Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT 2

1. Bookkeeping questions

Exercise 1.1. [Brouwer’s fixed point theorem] Let D = {z ∈ R2 : |z| < 1} be the open unit disk with center
at the origin. Note that ∂D = S 1 = {z ∈ R2 : |z| = 1}.

(i) Let f : D → S 1 be continuous. Show that the restriction f |S 1 : S 1 → S 1 has degree zero. Hint: Show
that the restriction is homotopic to a point map.
(ii) Let g : D → D be continuous. Assume that g does not have a fixed point, i.e. g(z) 6= z for all z ∈ D.
Let f : D → S 1 be the map that takes z to the intersection of S 1 with the ray starting at g(z) in
direction of z − g(z). Show that f is continuous. What is f |S 1 : S 1 → S 1 ?
(iii) Show that every continuous map g : D → D has a fixed point.
(iv) Show that [−1, 1]2 is homeomorphic to D.
(v) Show that every continuous map h : [−1, 1]2 → [−1, 1]2 has a fixed point.

Solution:

(i) Put h : [0, 1]×[0, 2π] → S 1 : (s, t) 7→ hs (t) := f (s cos(t), s sin(t)). Then h is a homotopy from h1 = f |S 1
to the constant map h0 with value f (0). Hence, as the degree is invariant under homotopy and as the
degree of the constant map is 0, we also have deg(h1 ) = 0.
z−g(z)
p
(ii) Note that f (z) := z + tu where u = |z−g(z)| and where t = −z · u + 1 − z · z + (z · u)2 . Note that f
is well-defined and continuous because g has no fixed points and is continuous. Also f |S 1 = idS 1 is the
identity.
(iii) Assume by contradiction that f : D → D does not have a fixed point. Then we get a map f : D →
S 1 ⊂ D as in (ii) and we have deg(f |S 1 ) = deg(idS 1 ) = 1. This contradicts (i).
(The statement in part (iii) of the exercise is the classical Brouwer fixed-point theorem in dimensions
2.)
(iv) The homeomorphism is given by
(
2 f (x/|x|)x for x 6= 0
φ : [−1, 1] → D, x 7→
0 for x = 0

where f (x) = max{|x1 |, |x2 |}. Its inverse is given by

(
x
for x 6= 0
ψ : D → [−1, 1]2 , x 7→ f (x/|x|)
0 for x=0
One checks that both maps are continuous.

Date: October 17, 2013.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

(v) Look at h̃ := φ ◦ h ◦ φ−1 : D → D where φ is a homeomorphism from [−1, 1]2 to D. This map is
continuous and so must have a fixed point x ∈ D by (iii). Therefore φ−1 (x) is a fixed point of h.

Exercise 1.2. True or false? Give a proof or provide a counterexample.

(i) There is a regular curve with trace {(t2 , t3 ) : t ∈ R}. Hint: Local graph representation.
(ii) The boundary of the unit square [0, 1]2 ⊂ R2 is the trace of a curve c : R → R2 .
(iii) The boundary of the unit square [0, 1]2 ⊂ R2 is the trace of a regular curve c : R → R2 .
(iv) A map between intervals is a homeomorphism if and only if it is continuous, surjective, and (strictly)
monotone.
(v) Every bounded non-empty star-shaped open subset of Rm is homeomorphic to Rm .

