that melt fe, ni, and all
other elements.
o the flow of the liquid metals is responsible
for the earth’s magnetic field.
o the outer-inner core boundary is also known
as the lehmann discontinuity.
 inner core
o despite the extreme temperature, the
overwhelming pressure in this layer forces
the inner core to be a solid ball of mostly fe.
o temperatures in the inner core are similar to
the temperatures of the surface of the sun—
around more than 5400°c.
EARTH SCIENCE
(silky), or others. brilliantly cut gems are
COVERAGE: described to have an adamantine luster
1. Minerals  crystal habit or shape.
2. Rocks o this refers to the shape of each individual
3. Depositional Environments, crystal or an aggregate of crystals
Landforms, and Waterforms o although a single mineral can occur in a
variety of shapes
o crystal habit can still be an identifying
MINERALS feature in certain minerals
 hardness.
 minerals o this refers to how resistant a mineral is to
o are building blocks of rocks. scratching. the mohs’ hardness scale is a
tool used to describe a mineral’s hardness
TO BE CONSIDERED A MINERAL, IT MUST BE relative to other minerals
THE FOLLOWING

 naturally-occurring
o man-made materials such as synthetic
diamonds cannot be considered as real
minerals
 inorganic
o organic materials such as pearls or sugar
are not minerals
 homogeneous solid
o minerals should be crystalline solids. water
is not mineral, whereas ice is considered a
mineral. mercury occurs as a liquid in its
natural state and is considered as a mineral
 has definite chemical composition
o you should be able to describe a mineral’s
composition using a chemical formula
 ordered crystalline structure
o atoms in a mineral are placed in a repetitive
and orderly manner. substances that lack
this kind of atomic structure such as
obsidian (volcanic glass) or plastic are not  cleavage or fracture
considered as minerals o cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral
to break along preferred planes called
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS zones of weakness.
o if a mineral doesn’t break along zones of
 color weakness, a fracture is produced.
o it refers to the wavelengths of light reflected  density or specific gravity
by the minerals. while it can be tempting to o this refers to the ratio between a mineral’s
identify a mineral based on its color weight and the weight of a specific volume
o it is the least useful property because a lot of water (water has a specific gravity of 1)
of minerals can occur in different colors o heavy minerals such as gold or platinum
 luster have very high specific gravity whereas light
o it describes how light is reflected from the minerals such as graphite have low specific
mineral’s surface gravity
o a mineral could have a metallic luster or  tenacity
nonmetallic luster similar to pearls (pearly), o this describes how well a mineral handles
glass (vitreous), resin (resinous), silk stress such as breaking, crushing, bending,
or tearing.
EARTH SCIENCE
o minerals that are susceptible to cracking or effervescent and only show light “fizzing”
breaking are called brittle (examples: such as rhodochrosite and azurite
quartz, calcite)  odor and taste
o a mineral that deforms under stress but o you may have heard that some geologists
snaps back to its original shape after the lick rocks.
stress is removed is called elastic o while that may seem a bit wacky and weird,
(examples: mica minerals) it is true that geologists lick and even smell
o on the other hand, if a mineral is deformed rocks in order to identify them
under stress but doesn’t go back to its o halite, more popularly known as “rock salt”,
original shape, it is then called flexible is a mineral that gives off a salty taste
(example: vermiculite) o other examples are borax which gives off a
o metallic minerals such as gold, copper, or sweet taste
silver are called malleable due to their o epsomite which tastes bitter
ability to be flattened into sheets. o chalcanthite which is sweet tasting but also
o copper is also ductile because it can be slightly poisonous
drawn into thin wires without breaking. o sulfur and pyrite can be identified by their
o sectile minerals such as gold or gypsum “rotten egg”-like smell
can be carved out into thin sheets with a
knife to this date, thousands of different minerals have
 diaphaneity been identified and named– and the list grows
o this refers to how well light travels through a every year! However, only a few of these minerals
mineral are abundant on the Earth’s crust and they are
o transparent minerals allow almost all of called rock-forming minerals
the light to travel through the mineral
(examples: some quartz, some calcite)
o translucent minerals only allow some of
the light to travel and exit the mineral, giving
off a cloudy or murky appearance
(examples: smoky quartz, gypsum). opaque
minerals do not allow light to travel through
at all (examples: gold, copper, pyrite)
 magnetism
o this describes the magnetic property of a
mineral
o magnetite is an example of a strongly
magnetic (strongly attracted to magnets)
mineral. there are also moderately and
weakly magnetic minerals such as
ROCKS
chromite, ilmenite, columbite, and others.
o a lodestone is a type of magnetized
magnetite that has the ability to  igneous rocks
magnetically attract other material
o igneous rocks (from latin word ignis
 effervescence
o this describes a mineral’s reaction when meaning “fire”) are formed when molten
material cools and solidifies.
exposed to a strong acid such as hcl
(hydrochloric acid).
o when igneous rocks formed below the
o this is due to the chemical reaction that
surface of the earth, they are called
results between caco3 and hcl in carbonate
intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic
minerals and rocks
rocks. when they form on the surface, they
o highly effervescent minerals like calcite
are called extrusive igneous rocks or
exhibit intense “fizzing” or “bubbling” when
volcanic rocks.
exposed to hcl. some minerals are weakly
o intrusive and extrusive rocks
EARTH SCIENCE
- can generally be distinguished using the eroded in a process called weathering
size of their mineral grains and then buried and compacted in a
- intrusive rocks have bigger or process called diagenesis.
coarser grain crystals
o the sediments that make up sedimentary
- while extrusive rocks have smaller or rocks can come from pre-existing rocks
finer crystals. this is because higher and materials or from the remains of living
temperatures beneath the earth’s things. because of this
surface slow down the cooling rate of
minerals, giving more time for larger
crystals to form. there are two main classifications of sedimentary
rocks:
o the composition of igneous rocks largely
depends on what type of magma or lava a. clastic sedimentary rocks
they form from. the composition of magma o sediments come from pre-existing rocks.
is dependent on the amount of silica (sio2), clastic sedimentary rocks are classified
which affects its viscosity, and the based on the characteristics of their clasts
temperature. such as size, angularity/roundedness, and
sorting
- komatiite is a very rare type of extrusive
igneous rock which forms when
extremely hot lava cools rapidly and was
common during the archean eon.
however, current surface conditions do
not allow komatiite to form anymore.

