Unit 6 - The Future of English

Unit 6:
The Future of English

Main Content
Lesson 1
A. The Rejection of English
B. Rival Languages
A. THE REJECTION OF
ENGLISH
A. The rejection of English
What are some of the

speakers' reasons for
not insisting on
English?
How do you reflect on

these ideas?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCTI5tcnEok
Great ideas might not be shared/developed
Contribute English as a
Divide between the haves & the have-nots
gate-keeper
your ideas Hegemonic nature
here
insisting on
~ 6000 languages à ~ 600 languages
English?
Why not
Loss of local
Threatened indigenous cultures
languages
Language – knowledge - thought
One common language not enough
Need for National & local identity

diversity of
languages
Needs for learning major regional languages, e.g.
Chinese, Spanish, Arabic
1. Why not insisting on English?
Read the course book "The rejection of English" (pp.124-127).
Skim the text and find out some related/other reasons for the rejection of
English.
Reasons for the

rejection of
English
A country's economic
Promoting indigenous future operating on a
A neo-colonial form in
languages, cultures & regional than a global
post-colonial era
identities level à a local/ regional
lingua franca
• A strong reaction against continuing to use the language of the former
colonial power:
"The basis of any independent government is a national language, and we can
no longer continue aping our former colonizers."
(The President of Kenya, 1974)

To give millions a knowledge of English is to enslave them... Is it not a painful thing
that, if I want to go to a court of justice, I must employ the English language as a medium;
that, when I became a Barrister, I may not speak my mother-tongue, and that someone else
should have to translate to me from my own language? Is this not absolutely absurd? Is it not
a sign of slavery?
(Gandhi, 1958, p.5, as cited in Crystal, 2003)

I am lamenting a neo-colonial situation which has meant the European bourgeoisie
once again stealing our talents and geniuses as they have stolen art treasures from Africa to
decorate their houses and museums; in the twentieth century Europe is stealing the treasures
of the mind to enrich their languages and cultures. Africa needs back its economy, its
politics, its culture, its languages and all its patriotic writers.
(Ngugi wa Thiong'o, author of the book Decolonizing the Mind)


English became the language of my former education. In Kenya, English became more than a
language: it was the language, and all the others had to bow before it in deference.
Thus one of the most humiliating experiences was to be caught speaking Gikuyu in the vicinity of the
school. The culprit was given corporal punishment – three to five strokes of the cane on the bare buttocks – or
was made to carry a metal plate around the neck with inscriptions such as I AM STUPID or I AM A DONKEY.
(Ngugi wa Thiong'o, author of the book Decolonizing the Mind)


Adoption of English
• Sympathetic
Attitudes towards • Adoption
English in the post- • Demands of intelligibility
colonial era • Globalization, cross-border activity
• Assimilation
• Cultural and linguistic diversity (neutral)
ambivalent
attitude
Rejection of English
• Antagonistic
• Distancing or rejection
• National identity
• Indigenous and national language
& culture

The rejection of English in some countries with colonial connection with
the British Empire:
• Tanzania: English and Swahili jointly official languages
After 1967, Swahili became the sole national language
• Malaysia: After 1967 National Language Act
English no longer a joint official language
Malay became the national language


The adoption of English in countries which were formerly colonies of other empires or
which has no colonial connection:
• Algeria ( a former French colony): opted to make English its chief foreign language,
replacing French
• The State of Padania, northern Italy: some advocated English as a more acceptable
candidate for a lingua franca rather than standard Italian
Study the case of the U.S. in relation to the 1990s debates on the bills to make
English an official language.
Work in group: One reads the argument "for" and the other reads the
argument "against"; then share your ideas (pp.132-136)
ü The political argument
ü The socio-economic argument
ü The educational argument

The political argument
For Against
• Seeds of separatism • The fear exaggerated
• Threat to national unity • Linguistic assimilation by immigrants and their children as a natural process
• English as a linguistic glue • Natural urge to learn/use English for personal success and opportunities
• Guarantee of political and • Intrusion into self-expression
social stability • Violation of cultural pluralism à further divide
• Not guarantee solution to ethnic divide but also other factors: racial, religious,
political

