Solution to In-course Examination

Physics, CSE-1203
Total Marks: 40 Time: 90 Minutes

1. Kinetic Theory and Thermodynamics

(a) Starting from the first law of thermodynamics, for an ideal gas show that [2+2]

nCv dT = nRT (dP/P ) − nRdT = −nRT (dV /V )

Solution:
(A) From the first law: dEint = dQin + dWon = dQ − P dV .
For an adiabatic process: dQ = 0 [1/2]
(B) For an ideal gas: P V = nRT .
Hence for an ideal gas, with the number of moles constant, : P dV + V dP = nRdT [1/2]
(C) Again we know for an ideal gas nCV = dEint /dT (using for constant V , dV = 0).
Hence we get from the first law:

dEint = 0 − P dV ⇒ nCV dT = −P dV = V dP − nRdT = (P V )(dP/P ) − nRdT = nRT (dP/P ) − nRdT

Hence proved. [1]

(D) Again we have,

dEint = nCV dT = −P dV = −(P V )(dV /V ) = −nRT (dV /V )

Hence proved. [1]

◦
(b) A 1.0-mol sample of an ideal gas is kept at 0.0 C during an expansion from 3.0 L to 10.0 L.
i. How much work is done on the gas during the expansion? [3]
ii. How much energy transfer by heat occurs with the surroundings in this process? [3]
iii. If the gas is returned to the original volume by means of an isobaric process, how much work is done on
the gas? [3]
Solution:
(A) The temperature of the ideal gas is fixed. The process is isothermal. Then the work done on the gas:

3.0 L

W = nRT ln Vi /Vf = (1.0 mol)(8.31 J/mol.K)(273 K) ln
10.0 L
= −2.7 × 103 J

Hence the work done on the gas during the expansion is: W = −2.7 × 103 J [3]
(B) Energy is taken in by the gas as heat. From first law, for an ideal gas at constant temperature:

∆Eint = Qin + Won = 0 ⇒ Qin = Q = −Won = +2.7 × 103 J

Thus, energy transfer by heat to the system is: Qin = +2.7 × 103 J. [3]
(C) In an isobaric process, the gas is returned to its original volume.
We choose the path to consist of an isobaric process from (Vf , Pf ) → (Vi , Pf ). In calculating Pf , we use Vf
and Ti because, we do not know the final temperature T ′ after compression.
 Initial volume = 10.0L = Vi′ , final volume = 3.0L = Vf′ . For isobaric process, pressure P = constant
= nRTi′ /Vi′ .
Therefore, the work done is given by:
(1.0 mol)(8.31 J/mol-K)(273 K)
Won = −P (Vf′ − Vi′ ) = − × (3.0 − 10.0) × 10−3 m3
10.0 × 10−3 m3
= 1.6 × 103 J

Thus the work done on the gas in the isobaric process is: Won = 1.6 × 103 J. [3]
(c) The specific heat of hydrogen gas (H2) at constant pressure at 200 K is 13.53 kJ/(kg-K). What is the specific
heat of hydrogen gas at constant volume in units of kJ/(kg-K)? (Given molar gas constant R=8.31446
J/K/mol, molar mass of hydrogen MH = 2.016 g/mol) [3]
Solution:
Mass m of a sample has n moles of a gas. Thus, we have

m = nM

where M = molar mass of the gas = mass of one mole of the gas. Now, the molar specific heat at constant
pressure is:

CP = energy needed to increase the temperature of one mole of a gas by 1 K at constant pressure
⇒ Cp n = energy needed to increase the temperature ofn mole of a gas by 1 K at constant pressure
= energy needed to increase the temperature of a sample of gas by 1K having
a mass m at constant pressure

Thus we get,
CP n CP
=
m M
Hence,
CP n
= energy required to increase the temperature of unit mass (1 kg) of a gas by 1 K at constant pressure
m
Similarly,
CV n
= energy required to increase the temperature of unit mass (1 kg) of a gas by 1 K at constant volume
m
Thus we get, for an ideal gas
CP CV nR nR R
CP − CV = R ⇒ nCP − nCV = nR ⇒ − = = =
M M m nM M
Hence, the specific heat of hydrogen gas at constant volume per unit mass is CV /M and is given by:
CV CP R −1
= − = 13.53 kJ/kg-K − (8.31446/2.016)(J-K mol−1 )(mol/g)
M M M
= 13.53 kJ/kg-K − (8.31446/2.016) kJ/kg-K = 9.405764 kJ/kg-K

(d) The pressure of an ideal gas is doubled in an isothermal process. How will the root-mean-square speed of the
molecules change? Explain. [2]
Solution:
The root-mean-square speed of the molecules of an ideal gas is given by: [1]
p
vRM S = 3RT /M

In an isothermal process, the temperature does not change. Hence vRM S will not change. [1]
(e) Work W is done on an ideal gas of diatomic molecules in thermal isolation (no heat transfer allowed). Find
the increase in the total rotational energy of the molecules in terms of W . [2]
Solution: For no heat transfer allowed, the work done on the gas will be converted to the increase of internal
energy of the gas (from the first law): [1/2]

∆Eint = Qin + Won ⇒ ∆Eint = 0 + Won

 For a diatomic molecule of an ideal gas, there are two rotational degrees of freedom. [1/2]
Total number of degrees of freedom is: [1/2]

3 translational + 2 rotational = 5 total

From the law of equipartition of energy, energy will be distributed equally into all the degrees of freedom.
Thus the fraction of rotational energy increase is:
Number of rotational degrees of freedom 2
=
Total number of degrees of freedom 5

Hence the increase in the total rotational energy of the molecules is: 2W/5. [1/2]

2. Maxwell Velocity Distribution: The Maxwell velocity distribution formula may be written as
 m 3/2 2
f (v)dv = 4π v exp (−mv 2 /2kB T )dv ∝ f1 (vx )f2 (vy )f3 (vz )dvx dvy dvz
2πkB T
where f (v) is the probability per unit speed interval of having speed between v and v+dv i.e. the probability density
and each of f1 , f2 , f3 are probability density functions for three speed components vx , vy and vz , respectively.
Explicitly, r
m
f1 (vx )dvx = exp (−mvx2 /2kB T )dvx
2πkB T
etc., where note that v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 and 4πv 2 dv ≡ dvx dvy dvz . The average over the Maxwell Boltzmann
R v=∞
velocity distribution of any quantity Q = Q(v) is given by hQi = v=0 Qf (v)dv. For example,
Z v=∞ r
8kB T
hvi = vf (v)dv = vavg =
v=0 πm

(a) Show that hvx2 i = kB T /m. Argue for any assumption that you used in deriving the expression for hvx2 i. [2+1]
Solution: We are given the velocity distribution function (i.e. the fraction of molecules having velocity
component in the x−direction between the values vx and vx + dvx ) is given by:
r
m
f1 (vx )dvx = exp (−mvx2 /2kB T )dvx
2πkB T

Hence, the average of vx2 is:

Z vx =∞ vx =∞ r  −mv 2 
m
Z
2 2 x
hvx i = vx f1 (vx )dvx = 2 vx2 exp dvx
vx =−∞ vx =0 2πkB T 2kB T
r Z vx =∞  −mv 2  r Z vx =∞
m x m  m 
= 2 vx2 exp dvx = 2 vx2 exp − vx2 dvx
2πkB T vx =0 2kB T 2πkB T vx =0 2kB T
r Z vx =∞ r r
m   m 1 π
= 2 vx2 exp vx2 α dvx = 2
2πkB T vx =0 2πkB T 4 α3
s
1 m (2kB T )3 π 1 2kB T kB T
= = =
2 2πkB T m3 2 m m
R∞ 2 √
where, α = m/(2kB T ) and we have used the result 0 e−αx x2 dx = π/(4α3/2 ). Hence, proved. [2]
Assumptions:
(A) Note that the limits of integration in deriving the average hvx2 i i.e. integrating over the velocity component
dvx are vx = −∞ to vx = +∞, because the velocity may point in either direction. This is in contrast to the
limits of integration for averaging over the speed i.e. in computing hvi or hv 2 i, which are v = 0 to v = ∞.
[1/2]
(B) In using the result for the probability distribution of the velocity component, we have assumed that the
velocity components of the molecules are independent and hence the probability density of having a speed
between v and v + dv is proportional to the product of individual probability densities for three dimensions:

f (v)dv ∝ f1 (vx )f2 (vy )f3 (vz )dvx dvy dvz

This comes from the independence of the degrees of freedom. [1/2]

