Hormones

• Endocrine organs are activated to release their hormones by humoral, neural, or hormonal stimuli. Negative feedback is
important in regulating hormone levels in the blood.
• The nervous system, acting through hypothalamic controls, can in certain cases override or modulate hormonal effects.
• Endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones (chemical messengers).
• When it arrives at its target cell, it binds to specific receptor, where it acts as a switch influencing chemical or metabolic
reaction s inside a cell
Hypothalamus:

Classified as part of the brain rather than endocrine system.

It controls the pituitary glands and has an indirect effect on many other glands.

Hypothalamus together with pituitary glands, they act as a unit

The pituitary is attached to hypothalamus through a stalk

Produces specific releasing hormones.
Pituitary:

Also known as hypophysis

Lies in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus

It is the size of a pea and weighs 500mg

Consists of THREE distinct parts:
• Anterior pituitary ( adenohypophysis)
• Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
• Intermediate lobe (function in humans not well understood)

Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)

Release of hormones from this lobe follows stimulation by specific releasing hormones from hypothalamus.
(i) Growth hormone
• Most abundant hormone
• Stimulated by Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) from the hypothalamus
• Stimulates growth and division of most body cells (bones and skeletal muscles)
• Regulates metabolism of many organs e.g. liver, intestines etc.
• Stimulates protein synthesis, breakdown of fat and increase of blood sugar levels.

(ii) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

• Stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus
• Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid gland to secret thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine(T3)

(iii) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

• Stimulated by Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus
• It increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroid within the adrenal cortex.
• It is associated with sleep patterns by coordinating the circadian rhythm.
• ACTH level are highest at 8.00am and lowest at midnight sometimes highest at midday and at 6pm.

(iv) Prolactin
• Stimulated by Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) from the hypothalamus
• Secreted during pregnancy to prepare the breast for lactation (milk production) after child birth.
• Suckling stimulates prolactin secretion
• Prolactin, oestrogen, corticosteroid, insulin and thyroxine initiates and maintains lactation.

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 (v) Gonadotrophins (sex hormones)
• Stimulated by Gonadotrophins releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
• Secretion increases at puberty
• Gonadorophins are : Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Males Females
FSH Stimulates production of gametes (spermatozoa) Stimulates production of gametes (Ova)
Stimulates secretion of oestrogen
LH Stimulates secretion of testosterone by testes Stimulates secretion of progesterone

Posterior pituitary ( Neurohypophysis)

Stores hormones synthesized by nerve cell bodies in the hypothalamus
(i) Oxytocin
• Stimulates uterine smooth muscles during childbirth
• It stimulates more forceful uterine contractions and greater stretching of cervix during childbirth.
• It also stimulates the muscle cells of lactating breast in the process of milk ejection during suckling.

(ii) Vasopressin /Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

• Acts on distal convoluted tubule of nephrons to reduce urine output (diuresis)
• It increases kidneys permeability to water.
• Failure of the pituitary to secret this hormone or lack of its effect on kidneys leads to diabetes insipidus.

Pineal gland:
• Also known as the body, a reddish brown in color and measures about 10mm long
• Small body attached to the roof of the third ventricle. The pineal gland is located in the diencephalon
• Begins to atrophy after puberty and may become calcified in later life.
• Secrets a hormone Melatonin whose secretion is controlled by daylight.
• Levels are highest at night and lowest around midday.
• Function not fully understood but believed to be associated with:-

Inhibition of growth and development of sex organs before puberty.

Coordination of circadian and diurnal rhythms of many tissues.

Thymus gland:
• Lies in the upper part of mediastinum behind the sternum and extends upwards into the root of the neck.
• Weighs about 10-15gms at birth and grows to its maximum weight of 30-40gms at puberty.
• Begins to atrophy after puberty and by middle age, it has returned to its approximate weight at birth.
• It secrets hormone Thymosin which is involved in the development of T-lymphocyte
• T-lymphocytes are concerned with cell mediated immunity.
Thyroid gland:
Situated in the neck in front of the larynx and the trachea at the level of 5th, 6th and 7th cervical and 1st thoracic vertebra.
• Roughly cone shaped- 5cm long and 3cm wide, weighs about 25gms and resembles butterfly in shape.
• Secretes hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and Tri-iodothyronine(T3) and Calcitonin.
• Functions of Thyroxine (T4) and Tri-iodothyronine(T3) are:-

Increasing the basal metabolic rate and heat production

Regulates metabolism of carbohydrate, proteins and fats.

