KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY

ALGEBRA

MATH 153
 Chapter 1

SIGMA NOTATIONS

1.1 Understanding Sigma Notation

The symbol (capital sigma) is often used as shorthand notation to indicate the sum of a number
P

of similar terms. Sigma notations is used extensively in statistics.

For example , suppose we weigh five children. We will denote weights by x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,and
x5 .

The sum of their weights x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 is written more compactly as

P5
j=1 xj .

The symbol means "add up". Underneath we see j =1 and on top of it 5. This
P P

means that j is replaced by whole numbers at the bottom number, 1, until the top number , 5, is
reached.
Thus

5
X
xj = x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 ,
j=2

and

4
X
xj = x 2 + x3 + x4 .
j=2

2
So the notation xj tells us :
Pn
j=1

a. to add up the scores xj ,

b. where to start : x1

c. where to stop : xn (where n is some number).

Now take the weights of the children to be x1 = 10kg, x2 = 12kg, x3 = 14kg, x4 = 8kg and
x5 = 11kg. Then the total weight (in kilograms) is

5
X
xj = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
j=1

= 10 + 12 + 14 + 8 + 11

= 55.

Notice that we have used i instead of j in the formula above. The j is what we call a dummy variable
- any letter can be used, ie,

5
X 5
X
xj = xi
j=1 i=1

Now let us find 2xi , where x1 = 2, x2 = 3, x3 = −2 and x4 = 1.

P4
i=1

Again,starting with i=1 we replace the expression 2xi with its value and add up then terms
until i = 4 is reached. So,

4
X
2xi = 2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + 2x4
i=1

= 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(−2) + 2(1)

=4+6−4+2

=8

3
Similarly, let us find − 4) where x1 = 7, x2 = 4, x3 = 1
P3
k=1 (xk

Here,

3
X
(xk − 4) = (x1 − 4) + (x2 − 4) + (x3 − 4)
k=1

= (7 − 4) + (4 − 4) + (1 − 4)

= 3 + 0 + (−3)

=0

Notice that this is different from xk − 4 where x1 = 7, x2 = 4, x3 = 1

P3
k=1

In this case, we have,

3
X
xk − 4 = x1 + x 2 + x3 − 4
k=1

=7+4+1−4

=8

We use brackets to indicate what should be included in the sum. In the previous example, there
were no brackets , so the "4" was not included in sum.

Example: Write out in full:

P5
k=1 xk .

Solution: x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5

We also use sigma notation in the following way:

4
X
j 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 30
j=1

This is the same principle: replace j in the expression (this time j 2 ) by whole numbers starting with

4
1 and ending with 4 , and add.

1.1.1 Exercises

1. Evaluate xi where x1 = 5, x2 = 2, x3 = 3, x4 = 8.
P4
i=1

2. Evaluate 5xk where x1 = 10, x2 = 14, x3 = −2, andn = 3.

Pn
k=1

1 P5
3. Find µ = xj where the x1 = 10kg, x2 = 12kg, x3 = 14kg, x4 = 8kg and x5 = 11kg are
5 j=1
the weights of 5 children. (µ is the mean weight of the children.)

4. Find the value of − µ)2 where x1 = 105, x2 = 100, x3 = 95, and µ = 100.
P3
i=1 (xi

1.2 Rules of summation

We will prove three rules of summation. These rules will allow us to evaluate formulae containing
sigma notation more easily and allow u to derive equivalent formulae.

Rule 1: If c is a constant, then

n
X n
X
cxi = c xi .
i=1 i=1

To see why Rule 1 is true , lets start with the left hand side of this equation,

n
X
cxi = cx1 + cx2 + cx3 + . . . + cxn
i=1

= c(x1 + x2 + x3 + . . . + xn )
n
X
=c xi
i=1

as required.

Suppose that xi = 55 as in a previous example. Then

P5 P5 P5
i=1 i=1 3xi = 3 i=1 xi = 3 × 55 = 165.

Rule 2: If c is a constant, then

n
X
c = nc
i=1

5
This rule looks a bit strange as there is no ’xi ’ . The left hand side of this formula means ’sum c, n
times’. That is ,

n n
X z }| {
c = c + c + ... + c
i=1

=n×c

= nc

For example,
P5
i=1 2 = 5 × 2 = 10

Rule 3:
n
X n
X n
X
(xi + yi ) = xi + yi .
i=1 i=1 i=1

To prove this rule, lets start with the left hand side,

n
X
(xi + yi ) = (x1 + y1 ) + (x2 + y2 ) + (x3 + y3 ) + . . . + (xn + yn )
i=1

= (x1 + x2 + x3 + . . . + xn ) + (y1 + y2 + y3 + . . . + yn )
n
X n
X
= xi + yi .
i=1 i=1

For example , if xi = 21 and yi = 35 then

P7 P7 Pn P5 P5
i=1 i=1 i=1 (xi +yi ) = i=1 xi + i=1 yi = 21+35 = 56

1.2.1 Exercises

In the following exercises you may assume that

P5 P5 P5 P5
i=1 xi = 37, i=1 yi = 12, i=1 x2i = 303, i=1 yi2 =
50 and 5i=1 xi yi = 105
P

Evaluate the following expressions:

1.
P5
i=1 2yi

2.
P5
i=1 xi − 1

3.
P5
i=1 (xi − 1)

4. ( 5i=1 xi )2
P

6
 5.
P5
i=1 (2xi + yi )

6.
P5
i=1 (2xi + 3yi )

7.
P5
i=1 (2xi − 5yi + 3)

8.
P5
i=1 (xi − 2yi )2

1.3 Using Sigma Notation in Statistics

Here are one examples of how sigma notations is used in statistics:

The formula for a mean of a group of N scores , is

N
1 X
µ= xi
N i=1

A measure of how spread out the scores are, called the variance, has the following formula:

N
1 X
σ2 = (xi − µ)2
N i=1

For example, the number of customers having lunch at a certain restaurant on 7 weekdays were
x1 = 92, x2 = 84, x3 = 70, x4 = 76, x5 = 66, x6 = 80, x7 = 71

The mean is

N
1 X
µ= xi
N i=1
1
= (92 + 84 + 70 + 76 + 66 + 80 + 71)
N
539
=
7
= 77

Note: There are 7 scores so N =7.

7
The variance is

7
2 1X
σ = (xi − 77)2
7 i=1
 
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= (15) + (7) + (−7) + (−1) + (−11) + (3) + (−6)
7
1
= [225 + 49 + 49 + 1 + 121 + 9 + 36]
7
1
= [490]
7
= 70.

An alternative formula for variance is

N
1 X 2
σ2 = ( xi − N µ 2 )
N i=1

For the above example we get:

 
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
σ = x + x2 + x 3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 − N µ
N 1
1 2
= [92 + 842 + 702 + 762 + 662 + 802 + 712 − 7(77)2 ]
7
1
= [8464 + 7056 + 5776 + 4356 + 6400 + 5041 − 7(5929)]
7
1
= [490]
7
= 70

as before.

1.3.1 Exercises

1. Find the variance of the weights of the five children (in Exercise 1.1.1 number 3), using each
of the above formulae for σ 2 .

2. During a 5 week period , a salespersons weekly income (in dollars) was x1 = 400, x2 = 250, x3 =
175, x4 = 300, x5 = 375.
1 P5 1 P5
Calculate µ = i=1 xi and σ = (
2 2 2
i=1 xi − 5µ ).
5 5

8
3. An insurance company is concerned about the length of time required to process claims.
The length of time, measured in days , taken to process 7 claims produced the data
x1 = 23, x2 = 20, x3 = 22, x4 = 25, x5 = 24, x6 = 23, x7 = 21.

Evaluate the mean µ and variance σ 2 for these data.

9
 Chapter 2

INDICES

Given an = a × a × a × · · · × a (n factors), n is called the index and a is called the base.

Eg: 34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
4 is the index and 3 is the base.
34 is read as 3 to the power 4 or 3 raised to the power 4.
Indices (Plural) : Index (Singular)

2.1 RULES OF INDICES

1 ax × ay = ax+y When numbers with the same base are multiplied indices are added.

Eg: 24 × 23 = 24+3 = 27

ax
2 ay
= ax−y
When numbers with the same base are divided, indices are subtracted.

36
Eg: 32
= 36−2 = 34

3 (ax )y = axy
When a number in index form is raised to another power, the indices are multiplied.
Eg: (24 )3 = 24·3 = 212

4 a0 = 1 (Zero Index)

Eg: X 0 = 1 ; 50 = 1

5 a−x = 1
a
(Negative Index)
When a number is raised to a negative index, it can be converted to a number with positive

10
 index by inversion Eg: 3−7 = 1
37
; x−2 = 1
x2

x √
6 a y = ( y a)x (Fractional indices)
A fraction index is a root.
Eg:

1 √
m
xm = x
1 √
x2 = x
1 √x
2x = 2
1 √
x3 = 3 x
5 √
x 3 = ( 3 x)5

Exercise(a)
3 2 3 3 2
1. ( 27y
8x
6)
3 = (
2 x 3
33 y 6
2x 2
) = ( 3y 2)

3 4 3 2
2. ( 256
81 2
) = ( 344 ) 2 = ( 342 )3

1 1 2 1
3. ( 49
25 − 2 49 2
) = ( 25 ) = ( 572 ) 2 = 7
5

Exercise(b)
1 1
1. (0.125)− 13 = ( 1000
125 − 3
) = ( 1000
125
)3
3
= ( 10
53
)= 10
5
=2

2. If 35x+4 = 27x+2 , find x.

11
 Solution:

35x+4 = 27x+2

35x+4 = 33(x+2)

⇒ 5x + 4 = 3(x + 2)

⇒ 5x + 4 = 3x + 6

2x = 2

x=1

3. If 3x = 81, find x

Solution:
3x = 81
⇒ 3x = 34
⇒x=4

Exercise (c)

1. If 34x−2 = ( 81
1 2x+3
) , find x

Solution:
1 2x+3
34x−2 = ( 81 )
34x−2 = 34(2x+3)
⇒ 4x − 2 = 8x + 12
− 4x = 14
x = − 14
4
= − 27 = −3 21

√
2. If 27x−2 = 64 2, find x

Solution:
√
27x−2 = 64 2
1
27x−2 = 26 · 2 2
1 13
27x−2 = 26+ 2 = 2 2
13
⇒ 7x − 2 = 2

12
 ⇒ 14x − 4 = 13
17
14x = 17x = 14
3
x = 1 14

2.1.1 EXERCISE

Simplify the following

1 √
1. 3a 2 b2 9a−3 b2 6. If 4x+3 = 1
16
, find x

√
1 3
2. 2(4a2 ) 2 a6 2
7. 27− 3 + 81 4
1

1
3. (x 2 + 2)(x − 2x 21 − 1) 3 1 1 1
(x 2 +x 2 )(x 2 +x− 2 )
8. 3 1
(x 2 +x 2 )2

1 1 1 1
4. (a 2 + b 2 )(2a 2 − 3b 2 )
1
9. Find x if 2x 3 = 5

5. 1
x
1 + 1
x
1
x 2 +y 2 x 2 −y 2

10. Find x if ( 27
1 x−1
) = 812−x

13
 Chapter 3

LOGARITHMS

3.1 LOGARITHMS

Common logarithms (logarithms to base 10) usually written without indicating the base. i.e log
Natural logarithms (logarithms to base e) i.e loge
Definition:
The logarithm of any number to a base is the power to which the base must be raised to equal the
given number.
if c = logb a, then c is the log of a to the base b.
log5 25 · · · · · · log 25 to base 5.
logc a · · · · · · log a to base c.

