Introduction
Mycotoxins and food
safety
David Atkins and
Julie Norman
The authors
David Atkins and Julie Norman are joint Head of Food
Contaminants Division of MAFF and the Department of
Health’s Joint Food Safety and Standards Group, London,
UK.
Abstract
A review of the food safety implications of crops contami-
nated by mycotoxins. Each of the most important mycotox-
ins, aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and patulin, are described
individually with details of national and international
safety evaluations and the UK’s controls to protect con-
sumer safety. The state of play of EC proposals to har-
monise national laws on mycotoxins is also described.
Consumer perceptions of risk from these natural toxicants
are assessed. Mycotoxins present a potential threat to
consumer safety. Continued vigilance is necessary to
ensure that regulatory and advisory limits are complied
with. MAFF surveys regularly check the foods most at risk
of contamination and where a problem is unearthed,
consumers and industry are alerted as soon as possible
through rapid publication procedures. Subsequent
monitoring of the situation ensures that effective action is
taken to protect consumer safety.
Nutrition & Food Science
Number 5 · September/October 1998 · pp. 260–266
© MCB University Press · ISSN 0034-6659
260
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring, toxic
chemicals which can be produced by fungi
infecting agricultural crops during the
growth, drying and subsequent storage of the
crop. If eaten, they can produce toxic effects
in human and animals.
Human reactions to mycotoxins have been
recorded since ancient times. Throughout the
Middle Ages, when rye bread was the staple
diet of many Europeans, there were numerous
outbreaks of ergot poisoning when it appears
that “the staff of life became the sceptre of
death”. Symptoms included hallucination,
manic depression, gangrene, abortion,
decreased fertility and could lead to painful
convulsive death. The poisonings have been
linked to the production of the mycotoxin
ergot by contamination of the cereal by the
fungi Claviceps purpurea. It is now believed by
some historians that ergot played a major role
in limiting the population of Europe during
the Middle Ages, with population growth only
increasing significantly in the mid-eighteenth
century as a result of the introduction of
wheat and potatoes as dietary staples (Smith
et al., 1994).
Mycotoxin contamination of food and
feeds remains a world-wide problem. The
United Nation’s Food and Agriculture
Organisation has estimated that as much as 25
per cent of the world’s food is significantly
contaminated (Smith et al., 1994). Countries
of the European Community (EC) are some-
what less at risk than the populations of less
developed countries because of the generally
high standards of major food suppliers and
retailers, and also because of relatively tight
regulatory controls which deter import of the
most contaminated material. As a conse-
quence, the most contaminated material is
probably consumed by those populations,
such as some of the producer countries them-
selves, which may not benefit from this level of
consumer protection.
Although many mycotoxins have been
identified by the scientific literature, these
have been found mostly under laboratory
conditions. Only a relatively small number
have been shown to occur naturally in food
and animal feed at sufficiently high levels and
frequency of occurrence to be of concern.
The main mycotoxins of interest at present
are:
 Mycotoxins and food safety
David Atkins and Julie Norman
• aflatoxins,
• ochratoxin A,
• fumonisins,
• patulin,
• moniliformin,
• sterigmatocystin,
• tricothecenes and
• zearalenone.
This list may increase as more assessments are
made of toxicology and implications for con-
sumer safety.
To protect consumers, the Ministry of
Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF)
regularly checks food for mycotoxins. These
surveys, first reported in 1980 (MAFF,
1980), have identified the foods most at risk
of contamination problems, which have been
subsequently dealt with through regulation or
codes of practice and advice. For both aflatox-
ins and patulin, consumer exposure has been
reduced substantially by this action and by
subsequent follow-up surveys. Details of these
results and MAFF’s other work on mycotox-
ins can be found in the publications listed in
Appendix.
UK regulation of mycotoxins
As with all food chemical contaminants, the
general provisions of the Food Safety Act
(HMSO, 1990) offer consumer protection
against the gross contamination of food by
mycotoxins. In addition, aflatoxins, which of
all the mycotoxins are generally considered to
present the greatest threat to food safety, are
specifically regulated in the UK (HMSO,
1992). Throughout the world, this group is
the most highly regulated of the mycotoxins
since they are not only animal carcinogens,
but are generally recognised to be human
carcinogens as well.