Solution:

(i) False. Let J ⊂ R be an interval and suppose that c : J → R2 is a regular curve with c(J) = {(t2 , t3 ) :
t ∈ R}. Let s0 ∈ J be such that c(s0 ) = (0, 0). By assumption, there exists k ∈ {1, 2} such that
ċk (s0 ) 6= 0. Let ĉk be an extension of ck to an open interval around s0 in R. By the inverse function
theorem, there exist an open interval Uk around s0 in R and an open interval Vk around ck (s0 ) = 0 in R
such that ck is a diffeomorphism from Uk onto Vk . Thus, ĉk must be strictly monotonically increasing
or strictly monotonically decreasing on Uk . We now distinguish cases according to whether s0 is an
interior or a boundary point of J and whether k = 1 or k = 2.
Assume first that s0 is an interior point, then we can choose Uk to be a subset of J and thus ĉ = c|Uk .
If k = 1 we get an immediate contradiction, because the open neighborhood V1 of 0 is by assumption
contained in the image of c1 . However c1 (J) = [0, ∞) and 0 is not an interior point of this interval.
For k = 2 we use the local graph representation. We know that restricted on U2 we can represent c as
the graph of a smooth function f above the y-axis. It follows that f (y) = |y|2/3 . This function is not
smooth at the origin, a contradiction.
Now assume that s0 is a boundary point. By reparametrization we may assume it is a left boundary
point. Then J must have the form J = [s0 , s1 ). For suppose that its right boundary were contained
in J, then J would be compact. But the image of J under c is obviously unbounded, which gives a
contradiction. It follows from the above that s0 is the only point in J mapped to (0, 0). We have that

{(t2 , t3 ) : t ∈ R\{0}} = c(J)\{(0, 0)} = c(J\{0}) = c((s0 , s1 )).

Note that the left-hand side is disconnected and the right-hand side is the image of a connected set
under a continuous map. This is a contradiction.

Alternative solution : Let c : J → R2 with c(s) = (x(s), y(s)) as above. Note that x(s)3 − y(s)2 = 0.
Taking the derivative we see 3x(s)2 ẋ(s) = 2y(s)ẏ(s). If the function ẋ had no zero, the function x
would be strictly monotone, thus injective. This is a contradiction to (1, 1), (1, −1) lying on the curve.
Thus there exists s ∈ J with ẋ(s) = 0. Above equation gives y(s) = 0 because ẏ(s) 6= 0 as c regular.
But the only point with y = 0 on the trace of the curve is the origin, thus x(s) = 0. But taking another
derivative of above equation we see 0 = 3(2x(s)ẋ(s)2 +x(s)2 ẍ(s)) = 2(ẏ(s)2 +y(s)ÿ(s)) = 2ẏ(s)2 , which
gives the desired contradiction.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

(ii) True. First we claim that there is a smooth function s : R → [0, 1] which satisfies s(t) = 0 for t ≤ 0,
s(t) = 1 for t ≥ 1. Indeed if χ : R → R is a smooth bump function supported in (0, 1) which integrates
Rt
to 1, then t 7→ s(t) = −∞ χ has the claimed properties. Now note that for all x ∈ R, there are unique
t(x) ∈ [0, 1), a(x) ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3} and k(x) ∈ Z, such that x = t(x) + a(x) + 4k(x) We define c by

(s(t(x)), 0)

 if a(x) = 0



(1, s(t(x))) if a(x) = 1
c(x) =


 (1 − s(t(x)), 1) if a(x) = 2


(0, 1 − s(t(x)))