Example Solution

1. If x = log2 16, find x x4 = 81 = 34 =⇒ x = 3

Solution
3. If log7 x = 2, find x.
2x = 16 Solution

2x = 24 =⇒ x = 4
log7 x = 2

=⇒ x = 72 = 49
2. If 4 = logx 81, find x.

3.2 Rules of Logarithm

Since logarithms are powers, the rules that govern the manipulations of logarithms closely follow the
rules of powers.

1. loga xy = loga x + loga y 2. loga x

y
= loga x − loga y

14
3. loga xn = n log x 7. loga2 b2 = logb a

4. loga a = 1
8. eloge a = eln a = a
1
5. loga b =
logb a
9. If p = logb a,
logc b
6. loga b = then ap = b
logc a

PROOFS

1. loga xy = loga x + loga y

let loga x = pand loga y = q

=⇒ x = ap andy = aq

x.y = ap .aq = ap+q

Taking log to base a of both sides,

loga xy = loga a(p+q)

loga xy = (p + q) loga a

=⇒ loga xy = (p + q), since loga a = 1

∴ loga xy = loga x + loga y

15
2. loga x
y
= loga x − loga y

let loga x = p and loga y = q.

=⇒ x = ap and y = aq

=⇒ ap = x and y = aq
x ap
= q = a(p−q)
y a
Taking loga of both sides,
x
loga = loga a(p−q)
y
x
loga = (p − q) loga a
y
x
loga =p−q
y
x
loga = loga x − loga y
y
x
=⇒ loga = loga x − loga y
y

logc b
3. loga b =
logc a

Let loga b = p

=⇒ b = ap

Taking logc of both sides,

logc b = logc ap

logc b = p logc a
logc b
=⇒ p = . . . . . . . . . . . . (∗)
logc a
1
Deducing that loga b =
logb a
From (*), set c = b on the RHS
logb b 1
=⇒ loga b = =
loga b loga b

16
 1
4. To prove that the loga b = directly without any deduction,
loga b

let loga b = p

=⇒ b = ap

Taking logb of both sides,

logb b = logb ap

1 = p logb a
1
=⇒ logb b =
logb a

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Simplify the following:

i 2 log 5 + 5 log 2 + 3 log 3 − 3 log 6

ii log 280 + 2 log 15 − log 63

Solutions

i 2 log 5 + 5 log 2 + 3 log 3 − 3 log 6

2 log 5 + 5 log 2 + 3 log 3 − 3 log 6 = log 52 + log 25 + log 33 − log 63

= log 25 + log 32 + log 27 − log 216

 
= log 25x32x27
216
 
= log 216 = log 100 = log 102
21600

= 2 log 10 = 2

ii log 280 + 2 log 15 − log 63

17
 log 280 + 2 log 15 − log 63 = log 280 + log 152 − log 63

= log 280 + log 225 − log 63

 
280x225
= log
63
 
63000
= log = log 1000 = log 103 = 3 log 10
63
=3

log2 64 + log2 4 − log2 8

2.
log2 1024
Solution

log2 64 + log2 4 − log2 8 log2 26 + log2 22 − log2 23

=
log2 1024 log2 210
6 log2 2 + 2 log2 2 − 3 log2 2
=
10 log2 2
5 log2 2
=
10 log2 2
1
=
2

3. Express the following in terms of log a, log b and log c.

 
a2 b
i log
c3
ii log(ab2 c3 )
 
a5
iii log
b3 c 2

Solution
 
a2 b
(i) log = log a2 + log b − log c3
c 3

= 2 log a + log b − 3 log c

(ii) log(ab2 c3 ) = log a + log b2 + log c3

= log a + 2 log b + 3 log c
 
a5
(iii) log = log a5 − log b3 − log c2
b3 c 2
= 5 log a − 3 log b − 2 log c

4. Rewrite the following equations in the index form, clear of logarithms.

18
 √
i log x = 12 log y

ii logx 3 − logx y = 2

iii log 8 + log x = 2 log y

√
Solution (i) log x = 21 log y

1 1
log x 2 = log y
2
1 1
log x = log y
2 2
log x = log y

⇒x=y

(ii) logx 3 − logx y = 2

3
logx =2
y
3
x2 =
y
⇒ x2 y = 3

(iii) log 8 + log x = 2 log y

log 8 + log x = log y 2

log 8x = log y 2

8x = y 2
x 1
⇒ 2
=
y 8

 x−1
1
5. If = 812−x , find x
27

19
 Solution

 x−1
1
= 812−x
27
27−(x−1) = 812−x

3−3(x−1) = 34(2−x)

−3(x − 1) = 4(2 − x)

−3x + 3 = 8 − 4x

−3x + 4x = 8 − 3

x=5

6. If logb a + logc a = 2 logb a x logc a, prove that a2 = bc

Solution

logb a + logc a = 2 logb a x logc a

Dividing by logc a;
logb a + logc a
= 2 logb a = logb a2
logc a
logb a
⇒ + 1 = logb a2
logc a
logb c
But logc a = and logb b = 1
logb a
logb c
⇒ logb a · + logb b = logb a2
logb a
logb c + logb b = logb a2

logb bc = logb a2

⇒ bc = a2

Exercises

Solve the following:

i. log3 x + 3 logx 3 = 4

ii. logx 3 + logx 27 = 2

iii. log(x + 4) + log(x − 3) = 2 log(x − 3)

20
Solution
(i.) log3 x + 3 logx 3 = 4

log3 3
But logx 3 =
log3 x
3 log3 3
log3 x + =4
log3 x
⇒ (log3 x)2 + 3 = 4 log3 x

⇒ (log3 x)2 − 4 log3 x + 3 = 0

Let m = log3 x

⇒ m2 − 4m + 3 = 0

(m − 3)(m − 1) = 0

m = 3 and m = 1

⇒ log3 x = 3 or log3 x = 1

x = 33 = 27 or x = 3

(ii.) logx 3 + logx 27 = 2

logx 3 · 27 = 2

logx 81 = 2

x2 = 81

⇒x=9

(iii.) log(x + 4) + log(x − 3) = 2 log(x − 3)

log(x + 4)(x − 3) = log(x − 3)2

(x + 4)(x − 3) = (x − 3)2

x2 + x − 12 = x2 − 6x + 9

7x = 21 ⇒ x = 3

Find the value of x in the following equations.

21
 i 27log3 x = 81
3
5log5 x = 43
x3 = 43
ii 125log5 x = 64
⇒x=4
iii 64 log4 x
=8

iv 243log3 x = 3125 iii 64log4 x = 8

43log4 x = 8
Solutions
3
4log4 x = 8
i 27log3 x = 81
x3 = 23
3log3 x
3 = 81
3
⇒x=2
3log3 x = 34
log3 x3 = 4
iv 243log3 x = 3125
x3 = 43
35log3 x = 55
⇒x=4 5
3log3 x = 55
ii 125log5 x = 64 x5 = 55
53log5 x = 64 ⇒x=5

EXERCISES

1. Solve the following equations for x and y where possible.

i log2 4x = y + 4, 3 log2 x = y

ii loga (x2 + 3) − loga (x + 7) = loga x − loga 2

iii log3 y − logy 3 = 2

iv log2 x + log2 y = 6, log3 x − log3 y = 4

v log2 (log3 x) = 4

2. i If log3 (x − 6) = 2 and log2 (x − 7) = 3, Prove that x2 − 13x + 42 = 72

 
2x + 3y
ii If 4x + 9y = 37xy,
2 2
show that 2 log = log x + log y
7
 
5a − 3b
iii If 25a + 9b = 66ab, show that 2 log
2 2
= log a + log b
6
 
x+y
iv If x + y = 5xy(x + y), Show that 3 log
3 3
= log x + log y + log(x + y)
2

3. Show that

22
 i log2 5 · log4 3 · log25 16 = log2 3
1
ii log2 16 − 3 log3 31 + log25 5 = 7 2

iii log4 x = 12 log2 x and hence solve log4 x + 1

2
= log2 x

4. Show that
 
40log 3
i log = log 3
3log 4
ii log5 x + log2 8 = 0

5. Solve the following equations

i log5 x = 16 logx 5

ii 3 log 2 − log(x − 1) = log(x − 3)

iii log(2x − 1) + log(x + 2) = 2 log(x − 1)

6. Given that 3x+2 = 62x , show that x = log12 9

7. (a) If log5 3 = 0.682 and log5 2 = 0.431, find the value of

log5 83 + 2 log5 45 − log5 2
5

(b) Given that log7 2 = x, log7 3 = y and log7 5 = z, write the following logarithms in terms of
x, y and z

√
 
1
(i) log7 24 (ii) log7 0.14 (iii) log7 1 (iv) log7 180
20

8. i Given that log2 x+2 log4 y = 4, show that xy = 16. Hence solve for x and y in the following
simultaneous equation log10 (x + y) = 1 and log2 x + 2 log4 y = 4

ii If 22y = 51 · 33x , prove that

4
x log 27 = log 51 and hence find x.