- other more common types of extrusive

rocks are obsidian (formed when lava
rapidly cools; also known as volcanic
glass), bombs (rounded solidified lava
fragments), blocks (angular solidified
lava fragments), and volcanic ash.

b. non-clastic sedimentary rocks

o chemical sedimentary rocks are formed
when water evaporates, leaving behind
dissolved minerals. common examples
include halite or rock salt, rock gypsum, flint,
chert, travertine, umber, and some
limestone rocks.

 sedimentary rocks
o sedimentary rocks are formed from loose
material called sediments that have been
EARTH SCIENCE
o another type called biochemical or
organic sedimentary rocks are composed
of the remains of living things (shells,
bones, plant fragments, etc.). common
examples include some fossiliferous
limestone (contains fossils), chalk
(composed of very tiny marine organisms
called coccolithophores and foraminifera),
coquina (composed of >2 mm shell
fragments and grains), and coal (altered
rock from remains of plant life).
 metamorphic rocks
o when a rock is subjected to certain
chemical (addition or removal of
chemicals) or physical (change in
temperature or pressure) processes that
alter its chemical composition,
mineralogy, and/or texture, a
metamorphic rock is formed.
o the original rock or “parent rock” that was
altered is called a protolith.
metamorphic rocks are divided into two types
based on their texture.
o the first type is characterized by the
appearance of planar arrangement of
mineral grains called foliation or foliated
rocks.
o foliation in rock
- is the result of deformation and the more
foliated a rock, the higher the grade of
metamorphism.
o nonfoliated rocks
- usually develop in environments where
deformation is minimal and other factors
such as chemically-active fluids play a
larger part in altering the rock. some
common examples of nonfoliated rocks
are marble, hornfels, quartzite,
metapelite, and others.
 rocks continually go through changes that
alter its characteristics, ultimately changing
 it into a different rock.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
 depositional environments
o are the combination of chemical, physical,
and biological aspects that dictate what type
of sediments, rock types, and landforms are
deposited or formed
 erosion
o is an important process in depositional
environments.
o it is a geological process in which earth
materials are weathered and transported.
erosional agents such as water, wind, ice,
or animals and humans are responsible for
transporting these materials
o these earth materials are then “added” to an
environment or landform in a process called
deposition
there are many types of depositional environments
but they can be classified into three main types:
 terrestrial environments
o land and water forms in this type of
environment can be found on land and
usually involve freshwater. here are some
depositional environments that fall under
this category
fluvial rivers and streams
eolian deserts and arid
environments
alluvial ice caps and glaciers
glacial mountainous
environments
lacustrine lakes
ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS AND WATERFORMS
 mountains
o these are elevated (more than 2,000 ft)
areas of land, usually results of tectonic
forces. hills are similar to mountains but with
lesser steepness (below 2,000 ft).
 plains
o these are relatively flat expanses of land
that lie above sea level. plains can occur
EARTH SCIENCE
between two mountains as a valley. a o these are areas that are near rivers or
plateau is a plain that is relatively elevated coastlines where soils are saturated or
than the surrounding land. submerged in water. swamps are wetlands
 desserts where trees dominate the plant life.
o these are areas that receive little rainfall and marshes are wetlands where moss and soft-
have high rates of evaporation. despite this, stemmed vegetation are most prominent.
the most dominant agent of erosion in these
areas is running water, followed by wind.  marine environments
 glacial environments o these are environments that can be found in
o these are areas where the most dominant the open waters, from the shallow depths to
erosional agent is ice. glaciers are large the deepest portions of the ocean.
masses of moving ice over land. ice sheets
are also large masses of ice that cover an HERE ARE EXAMPLES OF MARINE
extensive area of land (more than 50,000 ENVIRONMENTS
km2). shallow marine/reef region where sunlight
 rivers penetrates the water;
o long bodies of water that originate from high high energy
elevation (such as mountains or hills) and environment and
flow down to lower elevation (such as teeming with life
plains, mountain slopes, etc.). rivers are
usually supplied with water from rainfall, continental shelf extensions of
melted ice, or from natural springs from continental crust
underground in areas called drainage submerged by water
basins.
continental slope steep slope between
 transitional environments the shallow continental
o transitional environments represent the shelf and the deep
interface between land and sea. it is here ocean basin
where freshwater meets with seawater. deep marine region where sunlight
does not reach; low
HERE ARE SOME DEPOSITIONAL energy environment
ENVIRONMENTS THAT FALL UNDER
TRANSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS AND WATERFORMS