World-wide, many advisory bodies con-
cerned with food safety, including the World
Health Organisation’s Joint Expert Commit-
tee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the
European Community’s Scientific Committee
for Food (SCF), have assessed the risk from
mycotoxins and have advocated controls to
reduce consumer exposure. In the UK, the
control of mycotoxins has been based on
expert advice from the Committee on Toxicity
of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products
and the Environment (COT) and the Food
Advisory Committee (FAC). Their advice on
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the need to control consumer exposure to
individual mycotoxins is summarised below.
Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are produced predominantly by
two species of mould, Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus. They are a group of
difuranocoumarin derivatives of which 18
types have been identified. The main ones are
B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1. They are found in a
wide variety of foodstuffs including nuts,
cereals, dried fruit and milk. However, the
growth of these mould species are not
favoured by the temperatures and humidity of
most EC countries and therefore products
imported from third countries with hot and
humid climates present the major sources,
either directly through contaminated nuts and
figs, or indirectly through contaminated
animal feeding stuffs. When cattle consume
feed contaminated by aflatoxin B1, it is
metabolised to aflatoxin M1 and appears in
the milk.
All aflatoxins are acutely and chronically
toxic, although to varying degrees. Aflatoxin
B1 is considered to be among the most potent
carcinogens known and has been linked
epidemiologically with cases of human liver
cancer in a number of developing countries.
However, even in these cases the picture is not
clear, since the role of other factors such as
Hepatitis B must be considered in the disease
process. It is therefore extremely difficult to
assess the level of risk to most consumers in
the EC who experience occasional low levels
of exposure. Because of the profound toxicity
in animals, most regulators have followed the
precautionary principle and have insisted on
extremely low limits which are as low as can
be practically achieved. It is no surprise that
the European Community has begun with
aflatoxins in its task of harmonising its laws on
mycotoxins.
The COT concluded, in the light of
evidence of animal carcinogenicity and
probable human carcinogenicity, that
aflatoxins in food should be reduced to the
lowest level that is technologically achievable
(MAFF, 1980). Following subsequent advice
from the FAC (MAFF, 1980), in 1992 the
Aflatoxins in Nuts, Nut Products, Dried Figs and
Dried Fig Products Regulations (HMSO, 1992)
set limits of 4µg/kg (microgram per kilogram
or part per billion – ppb) for total aflatoxins in
food ingredients and finished products for
 Mycotoxins and food safety
David Atkins and Julie Norman
consumers, and 10µg/kg for products desig-
nated for further processing to reduce the
aflatoxin levels before sale or
incorporation into a product for human
consumption. Subsequent surveys (listed in
Appendix) have shown that the advice of the
COT and FAC and the consequent regulation
have reduced the exposure of UK consumers
to aflatoxins. Further consumer protection is
offered by the Feeding Stuffs Regulations
which, through maximum limits for aflatoxin
B1 in animal feed, ensure that consumers are
not exposed to unacceptable levels of the toxic
metabolite, aflatoxin M1, in milk.
Ochratoxin A
Ochratoxins are a group of structurally related
derivatives of isocoumarin linked to L-pheny-
lalanine of which ochratoxin A is the most
common. A range of fungal species from the
genera Aspergillus and Penicillium is able to
produce ochratoxin A. Contamination is most
commonly associated with cereals, pulses and
coffee. Unlike aflatoxins, the organisms which
produce ochratoxin A can thrive in the
temperatures and humidity commonly found
in temperate countries.
Ochratoxin A has been linked with kidney
damage in pigs and in humans has been asso-
ciated with a chronic progressive kidney
disease (Balkan endemic nephropathy), pre-
dominantly affecting women, which may lead
to death (Krugh, 1980). Ochratoxin A
appears to be an animal carcinogen, but there
is uncertainty over its status as a human car-
cinogen. The COT concluded in 1992 that
ochratoxin A is a genotoxic carcinogen and
advised that levels in food should be reduced
to the lowest level that is technologically
achievable (MAFF, 1993).