23
 Chapter 4

QUADRATIC EQUATION (DISTINCT ROOTS)

The general quadratic equation is given by ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants.
If α and β are the distinct roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

then
x=α or x=β

⇒ x − α = 0 or x − β = 0
(x − α)(x − β) = 0
x2 − βx − αx + αβ = 0
x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0 · · · (1)

For ax2 + bx + c = 0

b c
x2 + x + = 0 · · · (2)
a a

1 and ○:
Comparing ○ 2
b
Sum of roots, α + β = −
a
c
Product of roots, αβ =
a

24
4.0.1 USING THE METHOD OF PERFECT SQUARES TO FIND THE

SUM AND PRODUCT OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION

If ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are constants.

then

ax2 + bx = −c
b c
x2 + x = −
a a
 2  2
2 b b c b
x + + =−
a 2a a 2a

Adding half of the square of the coefficient of x to both sides]

2
b2

b c
x+ =− + 2
2a a 4a
−4ac + b2 b2 − 4ac
= =
4a2 4a2
2
b2 − 4ac

b
x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =±
2a 4a2

√
b ± b2 − 4ac
x+ a=
2 4a2√
b b2 − 4ac
x=− ±
2a √ 2a
−b ± b2 − 4ac
=
2a
√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
⇒x= or x =
2a 2a

If α and β are the roots,

√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
then α = or β =
2a 2a

25
 Sum of roots :

√ √
b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
−b +
α+β = +
√2a √2a
−b + b − 4ac + (−b − b2 − 4ac)
2
=
√ 2a √
−b + b − 4ac − b − b2 − 4ac
2
=
2a
2b
=−
2a
b
=−
a

Products of roots:

 √  √ 
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
α·β =
2a 2a
2
√
2
(−b) − b2 − 4ac
=
4a2
b − (b − 4ac2 )
2 2
=
4a2
2 2
b − b + 4ac
=
4a2
4ac
=
4a2
c
=
a

Thus if α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then we have
x2 (α + β)x + αβ = 0
x2 (Sum of roots) + Product of roots = 0

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0, form new equation whose
1 1
roots are and . SOLUTION
α β

3x2 + 3x + 5 = 0

3
Sum of roots: α + β = −
2
5
Product of roots = αβ =
2

26
 1 1
Sum of roots = +
α β  
3
−
β+α α+β 2
= = =  
αβ αβ 5
2

3
=−
5
  
1 1
Products of roots =
α β

1 1 2
= = =
αβ 5 5
2
 
3 2
⇒ x2 − − x+ =0
5 5
5x2 + 3x + 2 = 0

⇒ The new equation is given by

5x2 + 3x + 2 = 0

2. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 4x2 − 7x + 3 = 0, form new equations whose
roots are

1 1
i ,
2α 2β
ii α2 , β 2

SOLUTION 4x2 − 7x + 3 = 0
7
Sum of roots = α + β =
4

3
Product of roots = αβ =
4

1 1
(i) Sum of roots = +
2α 2β

β+α α+β
= =
2αβ 2αβ

27
    
7 7
4 4
=  = 
3 6
2
4 8

7
=
3

  
1 1
Products of roots =
2α 2β

1 1
= =  
4αβ 3
4
4

1
=
3

The new equation is given by

x2 − ( Sum of roots )x + Products of roots = 0

 
2 7 1
⇒x − x+ =0
3 3

⇒ 3x2 − 7x + 1 = 0

(ii) Sum of roots = α2 + β 2

But (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2

⇒ α2 + β 2 = (α + β)2 − 2αβ

 2  
7 3
= −2
4 4

49 3 49 − 24
= − =
16 2 16

28
 25
=
16

Products of roots = (α2 )(β 2 )

= (αβ)2

 2
3 9
= =
4 16

The new equation is given by

x2 − (Sum of roots)x + Products of roots = 0

 
2 25 9
x − x+ =0
6 16

⇒ 16x2 − 25x + 9 = 0

EXERCISES

If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 5x2 − 7x − 4 = 0, form new equations
whose roots are

i. α, β

1 1
ii. ,
3α 3β
1 1
iii.
α+1β +1

iv. α2 , β 2

29
4.1 ROOTS OF A CUBIC EQUATION

The general equation of a cubic equation is given by ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, where a, b, c and d are
constants coefficients.

If α, β and γ are the roots of ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0,

then x = α or x = β or x = γ

⇒ x − α = 0 or x − β = 0 or x − γ = 0

⇒ (x − α)(x − β)(x − γ) = 0

⇒ (x2 − βx − αx + αβ)(x − γ) = 0

⇒ x3 − γx2 − βx2 + βγx − γx2 + αγx + αβx − αβγ = 0

⇒ x3 (α + β + γ)x2 + (αβ + αγ + βγ)x − αβγ = 0 · · · 1

○

x3 − (Sum of roots)x2 + (Sum of product in pairs)x− Product of roots = 0

ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0

b c d
x3 + x2 + x + = 0 · · · 2
○
a a a

Comparing (1) and (2) :

b
Sum of roots = α + β + γ = −
a

c
Sum of products of roots = αβ + αγ + βγ =
a
d
Products of roots = αβγ = −
a

30
DEVELOPING AN INDENTITY FOR α2 + β 2 + γ 2

From the indentity (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2

Substitute ( or set) (β + γ) for β

⇒ [α + (β + γ)]2 = α2 + 2α(β + γ) + (β + γ)2

+
(α + β + γ)2 = α2 + 2αβ + 2αγ + β 2 + 2γ + γ 2 · · · ○

⇒ α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = (α + β + γ)2 − 2(αβ + αγ + βγ) · · · ○

∗

NOTE: Sum of Product in pairs of roots is also known as Product sum of pairs of roots or Pairwise
sum of roots.

DEVELOPING AN IDENTITY FOR α3 + β 3 + γ 3

Using equation (+) ,

(α + β + γ)2 = α2 + 2αβ + 2αγ + β 2 + 2βγ + γ 2
we multiply both sides (α + β + γ)
i.e (α + β + γ)(α + β + γ)2 = (α + β + γ)(α2 + 2αβ + 2αγ + β 2 + 2βγ + γ 2 )
⇒ (α + β + γ)3 = α3 + 2α2 β + 2α2 γ + α2 β + 2αβ 2 + 2αβγ + β 3 +
2β 2 γ + βγ 2 + α2 γ + 2αβγ + 2αγ 2 + β 2 γ + 2βγ 2 + γ 3
= α3 + β 3 + γ 3 + 3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3β 2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ
⇒ α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = (α + β + γ)3
3
− [3α2 γ + 3β 2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ] · · · ○
But we notice that ;
3(α + β + γ)(αβ + ααγ + βγ) = 3(α2 β + αγ 2 + αβ 2 + β 2 γ + αβγ + αγ 2 + βγ 2 )
4
= 3α2 β + 3αγ 2 + 3αβ 2 + 3β 2 γ + 3αβγ + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 · · · ○
Also,
3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) − 3αβγ = 3α2 β + 3αγ 2 + 3αβ 2 + 3β 2 γ + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2

Adding 6αβγ to both sides yields

31
 3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + 3αβγ
5
= 3α2 β + 3αγ 2 + 3αβ 2 + 3β 2 γ + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ · · · ○

Substituting (5) into (3) yields

α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = (α + β + γ)3 − [3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + 3αβγ]

6
= (α + β + γ)3 − −3[(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + αβγ] · · · ○

Product of roots in pairs for α3 , β 3 , γ 3

6
Set α = βγ, β = αγ, and γ = αβ in ○

(βγ)3 + (αγ)3 + (αβ)3 = (βγ + αγ + αβ)

7
−3(αβ + αγ + βγ)(αβγ)(α + β + γ) − (αβγ)2 · · · ○

Note: You are required to develop convenient methods for the identities involving
α3 + β 3 + γ 3 , (αβ)3 + (αγ)3 + (βγ 3 )

Hint: Alternative procedure eg. Binomial expression could be used.

Products of roots for α3 , β 3 , γ 3 and (αβ)3 , (αγ)3 , (βγ)3

(i) α3 · β 3 · γ 3 = (αβγ)3

(ii) (αβ)3 · (αγ)3 · (βγ)3 = (αβγ)3

Using Binomial Expansion for (α + β+)3

32
 [α + (β + γ)]3 = α3 + 3α2 (β + γ) + 3α(β + γ)2 + (β + γ)3

= α3 + 3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3α(β 2 + 2βγ + γ 2 ) + β 3 + 3β 2 γ + 3βγ 2 + γ 3

= α3 + 3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 6αβγ + 3αγ 2 + β 3 + 3β 2 γ + 3βγ 2 + γ 3

(α + β + γ)3 = α3 + β 3 + γ 3 + 3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ

4
But f rom eqn ○

3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) = 3α2 β + 3αγ 2 + 3αβ 2 + 3β 2 γ + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 3αβγ

⇒ 3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ)

5
From○ α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = (α + β + γ)3 − [+3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ]

= (α + β + γ)3 − [+3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 ] + 6αβγ

= (α + β + γ)3 − [+3α2 β + 3α2 γ + 3αβ 2 + 3αγ 2 + 3βγ 2 + 6αβγ − 9αβγ]

= (α + β + γ)3 − 3(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) − 3αβγ

= (α + β + γ)3 − 3[(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + αβγ]

⇒ α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = 3[(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + αβγ]

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. If α, β and γ are the roots of the equation 2X 3 + 3x2 + 5x − 3 = 0 , form new equations whose
roots are

(i) α, β, γ

1 1 1
(ii) , ,
α β γ

(iii) α2 , β 2 , γ 2

(iv) α3 , β 3 , γ 3

SOLUTION

2X 3 + 3x2 + 5x − 3 = 0
If α, β and γ are the roots,

33
then
3
Sum of roots : α + β + γ = −
2
5
Sum of products of roots: αβ + αγ + βγ =
2
3
Product of roots : αβγ =
2

The new equation should take the form

x3 − (Sum of roots )x2 + (Sum of product of roots in pairs)x− Products of roots = 0

(i) α, β, γ
3
Sum of roots : α + β + γ = −
2
5
Sum of products of roots: αβ + αγ + βγ =
2
3
Product of roots : αβγ =
2
New equation

   
3 3 2 5 3
x − x + x− =0
2 2 2

2x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 3 = 0

1 1 1
(ii) , ,
α β γ

1 1 1
Sum of roots : + +
α β γ

5


βγ + αγ + αβ 2
5
= = 3
=
αβγ 2
3
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
Sum of products of roots in pairs = · + · + ·
α β α γ β γ

1 1 1
= + +
αβ αγ βγ
 
3
−
γ+β+α 2
=   = −1
αβγ 3
2
   
1 1 1
Products of roots =
α β γ

34
 1 1 2
= = =
αβγ 3 3
2

New equation:

   
3 5 2 2
x − x + (−1)x − =0
3 3

3x3 − 5x2 − x − 3 = 0

(iii) α2 , β 2 , γ 2

Sum of roots :α2 + β 2 + γ 2

35
Using the indentity (α + β)2 = α2 + 2αβ + β 2 and setting (β + γ) for β,

[α + (β + γ)]2 = α2 + 2α(β + γ) + (β + γ)2

(α + β + γ)2 = α2 + 2αβ + 2αγ + β 2 + 2βγ + γ 2

7
⇒ α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = (α + β + γ)2 − 2(αβ + αγ + βγ) · · · ○
 2  
3 5
= − −2
2 2
9 9 20
= −5= −
4 4 4
11
=−
4

Sum of product of roots in pairs : α2 β 2 + α2 γ 2 + β 2 γ 2

= (αβ)2 + (αγ)2 + (βγ)2

7 above,
From eqn ○

α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = (α + β + γ)2 − 2(αβ + αγ + βγ)