if a(x) = 3
and check that this defines a smooth function with the desired trace.
(iii) False. Assume there is such a regular curve c(t) = (x(t), y(t)) and let t0 ∈ R be a point with c(t0 ) =
(0, 0). Assume without loss of generality that x0 (t0 ) 6= 0. Then by the inverse function theorem there
is an open neighborhood U of t0 in R which maps diffeomorphically to an open neighborhood V of
0 = x(t0 ) under x. But we know Im(x) = [0, 1], which does not contain an open neighborhood of 0, a
contradiction.
(iv) True. Let ψ : J → I be a map between intervals. If ψ is homeomorphic, then it is continuous and
surjective. It must also be strictly monotone. Otherwise without loss of generality we would have
points x < y < z in J such that ψ(y) ≤ ψ(x) and ψ(y) ≤ ψ(z). As ψ is injective, the equality case
cannot occur. By the intermediate value theorem we get a contradiction to the injectivity of ψ, as
[ψ(y), ψ(x)] ⊂ ψ([x, y]) and [ψ(y), ψ(z)] ⊂ ψ([y, z]).
On the other hand if ψ is continuous, surjective and strictly monotone, then it is automatically injective.
We just have to show the continuity of the inverse map. Let y ∈ I be an interior point of I and ε > 0 with
[y − ε, y + ε] ⊂ I. By the bijectivity of ψ there are unique x1 , x2 ∈ J with ψ(x1 ) = y − ε, ψ(x2 ) = y + ε.
Without loss of generality let ψ be strictly increasing, then again by the intermediate value theorem
ψ|[x1 ,x2 ] : [x1 , x2 ] → [y − ε, y + ε] is a bijective continuous map from a compact set to a Hausdorff space,
and hence a homeomorphism. Thus ψ −1 |[y−ε,y+ε] is continuous. A slight modification of this argument
deals with boundary points in case I is not open. This shows that ψ is a homeomorphism.
(v) True. Let f : S → R be defined by x 7→ |x|/dist(x, S c ). f is well-defined as S is bounded and it is
continuous.
Claim: For every v ∈ Rm , v 6= 0 we have that the function

gv : Iv := {t ∈ R+ : tv ∈ S} → R, t 7→ max(1, f (tv))

is a continuous function defined on a nonempty open interval Iv . It is monotonically increasing and

diverges to infinity at the right end of Iv .
Proof: All properties except for the monotonicity of gv where f (tv) > 1 are straightforward. To show
this property we will assume that we have v 6= 0 and t, s ∈ Iv given with t < s and f (t) > 1, f (s) > 1.
Let p = tv, q = sv, d = dist(q, S c ), then Bd (q) ⊂ S. Figure 1 illustrates that f (q) measures exactly the
ratio of the length of q and the radius of the largest ball around q contained in S. But because S is
star-shaped, we have that the entire convex hull of {0} ∪ Bd (q) is contained in S, hence also a ball with
radius r = d |p|
|q| = f (q)
−1
|p| around p. The inequality r ≤ dist(p, S c ) immediately gives f (p) ≤ f (q).

Now set h : S → R by h(x) = max(1, f (x)) and define the homeomorphism φ : S → Rm by

φ(x) = h(x)x. It is continuous as h is continuous. It is injective as for all v 6= 0 it maps the ray
Iv := S ∩ R+ v to R+ v and |φ(tv)| < |φ(sv)| for t < s, basically because gv is monotone and positive.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

It is surjective because gv diverges at the right end of Iv .

For the continuity of the inverse of φ, we note that for every R > 0 the preimage AR of B R (0) under
φ has positive distance from S c (otherwise h|AR is unbounded, hence so is φ|AR ). But then AR is
bounded and closed in Rm , hence compact. As a continuous, bijective map from a compact space to a
Hausdorff space, the map φ|AR is a homeomorphism with its image B R (0), hence φ−1 is continuous on
BR (0) for all R > 0 which finishes the proof.

Figure 1. Monotonicity of gv

Exercise 1.3. Let f ∈ C ∞ (Rm ) be such that f (0) = 0. Show that there exist smooth functions qi ∈ C ∞ (Rm )
such that
m
X
f (x) = xi qi (x) for all x ∈ Rm .
i=1
Deduce Hadamard’s lemma:

Lemma 1.1 (Hadamard’s lemma). Let U ⊂ Rm open, x0 ∈ U , and f ∈ C ∞ (U ). There exist smooth
functions q1 , . . . , qm ∈ C ∞ (U ) such that
m
X
f (x) = f (x0 ) + qi (x)(xi − xi0 ) for all x ∈ U.
i=1

Note that (∂i f )(x0 ) = qi (x0 ) for all i = 1, . . . , m.