beach where land meets the  oceans

sea in shallow waters o these are large bodies of water that
surround continents. seas are smaller
deltaic where the river flows bodies of saltwater enclosed or partially
into the sea; freshwater enclosed by land and are connected to the
mixes with seawater ocean.
 atolls
tidal flat : a small body of water o these are rings or partial rings of coral that
closed off from a larger usually form around a volcanic island or
body of water (the volcano that has receded or been eroded
ocean) throughout time.
 guyots
o these are elevated platforms with flat tops
ASSOCIATED LANDFORMS AND WATERFORMS formed by volcanic activity near the ocean
floor. these can be massive and reach
 deltas heights of up to more than 600 m. they are
o these are areas at the end of the mouth of a also known as seamounts.
river where freshwater mixes with seawater.
 wetlands
COVERAGE:
1. basics of stratigraphy
EARTH SCIENCE
BASICS OF STRATIGRAPHY
 stratigraphy
is a branch of geology that deals with the study of
rock layers, beds, or strata (singular: stratum)
it is a discipline that correlates rocks and time,
helping us understand how, why, and when a
certain configuration of strata came to be.
in the 17th century, a catholic priest named
nicolaus steno formulated the guiding principles of
stratigraphy:
law of superposition if the sequence is
undisturbed, the layers
on the bottom are the
oldest while the layers
above them are
younger.
law of original strata are deposited
horizontality horizontally.
law of lateral continuity each stratum extends
laterally until it
encounters a barrier or
obstacle.
law of cross-cutting if a geologic body (like
relationship an intrusion) or
discontinuity (like a
fault) cuts across
strata, then it must be
younger than the strata
it cuts.
 intrusion
o is an igneous rock body that forms when
magma cuts through sedimentary layers
and solidifies before it reaches the surface
in the 19th century, an english geologist named
william smith applied these principles and
produced the first geological map of britain. since
then, he was regarded as the father of english
geology. he also introduced another important
principle of stratigraphy
 principle of faunal succession.
o sedimentary strata may contain fossils of
plants and animals in a definite and
invariable sequence.
o thus, the age of a stratum and another
stratum in a different location can be
correlated if they share the same fossil
assemblage.
sometimes, different processes can occur that can
lead to a gap in a rock sequence called an
unconformity. the “missing time” represented by
the unconformity in a rock sequence is called a
hiatus.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF UNCONFORMITIES
 disconformity
o this type of unconformity is present when
there is a missing stratum or strata in the
sequence, usually due to a period of non-
deposition or erosion.
 nonconformity.
o this occurs when sedimentary strata are
deposited on top of igneous or metamorphic
rock bodies.
 angular unconformity.
o when strata are disturbed by forces that
cause folding, tilting, and/or faulting, they no
longer appear horizontal. the surface is then
exposed to erosion and soon, another set of
sedimentary strata is deposited on top of
the disturbed sequence.
these principles and unconformities can be used to
identify the age of strata in relation to other strata in
a method called relative dating. however, this
method cannot identify the specific or absolute
age of a stratum.
EARTH SCIENCE
determining the absolute age of a layer requires
certain techniques collectively known as absolute
dating.
one of the best ways to date the numerical age of a
rock is to use an absolute dating method called
radioisotopic dating or radiometric dating.
as you’ve learned in chemistry, isotopes are
atoms of an element that have different
numbers of neutrons and thus, different atomic
masses. radioactive isotopes are unstable
(parent isotopes) and lose subatomic particles or
energy over time in a process called radioactive
decay.
eventually, the parent isotope’s configuration
reaches a more stable configuration and turns into
a daughter isotope. the half-life of a radioactive
isotope refers to the time it takes for half of the
atoms in a substance to decay.
depending on the rock type, different radiometric
dating methods can be used. here are some of the
most common radiometric dating methods:
one important thing to note in the table above is
that even though 14c – 14n dating is a common
dating technique, it does not date the age of the
sediments of the rocks. rather, it is commonly used
to date fossils (which contain c) in a rock.
fossils are essential to stratigraphy and serve as
a doorway through which we can know more about
prehistoric life.
FOSSILS AND GEOLOGICAL SCALE
 fossils
are the remains of life that are preserved within
sediments and sedimentary rocks.
 paleontology
is the study of fossils linking concepts of geology
and biology in order to understand prehistoric life
over geologic time.
when an animal or plant dies, decomposition,
scavengers, and other natural factors usually
remove the soft parts of the organism. so in order
to produce a fossil
two conditions must be observed:
(1) the organism must possess hard parts
(bones, teeth, etc.) and (2) rapid burial of the
remains increases the chance of preservation
DIFFERENT WAYS A FOSSIL CAN BE
PRESERVED
 permineralization
o this occurs when pores and open spaces in
tissue (such as bone and wood) are filled up
with minerals precipitated from mineral-rich
solutions such as groundwater.
o an example of permineralization at work is
when silica precipitates inside the pores of
the wood, creating petrified wood. the image
above is an example of a permineralized
dinosaur vertebra.
 molds and cast
o when organisms buried in sediment dissolve
or decay away, it leaves behind a hollow
space called mold in the shape of the
organism. if this hollow space is eventually
filled in by minerals, a cast is made.
 amber
o organisms in amber are exceptionally
preserved well, often still containing its soft
parts. these organisms are preserved when
they fall into a viscous tree sap which
hardens into amber.
 carbonization
o soft-bodied organisms and delicate plant
parts can be conserved via carbonization.
this happens when these organisms are
buried in sediment and eventually dissolve
away, leaving behind a thin layer of carbon
outlining the organism’s shape.
 freezing
o organisms can also be exceptionally
preserved when they are encased in ice. the
EARTH SCIENCE
image above is of lyuba, a baby mammoth flourishes and
that was found frozen in ice in Siberia diversifies (“cambrian
explosion”)
 trace fossils ordovician period : “age of
o a fossil doesn’t only pertain to the actual invertebrates”
organism. a fossil can be preserved records silurian period emergence of
of its activities such as tracks, burrows, plants on land
coprolites (fossilized poop), and gastroliths
(stomach stones). devonian period “age of fishes”;
o trace fossils can tell a lot about how an towards the end, true
organism lived– how it moved, what it ate, amphibians emerged
and other types of behavior. carboniferous period age of amphibians
mississippian amphibians
 the geologic time scale diversified; large coal
o the geologic time scale (gts) is a tool swamps formed
used by geologists in order to pennsylvanian emergence of reptiles
classify and date rocks and fossils. permian period existence of
instead of using numerical ages, time is pangaea; largest
divided into units such as eons, eras, mass extinction in
periods, epochs, and ages (in earth’s history
descending order of duration). occurred towards the
end (“the great
o the gts is maintained by an paleozoic extinction”)
international body called the triassic period dinosaurs
international commission on emerged; start of
stratigraphy (ics) which aims to create the age of
unified terminologies for geologists reptiles; first true
around the world to use in stratigraphy. mammals
(therapsids)
boundaries of time units change often, emerged as well
depending on new findings and discoveries.
jurassic period dinosaurs dominated
 based on the radiometric dating of the oldest the earth; first birds
rocks on earth, the age of earth is believed to emerged
be 4.534 billion years old. since then, a lot has cretaceous period first flowering plants
transpired on our little earth. paleogene period start of the age of
mammals
CONDENSED HISTORY OF THE EARTH neogene period mammals and birds
evolved into modern
hadean eon the formation of the forms; hominids, the
earth; magma ocean; ancestors of humans,
intense bombardment appeared towards the
of space bodies (“late end
heavy quaternary period current period; a
bombardment”) cycle of glacial and
archean eon life begins as interglacial periods
prokaryotic bacteria;
blue-green algae PLATE TECTONICS
start to produce
oxygen in the  the continental drift hypothesis
atmosphere o paved the way for the emergence and
proterozoic eon multicellular life acceptance of the plate tectonics theory.
emerges
cambrian period multicellular life
EARTH SCIENCE
o it was proposed by a german
meteorologist and geophysicist
named alfred wegener.
o wegener hypothesized that long ago,
there was a supercontinent that
consisted of all landmasses on earth.
o he named this supercontinent pangaea
(from the greek words pan meaning
“all” and gaia meaning “land”).
o he and other supporters of the
continental drift hypothesis collected
evidence to substantiate their claims.
EVIDENCE OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT
HYPOTHESIS
evidence #1. continental jigsaw puzzle
 if you take the boundaries of each continent and
try to fit them together, you’d get a landmass
similar to the configuration of pangaea.
 wegener argued that the remarkable fit of the
continents was more than a coincidence, citing
the almost perfect fit of south america and
africa.
evidence #2. fossils
 similar fossil remains of plants and animals
were found on continents that are currently
separated by large bodies of water.
paleontologists agreed that these organisms
wouldn’t have been able to cross these oceans
due to inherent characteristics
evidence #3. similar rock types and geologic
features
 large mountain belts of similar ages and rock
types could be matched with each other across
continents. this is the case with the appalachian
mountains in the eastern margin of north
america being similar to the caledonian
mountains in the western margin of
scandinavia.
evidence #4. ancient climates
 according to wegener, evidence suggesting that
there were glaciers before in present-day
continents (such as africa, south america, and
australia) located in the equator supported
continental drift.
 however, the opposition to the hypothesis
suggested that this may be due to a period of
extreme global cooling.
 wegener asserted that this was not the case
because there was also evidence showing that
large tropical swamps co-existed with the
glaciers at the time.
EARTH SCIENCE
despite all these pieces of evidence, the
continental drift hypothesis was still not
accepted by the scientific community mostly
because of one problem: wegener could not
explain how the continents drifted. it wasn’t
until after his death would the mystery be
solved.
The Development of the Plate Tectonics
Theory
after world war ii, extensive ocean exploration led
to the discovery of the global oceanic ridge
system which spans around the globe, making it
the longest mountain range in the world (around
80,000 km long).
 new oceanic crust forms in the axis of
this ridge system.
 rocks become progressively older and
thicker with sediment away
 from the axis. this phenomenon was
termed as seafloor spreading by harry
hess and robert dietz.
 the plate tectonics
o model states that the lithosphere is broken
up into rigid slabs called tectonic plates or
simply plates. these plates overlie the
ductile asthenosphere, allowing them to be
in constant motion with respect to one
another.
there are seven major plates that cover 94% of
the earth’s surface area:
1. african plate
2. antarctic plate
3. eurasian plate
4. indo-australian plate
5. north american plate
6. pacific plate
7. south american plate
there are also minor plates such as the philippine
sea plate, juan de fuca plate, cocos plate, nazca
plate, scotia plate, and arabian plate.
 as mentioned earlier, plates are always in
constant motion. because of this, the margins
of the plates are always interacting with one
another. the sites where these margins interact
are called plate boundaries.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
 divergent plate boundaries (constructive
margins)
o divergent plate boundaries are formed when
two plates move apart relative to each
other.
o these plate boundaries are also called
constructive margins because the
pulling apart of two plates results in the
migration of molten material from the
mantle to the surface, generating a new
crust. divergent boundaries can be found
both on the ocean floor and inland.
o divergent boundaries on the ocean floor
manifest as the oceanic ridge system, which
was discussed earlier.
o new seafloor is generated via seafloor
spreading. as the seafloor gets older, it
gets denser and moves toward the edge
of the plate. simply put, younger oceanic
crust is hot and therefore less dense,
while the older oceanic crust is cooler
and denser.
EARTH SCIENCE
- the rate of spreading varies along the
oceanic ridge system, going as slow as
2 cm/year or as fast as 15 cm/year.
o divergent boundaries that occur within a
continent generate an elongated
depression called a continental rift.
these rifts form by the stretching and
thinning out of the lithosphere.
o the rift valleys can grow wide enough to
split the continent apart, producing large
depressions. these depressions would
eventually be filled up with water,
producing new ocean basins.
 in a subduction zone, partial melting is
induced in the overlying continental crust,
producing volcanic activity called continental
volcanic arcs. the subduction of the oceanic
crust usually results in large, deep linear
depressions on the ocean floor called deep-
ocean trenches.
 the deepest oceanic trench in the world is the
marianas trench in the western pacific
ocean with a depth of nearly 11,000 km, deeper
than the height of mt. everest (8,800 km).