Setting α = αβ; β = αγ and γ = βγ, we have

(αβ)2 + (αγ)2 + (βγ)2 = (αβ + αγ + βγ)2 − 2(αβ · αγ + αβ · βγ + αγ · βγ)

= (αβ + αγ + βγ)2 − 2αβγ(α + β + γ)

 2   
5 3 3
= −2 −
2 2 2
25 9 25 18
= + = +
4 2 4 4
43
=
4

Product of roots : (α2 )(β 2 )(γ 2 )

= (αβγ)2
 2
3
=
2
9
=
4

36
      
3 11 2 43 9
⇒x − − x − x− =0
4 4 4
⇒ 4x3 + 11x2 + 43x − 9 = 0

(iv) α3 , β 3 , γ 3

Sum of roots : α3 + β 3 + γ 3

6 on page 17
From eqn ○

α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = (α + β + γ)3 − −3[(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + αβγ]

 3      
3 3 5 3
= − −3 − +
2 2 2 2
 
27 15 3
= −3 − +
8 4 2
 
27 15 6
= −3 − +
8 4 4
 
27 9 27 27 27 54
= −3 − = + = +
8 4 8 4 4 8
81
=
8

Sum of product of roots in pairs : α3 · β 3 + α3 · γ 3 + β 3 · γ 3

= (αβ)3 + (αγ)3 + (βγ)3

6 on page 17
Using eqn ○

37
 α3 + β 3 + γ 3 = (α + β + γ)3 − 3[(α + β + γ)(αβ + αγ + βγ) + αβγ]

let α = αβ; β = αγ; γ = βγ

(αβ)3 + (αγ)3 + (βγ)3 = (α + β + γ)3 − 3[(αβ + αγ + βγ)(αβ · αγ + αβ · βγ + αγ · βγ) + (αβ · αγ

= (βγ + αγ + αβ) − 3 (αβ + αγ + βγ)(αβγ)(α + β + γ) − (αβγ)2

 

 3 "        #
2
5 5 3 3 3
(αβ)3 + (αγ)3 + (βγ)3 = −3 − +
2 2 2 2 2
 
125 45 9
= −3 − +
8 8 4
 
125 45 18
= −3 − +
8 8 8
 
125 27
= −3 −
8 8
125 81
= +
8 8
206
=
8

Products of roots : α3 · β 3 · γ 3

= (αβγ)3
 3
3
=
2
27
=
8

New equation :

 
3 81 206 27
x − x2 + − =0
8 8 8
⇒ 8x3 − 81x2 + 206x − 27 = 0

38
 TRIAL EXERCISE

1. If α, β and γ are the roots of the equation 4x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 12 = 0 , find the equation whose
roots are:

(i) α2 , β 2 , γ 2

(ii) α2 + 1, β 2 + 1, γ 2 + 1

(iii) 3α + 2, 3β + 2, 3γ + 2
1 1 1
(iv) , ,
αβ αγ βγ
(v) α3 , β 3 , γ 3

2. Given that the roots of the polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are α, β and γ, find equations
whose roots are :

(i) α2 , β 2 , γ 2

(ii) α + 2, β + 2, γ + 2

(iii) α − 1, β − 1, γ − 1

(iv) α3 , β 3 , γ 3

3. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 3x2 − 9x + 4 = 0, form equations whose roots
are

1 1
(i) ,
α+1 β+1
1 1
(ii) α + , β +
β α
(iii) α − 3, β − 3

(iv) α2 , β 2

(v) α3 , β 3

4. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation 12x2 + 7x − 4 = 0, form equations whose
roots are

1 1
(i) ,
α β
(ii) α2 , β 2

(ii) α3 , β 3

39
 Chapter 5

SEQUENCE

A sequence is a set of quantities U1 , U2 . . . stated in a definite order and each term formed according
to a fixed pattern .
Eg.

1, 3, 5, 7 . . . n

2, 6, 18, 54 . . .

FINITE SEQUENCE -A finite sequence contains only a finite number of terms.

AN INFINITE sequence is unending
A series is formed by the sum of the terms of the sequence.

5.1 ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

This is a sequence in which the difference between any two successive terms is some constant d
For any arithmetic sequence,
Un + 1 = Un + d

d = Un + 1 − Un

The first term of an arithmetic sequence is denoted by a0 The general term or nth term of an
arithmetic sequence is given by
Un = a + (n − 1)d
where a = 1st term
d= common difference.
n = number of terms.

The general arithmetic series can be written as

a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + . . .

40
where a= 1st term
d= common difference.
The nth term = a + (n − 1)d and the sum to n term,Sn is given by
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

Eg.1 Find the 15th term of the sequence 2, 5, 8, . . .

SOLUTION
a = 2, d = (5 − 2) = (8 − 5) = 3
Un = a + (n − 1)d
U15 = 2 + (15 − 1) · 3
U15 = 2 + 14 · 3
= 44

Eg.2 The 7th term of an AP is 3 and the 12th term is −3. Find

i. The first term and the common difference

ii. the 10th term

SOLUTION

U7 = a + 6d = 3 · · · (1)
U12 =a + 11d = -3 · · · (2)
−6
(1) - (2) :−5d = 6 ⇒ d =
5
Put d = −6
5
in (1)
a + 6( −6
5
)=3
−36
a+( )=3
5
5a − 36 = 15
5a = +51
51
a= 5

= 10 51

(ii) Un = a + (n − 1)d
U10 = 51
5
+ (10 − 1)( −6
5
)

41
= 51
5
+ 9( −6
5
)
51 54
= 5
− 5

= − 35

Eg.3, Find the value of x if 2x+1, X-2 and 3x +4 are consecutive terms of an AP

SOLUTION
Here we apply the principle that Un+1 − Un = d
⇒ U2 − U1 = U3 − U2 = d
(x − 2) − (2x − 1) = (3x + 4) − (x − 2)
x − 2 − 2x + 1 = 3x + 4 − x + 2
−x − 3 = 2x + 6
−3x = 9
x = −3

Eg4. If the 7th term of an AP is 22 and the 12th term is 37, find the series.
SOLUTION

a + 6d = 22 · · · (1)

a + 11d = 37 · · · (2)

(2) − (1)5d = 15 V d = 3

From (1)a + 6.3 = 22

a + 18 = 22 ⇒ a = 4

⇒ The series is given by

4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + · · ·

ARITHMETIC MEAN

x+y
The arithmetic mean of x and y is given by
2
The arithmetic mean of two numbers is simply their average.

42
 Eg. Insert five numbers between 5 and 17.

SOLUTION
This means that we need to find 7 terms with U1 = 5 and U7 = 17
U1 = a = 5, U7 = 5 + 6d = 17
6d = 12 ⇒ d = 2
⇒ The numbers are 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17

Eg. Insert 3 arithmetic means between 8 and 18.

SOLUTION

Let the means be x,y,z

⇒ 8 + x + y + z + 18 form an AP
1st term = 8 = a
5th term 18 = a + 4d
5
18 = 8 + 4d ⇒ d = 2
5 21
⇒x=8+ 2
= 2
21 5 26
y= 2
+ 2
= 2
= 13
26 5 31
z= 2
+ 2
= 2

⇒ 8, 21
2
, 13, 31
2
, 18 form an AP.

Exercise
1) Find 5 arithmetic means between 12 and 21.6
2) Insert 5 arithmetic means between 3 and 15.

THE SUM, Sn OF AN ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE

Sn = a + [a + d] + · · · a + (n − 2)d + a + (n − 1)d · · · (1)

Reversing
Sn = a + (n − 1)d + [a + (n − 2)] · · · + [a + d] + a · · · (2)
Adding (1) and (2)
2Sn = n[2a + (n − 1)d]

43
Sn = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d]

Eg1. Find the sum of the first twenty terms of an AP 1, 4, 7, 10 · · ·

SOLUTION

a = 1, d = 3, n = 20
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
20
Sn = [2(1) + (20 − 1).3]
2
Sn = 10[2 + 19.3]

Sn = 590

Eg2. If the 7th term of an AP is 22 and the 12th term is 37, find the sum of the first 10
terms
SOLUTION
7th term = a + 6d = 22 · · · (1)
12th term = a + 11d = 37 · · · (2)
(2) - (1)
5d = 15 ⇒ d = 3
⇒ F rom(1), a + 6.3 = 22 ⇒ a + 18 = 22
⇒a=4
The sum to n terms Is given by
Sn = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d]
10
S10 = 2
[2(4).1(10.1)(3)]
S10 = 5[8 + 4.3]
S10 = [8 + 27]
S10 = 175

Eg3. The 6th term of an AP is 5 and the 10th term is -21. Find the sum of the first 30 terms.

44
 SOLUTION
6th term = a + 5d = −5 · · · (1)
10th term = a + 9d = −21 · · · (2)
(2) - (1)
4d = −16 ⇒ d = −4
Put d = -4 in (1) :a + 5(−4) = −5
a − 20 = −5
⇒ a = 15
n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

30
S30 = [2(15) + (30 − 1)(−4)]
2
S30 = 15(30 − 116)
S30 = 15(−86)
S30 = −1290

Exercise
1) The 7th term of an AP is 3 and the 12th term is -3 . Find the first term and the common
difference and the sum to 45 terms.
2) The 9th term of an AP is -21 and the 15th term of an AP is -21 and the 15th term is
-45. Find the sum to 26 terms.

GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE (G . P) This is a sequence in which the ratio, r, of any two

successive terms is a constant
For any GP,

Un+1
r= ⇒ Un+1 = rUn
Un
A G.P has the form
a + ar + ar2 + ar3 + · · ·
where a = first term and r = common ratio
The nth term or the general term of a GP is given by
Un = arn−1

45
 where a = first term and r = common ratio

Eg1. Find the common ratio of the sequence

5 − 10 + 20 − 40 + · · ·

SOLUTION
−10 20 −40
r= 5
= −10
= 20
= −2

Eg2. The 5th term of a GP is 162 and the 8th term is 4374. Find the common ratio and
the first term.

SOLUTION
5 term = ar4 = 162 · · · (1)
8 term = ar7 = 4374 · · · (2)
(2) 4374
(1)
= 162

⇒ r3 = 27 ⇒ r = 3
From (1) a(34 ) = 16
162
a= 81
=2
⇒ The series is 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + · · ·

5.2 GEOMETRIC MEANS

y z
If x,y and z form a geometric sequence, then = , where x, y, z 6= 0
x y

⇒ y 2 = xz
√
⇒ y = ± xz , where xz > 0

Thus, the geometric mean , y of two positive numbers x and z is given by

√
xz .