Hint: Fix x ∈ Rm and note that

Z 1 m Z 1
d X
f (x) = f (1x) − f (0x) = (t 7→ f (tx)) = (∂i f )(tx)xi (integration with respect to t).
0 dt i=1 0

To deduce Hadamard’s lemma, think about using bump functions.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

Solution: As indicated in the hint we use the fundamental theorem of calculus and the chain rule to obtain
X m Z 1
f (x) = xi (∂i f )(tx)dt .
i=1 |0 {z }
=:qi (x)

Then as f is smooth, the Leibniz integral rule (for a quick reference see [3]) tells us that the qi as defined
above are indeed smooth. Now note that (∂i f )(0) = qi (0) and this proves Hadamard’s lemma for U = Rm
and x0 = 0.
For Hadamard’s lemma: Let U ⊂ Rm open, x0 ∈ U . By translating U by −x0 we may assume x0 = 0 and
by replacing f by f − f (0) we can assume f (0) = 0. Consider a bump function χ ∈ C ∞ (Rm ) of the form
χ(x1 , . . . , xm ) = χ(x1 )χ(x2 ) . . . χ(xm ) where χ ∈ C ∞ (R) is a bump function which is constant and equal to
1 around 0 and such that χ has support in U . Then χf can be extended by zero to a smooth function on
Pm i
Rm with χf (0) = 0 and thus has the form (χf )(x) = i=1 x qi (x). Now note that:
m
Y m
Y m
Y
1= χ(xi ) + (1 − χ(x1 )) χ(xi ) + (1 − χ(x2 )) χ(xi ) + . . . + (1 − χ(xm ))
| {z }
i=1 i=2 i=3
| {z } | {z } | {z } =:ηm (x)
=χ =:η1 (x) =:η2 (x)
 
We see that ηi vanishes for xi close to 0. Thus we can write (ηi f )(x) = xi ηi (x) fx(x)
i and hence
m  
X
i f (x)
f (x) = x qi (x) + ηi (x) i .
i=1
x

This finishes the proof. Think about why we wanted to decompose 1 the way we did above and maybe draw
a picture for m = 2.

Exercise 1.4. Let c : [−1, 1] → [−1, 1]2 ⊂ R2 and d : [−1, 1] → [−1, 1]2 ⊂ R2 be continuous functions such
that c(−1) ∈ {−1} × R, c(1) ∈ {1} × R, d(−1) ∈ R × {1}, d(1) ∈ R × {−1}. The purpose of this exercise is to
show that there exist s, t ∈ [−1, 1] with c(s) = d(t). If you haven’t already done so, draw a picture. Assume
our claim is wrong. Fill in the following steps to obtain a contradiction.

(i) Describe the continuous function

(x,y)
r : R2 \ {(0, 0)} → R2 given by (x, y) 7→ max(|x|,|y|)

geometrically. What is its image?

(ii) Use Brouwer’s theorem to conclude that the map [−1, 1]2 → [−1, 1]2 given by (s, t) 7→ r(d(t) − c(s))
has a fixed point (s, t) ∈ [−1, 1]2 . Explain why either |s| = 1 or |t| = 1.
(iii) Find the mistake in this picture and conclude.

Solution:

(i) The function r maps every vector v to the positive rescaling of v which lies on the (topological) boundary
∂[−1, 1]2 of the unit square. This boundary is also the image of r. Note that (x, y) 7→ max(|x|, |y|) is
exactly the infinity norm k · k∞ on R2 and ∂[−1, 1]2 is exactly the unit “circle” in this norm.
(ii) If d(t) 6= c(s) for all s, t ∈ [−1, 1] then the given map is well-defined and continuous, hence has a fixed
point (s, t) = r(d(t)−c(s)) by Brouwer’s theorem. As Im(r) = ∂[−1, 1]2 by (i) we have max(|s|, |t|) = 1.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

(iii) Assume for instance s = −1, then we have (−1, t) = r(d(t) − (−1, ∗)), where ∗ stands for some real
number. But the first component of the vector on the right is always nonnegative, as d(t) ∈ [−1, 1]2 , a
contradiction. Analogous contradictions arise for s = 1, t = −1, t = 1.