- a good modern-day example of b. oceanic-oceanic plates convergence

continental rifting at work is the red sea
in the east african rift in eastern
africa.

 convergent boundaries (destructive

margins)

o convergent boundaries are the sites where

plates move towards each other, resulting
in a collision or one plate going under the
other in a process called subduction.
o they are called destructive margins
 when two oceanic plates collide, the older
because the crust is consumed in the
and denser one subducts.
process.
 much like oceanic-continental convergence,
a. oceanic-continental plates convergence the subduction of one plate generates
volcanism which forms a chain of volcanic
islands called a volcanic island arc or
simply an island arc.

 most of the island arcs are located in the

western portion of the pacific ocean, while
a few can be found in the atlantic ocean.

c. continental-continental plate
convergence

 in this case, the denser or heavier block

subducts or goes underneath the lesser
dense block. because the oceanic crust is
made up of basalt, it subducts underneath
the continental crust made up of the lighter
granitic material in a zone called the
subduction zone.
EARTH SCIENCE
 because continental crust is too thick and
buoyant to be subducted, the majority of the
crustal material is deformed and pushed up
instead. this results in the accumulation of
sediments and rocks along the margin, forming
mountain belts in a process called orogeny.

 the most famous example of this would be the

himalayan mountain range formed from the
collision of the indian and eurasian plates
nearly 50 million years ago.

3. transform plate boundaries (conservative

margins)

o when slippage happens, the stored energy

is released in the form of seismic waves. the
seismic waves travel through the earth and
cause it to shake.

THESE WAVES CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO

TYPES

 body waves
o body waves are waves that travel through
the interior of the earth. there are two types
 these plate boundaries are characterized by of body waves: primary waves (p waves)
two plates sliding past each other and secondary waves or (s waves).
 not destroying or producing new crustal
material. they are also called transform faults
and are usually found in fracture zones.

 fracture zones
o are linear breaks on the ocean floor that
run perpendicular to oceanic ridges. an
active transform fault lies between the two
offset oceanic ridges, while the areas
beyond the ridge zones are inactive zones.