The socio-economic argument
For Against
• Multilingual policies too expensive • Cost and complexity of introducing a
• A all-or-none situation: supporting all foreign new law
lang. à infeasible à supporting none • Highly complex & dynamic social
• More effective to invest in improving situations
immigrants' Eng. lang. proficiency • Safety instructions in multiple
• Only use mother-tongues à limited & low-paid languages to avoid risks
jobs • Harming ethnic identity
• Everyone can understand safety and security • Foreign languages as competitive
instructions in English. advantages in international trade
The educational argument
• For
• Against
For Against
• Bilingual programs not effective • "Official English" position as elitism or
• These programs target at preserving discrimination
cultural identity, not integration • Minority languages not protected but
• Non-immigrants have to learn restricted
languages of immigrants • Values of multilingualism to US
• People are recruited for linguistic community
reasons, not abilities
B. RIVAL
LANGUAGES
B. Rival languages
Discuss in pairs/groups:
1. Beside English, what foreign language(s) do you want to learn and why?
2. What foreign languages are made the first foreign languages in Vietnam
(validated from 9 February 2021)?
Why do you think these foreign languages are chosen?
B. Rival languages
B. Rival languages
Which languages may rival

English as a world lingua
franca in the 21st century?
B. Rival languages
Which languages may rival English as a world lingua franca in the 21st century?
B. Rival languages
Which languages may rival English as a world lingua franca in the 21st century?
B. Rival languages
What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the present and in
the future instead of English?
• International trading: selling must be carried out in the customer's language
• One language not sufficient to operate in Europe
à English, German & French
• Rapid development of technologies
E.g. voice-transcription software, automatic translation

• Rapid development of developing countries
à the rise of Asia and the Pacific
B. Rival languages
Rapid development of developing countries - the rise of Asia and the Pacific
B. Rival languages
What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the

present and in the future instead of English?
• The development of the service sector
=>A growing provision for a customer's own languages.
E.g. Quantas airline of Australia requires its staff to be competent at some prioritized
languages.
Australian government identified Japanese, Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean & Thai
as possessing commercial significance
B. Rival languages

• More demands for international traffic & trading transactions within a single region
à regional languages preferred to a world language like English
• More transnational corporations are headquartered in Asia and Latin American.
E.g. Brazil & India active worldwide in consumer electronics, aircraft & hotel management
• Media: to serve the customers' demands, TV channels broadcasts daily contents in different
languages
B. Rival languages

• Economic modernization may be particularly favorable to English in its "first wave".
Þ Countries rise in economic status
Þ Source of skills and technology for neighbouring countries.
Ø The first wave: English because flows and relationships have been between Big Three trading blocs (North
America, Europe, Japan) & developing economics
Ø The next wave: regional lingua franca together with languages of neighbouring countries
E.g. Mercosur, a trading block of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay & Uruguay
Þ promoting Spanish as the regional lingua franca

B. Rival languages

Ø A significant change in the balance of power (political, economic,
technological, or cultural) could affect the standing of other languages so that
they become increasingly attractive, and begin to take over functions currently
assumed by English.
References
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge, UK.
Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the

popularity of the English language in the 21st century. The British
Council: UK.
LESSON 2
Main Content
Lesson 2
C. A Single World Standard for English
D. The Future Demand for English

C. A SINGLE WORLD
STANDARD FOR
ENGLISH
C. A single world standard for English
• Is control of English shifting away from British and American native speakers?
Discuss in groups of 3-4 students
• Watch the following video and answer the questions:
o According to David Crystal, approximately how many people are speaking English as a
first language? As a second or foreign language?
o According to the linguist Crystal, who may have more influences on the change of
English in the future, the native or non-native speakers of English?
o Will there be a single world standard for English? Why?

The Development of
English
Basis for
International
constructing
communication
cultural identities
The current
‘national’ New world Local forms &
standards of AmE standard hybrid varieties
and BE
2. Will a single world standard for English develop?