(b) Find
R vx =∞h|vx |i. (You may use the probability density function f1 (vx ) with the average defined as hR(vx )i =
vx =−∞
R(vx )f1 (vx )dvx ). [2]
Solution: We have,
Z vx =∞ Z vx =0 Z vx =+∞
h|vx |i = |vx |f1 (vx )dvx = (−vx )f1 (vx )dvx + (vx )f1 (vx )dvx
vx =−∞ vx =−∞ vx =0

since in the range vx ∈ (−∞, 0), we have |vx | = −vx and in the positive range |vx | = vx . Hence we get, using
y = −vx and f1 (y) = f1 (−y), since f1 is an even function,
Z y=0 Z vx =+∞ Z vx =+∞
h|vx |i = − yf1 (−y)dy + (vx )f1 (vx )dvx = 2 (vx )f1 (vx )dvx
y=+∞ vx =0 vx =0
vx =∞  −mv 2  Z vx =∞ r
m
Z  
x
= 2 vx exp vx exp vx2 α dvx
dvx = 2
vx =0 2kB T 2πkB T vx =0
r r r
m 1 m 2kB T 2kB T
= 2 = =
2πkB T 2α 2πkB T m πm

(c) Without doing any mathematics, argue that hvx i = 0. [1]

Solution:
The average value of any quantity refers to adding all possible values with the appropriate probability of
occurrence. The x−component of the velocity vx takes up both positive and negative values and for a
particular absolute value of vx , the probability of occurrence is the same as f1 (vx ) = f1 (−vx ).
Hence each positive value of vx occurs equality likely as each corresponding negative value of it. Hence, the
average value of vx must be zero.
(d) Show that hvih1/vi = 4/π [4]
R∞ 2 R∞ 2 p R∞ 2 √
Useful Formula: 0
e−αx x2n+1 dx = n!/(2αn+1 ), 0
e−αx x4 dx = 3( π/α)/(8α2 ), 0
e−αx x2 dx = π/(4α3/2 ),
Solution: (A) Average value of v is:
Z v=∞ Z v=∞   −mv 2 
m 3/2
hvi = vf (v)dv = v (4πv 2 ) exp dv
v=0 v=0 2πkB T 2kB T
 m 3/2 v=∞  m 3/2 Z v=∞
2 m
Z    
3
= 4π v exp − v dv = 4π v 3 exp − v 2 α dv
2πkB T v=0 2kB T 2πkB T v=0
 m 3/2 Z v=∞    m 3/2 1
3 2
= 4π v exp − v α dv = 4π
2πkB T v=0 2πkB T 2α2
 m 3/2 (2k T )2 r
m (2kB T )2
r r
B m 2kB T m 8kB T
= 4π 2
= 4π 2
=2 =
2πkB T 2m 2πkB T 2πkB T 2m m 2πkB T πm
R∞ 2
where, α = m/(2kB T ) and we have used the result 0
e−αx x3 dx = 1/(2α2 ). [2]
(B) Average value of 1/v is:
D1E Z v=∞ Z v=∞   −mv 2 
1 1 m 3/2
= f (v)dv = (4πv 2 ) exp dv
v v=0 v v=0 v 2πkB T 2kB T
 m 3/2 Z v=∞  m   m 3/2 Z v=∞  
= 4π v exp − v 2 dv = 4π v exp − v 2 α dv
2πkB T v=0 2kB T 2πkB T v=0
 m 3/2 Z v=∞    m 3/2 1
2
= 4π v exp − v α dv = 4π
2πkB T v=0 2πkB T 2α
 m 3/2 2k T r r r
B m m 2kB T m 2m
= 4π = 4π =2 =
2πkB T 2m 2πkB T 2πkB T 2m 2πkB T πkB T
R∞ 2
where, α = m/(2kB T ) and we have used the result 0
e−αx xdx = 1/(2α). [1.5]
Hence we get, r r
D1E 8kB T 2m 4
hvi = =
v πm πkB T π
Hence proved. [1/2]
3. Optics
(a) Two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency traveling in a medium are given by:
y1 = A sin (kx − ωt), y2 = B sin (kx − ωt + φ)
Their resultant may be written as y = y1 + y2 = C sin (kx − ωt + δ). Find the amplitude C and the phase
constant δ of the resultant. [2+2]
Solution: (A) We have
y1 = A sin (kx − ωt), y2 = B sin (kx − ωt + φ)
 
⇒y = y1 + y2 = A sin (kx − ωt) + B sin (kx − ωt) cos (φ) + cos (kx − ωt) sin (φ)
   
⇒y = sin (kx − ωt) A + B cos (φ) + cos (kx − ωt) B sin (φ)
 
⇒y = C sin (kx − ωt) cos (δ) + cos (kx − ωt) sin (δ)
⇒y = C sin (kx − ωt + δ)
where, C cos (δ) = A + B cos (φ) and C sin (δ) = B sin (φ). [2]
(B) Using the above definitions of C and δ, we get, [1+1]
p
C = A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos φ
B sin (φ)
tan δ =
A + B cos (φ)
(b) In Young’s double slit experiment, let d = center to center slit spacing, D = perpendicular distance from the
slits to the screen, a = slit width for both of the slits, and λ = the wavelength of monochromatic light. Show
that the number of bright fringes per unit length on the screen is given by d/(λD). [4]
Solution: (A) Condition for bright fringe in Young’s double slit experiment is: [1]
d sin (θbright−m ) = mλ
(B) For large D i.e. D ≫ y, where y is the position on the screen of a minimum (center of a bright fringe),
we get: [1]
ym
sin (θbright−m ) ≈ tan (θbright−m ) =
D
1

⇒ ym = D sin (θbright−m ) = D mλ
d
(C) Hence the fringe width is: [1]
 
∆ym = ∆ (D/d)mλ = (D/d)∆(m)λ = (D/d)[(m + 1) − (m)]λ = Dλ/d
(D) Hence the, number of bright fringes per unit length on the screen is the inverse of fringe width: [1]
1 d
ρbright = =
∆ym Dλ
Hence proved.
(c) Consider two light waves in a medium. They have the same amplitude and frequency and arrive at the same
point simultaneously. The resultant intensity is half of the intensity at the source. What is the initial
phase difference between the two waves? [2]
Solution: (A) Same frequency implies the wavelength is also the same. The net displacement is thus: [1]
 
ynet = y1 + y2 = A sin (kx − ωt) + A sin (kx − ωt + δ) = A sin (α) + sin (α + δ)
h (2α + δ) i h (α + δ − α) i  δ δ
⇒ ynet = A2 sin cos = 2A sin kx − ωt + cos
2 2 2 2
(B) We have, [1/2]
!2
1 2 1 δ 1
Inet = I0 ⇒ ynet = y02 ⇒ 2A cos = A2
2 2 2 2
δ  A2 δ  1
4A2 cos2 = ⇒ cos2 = (1)
2 2 2 8
(C) Hence we get, [1/2]
δ 1 δ 1
cos = √ ⇒ = cos−1 ( √ )
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
⇒ δ = 2 cos−1 ( √ ) ≈ 138.6◦ (2)
2 2
Thermodynamics
1. Define thermal equilibrium, thermal contact, ideal gas temperature scale and absolute zero temperature.
2. Explain the concepts of temperature from the zeroth law, of internal energy from the first law and of entropy from
the second law of thermodynamics. Why are these called state variables?
3. Explain with state diagram the path dependence work done and heat transfer to and from a system. Why are
these called transfer variables?
4. State and explain the zeroth law, first law and second laws of thermodynamics.
5. Define isothermal process, adiabatic process, isochoric process, isobaric process, quasi-static process, cyclic process,
reversible process, irreversible process, mechanical equivalent of heat, specific heat at constant volume, specific
heat at constant pressure, ideal heat engine, heat pump, refrigerator, efficiency of a heat engine, coefficient of
performance of a heat pump, Carnot cycle, Carnot efficiency, entropy.
6. State and explain the Kelvin-Planck and the Clasius statements of the second law of thermodynamics.
7. Derive expressions for the followings:
(a) Work done on an ideal gas in an isothermal expansion : W = nRT ln (Vi /Vf )
(b) Work done on an ideal gas in an isobaric expansion: W = P (Vi − Vf )
(c) Change of internal energy of an ideal gas in an isochoric process: ∆Eint = nCV ∆T
1 dEint
(d) Molar specific heat of a mono-atomic, diatomic and polyatomic gases at constant volume: CV = n dT =
(D/2)R, where D is the number of degrees of freedom.
(e) Difference of molar specific heats for an ideal gas: CP − CV = R and ratio of molar specific heats: γ =
CP /CV = (D + 2)/D
(f) Relation between pressure and volume of an ideal gas in an adiabatic compression/expansion: P V γ =constant.
(g) Starting from the first law of thermodynamics: nCV dT = nRT (dP/P ) − nRdT and nCV dT = −nRT (dV /V )
T1
(h) In a reversible adiabatic compression/expansion of an ideal gas relations between (a) T and P : T2 =
!(γ−1)/γ
P1
P2 (b) T and V : T1 V1γ−1 = T2 V2γ−1

(i) For an ideal gas, (a) the kinetic expression for pressure: P = (2/3)(N/V 2
p)(1/2)mv , (b) total translational
kinetic energy: Ktot,trans = 32 nRT , (c) root-mean-square speed: vrms = 3RT /M
(j) For an ideal gas, using Maxwell’s formula for the distribution of speed , Nv (v) = 4πN (m/(2πkB Tp))3/2 v 2 exp (−mv 2 /(2kB T )),
(a) the formula for the distribution of energy, (b) the averagepspeed of the gas molecules: v̄ = 8kB T /(πm),
(c) root-mean-square speed of the gas molecules: vrms = 3kB T /m (d) the most probable speed of the
molecules, (e) average energy, RMS energy and most probable energy of the molecules
√
(k) For an ideal gas, using the kinetic theory, the mean free path: l = 1/( 2πd2 nV )
(l) Efficiency of a Carnot cycle: eC = 1 − (TC /Th )
   