EARTHQUAKE

 earthquakes
o occur when one block of earth slips past
another block along surfaces called faults
or fault planes and generates ground
shaking.
o the area under the earth where the slippage
originates is called the hypocenter or
focus
o the epicenter refers to the point on the
earth’s surface that is directly above the
hypocenter
o primary waves
- these are the fastest seismic waves and
can travel through solid, liquid, and gas.
- these waves push and pull the rocks in
the direction the wave is traveling.
- they are also called compressional
waves because of this behavior.
o secondary waves
EARTH SCIENCE
- these waves cause the rocks to shake
up and down at right angles with respect
to the direction of the traveling wave.
- s waves are slower than p waves and
can only travel through solids.
- because of this, s waves cannot
propagate through the liquid outer core.
they are also called shear waves.
 surface waves
o surfaces waves, as the name implies, can
only travel on the surface of the earth.
o these are the waves that can cause
tremendous damage. there are also two
types:
 love waves
o these waves are responsible for shaking the
ground horizontally and vertically in an s-like
pattern.
 rayleigh waves
o these waves move in a rolling motion similar
to ocean waves.
 sometimes, before the main earthquake or
mainshock,, smaller and weaker quakes
called foreshocks occur, the mainshock is
the largest quake in the sequence.
 weaker and shorter quakes called
aftershocks usually occur afterward. these
quakes may or may not be felt, depending on
the size of the mainshock, and can even occur
over a period of days, weeks, or even months.
thousands of earthquakes occur every day around
the world, but most of these are too small to be
felt by people or cause damage.
 seismology
o is the study of earthquakes.
o instruments that are very sensitive to
ground shaking called seismographs or
seismometers are used by seismologists to
record earthquakes.
in order to describe and classify earthquakes, the
intensity and magnitude are determined.
 intensity
refers to the qualitative measurement of the
amount of ground shaking at a certain location,
depending on the amount of damage to property,
life, and nature.
 different intensity scales are used in different
countries. in countries like the united states, the
modified mercalli intensity scale is used.
 in the philippines, however, the phivolcs
earthquake intensity scale (peis) is used. this
scale was developed by the philippine
institute of volcanology and seismology
(phivolcs) as a response to the devastating
1990 luzon earthquake.
 magnitude
o refers to the quantitative measurement of
the amount of energy released at the
earthquake’s source.
o before, the most commonly used scale for
measuring the magnitude is called the
richter scale which measures the
amplitude of the largest seismic wave on
a seismogram.
o now, seismologists use the moment
magnitude (mw) scale which measures
the total amount of energy released by
an earthquake. the moment magnitude
scale proves to be more effective in
measuring stronger earthquakes (mw 5 and
above) than the richter scale.
 faults
o where do earthquakes come from?
fortunately for some (and unfortunately for
others), nearly 81% of earthquakes occur
in a very tectonically-active region called
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the circum-pacific belt (popularly known
as the ring of fire).
o the next most tectonically-active seismic
belt is the alpine-himalayan belt where
17% of the world’s earthquakes occur.
the rest of the earthquakes occur along the
mid-atlantic ridge in the atlantic ocean.
earthquakes along the seismic belts originate
from convergent plate boundaries. the contact
between the two interacting plates is called
megathrust faults which can produce earthquakes
of mw 9.0 and above.
 natural or man-made events can cause
earthquakes.
o earthquakes caused by the eruption of
volcanoes are called volcanic
earthquakes.
o generally, small earthquakes called
collapse earthquakes occur when
underground caves or mines collapse.
o the detonation of explosives can also
cause earthquakes called explosion
earthquakes
 the most common type of earthquake, tectonic
earthquakes, are caused by fault movement.
THERE ARE MAIN TYPES OF FAULTS
 normal faults
o in a normal fault, the hanging wall moves
down relative to the footwall.
o Normal faults are the result of tensional
forces that pull the two slabs apart.
o they are also known as tensional faults,
gravity faults, or normal-slip faults.
 reverse faults
o in a reverse fault, the hanging wall moves
up relative to the footwall.
o this type of fault is the result of
compressional forces that push the two
slabs together, shoving the hanging wall
above the underlying block.
o these faults are also known as thrust faults,
compression faults, or reverse-slip faults.
 strike-slip faults
o in a strike-slip fault, blocks move
horizontally with respect to one another due
to shearing forces.
 left-lateral strike-slip faults (or sinistral
faults)
o occur when one block moves to the left
relative to the other block.
o right-lateral strike-slip faults (or dextral
faults) occur when the block moves to the
right.
 oblique-slip faults
o a combination of shearing forces and
tensional or compressional forces would
result in an oblique-slip fault, pictured
above.
EARTHQUAKE RELATED HAZARDS
 as we all know, major earthquakes can have
devastating effects on both living and nonliving
things. depending on the destructive force of
the earthquake, it can cause the following
events:
 landslides and ground subsidence
o these are caused by ground shaking during
an earthquake.
o landslide
- is a form of mass wasting where large
amounts of earth move down a slope
under the influence of gravity.
- they can have devastating effects
especially in heavily populated areas
near hillsides or mountain slopes.
o subsidence
- is the sudden sinking of the earth’s
surface due to the movement of the
earth underneath.
o liquefaction
EARTH SCIENCE
- is similar to subsidence but occurs
when sediments are saturated with
water. while these events can occur
naturally, they are usually aggravated
by earthquakes.
 flooding and water-related hazards
o during and after an earthquake, large water
pipes underground and dams may be
damaged and fail. these can cause flooding
in populated areas which may result in
property damage and harm to life.
o in enclosed bodies of water such as lakes
or reservoirs, waves called seiches may
occur.
- these are oscillating waves that
produce major fluctuations in the
water level, depending on the
strength of the earthquake.
o one of the most dangerous effects of
earthquakes that originate offshore are
tsunamis.
- tsunamis are giant waves that are
produced when a fault displaces a
large slab of the ocean floor they
are nearly undetectable in the open
ocean, but once tsunamis reach
shallow waters, wave height
increases dramatically and can reach
up to 30 m, like what happened in the
2004 indian ocean mw 9.1
megathrust earthquake in sumatra,
indonesia.
 damage to man-made structures
o depending on the material used and the
way they were constructed, structures such
as buildings, bridges, roads, dams, and
others are susceptible to damage.
o damage can range from cracks on the
walls to the total destruction of property.
fires can also break out due to severed
gas and electrical lines. coupled with
broken water pipelines, even small fires can