46
Eg.1 Insert 4 geometric means between 5 and 1215.

Solution:
Let the number be A,B,C,D
⇒ 5, A,B,C,D,1215 form a GP
a = 5 , ar5 = 1215
1215
⇒ r5 = = 243
5
r= 3
⇒ A = 5 × 3 = 15
B = 5 × 32 = 45
C = 5 × 33 = 135
D = 5 × 34 = 405
⇒ The required Geometric series is 5, 15, 45, 135, 405, 1215

Eg.2 Insert 2 geometric means between 5 and 8.64

Solution:
Let the means be A and B
⇒ 5, A,B,8.64 form a GP
a = 5 , ar3 = 8.64
8.64
⇒ r3 = = 243
5
r= 1.2
⇒ A = 5 × 1.2 = 6.0
B = 5 × 1.2 = 7.2
The required Geometric series is 5, 1.2,7.2,8.64

Ex.
3 9 243
The geometric sequence 1, , . . . has a term equal to . Find the numbers of terms.
2 4 32
3 243
a = 1 , r = , Un =
2 32
n−1 243
Un = ar =
 n−1 32
3 243
1 =
2 32

47
  n−1  5
3 3
=
2 2
⇒ n-1 = 5 ⇒ n = 6

Ex. For which values pf k are 2k, 5k + 2 and 20k − 4 consecutive terms of a geometric
sequence ?

Solution:
Un+1
Here we apply the principle =r
Un

U2 U3
r= =
U1 U2
⇒ (U2 )2 = U1 · U3

(5k + 2)2 = 2k(20k − 4)

25k 2 + 28k + 4 = 40k 2 − 8k

15k 2 − 28k − 4 = 0

(15k + 2)(k − 2) = 0

⇒ 15k + 2ork − 2 = 0
2
⇒k=− ork = 2
15
2 4 4 20
whenk = − , 2k = − , 5k + 2 = , 20k − 4 =−
15 15 3 3
whenk = 2, 2k = 4, 5k + 2 = 12, 20k − 4 = 36
 
2
= k : k∗ = − , 2
15

5.3 SUM TO N TERMS OF A GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE

a, ar, ar2 , ar3 . . .

Sn = a + ar + ar2 + . . . arn−1

rSn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + . . . arn−1 + arn

Sn − rSn = a

48
 Sn (1 − r) = a − arn = a(1 − rn )

a(1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r

The formula for Sn is useful when r is a fraction between +1 and -1 but for values of r outside
this range , the alternative form
a(1 − rn )
Sn = could be used.
r−1
Eg.1
Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the series

1
8+4+2+1+ + ...
2

Solution:
4 2 1
a = 8, r = = = ,n = 8
8 4 2  8   
1 1
8 1− 8 1−
a(1 − rn ) 2 256 255 15
Sn = = = = = 15
1−r 1 1 16 16
1−
2 2
1 1
Eg.2 Find the sum to 6 terms of the G.P , , 1 . . .
4 2

Solution:
1
1 1 2
a = ,r = 1 = 1 = 2, n = 6
4 2 4

a(1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r
 
1 6
2 −1
4 1 4 3
S6 = = (63) = = 15
2−1 4 63 4
3
Eg.3 Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the series 12, -9, 6 + . . .
4

Solution:
3
a = 12, r = − , n = 10
4

a(1 − rn )
Sn =
1−r

49
   10 
3
12 1 − −
4
S10 =
−3
1−
4
12 × 0.9436
= = 6.47
1.75

Eg.4 Find the sum of the series 2+4+8+16+ . . . to 6 terms

Solution:
a = 2, r = 2, n = 6

a(rn − 1)
Sn = ,r > 1
r−1

2(26 − 1) 2(64 − 1)
S6 = = = 126
2−1 1

Eg.5 Find the sum to 7 terms of the series 3 − 6 + 12 − 24 + . . .

Solution:
−6 12 −24
a = 3, r = = = = −2, n = 7
3 −6 12

a(rn − 1)
Sn = ,r > 1
r−1

3((−2)7 − 1) 3(−128 − 1)
S7 = = = 129
−2 − 1 −3

Exercise:

1. The 5th , 9th and 16th terms of a linear sequence are consecutive terms of an exponential sequence
G.P. Find the common difference in terms of the first term.

1 1
2. The 3rd and 6th terms of an exponential sequence are and respectively . Find the sum of
4 32
the first 10 terms.

50
 Chapter 6

MATRICES

A matrix is defined as a rectangular array of numbers.

Examples are:
 
1 2 4
   
a b 1 4 −5
A=   : B=   : C= 
 
0 −1
   
3
c b 1 6 −2  
2 5 8
The numbers or letters in any given matrix are called its entries or elements

6.1 ORDER OF A MATRIX

A matrix is defined by its order. A matrix defined as m×n matrix , read "m by n matrix " implies
that there are m rows and n columns of numbers or entries in the matrix.
In the examples above :

1. A has 2 rows and 2 columns⇒ A is a 2×2 matrix.

2. B has 2 rows and 3 columns ⇒ B is a 2×3 matrix.

3. C has 3 rows and 3 columns ⇒ C is a 3×3 matrix.

A n×n mayrix is called a square matrix of order n.

6.2 SQUARE MATRIX

This is a matrix with the same number of rows as the columns.

 
1 3 5 
 
1 0
Eg. X=   ; Y= 
   
 6 2 7 

4 −2  
2 4 −1

51
6.3 ZERO(NULL)MATRIX

A matrix of any order which has all its entries to be zero.

 
0 0 
 
Eg.  ; 0 0 0 etc
0 0

6.4 UNIT OR IDENTITY MATRIX

This is a square matrix which has all entries in its leading diagonals to be ones and all other entries
to be zeroes.

 
1 0 0
 
1 0
Eg. ;
   
0 1 0

0 1  
0 0 1

6.5 COLUMN MATRIX

This is a matrix with only one column.

 
a
Eg. M=   ⇒ M is a 2×1 column matrix.
b
 
 a
N= 
 b  ⇒ N is a 3×1 column matrix.
 

 
c

6.6 ROW MATRIX

This is a matrix with only one row.

 
Eg. D= 2 6 −4 9 ⇒ D is a 1×4 row matrix.

52
6.7 EQUAL MATRIX

Two matrices X and Y are said to be equal if and only if they have the same number of rows and
the same number of columns(ie. if they are of the same order) and the corresponding entries or
elements in the two matrices the same.

   
x y z  a b c 
Eg. Given that; A=   and B=  
u v w d e f

if A=B , then ,
⇒ x=a ; z=c
y=b ; e=v
d=u ; w=f

   
x + 1 3  −2 z − 1
Eg. If A=  = 
−4 2 − y u 5

find the values for u, x, y and z

Solution:
   
x + 1 3  −2 z − 1
 = 
−4 2 − y u 5

⇒ x + 1 = −2x = −3
⇒z−1=3⇒z =4
⇒ 2 − y = 5 ⇒ y = −3
u = -4

6.8 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

If A and B are matrices with the same order ,then the sum or difference of A and B is the matrix of
the same order as A and ,B and whose entries are the sum or difference of the corresponding entries
of A and B.

53
    
u v  a b 
Eg. If X=   and Y=   , then
s t c d

     
 u v   a b   u + a v + b
X+Y =  + = 
s t c d s+c t+d

     
u v  a b  u − a v − b
X-Y =  - = 
s t c d s−c t−d

   
1 2 −3 −2 1 4
Eg.1 Given that M=   , N=  
4 0 5 −3 −2 3

find

(i). M+N

(ii) M-N

Solution:
     
1 2 −3 −2 1 4 −1 3 1
(i). M+N= + = 
4 0 5 −3 −2 3 1 −2 8
     
1 2 −3 −2 1 4 3 1 −7
(ii) M-N= - =  
4 0 5 −3 −2 3 7 2 2

6.9 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If the rows and columns of a matrix are interchanged ie;

• the first row becomes the first column.

• the second row becomes the second column.

• third row becomes the third column. etc

54
Then the new matrix formed is called the transpose of the original matrix. If A is the original
matrix, its transpose is denoted by AT .
Eg.
 
4 6 
 
4 7 2
i. If A= 
7 9, then A = 
  T
 
  6 9 5
2 5

 
 2 4
 
2 −6 2
ii. If M= 
−6 5, then M = 
  T
 
  4 5 7
2 7

 
1  
iii. If N= 
−2, then N = 1 −2 0
  T

 
0

   
1 7 6 1 −5 0 
iv. If X=  , then X T =
   
 −5 2 4 
7 2
 1 

   
0 1 −3 6 4 −3

6.10 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

If k is any real number and A is any matrix, then the product kA is a matrix whose entries are the
products of the entries
 of  A and the factor k.

a b 
Eg. If A=  
c d

 
a b 
then kA= k 
c d

55
  
ka kb 
= 
kc kd

EXAMPLES:
   
−3 5 2 3 
If A=   and B=  
2 4 4 −2

Find

i. 4A-3B

ii. 5A+2B

SOLUTION:
         
−3 5 2 3  −12 20  6 9  −18 11
i. 4A-3B= 4 - 3   = -  =  
2 4 4 −2 8 16 12 −6 −4 22
         
−3 5 2 3  −15 25 4 6  −11 31
ii. 5A+2B= 5 + 2  =  +  =  
2 4 4 −2 10 20 8 −4 18 16

6.11 MULTIPICATION OF MATRICES

If the order of matrix A is a m × n and the order of matrix B is n × r, then A and B are said to be
conformable matrices for multiplication.
Thus the number of columns for the first matrix = the number of rows of the second matrix.
⇒ AB = (m × n) × (n × r) || multiplication is possible
= m × r (order of resulting matrix).
For BA = (n × r) × (m × n), multiplication is not possible since since the number of columns of
matrix B = number of rows of matrix A.
Thus, AB 6= BA.

Multiplication of matrices is not commutative.

   
a b  e f 
Example: A =   and B =  
c d g h

56
     
a b  e f  ae + bg af + bh
⇒ AB =   = 
c d g h ce + dg cf + dh
 
1 −3
   
1 2 2 3 −1
Exercise 1: Given that A =  , B =   and C = 
2 5  find;
     

3 4 0 1 2  
4 0
(i) AB (ii) AC (iii) BC (iv) BA

Solution:

    
1 2 2 3 −1 1 · 2 + 4 · 0 1 · 3 + 4 · 1 1 · (−1) + 4 · 2
(i)   = 
3 4 0 1 2 3 · 2 + 2 · 0 3 · 3 + 2 · 1 3 · (−1) + 2 · 2
 
2 + 0 3 + 4 −1 + 8
= 
6 + 0 9 + 2 −3 + 4
 
2 7 7 
= 
6 11 1

 
1 −3
 
1 4
(ii) AC = 
  

 2 5 

3 2  
4 0
AC is not possible or A and C are not conformable matrices because the number of columns of A 6=
number of rows of B.