V T
(m) The change of entropy for an ideal gas: ∆S = Sf − Si = nR ln Vfi + nCV ln Tfi
H
(n) Total change of entropy in a reversible cyclic process: dQ/T = 0
8. What is a Carnot engine? State and explain Carnot’s theorem. Prove Carnot’s theorem using an example of a
heat engine and a refrigerator. Explain Carnot cycle in P V , ST , SV , SP , P T diagrams.
9. Explain the process of adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas. Prove: (a) The work done in such a process
is zero. (b) The process
 isirreversible. (c) The change in temperature is zero. (d) The change in entropy is :
Vf
∆S = Sf − Si = nR ln Vi

Solid State Physics

1. Explain crystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous solids.
2. Define with suitable diagrams, lattice, basis, Bravais lattice, non-Bravais lattice, unit cell, primitive unit cell,
non-primitive unit cell, primitive lattice vectors, reciprocal lattice vector,
3. Explain with figures different classes of the Bravais lattice in (a) 1D, (b) 2D and (c) 3D.
4. Define packing fraction. Calculate the packing fractions of (a) simple cubic, (b) face-centered cubic, (c) body-
centered cubic, (d) hexagonal and (e) the diamond structures.
5. Define coordination number. Calculate, by drawing figures the coordination numbers of the (a) fcc, (b) bcc and
(c) hexagonal crystal structures.
 6. How are crystal directions expressed using Miller indices? Give examples with figures of family of crystal directions.
7. Explain Miller indices with figures. How are Miller indices calculated for crystal planes. Explain the convention
of expressing a family of planes using Miller indices.
8. Explain different family of directions and family of planes with examples in a cubic crystal.
√
9. Show that the interplanar spacing in cubic crystals is given by: d = a/ h2 + k 2 + l2
10. Define Wigner-Seitz unit cell. Draw the Wigner-Seitz unit cells of (a) rectangular lattice in 2D, (b) hexagonal
lattice in 2D and (c) square lattice in 2D. Define first Brillouin zone.
11. (a) Define reciprocal lattice in 3D and 2D. (b) Find the reciprocal lattice vectors of (a) simple cubic, (b) face-
centered-cubic, (c) body-centered cubic and (d) hexagonal lattice. (c) Show that the reciprocal lattice vectors of
fcc lattice form a bcc lattice. (d) Find the reciprocal lattice vectors of a triangular lattice in 2D. (e) Show that,
~ ∗ |.
for any Bravais lattice, the interplanar spacing is related to the reciprocal lattice vector as: dhkl = 1/|G hkl

12. Explain Bragg’s condition and Von Laue conditions of diffraction.

13. Explain crystal defects in 0D, 1D, 2D and 3D. Explain with figures (a) Vacancy, impurity, Frenkel defects, Schottky
defects, (b) dislocations and (c) grain boundaries.
Oscillations and Waves
1. Obtain the differential equations of motion, using a spring-mass system for (a) simple harmonic motion, (b)
damped simple harmonic motion and (c) forced simple harmonic motion.
2. Solve the differential equation of motion of a damped simple harmonic oscillator and obtain the solutions for (a)
underdamped motion, (b) critically damped motion.
3. Solve the differential equation of motion for a forced harmonic oscillator with sinusoidal external force applied in
the presence of small damping and obtain the steady state solution. Discuss the conditions for amplitude resonance
and velocity resonance. Define resonance.
4. Discuss superposition of two simple harmonic motions in perpendicular directions. Define Lissajous figures. Drw
Lissajous figures for the case of frequencies in the ratios of fx : fy = 1 : 1, 1 : 2, 2 : 1, 1 : 3 and with phase
difference φx − φy = 0, π/4, π/3, π/2, π, 3π/4, 3π/2.
5. Set up the equation of motion of a simple pendulum using energy consideration both in linear and angular
coordinates. Set up the equation of motion of a mass spring system using energy considerations.
6. Define a wave. Set up the differential equation of motion of a transverse wave on a stretched string.
7. Solve the differential equation of wave motion in 1D and show that the most general solution has two progressive
waves moving in forward and backward directions.
8. For the case of a transverse wave in a stretched string, show that the power of the wave motion is: P = 12 ρω 2 A2 v.
Optics
1. Define interference. What are the conditions of interference? Derive an expression for the intensity distribution
in Young’s double-slit experiment. Hence find the conditions for maxima and minima i.e. bright and dark fringes.
2. Discuss interference in thin films. Find the conditions for constructive and destructive interference in thin films
of (a) soap film (air-soap-air) and (b) oil film on water (air-oil-water). What is anti-reflecting coating?
3. Define diffraction of waves. What are the classes of diffraction of light. Distinguish between them.
4. Obtain expressions for the intensity distributions of (a) a single-slit diffraction pattern, (b) a double-slit diffraction
pattern. Hence find the conditions for minima and maxima of the pattern in both cases. What is a missing order?
5. Obtain an expression for the intensity distribution for an N-slit diffraction pattern. Hence find the conditions or
positions for the principal maxima and minima.
6. Define polarization of light. What are the different method of producing polarized lights?
7. Explain polarization by selective absorption and polarization by reflection. Define Brewster angle.
8. Explain Malus law. Obtain the transmitted intensitiy of two polarizers having a general angle θ between them.
What happens when a third polarizer is put in between two crossed polarizers at a general angle θ between the
axes of polarization of the first two polarizers?
All the numerical problems in in-course, quizzes and lecture notes.
Q1b) During an adiabatic process an amount of an ideal gas does 100 J of work and its temperature
decreases by 5 K. During another process it does 25 J of work and its temperature decreases by 5 K. What
is the heat capacity of the gas for the second process? [3]

In the first process: Δ𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = −100J

For the second process, say X : Δ𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −100𝐽 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 25 𝐽 => 𝑛𝐶𝑋 Δ𝑇 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = −75 𝐽
−75 𝐽
⇒ 𝑛𝐶𝑋 = −5 𝐾
= 15 𝐽/𝐾 GOOD

Q1c) The initial volume of a sample of an ideal gas is V. Its pressure is doubled during a process in which
the energy given up as heat by the gas equals the work done on the gas. Find the final volume.

𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 => −𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊𝑜𝑛 => 𝑊𝑜𝑛 + 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 0 = Δ𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 => Isothermal process.

PV=constant => pressure P-> 2P => V-> V/2 i.e. halved

Q1d) Calculate the change of entropy of an ideal gas undergoing adiabatic free expansion inside an
insulated container from an initial volume V_i to a final volume V_f=2V_i.
Q1e) Using diagrams of a heat engine and a refrigerator, prove the equivalence of the Kelvin-Planck and
Clasius statements of the second law of thermodynamics.
Kelvin–Planck form of the second law of thermodynamics.
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that, operating in a cycle, produces no effect other than, the
input of energy by heat from a reservoir, and the performance of an equal amount of work.
Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics.
It is impossible to construct a cyclical machine whose sole effect is to transfer energy continuously by
heat from one object to another object at a higher temperature without the input of energy by work.
Two propositions or statements are said to be equivalent when:
• The truth of one implies the truth of the second
• And the truth of the second implies the truth of the first.
𝐾 = truth of the Kelvin-Planck statement;
− 𝐾 = falsity of the Kelvin-Planck statement;
𝐶 = truth of the Clausius statement;
−𝐶 = falsity of the Clausius statement.
• Let, ⊃ means “implies” and ≡ means “equivalence”

We wish to prove, 𝐾 ≡ which means: ⊃ 𝐶 and 𝐶 ⊃ 𝐾

• Alternatively, 𝐾 ≡ means: − ⊃ −𝐶 and −𝐶 ⊃ −𝐾
• To prove that −𝐶 ⊃ −𝐾, consider a refrigerator, shown:

It requires no work to transfer |𝑄𝐿 | units of heat from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature
reservoir. Hence it violates the Clasius statement i.e. implies −𝐶.
Suppose that a heat engine (on the right) also operates between the same two reservoirs.
• Through it the same heat |𝑄𝐿 | is delivered to the low-temperature reservoir.
This second engine does not violate any law by itself alone.
But the refrigerator and the second engine together constitute a self-contained machine, that:
• Takes a (fraction) of heat 𝑄𝐻 − |𝑄𝐿 | from the high temperature reservoir and converts all this heat into
work without producing any change in the low-temperature reservoir.
• Therefore, the refrigerator and engine together constitute a violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement i.e.
implies − .
• Thus, −𝐶 ⊃ −𝐾 i.e. −𝐾 is a consequence of −𝐶.
To prove that − 𝐾 ⊃ −𝐶, consider an engine, shown on the left side of the figure below:
It rejects no heat to the low-temperature reservoir and that, therefore, violates the Kelvin- Planck statement
i.e. implies −𝐾.