The FAC considered the implications of
the COT’s advice for the UK food supply in
1992 and published its opinion in a statement
in Food Surveillance Paper, No. 36 (MAFF,
1993). It requested that surveillance of
ochratoxin A in UK-produced cereals and
animal feeding stuffs should continue with the
aim of developing a plan to reduce ochratoxin
A contamination to the lowest level techno-
logically achievable. However, it did not at
this time advocate regulation. The FAC
recently reviewed its position and advocated
EC regulation (see below) and specifically
advised that a limit be sought for dried vine
fruits in the light of the recent MAFF survey
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findings (Food Surveillance Information Sheet,
No. 130 – see Appendix).
Patulin
Patulin is a low molecular weight hemiacetal
lactone possessing wide spectrum antibiotic
properties which was at one time evaluated as
a treatment for the common cold. It is pro-
duced by a number of species of Aspergillus
and Penicillium. Most commonly and
importantly it is associated with Penicillium
expansum, a common storage rot of apples,
peaches, pears, bananas, apricots, cherries
and grapes. A series of extensive MAFF
surveys (Appendix) has shown that the major
dietary source in the UK is from apple juice
following the use of moulding or
damaged fruit. Since patulin is largely
destroyed by fermentation, cider is not a
significant source of the toxin.
Patulin is considered to be mutagenic,
although it may not be carcinogenic. It has also
been found from animal trials to have adverse
effects on the developing foetus and can cause
immunotoxic, neurotoxic and adverse affects
on the gastrointestinal tract. The UK currently
has an advisory maximum level of 50µg/kg for
patulin in apple juice. This level was agreed by
the FAC in 1992 following advice from the
COT that levels be reduced to the lowest
technologically achievable (MAFF, 1993).
Following further surveillance reports in 1993,
1994 and 1995 (see Appendix), the FAC
reconfirmed this level in 1995, but because of
its concerns that the advisory level is not fully
effective in removing grossly contaminated
apple juice from the food supply, it recom-
mended that officials should seek to have a
specific limit included in future EC regulation
of mycotoxins (MAFF and DH, 1995).
EC regulation
In the course of initial discussions, the
EC Commission suggested a number of
mycotoxins for future Community regulation,
but decided to defer consideration of all but
aflatoxins, pending the outcome of a safety
review of ochratoxin A and patulin by the
EC’s Scientific Committee for Food (SCF).
This move was supported by most Member
States, since of all the mycotoxins, aflatoxins
are considered to present the clearest toxic
hazard. Aflatoxins are also the most widely
controlled mycotoxin by current national
 Mycotoxins and food safety
David Atkins and Julie Norman
regulations and therefore provide the greatest
impetus for harmonisation.
The current EC proposals set limits for
aflatoxin B1 (2µg/kg) and total aflatoxins
(4µg/kg) in edible nuts, dried fruit and for
cereals and cereal products intended for direct
human consumption or as an ingredient in
foodstuffs. A higher limit of 5µg/kg B1 and
10µg/kg total aflatoxins is proposed for edible
nuts and dried fruit subject to further
treatment before consumption; and a level of
0.05µg/kg for M1 in milk. In addition,
specifically for groundnuts subject to further
treatment before consumption, higher limits
of 8µg/kg B1 and 15µg/kg total aflatoxins are
proposed. These proposals, although similar
to the current UK regulations (HMSO,
1992), will extend the range of commodities
covered to include cereals, dried fruit other
than figs and milk, which although not
considered in the UK to present important
sources of aflatoxins, will nonetheless offer
in principle a broader range of consumer
protection.
The procedures for sampling and analysis
are described by an associated draft Directive.
There are concerns about the unduly onerous
nature of the proposed sampling plan. It is
less practical than the sampling plan in the
current UK regulations, and may result in a
decreased level of enforcement testing with
reduced protection for UK consumers. How-
ever, Member States (MS) will have until 31
December 2000 to implement the sampling
directive and during the intervening period
regular meetings will be held to discuss
changes which may be required in the light of
any difficulties identified.
The documents have now been finalised at
EC Working Group level following the con-
sideration and comment by representatives of
the World Trade Organisation. The proposals
will go to the EC’s Standing Committee on
Foodstuffs for adoption, probably in June
1998, with the regulation coming into force
shortly afterwards. Most Member States are
likely to vote in favour of the proposed regula-
tion.