 
1 −3
 
2 3 −1
(iii) BC = 
 
 2 5 
 
0 1 2  
4 0
 
2 · 1 + 3 · 2 + (−1) · 4 2 · (−3) + 3 · 5(−1) · 0
= 
0·1+1·2+2·4 0 · (−3) + 1 · 5 + 2 · 0
 
2 + 6 − 4 −6 + 15 + 0
= 
0+2+8 0+5+0

57
  
 4 9
= 
10 5

  
2 3 −1 1 4
(iv) BA =   
0 1 2 3 2
Multiplication is not possible. The matrices are non conformable since number of B 6= number of
rows of A.

6.12 DETERMINANT OF A 2x2 MATRIX

 
a b 
If A =  , then the determinant of A which is written as det A or | A | is given by det A =
c d
| A | = ad - bc.

Determinants can only be found when the matrices are square matrices.

       
−2 4 −4 −3 7 2 1 3 
Example: A =  ; B =  ; C =  ; D =  
3 d 8 6 9 5 5 7

−2 4
det A = |A| = = (−2) · 1 − (3 · 4) = −2 − 12 = -14
3 1

4 −3
det B = |B| = = (−4 · 6) − (8 · −3) = -24 + 24 = 0
8 6

7 2
det C = |C| = = (7 · 5) − (9 · 2) = 35 - 18 = 17
9 5

1 3
det D = |D| = = (1 · 7) − (5 · 3) = 7 - 15 = -8
5 7

58
6.13 DETERMINANT OF A 3X3 MATRIX
 
a b c 
Given that A = 
d e f . We note that the entries of a 3x3 matrix are
 

 
g h i

associated with the rule of alternating signs.

+ − +
− + −
+ − +

e f d f d e
let A= | A |= + a -b +c
h i g i g h

OR

e f b c b c
A= | A |= + a -d +g
h i h i e f

 
5 2 1
Eg.1 If A=
0 6 3 , find det A.
 

 
8 4 7

Solution:

5 2 1
det= A =|A|= 0 6 3

8 4 7

+ − +
Using the value of alternating signs − + −

+ − +

6 3 0 3 0 6
det |A|= 5 -2 +1
4 7 8 7 8 4

59
 = 5(42-12) - 2(0-24) + 1(0-48)
= 5(30) - 2(-24) + 1(-48)
= 150 + 48 - 48
= 150

5 0 8
Eg.2 Find 2 6 4

1 3 7

Solution:

5 0 8
6 4 2 4 2 6
2 6 4=5 -0 +8
3 7 1 7 1 3
1 3 7

= 5(42-12) - 0(14-4) + 8(6-6)

= 5(30) - 0 + 8(0)
= 150

Eg.3 Find the determinant of A if

 
3 2 5
A=
 
4 7 9

 
1 8 6

Solution:
+ − +
Using the rule of alternating signs − + −

+ − −

3 2 5
det A = |A|= 4 7 9

1 8 6

7 9 4 9 4 7
=3 -2 +5
8 6 1 6 1 8

60
 = 3(42-72) - 2(24-9) + 5(32-7)
= 3(-30) - 2(15) + 5(25)
= -90 -30 + 125
=5

NOTE: A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a Singular matrix.

6.14 COFACTORS OF A MATRIX

 
a11 a12 a13 
If A =
 
a21 a22 a23 

 
a31 a32 a33

we can form a determinant of its elements.Each gives rise to a cofactor,which is simply the
minor of the element in the determinant together its place sign in the rule of the alternating signs
+ − +
− + −.
+ − −

 
2 3 5 2 3 5
Let us consider eg. A= 
4 1 6 , det A = |A| = 4 1 6
 

 
1 4 0 1 4 0

1 6
The minor of 2 = + = (1 · 0 - 4·6)= 0 - 24= -24
4 0

4 6
The minor of the element 3 = - = - (4·0 - 1·6)= 0 + 6= 6
1 0

2 3
The minor of the element 6 = - = - (2· 4 - 1·3)= -(8-3)= -5
1 4

61
6.15 THE ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

The adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the cofactors of the matrix. The adjoint of A = adj. A

 
2 3 5
Given A = 
 
4 1 6

 
1 4 0

2 3 5
det A = |A| = 4 1 6

1 4 0

 
a11 a12 a13  + − +
Let C =
a21 a22 a23  , − + −
 

 
a31 a32 a33 + − −

1 6
a11 , Cofactor of 2 = +
4 0
= (0 - 24)= -24

4 6
a12 , Cofactor of 3 = - = - (0 - 6)= 6
1 0

4 1
a13 , Cofactor of 5 = + = (16 - 1)= 15
1 4

3 5
a21 , Cofactor of 4 = - = - (0 - 20)= 20
4 0

2 5
a22 , Cofactor of 1 = + = (0 - 5)= -5
1 0

62
 2 3
a23 , Cofactor of 6 = - = -(8 - 3)= -5
1 4

3 5
a31 , Cofactor of 1 = + = +(18 - 5)= 13
1 6

2 5
a32 , Cofactor of 4 = - = +(12 - 20)= 8
4 6

2 3
a33 , Cofactor of 0 = + = +(2 - 12)= -10
4 1

 
−24 6 15 
⇒ Cofactor of matrix A =
 
 20 −5 −5 

 
13 8 −10

⇒ The adjoint of the matrix A which is the transpose of the cofactor of matrix A written
as AT is given by :

 
−24 6 15 
adj. A = AT = 
 
 20 −5 −5 

 
13 8 −10

Eg.2 
5 2 1
Given A = 
3 1 4 , find the adjoint of A.
 

 
4 6 3

Solution:

63
  
5 2 1 + − +
A = , − + −
 
 3 1 4
 
4 6 3 + − −

Cofactors of A

 
1 4 3 4 3 1
+
 − + 

 6 3 4 3 4 6
 
 
 
 
 
 2 1 5 1 5 2
= − + −
 


 6 3 4 3 4 6
 
 
 
 
 

 2 1 5 1 5 2
+ − + 
1 4 3 4 3 1

 
+(1 · 3 − 6 · 4) −(3 · 3 − 4 · 4) +(3 · 6 − 4 · 1)
=
 
−(2 · 3 − 6 · 1) +(5 · 3 − 4 · 1) −(5 · 6 − 4 · 2)

 
+(2 · 4 − 1 · 1) −(5 · 4 − 3 · 1) +(5 · 1 − 3 · 2)

 
+(3 − 24) −(9 − 16) +(18 − 4)
=
 
 −(6 − 6) +(15 − 4) −(30 − 8)

 
+(8 − 1) −(20 − 3) +(5 − 6)

 
−27 7 14 
=
 
 0 11 −22
 
7 −17 −1

Transposing the cofactors of A we get the adjoint of A.

 
−27 0 7 
⇒ adjoint of A = adj. A = 
 
 7 11 −17

 
14 −22 −1

64
 Thus , to find the adjoint of a square matrix A;

i. we form the matrix of cofactors.

ii. we transpose the matrix of cofactors to get the adjoint of A.

Exercise:
Find the adjoint of the following matrices:
   
2 3 5 1 2 3
1. A =  ; B =
   
 4 1 6
4 1 5
 
   
1 4 0 6 0 2
   
2 7 4 1 2 1
2. C = 
3 1 6 ; D=
   
3 −4 −2
 
   
5 0 8 5 3 5
   
 2 −4 7  2 −1 3 
3. E =  ; F =
   
 22 −16 −7 
1 3 −1
 
   
−6 12 −7 2 −2 5

6.16 THE INVERSE OF A 2X2 MATRIX

If A and B are nxn matrices such that AB=BA=I , where I is the identity matrix, then A and B
are multiplicative inverses of each other.
B is called the multiplicative inverse of A and is denoted by A−1 .

   
a b  1  d −b
If A =  , then A−1 = .
detA

c d −c a

NOTE: If a matrix A is such that A−1 = A, then A is called a Self-Inverse matrix.

Whenever the determinant of a given matrix is 0(zero), the matrix has no inverse. A matrix whose
determinant is zero (Singular matrix).

 
2 −3
Eg 1: If A =  ,
1 −2

65
  
1 −2 3
then A−1 =
detA −1 2
 

det A = |A| = ( 2(−2) - (1)(−3))

= −4 − (−3)

= −4 + 3

= −1

   
1 2 −3 −2 3
⇒ A−1 = =
−1 1
 
−2 −1 2
   
4 −3 −2 7 
Eg 2. If S =   and T = 
2 5 5 −6
find

i. | S |

ii. | T |

iii. S −1

iv. T −1

Solution:

4 −3
i. | S | = = ((4×5) − (2 × −3)) = 20 + 6 = 26
2 5

−2 7
ii. | T | = = ((-2× − 6) − (5 × 7)) = 12 − 35 = 23
5 −6
   
1  5 3 1  5 3
iii. S −1 = =
| S | −2 4 26 −2 4
  

   
1 −6 −7 1 −6 −7
iv. T −1 = =
| T | −5 −2 23 −5 −2
  

66
6.17 SOLVING TWO SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR

EQUATIONS USING MATRIX METHOD

Eg.1

2x − 3y = 4

x − 2y = 3

Expressing
 the eqns
 asa single
  matrix we have

2 −3 x 4

  = 
1 −2 y 3
     
2 −3  x 4
The matrix is in the form Ax = B, where A =  ;x= ;B= 
1 −2 y 3

Premultiplying both sides by A−1 ,

A−1 Ax = A−1 B
⇒ x = A−1 B since A−1 A = I

 
2 −3
A= 
1 −2

det A = 2(−2) − 1(−3) = -4 + 3 = -1

    
  
1 −2 3 1 −2 3 −2 3 2 −3
A−1 = = =- =
detA −1 2 −1 −1 2
  
−1 2 1 −2

  
2 −3 4
⇒ x = A−1 B =   
1 −2 3

     
2 · 4 + (−3) · 3 8 − 9 −1
= = = 
1 · 4 + (−2) · 3 4−6 −2

67
    
x −1
⇒x= = 
y −2

Thus x = −1 and y = −2

Eg. 2
Solve 5x − 3y = −19 and 3x + 4y = 6 by matrix methods.

Solution:
Expressing
  theequations
 in
 matrix forms yields;
5 −3 x −19
  = 
3 4 y 6

     
5 −3  x −19
Let A =  ; x =  ; B =  
3 4 y 6

⇒ Ax = B
Pre-multiplying both sides by A−1 ,
A−1 Ax = A−1 B
⇒ x = A−1 B since A−1 A = I

 
1  4 3
A−1 =
detA −3 5
 

det A = [5(4) − 3(−3)] = 20 + 9 = 29

 
1  4 3
⇒ A−1 =
29 −3 5
 

    
 x 1  4 3 −19
Thus x =   = A−1 =
29 −3 5
  
y 6

68
  
1  4 · (−19) + (3) · 6 
=
29 −3 · (−19) + (5) · 6
 

 
1 −76 + 18
=
29
 
57 + 30
   
1 −58 −2
= = 
29

87 3

⇒ x = −2 and y = 3

Exercise
Solve the following simultaneous linear equations using matrix methods.