Suppose that a refrigerator on the right also operates between the same two reservoirs and uses up all the
work performed by the engine.
The refrigerator on the right violates no law. But the engine and refrigerator together constitute a
self-contained machine that:
• Transfers heat |𝑄𝐿 | from the low-temperature reservoir to the high-temperature reservoir without
producing any changes elsewhere.
Therefore, the engine and the refrigerator together constitute a violation of the Clausius statement i.e. − .
• Thus, −𝐾 ⊃ −𝐶 i.e. −C is a consequence of −K

Alternatively:
If we reverse the directions of flow of energy (heat and work done) we get that a heat engine becomes a
refrigerator. Hence, the two impossible engines made out of a heat engine and a refrigerator are in a sense
equivalent and so also, the two statements of the second law of thermodynamics.
Q2. Using the Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution formula derive the energy distribution formula
assuming only kinetic energy as the internal energy of an ideal gas.
Q2b)
Most Probable Energy:
RMS Energy:

Q2c) Using the kinetic theory of gases, find an expression for the mean-free path of the gas.
Q2d) Certain Ideal gas is found to be obey $PV^{5/3}$=Constant during an adiabatic process. Such a gas
at initial temperature $T$ is adiabatically compressed to half the initial volume. Its mean free path was
initially $\lambda$. What will be the changed mean free path?
Solution:
𝑉
𝑙=
𝑁√2𝜋𝑑2
𝑉 → 𝑉/2 implies 𝜆 → 𝜆/2; no other complications are needed.

Q2e) What would be the most probable velocity for one Oxygen molecule at 300 K?

32
Mass of one oxygen molecule =32 amu = 32 gm/𝑁𝐴 = 6.023 × 10−23gm = 5.314 × 10−23 gm

𝐽
Hence 𝑣𝑝 = √2 × 1.38065 × 10−23 𝐾 × (6.023) × 1023 × 300 𝐾/(32 𝑔)= 394.83683 m / s
Q3a) Prove that the volume of a Bravais lattice primitive cell is 𝑉 = |𝑎⃗1 . (𝑎⃗2 × 𝑎⃗3 )| where 𝑎⃗𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2,3
are the primitive vectors and the volume of the primitive cell of the reciprocal lattice cell is (2𝜋)3 /𝑉.

The scaled reciprocal lattice vectors are:

Hence, volume of the unit cell in the scaled reciprocal lattice is:

𝑉 ′ = 𝑎⃗′ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ′ × 𝑐⃗′ )

(2𝜋)3
⇒ 𝑉′ = (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗). (𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗) × (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗)
𝑉3

Now we use the result:

⃗⃗ × 𝑅⃗⃗ ) = 𝑄
𝑃⃗⃗ × (𝑄 ⃗⃗ (𝑃⃗⃗ . 𝑅⃗⃗ ) − 𝑅⃗⃗ (𝑃⃗⃗. 𝑄
⃗⃗)

⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗, 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ and we get

Use 𝑃⃗⃗ = (𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗), 𝑄

2𝜋 3
𝑉 = ( ) (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) . [𝑎⃗ ((𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗). 𝑏⃗⃗ ) − 𝑏⃗⃗ ((𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗). 𝑎⃗) ]
′
𝑉
2𝜋 3 (2𝜋)3 (2𝜋)3
⇒ 𝑉 ′ = ( ) (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) . [𝑎⃗ 𝑉 − 𝑏⃗⃗ (𝑐⃗. (𝑎⃗ × 𝑎⃗))] = 𝑉 𝑉 =
𝑉 𝑉3 𝑉
where we have used the fact that 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = 𝑏⃗⃗. (𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗) = 𝑐⃗ . (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑉.

Q 3b) Three lattice vectors in a unit cell are given by: 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎̂, 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏 𝑦̂, 𝑐⃗ = 𝑐 𝑧̂ with 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐.
i. How many lattice points per unit cell are there in this crystal? Prove.
ii. What are the symmetry elements (mirror planes/axes of n-fold symmetry) for this system?
Explain with figure.
Solution: The system in question is the orthorhombic system of Bravais lattice:

There is NO unique number of lattice points per unit cell in this system. There are four sub-classes:
Simple, body-centered, base centered and face centered.
The number of points per unit cell is given as below:

Sub-classes in the system Number of points/unit cell

Simple orthorhombic 1
Body centered orthorhombic 2
Base centered orthorhombic 2
Face centered orthorhombic 4

Symmetry Elements:
The orthorhombic unit cell is distinguished by three lines
called axes of twofold symmetry about which the cell can
be rotated by 180° without changing its appearance.
This characteristic requires that the angles between any
two edges of the unit cell be right angles but the edges
may be any length.
The unique symmetry operation in an orthorhombic
system is three twofold axis of rotation coinciding with
the three crystallographic axes.
Perpendicular to each of the axes is a mirror plane.
Q3c) Draw (1̅ 1 1), (1 2̅ 1) and ( 2̅ 1 0) planes in a cubic lattice.
Solution: If a plane cuts an axis on the negative side of the origin, the corresponding index is negative.

This is indicated by placing a minus sign or a bar above the index: e.g. (ℎ̅ 𝑘 𝑙)

For example: For a plane : 𝑏: 𝑐 = 1: −1: ½ , we have

(ℎ𝑘𝑙) = (1/1): ( 1/−1): ( 1/½ ) = (1 1̅ 2)

Now for cubic system we are given three planes with negative Miller indices: (1̅ 1 1), (1 2̅ 1) and ( 2̅ 1 0)
̅ 𝟏 𝟏) plane: This plane has negative intercept on the 𝑥-axis. The ratio of the intercepts is:
(𝟏

𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = −1: 1: 1

(1̅ 1 1) plane:

𝑥 = −1

̅ 𝟏)-plane: This plane has negative

(𝟏 𝟐
intercept on the 𝑦-axis. The ratio of the 𝒛
intercepts is:
𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = 1: −1/2: 1

̅ 𝟏 𝟎)-plane: This plane has negative

(𝟐 𝟏
intercept on the 𝑥-axis. The ratio of the 𝟐
intercepts is:
𝒚
𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = −1/2: 1: (1/0)
1
⇒ 𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = − : 1: ∞ 𝒙
2
Thus the (2̅ 1 0) plane has negative intercept at 𝑥 = 𝑎 = −1/2 on the 𝑥-axis and is parallel to the 𝑧-axis.

Q3d) Show that the reciprocal lattice translational vector 𝐺⃗ℎ𝑘𝑙 is perpendicular to the crystalline plane
(ℎ𝑘𝑙).
Q3e) What is the coordination number for the hexagonal close-packed crystal structure? Explain how do
you determine the coordination number for hexagonal crystal. [2.5+2.5]
Ans: In 3D there are two types of close pack structures having the same maximum ~74% efficiency of
packing:
A. Cubic close packed structure: CCP (FCC packing)
B. Hexagonal close packed structure: HCP

In Hexagonal lattice, the coordination number Z = 12.

The center atom of the top face is in touch with six corner atoms.
It touches three atoms of the mid layer and other three atoms of the mid layer of the unit cell above it.
Hence, the center atom touches in total 12 atoms.
Since in hexagonal close packed structure, all the atoms are equivalent, the coordination number of any
atom is 12.

In hexagonal crystal, if it is closed packed system, the coordination number is 12. However, if it Is not a
closed packed but still a hexagonal system, the coordination number is 6 since the optimum ratio of the
length of the side along the 𝑐-axis to that in the 𝑥𝑦-plane is no more equal to 𝑐/𝑎 = √8/3.
Q4c) Find the frequency of the combined motion of each of the following:

(i) sin(2𝜋𝑡 − √2) + cos(2𝜋𝑡)

(ii) sin(3𝑡) − cos(𝜋𝑡)
Solution:

(ii) Let 𝑦(𝑡) = sin(3𝑡) − cos(𝜋𝑡)

We can write it as:
𝜋
𝑦(𝑡) = sin(3𝑡) − sin ( − 𝜋𝑡)
2
We use the formula for the addition of two sinusoids:
3𝑡 − 𝜋𝑡 𝜋 3𝑡 + 𝜋𝑡 𝜋 3+𝜋 𝜋 𝜋−3 𝜋
𝑦(𝑡) = 2 cos ( + ) sin ( − ) = 2 sin ( 𝑡 − ) cos ( 𝑡+ )
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4
3+𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 𝑦(𝑡) = 2 sin ( 𝑡 − ) cos (0.0708 𝑡 + )
2 4 4
The resulting motion is that of a beat motion with beat frequency of 𝑓𝑏 = (𝜋 − 3)/4𝜋 = 1/4 − 3/4𝜋
Q4d) Constuct the Lissajous figures for the following motions:
𝜋
(i) 𝑥 = cos(2𝜔𝑡), 𝑦 = cos (2𝜔𝑡 − 4 )
(ii) 𝑥 = cos(2𝜔𝑡), 𝑦 = sin(2𝜔𝑡)
Solution: Let 2𝜔 = 𝜔′ be a frequency. Hence, we have the equations as:
𝜋
(i) 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡), 𝑦 = cos (𝜔′ 𝑡 − 4 )
(ii) 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡), 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡)
Hence, we have for the first case the situation is similar to the case of two motions as below:
𝑥 = 𝐴1 cos(𝜔𝑡) , 𝑦 = 𝐴2 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
Here the amplitudes are the same i.e. 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 1 and the phase angle is 𝛿 = −𝜋/4. We get,

𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = cos (𝜔′ 𝑡 − ) = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) cos (− ) − sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) sin (− )
4 4 4
1
⇒𝑦= [ cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) + sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) ]
√2
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1/√2
1 1
At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 𝜋/4 𝑥= ,𝑦 = [2/√2] =1
√2 √2

At 𝑡 = 𝜋/(2𝜔′ ), 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1/√2
𝜋 𝜋 1
At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 3𝜋/4 𝑥 = cos (𝜋 − 4 ) = − cos ( 4 ) = −
√2

1 1 1
𝑦= [ − + ]=0
√2 √2 √2
1
At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = −
√2

Hence we see that the path is a tilted ellipse traced in the counter-clockwise sense in a frequency of rotation
as 𝜔′ = 2𝜔.
𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎′ 𝒕), 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎′ 𝒕):
For this case, we have
𝜋
𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) , 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) = cos (𝜔′ 𝑡 − )
2
The equation of the path becomes: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 i.e a unit circle.
The sense of traversal of the circle is found from identifying the points on the circle at different times:
At 𝑡=0 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 1 , 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 0

At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 𝜋/4 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 1/√2 , 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 1/√2

At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 𝜋/2 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 0 , 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 1
At 𝜔′ 𝑡 = 𝜋 𝑥 = cos(𝜔′ 𝑡) = −1 , 𝑦 = sin(𝜔′ 𝑡) = 0
etc.
Hence the path is a unit circle traversed in the counter-clockwise sense in a frequency of rotation as 𝜔′ =
2𝜔.

Q4e) A 200-g pendulum bob is oscillating with an amplitude 𝐴 = 3 cm and with a frequency 𝑓 = 0.5 Hz.
How much KE will it have as it passes through the origin?
Solution:
The equation of motion of a simple pendulum is
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔 𝑑2 𝜃
𝑚 2+ sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝑚 2 + 𝜃 ≈ 0 ⇒ 2 + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑙 𝑑𝑡 𝑙 𝑑𝑡
since for small angle, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃

The angular frequency is 𝜔 = √𝑔/𝑙

The solution of the equation of motion is:

𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
where 𝐴 is the amplitude of the linear SH motion.

From the geometry of the figure 𝑦 ≈ 𝑥 2 /2𝑙,where 𝑙 is the length of the string.
At the highest point the total energy of the pendulum is

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝐴2 /2𝑙

At the origin, i.e. at the lowest point on the path of a (vertically suspended)
pendulum, the KE is the highest and the potential energy is zero. Hence, the
total mechanical energy at this point is equal to the total energy.
From the conservation of energy, we get:
12 𝐴2 1 𝑔 1
KE = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑚𝐴2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2 2𝑙 2 𝑙 2
1
Thus 𝐾𝐸 = (200 g) × (0.5Hz)2 (3 cm)2 = 8.88 × 10−4 J
2

Q5a) Two sinusoidal waves of the same type in the same medium having the same frequency but of two
different amplitudes and two phase angles are subtracted. Find the equation of the resultant wave and
comment on its nature. \hfill [4]

Solution: The resultant is a sinusoidal wave of the same frequency.

Explanation: If the sinusoidal waves are of the same type and moving in the same medium, their speeds are
the same. If the frequency is the same for the waves, then the wavelength would be the same also.

Hence, adding two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency would produce superposition of the same
frequency as well.
For example, y1 = A sin(kx - ωt) , y2 = B sin(kx - ωt + φ) gives:
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx - ωt) + B [sin(kx - ωt) cos(φ) + cos(kx - ωt) sin(φ)]
= sin(kx - ωt) [A + B cos(φ)] + cos(kx - ωt) [B sin(φ)]
= C [ sin(kx - ωt) cos(δ) + cos(kx - ωt) sin(δ) ]
= C sin(kx - ωt + δ) which is the equation of a sinusoidal wave of the same frequency.
Here, C cos(δ) = A + B cos(φ) and C sin(δ) = B sin(φ) giving,
 C = sqrt(A^2 + B^2 + 2AB cos(φ))
and tan(δ) = B sin(φ)/(A + B cos(φ))

Q5b) Derive the following relation between the diameter of a Newton's ring and the wavelength of light in
Newton's ring experiment (draw appropriate figure): \hfill [7]

Consider light incident on the lens that gets reflected from the interior surface of the lens and from the
glass-plate.

Since the convex side of the lens is a spherical surface, the thickness of the air film will be constant over a
circle (whose centre will be at O ) and we will obtain concentric dark and bright rings. These are called
Newton’s rings.
Each ring will be locus of all such points where the thickness is the same.
The Condition for bright ring will be:
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆/2
For air film , 𝜇 = 1and for near normal incidence 𝑟 is very small and hence 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1. Thus:

2𝑡 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜆/2, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …

For dark rings: 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
Q5c) Consider the second minimum adjacent to the central maximum in a single-slit diffraction pattern.
The ray coming to this point from the top edge of the slit is
$180^{circ}$ out of phase with another ray coming from
another point. Find the position of the second point with respect
to the first inside the slit. Draw a clear figure showing all the
relevant rays in solving the problem. \hfill [4]Solution: The
position of the point is one-fourth of the slit-width away (i.e.
inside) from the top of the slit.
Explanation: The phase difference between two rays
originating from two points in the slit separated by a
distance Δy is equal to:
Δφ = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ)
Now if the phase difference between rays coming from the
top of the slit and from a point at a distance Δy inside the
slit from the top is equal to 180°, then we have:
Δφ = π = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ)
If the point on the screen is the second minimum adjacent to the central maximum, then we get
form the condition of minima:
sin(θ_dark) = 2 λ/a
This gives:
Δφ = π = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ_dark) = (2π/λ) Δy (2 λ/a) = 4π (Δy/a)
=> 4π (Δy/a) =π => Δy = a/4
Thus the other ray is coming at a point one-fourth of the slit-width inside the slit from the top edge.

Q5d) Explain Brewster angle and find an expression for the Brewster angle in terms of the refractive index
of the denser medium with respect to the lighter medium. \hfill [2+3]
Solution: When an unpolarized light beam is reflected from a surface, the reflected light may be completely
polarized, partially polarized, or unpolarized, depending on the angle of incidence.
A. If the angle of incidence is ≈ 0°, the reflected beam is almost completely unpolarized.
B. For other angles of incidence, the reflected light is polarized to some extent.
C. For one particular angle of incidence, the reflected light is completely polarized.
Brewster Angle: For a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light having its direction of polarization
parallel to the plane of incidence is completely absent. This angle is called Brewster’s angle.
At Brewster’s angle, only the electric field component perpendicular to the plane of incidence in the
reflected wave remains.
At Brewster’s angle, it is seen that :
(Reflected ray) ⊥ (Transmitted Ray)
Hence, from Snell’s law:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
𝑛2 sin 𝜃𝐵
⇒ =𝑛=𝜇=
𝑛1 sin 𝜃2
But at Brewster’s angle we get 𝜃2 = 90∘ − 𝜃𝐵
Hence, we get
𝑛2
𝜃𝐵 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (𝑛21 )
𝑛1
For incidence from air/vacuum, we get
𝑛 = 𝜇 = tan 𝜃𝐵

Q5e) An unpolarized beam of light with intensity $I_0$ is

incident on an ideal polarizing sheet and passes through onto another ideal polarizing sheet. The axes of
polarization of the two plane polarizer makes an angle of $\phi$ with each other. The intensity of the
emerging light from the last polarizer is $I_0/4$. Find the angle $\phi$. \hfill [3.33]
 1
Solution: The angle is 𝜙 = sin−1 ( )
√2

Explanation: Unpolarized light may be thought of having electric field in two perpendicular
directions. One of the directions may be chosen parallel to the transmission axis of the first
polarizer.
Hence, after the first polarizer, only half of the intensity will pass through. The light incident on the first
polarizer is unpolarized, so the angle is irrelevant – the intensity is reduced by a factor of 2. Thus I_1 = I_0/2
After passing through the second polarizer, we get, from Malus law: I=I_2 = I_1 cos^2 (φ), where
φ is the angle between the transmission axes of the two polarizers.
Hence, I_2 = (I_0/2) cos^2 (φ) = I_0/4 which gives, cos^2 (φ)=(1/2) => cos(φ)=(1/√2)=cos(45°)
= sin(45°)
Hence
1
𝜙 = sin−1 ( )
√2
 PHY-1203: Physics