quickly spread and cause massive
damages.
o spillage of hazardous chemicals from
factories and chemical containment
facilities is also a possible threat, such as
the leakage of radioactive water from the
fukushima nuclear power plant during the
2011 japan earthquake.
 volcanism
o is a geological process where hot molten
rock from underneath the earth reaches the
surface through an opening in the ground.
the most recognizable form of an opening is
a volcano where molten material flows out
onto the surface during a volcanic eruption.
 eruption
o describes how the molten material was
ejected; whether it was violent (explosive
eruptions), non-explosive (effusive
eruptions), or what caused the eruption
(hydrothermal, phreatic, phreatomagmatic,
etc.).
the formation of volcanoes is deeply tied with the
theory of plate tectonics.
THERE ARE THREE MAIN WAYS MAGMA CAN
RISE TO FORM VOLCANOES
 convergent boundaries
o as previously discussed, a process called
partial melting occurs in subduction zones,
responsible for heating and partial melting
of the rocks in the overlying plate.
o this is caused by the introduction of volatiles
(seawater, water from minerals, and other
fluids) from the oceanic lithosphere, which
lowers the melting temperature of the
surrounding rocks. the molten rock then
starts to ascend to the surface in the form of
volcanic activity.
 divergent boundaries
o when plates move apart, there is a
reduction of pressure in the lithosphere,
allowing for magma in the asthenosphere to
rise and induce partial melting of the
surrounding rocks.
o a good example of divergent boundary-
produced volcanism can be found in the
mid-atlantic ridge.
 hotspots and mantle plumes
EARTH SCIENCE
o mantle plumes are areas where the mantle
rises towards the surface, originating from
deep within the mantle. a hotspot is the
surface manifestation of a mantle plume.
o unlike the other two ways, volcanism at
hotspots does not occur at plate
boundaries. as plates move above a
hotspot, the increase in temperature
induces partial melting and generates
hotspot volcanism.
o the most famous example of hotspot
volcanism is the hawaiian-emperor
seamount chain.
 volcano morphology
different types of volcanoes have different shapes
and sizes. however, most volcanoes share certain
characteristics.
HERE IS THE ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED
VOLCANO
 magma chamber
o the reservoir of molten material in the earth
crust; replenished with magma from a
deeper reservoir in the mantle
 main vent
o the pathway for magma to come the surface
 crater
o bowl-shaped depression located at the
summit of the volcano that serves as the
opening of the volcano to the earth’s
surface
 secondary cone
o smaller parasitic volcanoes that feed on the
same magma chamber as the main volcano
through secondary vents usually emits
volcanic gas called fumaroles
 pyroclastic materials
o any kind of volcanic material that is
extruded by a volcano such as bombs,
blocks, ashes, and others
TYPES OF VOLCANO
 shield volcanoes
o shield volcanoes are large dome-shaped
volcanoes that have broad gentle slopes
and large craters. the largest volcano on
earth, mauna loa in hawaii, is a shield
volcano.
o these volcanoes get their broad form due to
the accumulation of layers of runny, fast-
moving basaltic lava flows.
o shield volcanic eruptions are typically
gentle and non-explosive, consisting of
lava fountains, lava flows, and rarely any
pyroclastic materials.
 cinder cones
o cinder cones (also known as scoria cones
or ash-cinder cones) are steeper and
have smaller craters than shield
volcanoes. they are usually made up of
loose pyroclastic material called scoria, a
dark-colored igneous rock that is highly
vesicular (has lots of vesicles or cavities)
made from extruded basaltic magma.
o cinder cone eruptions are moderately
explosive, with lava coming from inside the
vent or at the base of the volcano. cinder
cones usually have a short lifespan and
are the most common types of
volcanoes.
 composite volcanoes or stratovolcanoes
o a composite volcano is probably the most
recognizable form of the volcano, with its
symmetrical steep-sided cone-shaped
morphology. alternating layers of viscous
andesitic lava flows, volcanic ash, and
cinders are responsible for its shape.
EARTH SCIENCE
o eruptions tend to be violently explosive
and can cause lava flows, pyroclastic
flows, large ash clouds, and even lahar.
famous examples of stratovolcanoes are
mt. fuji in japan and mt. mayon in the
philippines.
o when a particularly explosive eruption
occurs, the stratovolcano could collapse
and form a large depression called a
caldera. our very own taal volcano is a
good example of a caldera filled in by
water, creating the taal lake.
VOLCANO RELATED HAZARDS
 volcanoes can be deadly forces of nature
and impacts of volcanic hazards have been
well-documented throughout the years. here are
some of the common volcanic hazards:
 pyroclastic flow
o a pyroclastic flow is a rapidly-moving
current consisting of hot gases and tephra
(volcanic material) driven by gravity. they
are also known as nuée ardentes (french
term meaning “glowing cloud”).
pyroclastic flows usually accompany
explosive eruptions.
 lahars
o lahar flows occur when volcanic material
becomes saturated with water, possibly
from rainfall or melted ice, and rapidly
descends down steep volcano slopes.
o this type of volcanic hazard is particularly
dangerous because it can happen even
when a volcano is not erupting. the lahar
flows during and after the 1991 mt.
pinatubo eruption is a good example of the
destructive power that lahar flows can bring.
 lava flows
o depending on the viscosity of the lava,
lava flows can spread out over large
distances. runny lava flows spread out
more quickly before they solidify, compared
to viscous lava.
o due to extreme temperatures (from 600c to
1000 c), lava flows cannot be easily diverted
or stopped. fortunately, most lava flows can
be outrun by a person on foot.
o there are three main types of lava flows.
- the first one is called aa flows
(pronounced as “ah-ah”) and is
characterized by spiky and rough
surfaces.
- the second one is called pahoehoe
flows (pronounced as “pa-hoy-
hoy”) and is described as having a
“rope-y” appearance with smooth
surfaces.
- the last one occurs when lava is
extruded along the oceanic ridge,
producing smooth rounded shapes
called pillow lavas.
 volcanoes in the philippines are classified
as active (erupted within the last 600 years),
potentially active, and inactive. as of 2020,
there are 24 active volcanoes out of 407
volcanoes in the philippines (delos reyes,
2018).
CLIMATE, WEATHER, ATMOSPHERE
 the atmosphere is a collective layer of gas.
the air that fills our atmosphere is composed of
many different gases.
 besides these gases, the atmosphere is also
composed of minor and variable components
such as water vapor, aerosols, and ozone that
vary in abundance depending on time, location,
and other factors.
 despite occurring in relatively small amounts,
these components are still very important and
can have significant effects on the
atmosphere.
EARTH SCIENCE
 water vapor
o water vapor is the primary source of
precipitation and cloud formation in the
atmosphere and thus, a very important
factor when predicting the weather.
o ozone depletion became a global issue
in the 20th century primarily due to the
overuse of chlorofluorocarbons (cfcs) that
entered the atmosphere and broke down
the ozone.