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 • Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular of C-cells in the thyroid gland

It acts on bone cells and the kidneys to reduce blood calcium levels when they are raised

Parathyroid glands:
• There are FOUR parathyroid glands, two embedded in the posterior surface of each lobe of thyroid gland
• They are spherical in shape, they secret hormone Parathyroid hormone.
• Main function of this hormone is to increase blood calcium levels when it is low.
• It stimulates osteoclast (bone forming cells) and calcium is released from the bones to the blood.

Adrenal glands:
• There are TWO adrenal glands also known as Suprarenal
• They are situated on the upper pole of each kidney; they are about 4cm long and 3cm thick.
• Composed of two parts with different structure and function.
• Outer part is the cortex while the inner part is the medulla.

Adrenal Cortex
• Produces three groups of steroid hormones from cholesterol.

Glucocorticoid
o Cortisol (hydrocortisone) is the main glucocorticoid
o Concerned with gluconeogenesis (formation of sugar from non sugar substances e.g. protein)
o Concerned with lipolysis (breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerols)
o Stimulates breakdown of proteins for energy production
o Promotes absorption of sodium and water from renal tubules.

Mineralcorticoid
o Aldosterone is the main mineralcorticoid
o Associated with maintenance of water and electrolyte balance in the body.
o It stimulates reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in urine.
o Involved in regulation of blood volume and blood pressure.

Sex hormones
o Androgens are the main sex homones secreted by adrenal cortex.
o Androgens are main male sex hormones.

Adrenal Medulla
• Secrets hormones : Adrenaline(epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
• Together they potentiate the fight or flight response.
o They increase heart rate
o They increase blood pressure
o Increases metabolic rate
o Involved in dilating the pupil
o Divert blood to essential organs such as brain, heart and skeletal muscles.

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Pancrease:
• Main cells involved in hormones secretions are pancreatic islets of langerhans.
• Main types of cells in pancreatic islets are:
o Alpha cells:- secrets glucagon
o Beta cells:- secrets Insulin
o Delta cells: - secrets somatostatin
o PP cells/ F- cells: - secrets pancreatic peptide

Insulin
• Increases glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen)
• Stimulate uptake of glucose by muscles and the liver
• Decreases glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose)
• Prevents gluconeogenesis (formation of new sugars from non-sugar compounds e.g. protein or fat)
• Promotes lipogenesis (synthesis of fatty acid and storage of fat)
• Accelerates uptake of amino acids by cells.
Glucagon
• Promotes glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose)
• Promotes gluconeogenesis (formation of new sugars from non-sugar compounds e.g. protein or fat)

Local hormones:
Histamine: Synthesized and stored by mast cells in tissues and basophils in blood.
It increases capillary permeability and vasodilation during inflammatory process
It also stimulates secretion of gastric juice.
Serotonin: Present in platelets, in the brain and in the intestines
Causes intestinal secretion and contraction of smooth muscle and also during blood cloting.
Prostaglandin: lipid substances found in most tissues released during inflammatory response
Involved in uterine contraction during labour and in blood cloting
Gastrointestinal hormones: e.g. Gastrin, secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK)

Placenta

HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotrophic) hormone is produced by trophoblastic cells of the placenta.

Detected In Urine/ Plasma by biological methods or immunological methods based on antigen-antibody reaction.

Methods used in Assays of Hormones

The concentration of hormones in body fluids especially in plasma is very low.

It is expressed in micrograms or nanograms per liter.

Methods used for their assays should be extremely sensitive. They include:-
o Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
o Fluorimetric assay
o Enzyme Linked Immunosobent Assay (ELISA)
o High – Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
o Immometric assay – for detection of Human Chorionic Gonadotrophic (HCG) in specimen.

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Gonads
The ovaries of the female, located in the pelvic cavity, release two main hormones. Secretion of estrogens by the ovarian
follicles begins at puberty under the influence of FSH. Estrogens stimulate maturation of the female reproductive system
and development of the secondary sex characteristics. Progesterone is released in response to high blood levels of LH. It
works with estrogens in establishing the menstrual cycle.
The testes of the male begin to produce testosterone at puberty in response to LH. Testosterone promotes maturation of the
male reproductive organs, development of secondary sex characteristics, and production of sperm by the testes.

Kidneys
Erythropoietin and renin
Skin
Cholecalciferol
Adipose tissue
Leptin and resistin.

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