1. 3x + 2y = 12 , 5x - 3y = 1

2. 2x - 3y = 7 , 4x + 5y = 3

3. 2x - 5y = 8 , 3x - 7y = 11

4. 2x - 3y =7 , 4x + 5y = 3

5. 9x - 4y = 7 , 3x - 8y = -1

6.18 THE INVERSE OF A 3 ×3 MATRIX

To form the inverse of a 3×3 matrix,

a. Evaluate the determinant of the matrix ,say A, det A = | A |.

b. Form a matrix of the cofactors of the entries of A.

c. Write the transpose of the cofactors of the entries of A to obtain the adjoint of A.

d. Divide (c) by det A or | A |.

e. The resulting matrix is the inverse , A−1 of the original matrix A.

69
 1
Inverse of A, A−1 = (adjoint of A)
detA
 
1 2 3
Eg. 1 If A =  , find A
  −1
4 1 5
 
6 0 2

Solution:
1 5 4 5 4 1
|A|= + 1 -2 +3
0 2 6 2 6 0

=(1 · 2 − 0 · 5) − 2(4 · 2 − 6 · 5) + 3(4 · 0 − 6 · 1)

= 2 − 2(8 − 30) + 3(−6)

=2 + 44 − 18

⇒| A | = 28

 
1 5 4 5 4 1
+
 − + 

 0 2 6 2 6 0
 
 
 
 
 
 2 3 1 3 1 2
= Cofactors of A = − + −
 


 0 2 6 2 6 0
 
 
 
 
 

 2 3 1 3 1 2
+ − + 
1 5 4 5 4 1

 
+(1 · 2 − 0 · 5) −(4 · 2 − 6 · 5) +(4 · 0 − 6 · 1)
=
 
 −(2 · 2 − 0 · 3) +(1 · 2 − 6 · 3) −(1 · 0 − 6 · 2) 

 
+(2 · 5 − 1 · 3) −(1 · 5 − 4 · 3) +(1 · 1 − 4 · 2)

70
  
 +(2 − 0) −(8 − 30) +(0 − 6) 
=
 
 −(4 − 0) +(2 − 18) −(0 − 12)

 
+(10 − 3) −(5 − 12) +(1 − 8)

 
2 22 −6
=
 
−4 −16 12 

 
7 7 −7

Let the cofactors of A be denoted by C

 
2 22 −6
⇒C=
 
 −4 −16 12 

 
7 7 −7

 
 2 −4 7 
Thus C T = adjoint of A = 
 
 22 −16 7 

 
−6 12 −7

1
A−1 = (adjoint of A)
detA

 
 2 −4 7 
1
=
 
 22 −16 7 
28 



−6 12 −7

Eg 2.
Find the inverse A−1 of A if

 
2 7 4
A=
 
3 1 6

 
5 0 8

71
Solution:

1 6 3 6 3 1
|A|= + 2 -7 +4
0 8 5 8 5 0

=2(1 · 8 − 0 · 6) − 7(3 · 8 − 5 · 6) + 4(3 · 0 − 5 · 1)

= 2(8) − 7(24 − 30) + 4(−5)
= 16 − 7(−6) − 20
= 16 + 42 − 20 = 38
⇒| A | = 38

 
1 6 3 6 3 1
+
 − + 

 0 8 5 8 5 0
 
 
 
 
 
 7 4 2 4 2 7
= Cofactors of A = − + −
 


 0 8 5 8 5 0
 
 
 
 
 

 7 4 2 4 2 7
+ − + 
1 6 3 6 3 1

 
+(1 · 8 − 0 · 6) −(3 · 8 − 5 · 6) +(3 · 0 − 5 · 1)
=
 
−(7 · 8 − 0 · 4) +(2 · 8 − 5 · 4) −(2 · 0 − 5 · 7)

 
+(7 · 6 − 1 · 4) −(2 · 6 − 3 · 4) +(2 · 1 − 3 · 7)

 
 +(8 − 0) −(24 − 30) +(0 − 5) 
=
 
 −(56 − 0) +(16 − 20) −(0 − 35) 

 
+(42 − 4) −(12 − 12) +(2 − 21)

 
 8 6 −5 
=
 
−56 −4 35 

 
38 0 −19

72
 Adjoint
 of A = Transpose
 of the cofactors of A

 8 −56 38 
=
 
 6 −4 0 

 
−5 35 −19

1
A−1 = (adjoint of A)
detA
 
8 −56 38 
1 
=

6 −4 0 
38 



−5 35 −19

Note: AA−1 = A−1 A = I

6.19 SOLUTION OF A SET OF THREE LINEAR

EQUATION

X = A−1 B

Eg.1

x + 2y + z = 4

3x − 4y − 2z = 2

5x + 3y + 5z = −1

Writing in matrix form, we have;

    
1 2 1  x  4 
3 −4 −2 y  =  2 
    
    
    
5 3 5 z −1
     
1 2 1  x 4
Let A =  ; X = y ; B =  2 
     
3 −4 −2     
     
5 3 5 z −1

73
⇒ AX = B
Pre-multiplying by A−1
A−1 AX = A−1 B X = A−1 B
1 2 1
−4 −2 3 −2 3 −4
|A|= 3 −4 −2 = + 1 -2 +1
3 5 5 5 5 3
5 3 5

= +(−20 + 6) − 2(15 + 10) + (9 + 5)

= −14 − 50 + 29
= −35

 
+ −4 −2
−
3 −2
+
3 −4 
 

 3 5 5 5 5 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 1 1 1 1 2 
= Cofactors of A =  − + −
 


 3 5 5 5 5 3 

 
 
 
 
 

 2 1 1 1 1 2 
+ − + 
−4 −2 3 −2 3 −4

 
+(−20 + 6) −(15 + 10) +(9 + 20) 
=
 
 −(10 − 3) +(5 − 5) −(3 − 10) 

 
+(−4 + 4) −(−2 − 3) +(−4 − 6)

 
−14 −25 29 
=
 
 −7 0 7 

 
0 5 −10

Adjoint of A = Transpose of the cofactors of A

 
−14 −7 0 
=
 
−25 0 5 

 
29 7 −10

74
 1
A−1 = (adjoint of A)
detA
 
−14 −7 0 
1 
=

−25 0 5 
−35 



29 7 −10

 
 14 7 0
1
=
 
 25 0 −5
35 



−29 −7 10

     
 x  14 7 0 4
⇒X=  = 1  25
     
y 0 −5  2
 
  35 



 
 
z −29 −7 10 −1

   
 x  14 · 4 + 7 · 2 + 0 · (−1) 
1
⇒ X = y  =
   
   25 · 4 + 0 · 2 + (−5) · (−1) 
  35 
 

z (−29) · 4 + (−7) · 2 + 10 · (−1)

 
 56 14 0 
1 
=
 
100 0 5 
35 



−116 −14 −10

⇒ x= 2; y= 3; z= -4

Eg.2

2x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 2

x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 11

2x1 − 2x2 + 5x3 = 3

Writing in matrix form, we have;

75
    
2 −1 3  x1   2 
1 3 −1 x  = 11
    
   2  
    
2 −2 5 x3 3
     
2 −1 3   x1  2
Let A =   ; X = x ; B = 11
     
 1 3 −1  2  
     
2 −2 5 x3 3

⇒ AX = B
Pre-multiplying by A−1
A−1 AX = A−1 B
X = A−1 B

2 −1 3
3 −1 1 −1 1 2
|A|= 1 3 −1 = + 2 - (-1) +3
−2 5 2 5 2 −2
2 −2 5

= +2(15 − 2) + (5 − (−2)) + 3(−2 − 6)

= 26 + 7 − 24
=9

 
+ 3 −1 1 −1 1 3 
 − + 
 −2 5 2 5 2 −2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 −1 3 2 3 2 −1 
= Cofactors of A =  − + −
 


 −2 5 2 5 2 −2 

 
 
 
 
 
 −1 3 2 3 2 −1 
 
+ − + 
3 −1 1 −1 1 3

 
 +(15 − 2) −(5 + 2) +(−2 − 6)
=
 
−(−5 + 6) +(10 − 6) −(−4 + 2)

 
+(1 − 9) −(−2 − 3) +(6 + 1)

76
  
 13 −7 −8
=
 
−1 4 2
 
−8 5 7

Adjoint of A = Transpose of the cofactors of A

 
 13 −1 −8
=
 
 −7 4 5 

 
−8 2 7

1
A−1 = (adjoint of A)
detA

 
 13 −1 −8
1 
= 

−7 4 5 
9 



−8 2 7

     
 x1   13 −1 −8 2
1
⇒X=
x2  = 9 −7 4
     
  5
11
 
     
x3 −8 2 7 3

   
 x1  13 · 2 + (−1) · (11) + (−8) · (3)
⇒X= = 1 
   
x
 2 (−7) · 2 + 4 · 11 + 5 · 3 
  9 



x3 (−8) · 2 + 2 · 11 + 7 · 3

   
 26 −11 −24 −1
1 
=  =5
  
−14 44 15   
9 

  
−16 22 21 3

⇒ x = −1; x2 = 5; x3 = 3

77
 Exercises:
Solve the following simultaneous linear equations using matrix methods:

1.

2x1 + 4x2 − 5x3 = −7

x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 10

3x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 = 2

2.

x1 + 3x2 + 2x3 = 3

2x1 − x2 − 3x3 = −8

5x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 29

3.

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 5

3x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 8

4x1 − 6x2 − 4x3 = −2

78
 Chapter 7

TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry means "measurement of triangles".A positive angle measures a rotation in an

anticlockwise direction.