o water vapor is also one of the most

important greenhouse gases because it
helps absorb heat that radiates from the
earth, heating the atmosphere.
- greenhouse gases (ghg) are gases
that trap heat in the earth’s
atmosphere and include other gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, and ozone. humidity
refers to the amount of water vapor
or moisture in the atmosphere.
 aerosols
o these are minuscule solid and liquid
particles that are suspended in the air.
o common examples of aerosols are smoke,
pollen, sea salt, dust, airborne
microorganisms, and other natural or man-
made sources.
o this problem was addressed with the
implementation of the montreal protocol
by the united nations in order to ban the
production and use of cfcs starting in 1987.
PARTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
 the atmosphere is not uniform all
throughout. in
fact, as you go from the bottom (earth’s surface) to
the top (towards space), you will observe changes
in temperature and pressure.
 as you go up the atmosphere, the pressure
decreases due to fewer air molecules
“pressing down” on you.
 most of the air molecules are heavy and are
concentrated near the surface of the earth.

o because of their size and weight, aerosols

can remain suspended in the air for long
periods of time (even years!).

o aerosols have two important functions in

the atmosphere:
- they can be “cloud seeds” or cloud
condensation nuclei upon which
clouds form and (2)
- they can also absorb, reflect, and
scatter incoming solar radiation
from the sun, preventing harsh on the other hand, temperature changes differently
amounts of uv rays that can be as you go from one atmospheric layer to another.
damaging to earth’s inhabitants.
 ozone LETS TAKE A LOOK AT THE DIFFERENT LAYERS
o as previously discussed, ozone is one of OF THE ATMOSPHERE.
the primary ghg (greenhouse gases) in
the atmosphere. it is a form of oxygen with
three oxygen atoms in each molecule (o3).

o like aerosols, ozone plays an important

part in absorbing potentially harmful uv
radiation from the sun.
EARTH SCIENCE
considered the “final frontier” of the
atmosphere.