2. Project

This project was written by Johannes Schmitt with the assistance of Charel Antony and Michael Eichmair.

In this week’s project we give a proof of the Jordan curve theorem:

Theorem (Jordan curve theorem). Let c : [0, 2π) → R2 be a continuous simple periodic planar curve. Let
J = c([0, 2π)) be its trace. Its complement R2 \ J has exactly two connected components, one bounded and
one unbounded. The boundary of each of these components is equal to J.

A curve as in the statement of the theorem is called a Jordan curve. The proof presented here is based on
the paper [1]. We will break the proof into smaller steps which we invite the reader to fill in.

In the following, let c : [0, 2π) → R2 be a Jordan curve and J = c([0, 2π)) be its trace.

2.1. Topological preliminaries. We will need the following two facts from point set topology.

Theorem 2.1 (Brouwer fixed point theorem). Let f : [−1, 1]m → [−1, 1]m be continuous. Then there exists
x ∈ [−1, 1]m with f (x) = x.

The case m = 2 was shown in Exercise 1.1 above. Here is a useful and intuitive consequence of the Brouwer
fixed point theorem, which is proved in Exercise 1.1. Can you see a way of proving this result, say for smooth
curves, without use of the Brouwer fixed point theorem?

Lemma 2.2. Let α, β : [0, 1] → [a, b] × [c, d] be continuous curves such that α(0) ∈ {a} × R, α(1) ∈
{b} × R, β(0) ∈ R × {c}, β(1) ∈ R × {d}. Then there exist s, t ∈ [0, 1] with α(s) = β(t).

Definition 2.3. A topological space X is normal if it is Hausdorff and if for every two disjoint closed sets
C1 , C2 ⊂ X there exist disjoint open sets U1 , U2 with C1 ⊂ U1 , C2 ⊂ U2 .

I cannot think of a topological space that comes up naturally in differential topology that is not normal. In
particular, every metric space is normal.

Theorem 2.4 (Tietze extension theorem [2]). If a topological space X is normal then for every closed set
A ⊂ X and every continuous function f : A → R there exists a continuous function F : X → R extending
f , i.e. F |A = f .

We will use the following corollary of the Tietze extension theorem: Let X be normal and let A ⊂ X be
closed. Every continuous function f : A → [a, b] has a continuous extension fˆ : X → [a, b] to the whole
space. Can you see how to derive this from Tietze’s extension theorem? Can you give a simple and direct
proof of this fact for metric spaces?

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

2.2. Proof of the Jordan curve theorem. Let c : [0, 2π) → R2 be a Jordan curve and let J = c([0, 2π))
be its trace.

We first note some elementary properties of Jordan curves.

(i) J is homeomorphic to S 1 = {x ∈ R2 : |x| = 1}. In particular, J is compact.

(ii) The components of R2 \ J are open and path-connected.
(iii) The set R2 \ C has exactly one unbounded component for every compact set C.

If you cannot see how to derive these properties “on the spot” it’s time to brush up on your point set
topology. The book by J. Munkres [2] is a dependable reference.

The following lemma is interesting in its own right. It is convenient to call a subset Γ ⊂ R2 which is the
image of a simple continuous curve γ : [a, b] → R2 a (Jordan) arc.

Lemma 2.5. If Γ ⊂ R2 is an arc, then R2 \ Γ is connected.