Q1.
a) During a quasi-static, adiabatic expansion or compression, the pressure and volume of an ideal
gas obey the relationship 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾, a constant. Show that the work done on the system in
expanding from an initial state (𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 ) to a final state (𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 ) is given by: [4]
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑓 𝛾
𝑊=− [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑃𝑖
b) Show that for an ideal gas, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅, where the symbols have their usual meanings. [3]
c) During an adiabatic process an amount of an ideal does 100 J of work and its temperature
decreases by 7.5 K. During another process it does 25 J of work and its temperature decreases by
7.5 K. What is the heat capacity of the gas for the second process? [2]
d) At an initial temperature the rms speed of nitrogen molecules is 𝑣0 . Suppose the temperature of
nitrogen gas is tripled and the 𝑁2 molecules dissociate into atom. What will be the rms speed of
atoms? [2]
e) At which temperature the rms speed of oxygen exceeds the average speed of oxygen by 100
m/s? Given that the gram molecular mass of oxygen is 32 g. [2]
f) As the volume of an ideal gas is increased at constant pressure, what happens to the average
molecular speed? [1]
Q2.
a) Using the kinetic theory of gases, find an expression for pressure exerted by an ideal gas on the
wall of a vessel. [4]
b) Derive the formula for the mean free path of a gas molecule in a gas. How does it depend on
absolute temperature? [4+1]
c) The air in your room is made up mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Approximate these molecules as
spheres of radius 𝑟 = 1.00 × 10−10 m.
i) Estimate the average distance between the air molecules in your room. Compare your answer
to the size of a molecule. [2+1]
ii) Compare the average separation with the mean free path of the molecules. [2]
Q3.
a) One mole of a gas obeys the van der Waals equation of state:
𝑎
(𝑃 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉
And its molar internal energy is given by
𝑎
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑇 −
𝑉
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑅 are constants. Calculate the molar heat capacities 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐶𝑉 . [5]
b) The thermal efficiency of a general heat engine is 35 percent and it produces 60 hp. At what rate
is heat transferred to this engine in KJ/s? [5]
c) Calculate the entropy change that occurs when 2.0 kg of water at 20.0∘C is mixed with 1.0 kg of
water at 70.0∘C. [4]
Q4.
a) Show that the reciprocal of a reciprocal lattice is a direct lattice. [4]
b) Titanium (T) has an HCP crystal structure with a density of 4.51 g/cm3 . If titanium has atomic
weight of 47.9 g/mol, [5]
i) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters?
ii) If the ratio 𝑐/𝑎 is 1.58, compute the value of 𝑐 and 𝑎.
c) Obtain the formula for interplanar spacing, 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 , of a cubic crystal structure and hence show that
𝑑010 > 𝑑111 . (Here ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙 are Miller indices.) [5]
Q5.
a) Show that for simple harmonic oscillator, the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy
is a constant. Draw the plots of the kinetic and potential energies with respect to time within one
period of oscillation. [2+2]
b) Set up the differential equation of wave motion for a transverse wave propagating on a stretched
𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
string in the form: 2 = ( 2 ) 2 . Solve the equation and show that the general solution is a
𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
linear combination of a forward going and a backward going wave. [3+4]
c) What happens when a stretched string has one end attached to a transverse vibrator and the
other end (a) strongly attached to a rigid body and (b) loosely attached to a light hoop that can
move without friction on a pole? Explain your answer. [1.5+1.5]
Q6.
a) What are the conditions for interference of light? [2]
b) In Young's double-slit experiment, find the number of bright fringes per unit width on the screen.
Given that 𝑑 =center-to-center slit-spacing, 𝐷 =perpendicular distance from the slits to the
screen, 𝑎 =slit width of both the slits and 𝜆 =wavelength of light. [3]
c) In Newton’s ring experiment, the thickness of the air-film is 𝑡 = 𝑡(𝑟). Prove that: [5]
i) Diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural numbers.
ii) Diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers.
d) Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap-bubble film that results in constructive interference in
the reflected light if the film is illuminated with light whose wavelength in free space is 𝜆 = 600
nm. [2]
e) Find an expression of the Brewster angle in terms of the refractive index of the denser medium
with respect to the lighter medium. [2]
Q7.
a) Derive an expression for the intensity distribution of a single-slit diffraction pattern and hence
find the positions of minima and maxima. [5+1+2]
b) In a double slit diffraction pattern, the width of the slits is 𝑎 = 0.0088 cm and the slit-separation
is 𝑑 = 0.035 cm. The wavelength of light used is 𝜆 = 6.328 × 10−5 cm. Find the first missing
order. [2]
c) Consider the second minimum adjacent to the central maximum in a single-slit diffraction pattern.
Let 𝑎 be the slit-width. A ray coming to this point from the top edge of the slit is 180∘ out of
phase with a ray coming from another point inside the slit. How far away from the top edge is the
second point? [2]
d) Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident on a slit of width 0.01 mm. A diffraction pattern is formed
on a wall 5 m away from the slit. What is the width of the central maximum? [2]
 Solutions
Q1. a) During a quasi-static, adiabatic expansion or compression, the pressure and volume of an ideal
gas obey the relationship 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾, a constant. Show that the work done on the system in expanding
from an initial state (𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 ) to a final state (𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 ) is given by: [4]
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑓 𝛾
𝑊=− [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑃𝑖

Solution: For an ideal gas the equation of an adiabatic process is 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐾, a constant. Hence we get
𝛾 𝛾
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑃𝑓 𝑉𝑓 = 𝐾 = 𝑃𝑉 𝛾

Infinitesimal work done = 𝑑𝑊𝑜𝑛 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉. Work done in expanding (or compressing) from initial state
(𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 ) to the final state (𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 ) is:
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝛾 𝛾 1 −𝛾+1 −𝛾+1
𝑊𝑜𝑛 = − ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = −𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ∫ 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 [𝑉 − 𝑉𝑖 ]
−𝛾 + 1 𝑓
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖

𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝛾−1 −𝛾+1 −𝛾+1 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑓 −𝛾+1

⇒ 𝑊𝑜𝑛 =− (𝑉 ) [𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓 ]=− [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑖 𝛾−1 𝑉𝑖

But we again have,

−1/𝛾 𝛾 −1/𝛾
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓 𝛾/𝛾 𝑉𝑓 −𝛾 𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑓 −1/𝛾
=( ) = [( ) ] = [( ) ] =( )
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑓 𝑃𝑖

Hence,
1 −𝛾+1
𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑓 −𝛾 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑃𝑓 (𝛾−1)/𝛾
𝑊𝑜𝑛 =− [1 − {( ) } ]=− [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑃𝑖 𝛾−1 𝑃𝑖

Hence proved.

b) Show that for an ideal gas, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅, where the symbols have their usual meanings. [3]
 c) During an adiabatic process an amount of an ideal does 100 J of work and its temperature
decreases by 7.5 K. During another process it does 25 J of work and its temperature decreases by
7.5 K. What is the heat capacity of the gas for the second process? [2]
Solution: In the first process: Δ𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = −100J

The internal energy of an ideal gas depends on temperature only. For the same change of
temperature, the same amount of an ideal gas will have the same change of internal energy.

For the second process, say X : Δ𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −100𝐽 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 25 𝐽
−75 𝐽
=> 𝑛𝐶𝑋 Δ𝑇 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = −75 𝐽 ⇒ 𝑛𝐶𝑋 = −5 𝐾
= 15 𝐽/𝐾

d) At an initial temperature the rms speed of nitrogen molecules is 𝑣0 . Suppose the temperature of
nitrogen gas is tripled and the 𝑁2 molecules dissociate into atom. What will be the rms speed of
atoms? [2]
Solution: 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √3𝑘𝐵 𝑇/𝑚; 𝑇 → 3𝑇; 𝑚 → 𝑚/2 ; 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 → √3𝑘𝐵 (3𝑇)/(𝑚/2) = √6𝑣0

e) At which temperature the rms speed of oxygen exceeds the average speed of oxygen by 100
m/s? Given that the gram molecular mass of oxygen is 32 g. [2]
Solution: √3𝑘𝑇/𝑚 – √8𝑘𝑇/𝑚𝜋 = 100
𝑚 8
=> √𝑇 = √ 𝑘 (100/ (√3 – √𝜋))
𝑚
=> 𝑇 = ( 𝑘 ) (733.77)2 K = ( 5.31 × 10−26/1.38 × 10−23 )× (733.77)2 K = 2071.8 K
f) As the volume of an ideal gas is increased at constant pressure, what happens to the average
molecular speed? [1]
Solution: As the volume of an ideal gas is increased at constant pressure the average molecular
speed increases. This is because : 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = √8𝑘𝐵 𝑇/𝜋𝑚 ; At 𝑃 =constant; 𝑇 ∝ 𝑉 Hence as 𝑇
increases so also 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 .