EC action on other mycotoxins
The EC Commission proposes to include
ochratoxin A in a future regulation. At the
Working Group meeting on 10 November
1997, the Commission sought advice from
Member States on which commodities should
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be included in this amending regulation, but
will not make a formal proposal until the EC’s
Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) has
completed its review of ochratoxin A. It seems
likely that the Commission will propose limits
of 5µg/kg for cereals, coffee and dried vine
fruits. The EC Commission also stated that
unless alternatives are suggested, the sam-
pling plan for ochratoxin A will be the same as
that for aflatoxins.
The EC Commission has also proposed to
return to a consideration of patulin once the
SCF has completed its review. Most Member
States with regulations or advisory levels
appear to favour 50µg/kg in fruit juices or just
apple juice. It is likely therefore that the EC
Commission will propose a harmonised limit
along these lines.
Although ochratoxin A and patulin are the
most likely candidates for EC Commission
proposals, it is possible that the current
toxicological study of fumonisins in the USA
may raise potential human health problems,
requiring regulatory intervention. In the
future, with increased knowledge about other
mycotoxins and their implications for food
safety, the EC may need to expand the scope
of its regulation.
Risks from contaminated foods entering
the UK from other EC Member States
Recent EC action imposing a temporary ban
on Iranian pistachio nuts (MAFF and DH,
1998) has raised a number of concerns about
the relative effectiveness of surveillance
testing regimes throughout the Community
and the potential for contaminated foods to
be brought to the UK market from other EC
ports without further testing. The UK has a
long history of mycotoxin surveillance and
statutory sampling and testing procedures,
which is not the case for all EC Member
States.
Current UK regulations apply to com-
modities when imported and subsequently to
food ingredients and final foods at retail. This
dual level of protection will continue to be the
case when there are EC regulations. When
produce is imported through another EC
Member State and brought to the UK, it is
possible to test further at the port of entry,
and subsequently up to the point of retail,
without contravention of Community free
trade rules. Nonetheless, it is easier to test and
control imports of food from third countries
 Mycotoxins and food safety
David Atkins and Julie Norman
when they are imported directly into the UK,
usually in large batches, through the ports of
entry designated by current UK regulations
(HMSO, 1992). Realistically, this trade will
continue, but the proposed EC regulation will
tighten up the current entry requirements of
many EC Member States for foods subject to
aflatoxin contamination and will reduce the
chances of contaminated material entering
the UK market.
The EC’s Food Control Working Group is
currently reviewing the general issue of third
country imports of non-animal origin via the
annual Co-ordinated Sampling Programme.
In 1998 this programme will focus on the
sampling of peanuts and pistachios for afla-
toxin contamination and the results will be
available to the Working Group in 1999.
MAFF’s mycotoxin surveillance
programme
To protect consumer safety, MAFF has a
broad programme of surveys on mycotoxins
which was first reported in 1980 in Food
Surveillance Paper, No. 4. Further results from
this programme have been subsequently
reported in further Food Surveillance Papers
(Nos 18 and 36) and by a range of Food
Surveillance Information Sheets (Appendix).
Recent mycotoxin surveys
The most recently reported survey looked at
levels of aflatoxins and OA in a number of
commodities. The results of this survey of 313
UK retail foods and 153 UK cereal samples
have been published as Food Surveillance
Information Sheet, No. 130 (Appendix).
Aflatoxins were not detected in any of the
samples analysed. Ochratoxin A, was not
detected in 75 per cent of samples. However,
27 samples were found to contain ochratoxin
A at concentrations above 4µg/kg. These
samples were predominantly dried vine fruits
(raisins, currants and sultanas) indicating a
possibly widespread problem with these
commodities.