What do you think is standard English?
Watch the following video and mark the following statements as True (T) or False (F).
• Standard English is characterized by the standardized use of spelling, grammar,

vocabulary and punctuations.
• About 50% of English speakers use standard English.
• Standard English is typical of spoken English.
• Non-standard English is used by the majority of English speakers.

• Standard English is characterized by

the standardized use of spelling,
grammar, vocabulary and
punctuations.
=> T
• About 50% of English speakers use
standard English.
=> F (about 1 to 5%)
• Standard English is typical of
spoken English.
=> F (written English)
• Non-standard English is used by the
majority of English speakers.
=> T
D. THE FUTURE DEMAND
FOR ENGLISH
1. Statistics
It is difficult to
predict exactly what
will happen!
2. Key global trends shaping the future demand for English
Key Demography
Global The World Economy
Trends The Role Of Technology
Globalization
The Immaterial Economy
Cultural Flows
Global Inequalities

a) Demography
• Population growth
a) Demography
• Language and migration
o 16th to 19th centuries: migration
(from colonization & slave trade)
àboosted the spread of English
o 20th century: decolonization
à Multilingual cities
o 21th century: migration from poorer
to richer countries, urbanization of big cities
à Rise to political tension

b) The world economy
• Economic strength of languages
• English in business

c) The role of technology
• Computer languages: now not only in English
• Language engineering products for natural language manipulation, language translation, etc.
• New, simplified forms of English - constructed by many global engineering companies

c) The role of technology
• One-to-one connection + borderless communication
Þ Dispersed "discourse communities“ e.g. based on shared interests
Þ Producing a "complex system" capable of unpredictable cultural & economic shifts
human – to – human human – to – machine machine – to – machine

d) Globalization
• Transnational ownership
• Global distribution of labor
• The global-local tension

d) Globalization
Two features of economic globalization: the transnational nature of ownership
and management & the increasing demand for "flexible labour"
• Transnational ownership/transnational corporations account for ~ 2/3 of
international trade
• Global distribution of labor: large corporations can shift production to countries
with a cheaper workforce
Þ Flows of capital, skills & technology
• New working practices: flexible labour
Þ Growing need for people to communicate with each other directly
Þ More people in a wider variety of jobs require greater competence in English
d) Globalization
• Why economic development encourages English?
o Joint ventures tend to adopt English as a lingua franca à local need for training in English
o More requirements for legal documents & memoranda
o International trade – back offices, sales & marketing staff with skills in English
o Technology transfer as most transfer is sourced by English-speaking TNCs.
o More demands for international visitors à supporting services e.g. hotels, travel
o English qualifications = an entry necessity or a competitive advantage, even in jobs not requiring English
d) Globalization
• The global-local tension
o Globalization as primarily a "neo-colonial"
process?
o Importance of local contexts
o Interdependence and interconnection,
mutual influences in complex and
unpredictable ways.
o Hybrid forms of culture & language
e) The Immaterial Economy

• A national economy matures: "primary" sector (resources, agriculture) & "secondary" sector
(manufacturing & industry) à "tertiary" sector (service industries) – most language intensive
• U.S.: 75% of the total labour force working in services by 1995
• By 2050: the service sector predicted to account for 75% of Gross World Product
• Services as "products": services are designed, packaged & marketed in ways similar to
standardized manufactured products.
• Discursive activities: advertising, marketing, promoting, receiving clients & guests, services – all
reliant on language

• The British linguist, Norman Fairclough, has noted the extent to which language itself –
the way flight attendants, receptionists or waiters talk to clients – has become a key part of
the "product" offered to customers (Fairclough, 1994).
•

• Teleworking: dispersed & remote workers
• Screen-based labour: work using computers & telecommunication
• Knowledge-intensive industries: many jobs require a near native-speaker competence: foreign
language skills not sufficient
• Manufactured goods more lighter – added values, branding & style
• Branding: way in which value can be added to material goods through immaterial means
Þ a semiotic activity (easily globalized than physical activities)
Þ growth of international franchising
• A primary language of design: English.
f) Cultural flows
• Ethnoscapes: people movement
• Technoscapes: technology transfer
• Financescapes: flows of capital and currency
• Mediascapes: flows of audio-visual products
• Ideoscapes: flows of ideas & ideologies
(Appadurai, 1990, as cited in Graddol, 2000, p.36 )