Proof. The proof is by contradiction. Assume that R2 \ Γ is not connected. Explain why this set has a
bounded component, call it U . Let x ∈ U be a point and let D be an open disc centered around x and which
contains Γ. Let S = ∂D be its boundary. Why can we find such a disc? Show that U ⊂ D. Now, think
about the following points:

(i) Find continuous maps g : D \ {x} → S and h : S → S such that g|S = idS and such that h has no fixed
point.
(ii) Explain why U ∩ U c ⊂ Γ.
(iii) Explain why the identity map idΓ : Γ → Γ has a continuous extension u : D → Γ. Hint: Use that the
map γ : [a, b] → Γ is a homeomorphism and Tietze’s extension theorem.
(iv) Construct a continuous map f : D → D \ {x} whose restriction to S is the identity. Hint: Let f be
c
the identity map on U .
(v) Show that h ◦ g ◦ f : D → S ⊂ D. Derive a contradiction. 

Lemma 2.6. If R2 \ J is not connected, then all of its components have boundary J.

Proof. Let U, W be distinct components of R2 \ J, then show:

(i) U is disjoint of W .
(ii) ∂U = U ∩ U c ⊂ J.
(iii) Assume ∂U 6= J. Why can we find an arc Γ ⊂ J with U ∩ U c ⊂ Γ? Find a nontrivial disjoint open
cover of R2 \ Γ and conclude. 

Proof of Theorem 2. Because of the elementary properties of Jordan curves listed above, it is enough to
show that R2 \ J has exactly one bounded component U . We start by finding one point (z0 below) in it and
by showing that there can be no other bounded components. As before, we leave most of the fun to you.
Fill in the details in the argument below.

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

(i) Let (a, b) ∈ J × J be such that |b − a| is largest. Why do such points exist? Convince yourself that
we may assume a = (−1, 0), b = (1, 0). Why does this imply J ⊂ [−1, 1] × [−2, 2]? Let n = (0, 2) and
s = (0, −2).
(ii) Consider the closed line segment ns = {0}×[−2, 2] from n to s. Explain why it meets J (Hint: Lemma
2.2). Why is there a unique intersection point l with maximal y-coordinate? In what sense do a and
b divide J into two arcs? Let Jn be the arc containing l, Js the other one. Let m be the point with
minimal y-coordinate on Jn ∩ ns. Look at Figure (2) to have a clear sense of where the points lie.
(iii) Prove that ms meets Js . Hint: Assume otherwise. Construct a path from n to s that does not meet
Js . Let lm
c be the subarc of Jn connecting l and m. Why does the concatenation of nl, lm
c and ms
have this property? Think about this carefully. This line of argument will be useful again below.
(iv) Let p and q be the points in ms ∩ Js with maximal and minimal y-coordinate, respectively. Let
m+p
z0 = 2 . / J. Let U be the connected component of z0 in R2 \ J.
Explain why z0 ∈
(v) We show: U is bounded. Assume otherwise. Find a path α : [0, ∞) → U such that |α| → ∞ for t → ∞
and such that α(0) = z0 . Why does this path intersect ∂([−1, 1] × [−2, 2])? Convince yourself that for
a point w in the intersection it is okay if we assume that w ∈ {1} × [−2, 0). Reach a contradiction by
constructing a path in [−1, 1] × [−2, 2] from n to s that does not meet Js . Conclude that U is bounded.
(vi) Assume there exists a bounded component W of R2 \ J different from U . Why is W ⊂ [−1, 1] × [−2, 2]?
Construct a path β in [−1, 1] × [−2, 2] from n to s that does not meet W ∪ {a, b}. Why is a, b ∈ W ?
Why is there a small disk around a and b in R2 not meeting β? Construct a path from a to b that does
not meet β and conclude. 

Jn
m
z0
a p b

q
Js

Figure 2. Sketch of J

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Homework assignment 2 Differential Geometry I, Fall 2013

References

1. Ryuji Maehara, The Jordan Curve Theorem Via the Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem, The American Mathematical Monthly
(1984).
2. J.R. Munkres, Topology, Prentice Hall, Incorporated, 2000.
3. Wikipedia, Leibniz integral rule — Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2013, [Online; accessed 12-September-2013].

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