Q2. a) Using the kinetic theory of gases, find an expression for pressure exerted by an ideal gas on the
wall of a vessel. [4]
a) Derive the formula for the mean free path of a gas molecule in a gas. How does it depend on
absolute temperature? [4+1]
 Mean free path of the molecules of a gas depends on absolute temperature T as 𝜆 ∝ 𝑇
𝜆 = 1/(√2 𝜋 𝑑2 𝑛𝑉 ), here
𝑛𝑉 = number density of molecules = (number of molecules)/volume
Then 𝑛𝑉 depends on temperature inversely, because we have,
𝑛𝑉 = 𝑁/𝑉 = 𝑃/𝑘𝑇 . Hence 𝜆 varies as 𝑇
𝑘𝑇
𝜆=
𝑃√2𝜋𝑑2

b) The air in your room is made up mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Approximate these molecules as
spheres of radius 𝑟 = 1.00 × 10−10 m.
i) Estimate the average distance between the air molecules in your room. Compare your answer
to the size of a molecule. [2+1]
ii) Compare the average separation with the mean free path of the molecules. [2]

Solution: Take room temperature to be 20°C (293 K) and the air pressure to be 1 atm or

1.013 × 105 Pa.

 The gas is ideal. Hence
𝑁 𝑃 1.0 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑛𝑉 = = =
𝑉 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 (1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾)(293𝐾)

1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎
𝑛𝑉 = = 2.50 × 1025 /𝑚3
(1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾)(293𝐾)
i) To find the average distance 𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 between the molecules, take the reciprocal of the cube root

of the number density.

𝑁 −1/3
𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ( ) = (2.50 × 1025 𝑚−3 )−1/3 = 3.4 × 10−9 𝑚
𝑉
Hence,

𝑑 3.4 × 10−9 𝑚
= = 17 ≈ 20
𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔 2.00 × 10−10 𝑚

ii) The mean free path is:

1 1
𝜆= = = 2.25 × 10−7 𝑚
√2𝜋𝑑2 𝑛 𝑉 √2𝜋(2.0 × 10−10 𝑚)2 𝑛𝑉
Hence, we get
𝜆
= (2.25 × 10−7 𝑚)/(3.4 × 10−9 𝑚) ≈ 66
𝑑𝑎𝑣𝑔

Q3.
a) One mole of a gas obeys the van der Waals equation of state:
𝑎
(𝑃 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉
And its molar internal energy is given by
𝑎
𝑈 = 𝑐𝑇 −
𝑉
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑅 are constants. Calculate the molar heat capacities 𝐶𝑃 and 𝐶𝑉 . [5]

Solution:
We know:
Heat capacity of a gas at constant volume is
𝑑𝑄
𝐶𝑉 = |
𝑑𝑇 𝑉
From the first law of thermodynamics:
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑑𝑊𝑜𝑛
For hydrostatic systems, the work done on a system is:
𝑑𝑊𝑜𝑛 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉
At constant volume, the work done is zero. Hence the heat capacity at constant volume is:
 𝑑𝑄 𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝑎
𝐶𝑉 = | = | = [ (𝑐𝑇 − )] = 𝑐
𝑑𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
Again at constant pressure, the heat capacity is:

𝑑𝑄
𝐶𝑃 = |
𝑑𝑇 𝑃
The difference of molar heat capacities is given in general for a hydrostatic system as:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑉
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑇 ( ) ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
For van der Waals gas of one mole:

𝑎
) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
(𝑃 +
𝑉2
𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝜕𝑃 𝑅
⇒𝑃= − 2⇒( ) =
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑏
Again we have
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉
( ) ( ) ( ) = −1
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇
Hence we have
𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑉 ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑉
( ) = −( ) ( ) = −
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜕𝑃
( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇
Now,
𝑅𝑇 𝑎 𝜕𝑃 𝑅𝑇 2𝑎
𝑃= − 2⇒( ) =− +
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑇 (𝑉 − 𝑏)2 𝑉 3
𝜕𝑃 𝑅
Also, we had (𝜕𝑇 ) = 𝑉−𝑏
𝑉

Hence we have,
𝜕𝑃 𝑅
𝜕𝑉 ( ) 𝑅(𝑉 − 𝑏)
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑉 −𝑏
( ) =− =− =
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑅𝑇 2𝑎 2𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑏)2
( ) − 2 + 3 𝑅𝑇 −
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 (𝑉 − 𝑏) 𝑉 𝑉3
Hence, using the general result for the difference of molar heat capacities, we get:
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑉
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑇 ( ) ( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑃
𝑇𝑅 𝑅(𝑉 − 𝑏)
⇒ 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 =
𝑉−𝑏 2𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑏)2
𝑅𝑇 −
𝑉3
𝑅
⇒ 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 =
2𝑎(𝑉 − 𝑏)2
[1 − ]
𝑅𝑇𝑉 3
b) The thermal efficiency of a general heat engine is 35 percent and it produces 60 hp. At what rate
is heat transferred to this engine in KJ/s? [5]
 Solution:
We have, the thermal efficiency
𝑄𝐿
𝜂 =1− = 0.35
𝑄𝐻
Given work done in one second W=60hp=(𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 )/1𝑠𝑒𝑐
Hence we get, in one second heat taken is
60ℎ𝑝 100
𝑄𝐻 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = (𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 )/(𝜂 × 1 sec) = 0.35 = 60 × 35 ℎ𝑝 = 171.428 ℎ𝑝
1 hp = 735.499 Watts
Hence the rate at which heat is transferred to this engine is:
𝐽
𝑄̇𝐻 = 127833.8376 = 128 𝑘𝐽/𝑠
𝑠

c) Calculate the entropy change that occurs when 2.0 kg of water at 20.0∘C is mixed with 1.0 kg of
water at 70.0∘C. [4]
Solution: Since no heat loss occurs to the surroundings:
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡 ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑐1 Δ𝑇𝑐 = −𝑚2 𝑐2 Δ𝑇𝐻
𝑚1 𝑐1 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑐 ) = −𝑚2 𝑐2 (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇ℎ )
⇒ 𝑇𝑓 = (𝑚1 𝑐1 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑚2 𝑐2 𝑇ℎ )/(𝑚1 𝑐1 + 𝑚2 𝑐2 )
Here,
𝐽
𝑚1 = 2.0kg, 𝑐1 =specific heat of water = 4186 𝑘𝑔.𝐾 , 𝑇1 = 𝑇𝑐 = 293.15𝐾

𝑚2 = 1.0 kg, 𝑐2 = 𝑐1 = specific heat of water, 𝑇2 = 𝑇ℎ = 343.15𝐾

For our case, 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 and hence
𝑇𝑓 = (𝑚1 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑚2 𝑇ℎ )/(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
⇒ 𝑇𝑓 = (2 × 293.15 + 1 × 343.15)/(2 + 1)𝐾
⇒ 𝑇𝑓 = 309.817𝐾
Change of entropy
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝑑𝑄 𝑚1 𝑐1 𝑑𝑇 𝑚2 𝑐2 𝑑𝑇
Δ𝑆 = ∑ ∫ =∫ | +∫ |
𝑖 𝑇 𝑖 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑖 𝑇 ℎ𝑜𝑡
𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑓
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
⇒ Δ𝑆 = 𝑚1 𝑐1 ∫ + 𝑚2 𝑐2 ∫
𝑇𝑐 𝑇 𝑇ℎ 𝑇

𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑓
⇒ Δ𝑆 = 𝑚1 𝑐1 ln ( ) + 𝑚2 𝑐2 ln ( )
𝑇𝑐 𝑇ℎ
The final temperature 𝑇𝑓 = 309.817𝐾. Hence the change of entropy is:
𝑇𝑓 𝑇𝑓
Δ𝑆 = 𝑚1 𝑐1 ln ( ) + 𝑚2 𝑐2 ln ( )
𝑇𝑐 𝑇ℎ
309.817 309.817
Δ𝑆 = 4186 × (2 × ln ( ) + 1 × ln ( )) 𝐽/𝐾
293.15 343.15
⇒ Δ𝑆 = 35.199𝐽/𝐾
Q4.
a) Show that the reciprocal of a reciprocal lattice is a direct lattice. [4]
Solution:
Reciprocal lattice of a lattice with lattice vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗ in real space, is defined in terms of the
primitive reciprocal lattice vectors:
𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ 𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑎⃗∗ = , 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ = , 𝑐⃗∗ =
𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)
The reciprocal lattice vectors satisfy the following relations orthonormality relations:
𝑎⃗ . 𝑎⃗∗ = 1, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ = 0, 𝑎⃗ . 𝑐⃗∗ = 0
𝑏⃗⃗ . 𝑎⃗∗ = 0, 𝑏⃗⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ = 1, 𝑐⃗ . 𝑐⃗∗ = 0
𝑐⃗ . 𝑎⃗∗ = 0, 𝑐⃗ . 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ = 0, 𝑐⃗ . 𝑐⃗∗ = 1
Let us define the reciprocal of the reciprocal lattice vector 𝑎⃗∗ , 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ , 𝑐⃗∗ as:
𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ 𝑐⃗∗ × 𝑎⃗∗ 𝑎⃗∗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗
𝑎⃗+ = , 𝑏⃗⃗ + = , 𝑐⃗+ =
𝑎⃗∗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ ) 𝑎⃗∗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ ) 𝑎⃗∗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ )
Considering the first of the above, we get
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ ×
𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗)
But the formula for vector triple product is:
𝐴⃗ × (𝐵
⃗⃗ × 𝐶⃗) = 𝐵
⃗⃗ (𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗) − 𝐶⃗ (𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗)
Hence, we have
𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗(𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ . 𝑏⃗⃗) − 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ . 𝑎⃗) = 𝑎⃗. 1 − 𝑏⃗⃗. 0 = 𝑎⃗
Similarly we get,
𝑐⃗∗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑐⃗∗ . 𝑐⃗) − 𝑐⃗(𝑐⃗∗ . 𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑏⃗⃗. 1 − 𝑐⃗. 0 = 𝑏⃗⃗
Also
𝑎⃗∗ × (𝑐⃗ × 𝑎⃗) = 𝑐⃗(𝑎⃗∗ . 𝑎⃗) − 𝑎⃗(𝑎⃗∗ . 𝑐⃗) = 𝑐⃗. 1 − 𝑎⃗. 0 = 𝑐⃗
Also, the scalar triple product 𝑎⃗∗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ ) ris equal to:

𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗ (𝑏⃗⃗ × (𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗)) (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) . 𝑎⃗

∗
𝑉 1
𝑎⃗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ ) =
∗
. = = =
𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) 𝑎⃗. (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉

Hence we get,
𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ 𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗+ = = 𝑉 ( ) = 𝑎⃗
𝑎⃗∗ . (𝑏⃗⃗ ∗ × 𝑐⃗∗ ) 𝑉
Similarly the other relations could be proved.
b) Titanium (Ti) has an HCP crystal structure with a density of 4.51 g/cm3 . If titanium has atomic
weight of 47.9 g/mol, [5]
i) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters?
ii) If the ratio 𝑐/𝑎 is 1.58, compute the value of 𝑐 and 𝑎.
Solution:
i) If 𝑉𝐶 is the volume of the unit cell, and 𝜌 is the density of the material (Ti), then
𝜌𝑉𝐶 = 𝑛 𝑚
where 𝑛 = number of atoms per unit cell and 𝑚 = mass of each atom.
For HCP structure, the number of atoms per unit cell is
1 1
𝑛 = 3 + 12 × ( ) + 2 × ( ) = 6
6 2
where there are 3 atoms inside the HCP cell, there are 6+6=12 atoms at the corners (six on the
upper corners and six on the lower corners) and two atoms at the center of the upper and lower
faces. The corner atoms are shared by six adjacent cells and the base atoms are shared by two
cells.
To calculate 𝑚, we use the fact that 𝑁𝐴 number of atoms have a mass of 𝑀 grams, where 𝑀 is the
atomic mass.
Hence, we have
𝑀 47.9𝑔
𝑚= =
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐴
Hence,
𝑛𝑀 47.9𝑔
𝑉𝐶 = =6× × 𝑐𝑚3 = 1.058 × 10−28 𝑚3
𝜌𝑁𝐴 (4.51𝑔) × 6.023 × 1023
ii) Volume of the HCP unit cell is:
1
𝑉𝐶 = 6 × × 𝑎 × ℎ × 𝑐
2
where 𝑎 =length of each side of HCP structure and ℎ = perpendicular distance from the center
of base to a side (height of an isosceles triangle, six of which consists a base) and 𝑐 = 1.58 × 𝑎 is
the height of the HCP hexagonal unit cell.
We have, ℎ = sin(60∘ ) 𝑎 = √3𝑎/2 and hence
√3
𝑉𝐶 = 3 × 𝑎3 × 1.58 × = 4.10496𝑎3
2
Hence we get
1
𝑉𝐶 3
𝑎=( ) = 2.9539 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.2954𝑛𝑚
4.10496
𝑐 = 1.58𝑎 = 4.667 × 10−10 𝑚 = 0.4667𝑛𝑚
c) Obtain the formula for interplanar spacing, 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 , of a cubic crystal structure and hence show that
𝑑010 > 𝑑111 . (Here ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙 are Miller indices.)
 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑010 = = 𝑎, 𝑑111 = = 𝑎/√3
√0 + 1 + 0 √1 + 1 + 1
Hence, 𝑑010 > 𝑑111
Q5.
a) Show that for simple harmonic oscillator, the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy
is a constant. Draw the plots of the kinetic and potential energies with respect to time within one
period of oscillation. [2+2]
b) Set up the differential equation of wave motion for a transverse wave propagating on a stretched
𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
string in the form: 𝜕𝑥 2 = (𝑣 2 ) 𝜕𝑡 2 . Solve the equation and show that the general solution is a
linear combination of a forward going and a backward going wave. [3+4]
Solution:
Solution of the wave equation:
c) What happens when a stretched string has one end attached to a transverse vibrator and the
other end (a) strongly attached to a rigid body and (b) loosely attached to a light hoop that can
move without friction on a pole? Explain your answer. [1.5+1.5]
Q6.
a) What are the conditions for interference of light? [2]
b) In Young's double-slit experiment, find the number of bright fringes per unit width on the screen.
Given that 𝑑 =center-to-center slit-spacing, 𝐷 =perpendicular distance from the slits to the
screen, 𝑎 =slit width of both the slits and 𝜆 =wavelength of light. [3]
 Fringe width is
𝐿 𝜆𝐿
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 = 𝜆 (𝑚 + 1 − 𝑚) =
𝑑 𝑑
where d=center-to-center slit-spacing and L=perpendicular distance from the slits to the screen and
λ=wavelength of light
Hence number of fringes per unit width of the screen is:
1 𝑑
𝑛′ = =
𝛽 𝜆𝐿
in units of 𝑚−1.

c) In Newton’s ring experiment, the thickness of the air-film is 𝑡 = 𝑡(𝑟). Prove that: [5]
i) Diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural numbers.
ii) Diameters of dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers.
Bright Rings:
Hence, diameters of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of odd natural numbers.

Dark Rings:
For dark rings, we have destructive interference and the condition is:
𝜆 𝑟𝑛2 𝑛𝜆
2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛 ⇒ 2𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆 ⇒ = ⇒ 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝜆𝑅
2 2𝑅 2
d) Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap-bubble film that results in constructive interference in
the reflected light if the film is illuminated with light whose wavelength in free space is 𝜆 = 600
nm. [2]

1
2𝑛𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆
2

This gives
𝜆
2𝑛𝑡 =
2
𝜆 600 𝑛𝑚
⇒𝑡= = = 113 𝑛𝑚
4𝑛 4(1.33)

e) Find an expression of the Brewster angle in terms of the

refractive index of the denser medium with respect to the
lighter medium. [2]
Q7.
a) Derive an expression for the intensity distribution of a single-slit diffraction pattern and hence
find the positions of minima and maxima. [5+1+2]
b) In a double slit diffraction pattern, the width of the slits is 𝑎 = 0.0088 cm and the slit-separation
is 𝑑 = 0.035 cm. The wavelength of light used is 𝜆 = 6.328 × 10−5 cm. Find the first missing
order. [2]
c) Consider the second minimum adjacent to the central maximum in a single-slit diffraction pattern.
Let 𝑎 be the slit-width. A ray coming to this point from the top edge of the slit is 180∘ out of
phase with a ray coming from another point inside the slit. How far away from the top edge is the
second point? [2]

Solution:
The ray coming to this point from the top edge of the slit is 180° out of phase with a ray
coming from (the position of) a point one-fourth of the slit-width away (i.e. inside) from
the top of the slit.

Explanation: The phase difference between two rays originating from two points in the
slit separated by a distance Δy is equal to:
Δφ = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ)
Now if the phase difference between rays coming from the top of the slit and from a point
at a distance Δy inside the slit from the top is equal to 180°, then we have:
Δφ = π = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ)
If the point on the screen is the second minimum adjacent to the central maximum, then
we get form the condition of minima:
sin(θ_dark) = 2 λ/a
This gives:
Δφ = π = (2π/λ) Δy sin(θ_dark) = (2π/λ) Δy (2 λ/a) = 4π (Δy/a)
=> 4π (Δy/a) =π => Δy = a/4

Thus the other ray is coming at a point one-fourth of the slit-width inside the slit from the
top edge.
d) Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident on a slit of width 0.01 mm. A diffraction pattern is formed
on a wall 5 m away from the slit. What is the width of the central maximum? [2]

Solution:
Ans: 60 cm. Explanation: The condition for the minima in single-slit diffraction pattern
is:
sin(θ_dark) = mλ/a. For central maxima, m= ±1.
The angular width of the central maxima is thus:
Δ θ = (θ_dark_m=1) - (θ_dark_m=-1)
Δ θ ≈ sin(θ_dark_m=1) - sin(θ_dark_m=-1) = (1-(-1)) λ/a = 2λ/a

Again, linear separation of the first order minima (on both sides) on the screen is (with L
= perpendicular distance from the slit to the screen): Δ y = Δθ L = 2λL/a

Thus we get:
Δ y = 2 (600 nm) (5 m)/(0.01mm) = 6 (10^(-9)) 1000 m/(1/100000) = 6 10^(-9+3+5) m =
6 (10^-1) m = 60 cm.