Expert committee advice was sought on
the significance of these results for consumer
safety. The FAC (MAFF and DH, 1997a) has
endorsed the COT advice (MAFF and DH,
1997a) confirming that ochratoxin A should
be reduced to the lowest level that is techno-
logically achievable and recommended that
industry take immediate action to remedy this
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situation. Both committees have
recommended that a further survey should be
carried out as a matter of priority to check on
the effectiveness of this action. As well as
seeking the opinions of the COT and the
FAC, MAFF informed the industry of their
individual results and held a meeting with
them, consumers and health and enforcement
organisations. Industry was asked to take
action to reduce the level of contamination in
dried vine fruits. Subsequently, industry came
forward with a plan of action to improve the
situation including test procedures for
ochratoxin A, both in producing countries
and on import. In addition, a code of practice
is being developed to ensure that all dried vine
fruits sold in the UK are as free from
mycotoxins as possible.
MAFF has also communicated the survey
results to other EC Member States and to the
EC Commission. The EC Commission has
been asked to consider a regulatory limit for
ochratoxin A in vine fruits when regulatory
proposals on ochratoxin A are made in the
near future. MAFF will carry out a follow-up
survey in 1998 to check that the action being
taken by industry has been effective.
’…Mycotoxins present a potential threat
to consumer safety. Continued
vigilance is necessary to ensure that
raw materials and foods comply with
regulatory and advisory limits…‘
A survey of ochratoxin A in the 1997 UK
cereal harvest at intake to cereal stores and
following storage is currently being under-
taken and will be completed in 1998. It is
possible that conditions during the 1997
growing season, coupled with the damp
harvest, were particularly favourable for the
production of ochratoxin A in cereals. A
survey of the human exposure to ochratoxin A
is also being conducted. This will correlate
dietary intakes of ochratoxin A with concen-
trations in plasma and urine. Results from
these surveys will be used to support the UK
negotiating line in the forthcoming EC
negotiations on proposed limits for ochratoxin
A. In addition, two studies are under way to
develop statistically meaningful but practical
sampling plans for mycotoxins.
 Mycotoxins and food safety
David Atkins and Julie Norman
Two other surveys have been undertaken to
examine respectively the concentrations of
sterigmatocystin and moniliformin in a range
of UK foods. The results of these surveys will
be published in 1998. A survey of UK dietary
exposure to sterigmatocystin has not been
possible until recently due to a lack of reliable
analytical methods.
During 1998, in addition to the follow up
survey on ochratoxin A, it is also planned to
carry out a further survey of directly produced
apple juice for patulin. The results of this
survey will be taken to the FAC in the
Autumn when it will reassess its current
position on the advisory level in preparation
for any future EC regulatory proposals.
Consumer perceptions of risk from
mycotoxins
Several UK studies have been performed into
consumer perceptions of relative risk from
food related hazards. These have been
summarised in a recent publication
(Hayward, 1997). In 1971, the following
order of public priorities were reported: food
additives, pesticide residues, environmental
contaminants, nutritional problems, micro-
biological hazards, and natural toxicants.
Although subsequent studies have reported
reduced levels of concern about food
additives and have revealed new concerns
about BSE and novel foods and processes,
natural toxicants, including mycotoxins,
appear to remain a relatively low priority of
concern.
These findings appear to reflect personal
responses to natural based risks, which seem
responsible for the generally low priority also
given to microbiological risk. However, it
may also reflect a lack of knowledge about
mycotoxins and their potential for harm.
MAFF publications on mycotoxins have
been aimed largely at interested parties rather
than the lay reader, through publications such
as Food Surveillance Papers and Food
Surveillance Information Sheets (plus
associated Bulletin articles); see Appendix.
However, a MAFF Food Sense Booklet –
natural toxicants in our food – is available
which covers mycotoxins and offers advice
to consumers on avoiding risks from
contaminated foods (MAFF, 1997).
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Mycotoxins present a potential threat to
consumer safety. Continued vigilance is
necessary to ensure that raw materials and
foods comply with regulatory and advisory
limits.
MAFF surveys regularly check the foods
most at risk of contamination and where a
problem is unearthed, consumers and indus-
try are alerted as soon as possible through the
rapid publication procedures (MAFF and
DH, 1997b). Subsequent monitoring of the
situation ensures that effective action is taken
to protect consumer safety.
References
Hayward, A.C.D. (1997), “Consumer perceptions”, in
Tennant, D. R. (Ed.), Food Chemical Risk Analysis,
Blackie, London.