90◦

2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant

180◦ 0◦ , 360◦

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

270◦

7.1 TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS

Hypotenuse (H)
Opposite (O)
90◦ θ
Adjacent (A)

O
sinθ =
H
A
cosθ =
H
O
tanθ =
A
sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

79
7.2 RADIANS AND ANGLES

Π Radian = 180◦

180◦ Π
1Radian = and 1◦ = radians
Π 180
180 Π
To change from radians to degrees, multiply by and from degrees to random multiply by
Π 180

7.2.1 COMMON ANGLES

Π Π Π Π 3Π
Angles in radians 0 Π 2Π
6 4 3 2 2

Angles in degrees 0 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦

7.3 EXPRESSING ALL OTHER ANGLES IN THE ACUTE

ANGLE, θ

90◦
1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant
S A
2nd Quadrant 1st Quadrant
180◦ − θ θ
◦ 0◦ , 360◦ +sinθ, +cosθ, +tanθ sinθ = sin(180◦ − θ)
180
θ − 180◦ 360◦ − θ cosθ = −cos(180 − θ)
3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant
T C tanθ = −tan(180 − θ)

270◦

3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

sinθ = −sin(θ − 180◦ ) sinθ = −cos(θ − 180◦ )

cosθ = −(cosθ − 180◦ ) cosθ = −cos(θ − 180◦ )
tanθ = +tan(θ − 180◦ ) tanθ = −tan(360◦ − θ)

80
 Eg.

sin150◦ = sin(180◦ − 150◦ ) = sin30◦

cos150◦ = −cos(180◦ − 150◦ ) = −cos30◦

sin240◦ = −sin(240◦ − 180◦ ) = −sin60◦

tan300◦ = −tan(360◦ − 300◦ ) = −tan60◦

7.4 TRIG RATIOS OF 30◦, 45◦, 60◦

◦
30◦30
2 √ 2
3

60◦ 60◦
1
√1
3 1
sin60◦ = sin30◦ =
2 2

√
1 3
cos60◦ = cos30◦ =
2 2

√ 1
tan60◦ = 3 tan30◦ = √
3

√
45◦ 2
1
90◦
45◦
1
1
sin45◦ = √
2

1
cos45◦ = √
2

tan45◦ = 1

81
7.5 SOME TRIG IDENTITIES

1. sin2 θ + cos2 θ =1
Dividing through by sin2 θ
 2
cos2 θ

sin θ 1
2. 1 + cot θ = cosec θ
2 2
+ =
sin2 θ sin2 θ sin2 θ
Dividing through by cos2 θ
 2
cos2 θ

sin θ 1
3. tan θ + 1 = sec θ
2 2
+ =
cos2 θ cos2 θ cos2 θ

1 1 1
4. = cosecθ ; = secθ ; = cotθ
sinθ cosθ tanθ

7.5.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO ANGLES

sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB

sin(A − B) = sinAcosB − cosAsinB

cos(A + B) = cosAcosB − sinAsinB

cos(A − B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB

82
7.6 MULTIPLE ANGLES

sin2A = sin(A + A) = sinAcosA + cosAsinA

= 2sinAcosA

cos2A = cos(A + A) = cosAcosA + sinAsinA

= sin2 A + cos2 A

U sing sin2 A + cos2 A = 1

cos2A = cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)

= 2cos2 A − 1

=⇒ 2cos2 A = cos2 A + 1
 
2 1
cos A = 1 + cos2A
2
Also,

cos2A = sin2 A + cos2 A

= 1 − sin2 A − sin2 A

= 1 − 2sin2 A
 
2 1
=⇒ sin A = 1 − cos2A
2

4 12
Eg. if cosα = and cosβ = ,find the value of sin(α − β)
5 13
Soln

5
x
α
4

x2 + 42 = 52
x2 = 25 − 16
x2 = 9
x=3

83
 13
x
β
12

x2 + 122 = 132
x2 = 169 − 144
x2 = 25
x=5

3 5
sinα = , sinβ =
5 13
sin(α − β) = sinαcosβ − cosαsinβ
3 12 4 5
= ∗ − ∗
5 13 5 13
16
=
65

Exx 1. Prove that

sinθ 1 − cosθ
(i) =
1 + cosθ sinθ

1
(ii) (1 − sinx)(1 + sinx) =
1 + tan2 x

Soln,
(i)

sinθ sinθ 1 − cosθ

= ∗
1 + cosθ 1 + cosθ 1 − cosθ
sinθ(1 − cosθ) sinθ(1 − cosθ)
= 2
=
1 − cos θ sin2 θ
1 − cosθ
=
sinθ

(ii)

84
 1
Required to show that (1 − sinx)(1 + sinx) =
1 + tan2 x

LHS =⇒ (1 − sinx)(1 + sinx) = 1 − sin2 x = cos2 x

1 1
RHS =⇒ 2
= = cos2 x
tan x sec2 x

Exx 2. Find the value of sin15◦ , leaving answer in surd form.

Soln,

sin15◦ = sin(45◦ − 30◦ ) = sin45◦ cos30◦ − cos45◦ sin30◦

√
1 3 1 1
=√ ∗ −√ ∗
2 2 2 2
√ √ √
3−1 3−1 2
= √ = √ ∗√
2 2 2 2 2
√ √
6− 2
=
4

85
7.7 TANGENTS OF COMPOUND ANGLES

sin(A + B)
tan(A + B) =
cos(A + B)
sinAcosB + cosAsinB
=
cosAcosB − sinAsinB
sinAcosB cosAsinB
+
= cosAcosB cosAcosB
cosAcosB sinAsinB
−
cosAcosB cosAcosB
tanA + tanB
=
1 − tanAtanB

sin(A − B)
tan(A − B) =
cos(A − B)
sinAcosB − cosAsinB
=
cosAcosB + sinAsinB
sinAcosB cosAsinB
−
= cosAcosB cosAcosB
cosAcosB sinAsinB
+
cosAcosB cosAcosB
tanA − tanB
=
1 + tanAtanB

sin3A = sin(2A + A)

= sin2AcosA + cos2AsinA

= (2sinAcosA)cosA + (cos2 A − sin2 A)sinA

= 2sinAcos2 A + sinAcos2 A − sin3 A

= 3sinAcos2 A − sin3 A

86
 cos3A = sin(2A + A)

= cos2AcosA − sin2AsinA

= (cos2 A − sin2 A)cosA − (2sinAcosA)sinA

= cos3 A − sin2 AcosA − 2sin2 AcosA

= cos3 A − 3sin2 AcosA

tan3A = tan(2A + A)
tan2A + tanA
=
1− tan2AtanA 
2tanA
+ tanA
1 − tan2 A
=  
2tanA
1− tanA
1 − tan2 A
2tanA + tanA(1 − tan2 A)
=
1 − tan2 A − 2tanAtanA
2tanA + tanA − tan3 A
=
1 − tan2 A − 2tan2 A
3tanA − tan3 A
=
1 − 3tan2 A

7.7.1 SOLVING PROBLEMS

Exx 1.t = tanθ, simplify the following

√
(i) 1 + t2

t
(ii) √
1 + t2

(iii) t(1 + t2 )

87
 Soln,

√ √
(i) 1 + t2 = 1 + tan2 θ
√
= sec2 θ

= secθ

t tanθ tanθ
(ii) =√ =√ =√
1+t 2 2
1 + tan θ sec2 θ
tanθ sinθ 1
= = ∗
secθ cosθ secθ
sinθ
= ∗ cosθ
cosθ
= sinθ

Exx 2. If x = asinθ and y = bsecθ, simplify

1
(i) √
a2 − x 2

p
y 2 − b2
(ii)
y

Soln

1 1 1 1
(i) √ =√ =p =
a2 − x 2 a2 − a2 sin2 θ a2 (1 − sin2 θ) acosθ

88
 p p
y 2 − b2 b2 sec2 θ − b2 b2 (sec2 θ − 1)
(ii) = =
y bsecθ bsecθ
√
b sec2 θ − 1
= ................(1)
secθ
1
But sec2 θ = 1 + tan2 θ and = cosθ
secθ
sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ
√
sec2 θ − 1 = tanθ
√
b sec2 θ − 1
=⇒ = btanθ ∗ cosθ
secθ
sinθ
=b ∗ cosθ
cosθ
= bsinθ

Exx 3. If x = sinθ ; y = cosθ and z = tanθ

Find,

1
(i) √
1 − x2

1
(ii) − p
1 − y2

1
(iii)
1 + z2

Soln,
1 1 1 1
(i) √ =√ = 2
= = secθ
1 − x2 1 − sin2 θ cos θ cosθ
1 1 1 1
(ii) − p = −√ =− 2 =− = −cosecθ
1 − y2 1 − cos θ2 sin θ sinθ
1 1 1
(iii) √ =√ = = cosθ
1+z 2 1 − tan θ2 sec2 θ

89
 Exx 4. Solve the equation,2sinθ − 3cosθ , 0◦ hθh360◦

Soln,

2sinθ − 3cosθ = 0

sinθ cosθ
2 −3 =0
cosθ cosθ

2tanθ − 3 = 0

3
tanθ =
2

=⇒ θ = 56.3◦ , 236.3◦

1
Exx 5. If tan(A − B) = and tanA = 2, find the value oftanB
5
Soln,

tanA − tanB
tan(A − B) =
1 + tanAtanB
2 − tnB 1
= =
1 + 2tanB 5

=⇒ 5(2 − tanB) = 1 + 2tanB

10 − 5tanB = 1 + 2tanb

7tanB = 9

9
tanB =
7

7.8 HALF ANGLES

sin2A = 2sinAcosB

A A
=⇒ sinA = 2sin cos
2 2

90
 cos2A = cos2 A − sin2 A

A A
=⇒ cosA = cos2 − sin2
2 2
A A
= 1 − 2sin2 = 2cos2 − 1
2 2
2tanA
tan2A =
1 − tan2 A

7.8.1 EXPRESSING HALF ANGLES IN TERMS OF TANGENTS t =

A
tan
B

A A
sinA = 2sin cos
2 2
A A A
sin cos 2sin
2 2 2 2
A A A A
2sin cos cos2 cos 2t
= 2 2 = 2 = 2 =
A A A A A 1 + t2
sin2 + cos2 sin2 cos2 tan2 + 1
2 2 2 + 2 2
A A
cos2 cos2
2 2

A A
cosA = 2cos2 − sin2
2 2
A A
cos2sin2
2 − 2
2A 2A A A
cos − sin cos2 cos2 2
= 2 2 = 2 2 = 1−t
A A A A 1 + t2
sin2 + cos2 sin2 cos2
2 2 2 + 2
A A
cos2 cos2
2 2

A
2tan 2t
tanA = 2 =
A 1 − t2
1 − tan2
2

91
7.8.2 FACTOR FOMULAE

   
A+B A−B
sinA + sinB = 2sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sinA − sinB = 2cos sin
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cosA + cosB = 2cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cosA − cosB = 2sin sin
2 2

Exx 1. Express sin4θ + sinθ as a factor

Soln,

1 1
sinA + sinB = 2sin (A + B)cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
=⇒ sinθ + sinθ = 2sin 5θcos 3θ
2 2
5θ
= 2sin cos2θ
2

7.8.3 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

Exx Eliminate θ from the following equations.

(i) x = 3cosθ -5 and y = 3 + 2sinθ

(ii) atanθ and y = bcosθ

Soln,
x+5 y−3
(i) cosθ = and sinθ =
3 2
 2  2
x+5 y−3
+ = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
3 2

92
 x y
(ii) tanθ = and cosθ =
a b

1 b
=⇒ = secθ =
cosθ y

But tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ

 2  2
x b x2 b2
+1= =⇒ 2 + 1 = 2
a y a y

93