WEATHER VERSUS CLIMATE

 as mentioned above, the troposphere is the

layer in which all weather phenomena occur.
the study of weather phenomena is called
 troposphere meteorology.
o this is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
in this layer, temperature decreases with
increasing altitude.
o the troposphere is the most important
layer for meteorologists because all of
the weather phenomena occur here.
o the outermost boundary of the troposphere
is called tropopause.

 stratosphere
o the temperature in this region increases with
altitude because the ozone layer is
located here

o as discussed earlier, the ozone layer

becomes hot due to the absorption and
trapping of uv rays from the sun.
o commercial airplanes fly in the lower
portions of the stratosphere because of the
less frequent turbulence experienced, unlike
in the troposphere.
o the end of the stratosphere is marked by
stratopause.
 mesosphere
o the coldest temperatures in the atmosphere
(around -90°c) can be found at the end of
this layer at the mesopause.
o the mesosphere protects us from meteors
by burning up most meteors and
asteroids before they reach the earth’s
surface.
 thermosphere
o temperatures start to rise again in this layer
due to the constant absorption of high-
energy radiation from the sun by atoms of
oxygen and nitrogen. it is in this layer where
satellites orbit around the earth.
o at the end of the thermosphere is a very thin
layer of air called the exosphere which is
 weather
o refers to the conditions of the atmosphere in
a region over a short period of time
 climate
o on the other hand, is the long-term behavior
of the atmosphere over a region.
 meteorologists use humidity, air pressure,
temperature, wind, and other factors in order
to gain a better understanding of weather and
climate in a region.
 the hydrological cycle
water is inexplicably tied to a lot of earth processes,
including processes in the atmosphere.
 water goes through a constant journey of
evaporation and condensation called the
hydrological cycle or water cycle that is
primarily driven by the radiation from the sun.
regardless of what we can observe on the
earth’s surface, the hydrological cycle occurs
continuously for millions of years above, on,
and below the ground.
- although the water cycle does not have
a starting point, we can start in the
EARTH SCIENCE
ocean, where the heat from the sun
evaporates water into vapor.
- these water vapors are then
transported into the atmosphere due
to rising air currents where they form
clouds.
- colder temperatures in the
atmosphere encourage clouds to
condense and precipitate.
- precipitation reaches the surface of
the earth and flows down slopes as
runoff. some of the water seeps into the
ground and replenishes the groundwater
in aquifers (underground freshwater
reservoirs).
 eventually, all rivers and streams arrive at their
ultimate destination, the ocean, and the cycle
repeats.
 indeed, the hydrological cycle is an
important system upon which all of the
earth’s residents depend on.
CLOUD FORMATION
 clouds
o are one of the easily observable indicators
of weather conditions.
o clouds start out when water vapor in the air
changes to liquid in a process called
condensation and form around a “cloud
seed” or condensation nuclei (aerosols).
soon, a cloud is formed from millions of
tiny cloud droplets.
 there are different types of clouds that are
classified according to form and height. based
on height, there are low clouds (0-2000 m),
middle clouds (2000-6000 m), and high clouds
(over 6000 m).
THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF CLOUDS
BASED ON THE FORM
 cirrus clouds
o (from latin word cirrus meaning “lock of
hair”). these are thin, wispy, and white
clouds that resemble hair.
 stratus clouds
o (from latin word stratum meaning “layer”).
these are thin layers of clouds that cover
extensive portions of the sky.
 cumulus clouds
o (from latin word cumulo meaning “a heap”).
these are big, cotton candy-looking clouds
that can stack vertically in a tower-like
manner.
WIND FORMATION
 wind
o is generated when air flows from regions of
high pressure to regions of low pressure
caused by the unequal heating of the
earth’s surface.
IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE FOLLOWING
FACTORS
 pressure gradient force
o physics tells us that when an object
encounters an unbalanced force in one
direction, it will accelerate in the same
direction.
o this is what happens when there are
horizontal pressure differences in the air.
this variation in air pressure is the driving
force of the wind.
 Coriolis effect
o when the wind moves, it does not go in a
straight line. it is deflected from its original
path due to the earth’s rotation in a
phenomenon called the coriolis effect.
EARTH SCIENCE
o the earth spins in a counterclockwise
direction and so, all free-moving objects
(including the wind) are deflected to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the
left in the southern hemisphere.
 friction
o friction with the earth’s surface is caused by
the terrain the winds encounter. this could
include mountains, hills, forests, and even
man-made structures that hinder the flow of
wind.
OTHER TYPES OF WEATHER PHENOMENA
 typhoons, hurricanes, and cyclones
o these refer to the same thing: areas of low
pressure that form over oceans that are
characterized by a spiral movement of viral
winds. the only difference between them is
where they formed
o typhoons are storms that form in the
western pacific.
o hurricanes are storms that form in the
atlantic ocean and eastern pacific,
o while cyclones form over the south pacific
and the indian ocean.
 thunderstorms
o these are associated with cumulonimbus
clouds, heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning,
and sometimes tornadoes.
o they are caused by the upward movement
of air that is moist and warm. lightning is
caused by the electric charge that results
from the collision of ice crystals (cloud
droplets) in the air.
 tornadoes
o these are columns of violently spinning air
that extend downwards from cumulonimbus
clouds. most tornadoes are short-lived but
can still cause extensive damage to
property, nature, and life along their path.
 precipitation
o precipitation occurs when any form of water
particles descend from the atmosphere
towards the earth’s surface.
o the most common form of precipitation is
rain (water droplets). other types of
precipitation can include sleet (pellets of
ice), hail (lumps of ice), snow (ice crystals),
and drizzle (very fine water droplets).
 el niño
o this is a weather pattern that affects
countries near the southern pacific ocean.
o during normal conditions, wind along the
equator pushes warm surface water near
south america towards the western pacific
countries (such as indonesia, philippines,
etc.). the warm surface water is soon
replaced by cooler water from underneath.
o however, during el niño, warm water from
the western pacific flows instead towards
south america and up north towards the
western portion of north america. this
phenomenon induces changes in weather
patterns, marine fisheries, and ocean
conditions.
o el niño is part of a weather cycle called el
niño-southern oscillation (enso) and is
known as the warm phase of enso. la
niña, the cold phase, can be considered as
the opposite of el niño.
 the philippine atmospheric, geophysical, and
astronomical services administration
(pagasa) is the authority on all meteorological,
climatological, and astronomical phenomena
related to the philippines. as seen on the news,
pagasa
- is responsible for monitoring tropical
cyclone activity within the philippine area
of responsibility (par).
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