HMSO (1990), Food Safety Act 1990, HMSO, London.
HMSO (1992), Aflatoxins in Nuts, Nut Products, Dried Figs
and Dried Fig Products Regulations 1992, S.I.
No. 3236.
Krogh, P. (1980), “Ochratoxins: occurrence, biological
effects and causal role in disease”, in Eaker, D. and
Wadstrom, T. (Eds), Natural Toxins , Pergamon Press,
Oxford, pp. 673-80.
MAFF (1980), “Survey of mycotoxins in the United King-
dom”, Food Surveillance Paper, No. 4, HMSO.
MAFF (1993), “Mycotoxins: third report”, Food Surveil-
lance Paper, No. 36, HMSO.
MAFF and DH (1995), “FAC advice patulin in apple juice”,
Food Safety Information Bulletin, No. 67, p 3,
November, MAFF London. Tel: 0345 573012.
MAFF (1997), Natural Toxicants in Our Food, Foodsense
Booklet PB 1265, available from Foodsense, London.
Tel: 0645 556000.
MAFF and DH (1997a), “Ochratoxins A and aflatoxins”,
Food Safety Information Bulletin, No. 90, November,
MAFF, London, pp. 10-12. Tel: 0345 573012.
MAFF and DH (1997b), “Surveillance results releasing
brand names new policy”, Food Safety Information
Bulletin, No. 88, September, MAFF, London,
pp. 1, 18-20. Tel: 0345 573012.
MAFF and DH (1998), “Iranian pistachios ban on
imports lifted”, Food Safety Information Bulletin,
No. 93, MAFF, London, February, p. 13. Tel: 0345
573012.
Smith, J.E., Lewis, C.W. et al. (1994), Mycotoxins in
Human Nutrition and Health, European Commission
DG XII, Science Research and Development, EUR
16048 EN.
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Appendix: Food Surveillance Papers and information sheets on mycotoxins

No. Title/subject area Date Bulletin

16 Patulin in Apple Juice: 1993 Survey October 1993 42
22 Aflatoxins in Herbs and Spices January 1994 45
24 More on Patulin in Apple Juice February 1994 46
28 Surveillance of UK Cereals for Ochratoxin A May 1994 49
29 Survey of Apple Products for Patulin May 1994 49
36 1994 Survey of Apple Juice for Patulin September 1994 53
37 Survey of “Ethnic Foods” for Mycotoxins September 1994 53
45 Aflatoxin Contaminaion of Peanut Butter and Peanuts November 1994 55
48 Surveillance of UK Cereals of Ochratoxin A January 1995 57
56 Aflatoxin Contamination of Peanut Butter and Peanuts February 1995 58
61 Surveillance for Fumonisins in Maize-Based Foodstuffs May 1995 61
63 Survey of Fruit Juices and Tomato Products for Patulin June 1995 6264
64 Survey of Aflatoxin M1 in Retail Milk and Milk Products June 1995 62
73 Surveillance of Ochratoxin A in Retail Coffee Products September 1996 65
74 1995 Survey of Apple Juice for Patulin September 1995 71
80 Surveillance of Ochratoxin A in Green (Unroasted) Coffee Beans March 1996 71
81 Aflotoxin Surveillance of Retail and Imported Nuts, Nut
Products, Dried Figs and Fig Products March 1996 71
86 Surveillance of Fumonisins in Foodstuffs April 1996 72
95 Ochratoxin A in Cereals and Flour, and Carry-over into
Retail Processed Foods October 1996 77
97 1996 Survey of Apple Juice for Patulin October 1996 77
130 Survey of Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in Cereals and
Retail Products November 1997 89
4 Survey of Mycotoxins in the United Kingdom
(Food Surveillance Paper, HMSO) 1980
18 Mycotoxins (Food Surveillance Paper, HMSO) 1987
36 Mycotoxins: Third Report (Food Surveillance Paper, HMSO) 1993
Note: Publications are available from Publicity and Information Section, Room 303b, Ergon House c/o Nobel
House, 17 Smith Square, London SW1P 3JR. Also on MAFF’s Website at http://www.maff.gov.uk/food/
infsheet/intro.htm

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