g) Global inequalities
• English as "gate-keeper" and deepened social inequality:
Þ divide between the haves & the haves-not
• Endangered languages
• The local politics of English: affect the "balance of power"
between ethnic groups, esp. in countries with colonial history
• Communication technology: English & access to knowledge
D. THE FUTURE DEMAND
FOR ENGLISH
D. The future demand for English
• In the workplace:
o Workers are expected to become proficient in English
o A wider range of linguistic abilities needed
o Employees need to adopt a wide range of language styles
• In media:
o localizing the global media
• Youth culture:
o non-native forms of English may acquire identity functions for young people
E.g. MTV has promoted foreign-language varieties of Eng as identity markers

• Internet communication:
o encourage informal language learning and use among young
"surfers“
o new forms & genres of English are arising on the Internet
• Language on the Web:

o Languages other than English are being used on the Internet
o Local communities on the Internet
o Automatic translation software improved

• In education and training:

o English to be the most popular modern language studied worldwide
o Problems of teacher supply
o English-medium higher education: promoting the second-language use of English in both developed &
developing countries
o Rapid internationalization of education
o Rise of adult learners of English
o Rapid rise in off-campus training: distance education & growth of English-medium education
o Need for ethical framework for ELT: teaching methods, materials, educational policies need to be adapted
for local contexts
Reference
Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the

popularity of the English language in the 21st century. The British
Council: UK.
LESSON 3:
LANGUAGE POLICY
Main Contents – Lesson 3
E. LANGUAGE POLICY
1. Language policy responses to globalization
2. Resolving the paradox: reconstructing national cultural identities

through the discourse of English
3. Reconstruction of national cultural identities: reconstructing histories

and cultures
4. Linguistic homogeneity and English as resource for democratization

Think about this question
• Is language a purely technical tool?
• If yes, why?
• If no, from what perspectives should we understand language?

1. LANGUAGE POLICY
RESPONSES TO
GLOBALIZATION
E. Language policy, Culture, & Identity in Asian Contexts
Language
policy
Language
Language Language
planning or
ideology practices
management

a. Language planning or management
• Learning English as a national mission

o Japan: since 1990s – national goal for "all Japanese [to] acquire a working knowledge of English"
à "National Strategy Design for Raising the Level of English Communication of the Japanese
People"
o South Korea: since 1995 – not explicitly stated but English language education a focus of
educational reform
o Malaysia: revival of interest in English to improve the country's competitiveness in globalization


• English as an official language and medium of instruction

o Japan: a 2000 proposal to make English a second official language but then rejected
Þ fear of demise of Japanese culture, identity & proficiency in national language
Þ English chosen as an MOI in 100 "super English language high schools" by 2005
o South Korea: a suggestion in 1998 to make English a "new mother tongue" but then severely
rejected
o Malaysia: reintroduction of English as the MOI in tertiary education in 1993 and in basic
education in 2003
• English as an official language and medium of instruction

o India & Pakistan: English as MOI for the elite
o Bangladesh: English as the most important MOI for the elite and in higher education
o Brunei: English as a working language & an MOI from 4th year of primary education
o Cambodia: English replaced French to be the most important foreign language and an MOI in
tertiary institutions

• Curriculum time and resources
o Increasing curriculum time and resources
o Starting learning English at a younger age
o Japan & South Korea: from Grade 7 now pushed to Grade 3
o Bangladesh: English as a compulsory subject pushed to earlier age from Grade 6 to Grade 3 &
now to Grade 1
o Similar trends in other countries, e.g. China & Vietnam


b. Language ideology & language practices
o Learning a foreign language equated with learning English despite statement of

multilingualism & multiculturalism in policies
o "Standard English" – "essentially the English spoken by the British and American White
middle class" - considered superior
à Symbolic domination (Bourdieu, 1991)

o Singapore: 1980s efforts to eradicate the local variety of Singlish through a campaign to speak
British Standard English
Þ in 2000, the Speak Good English Movement
Þ now "a local variety of Standard English" vs. Singlish
o South Korea: English models in textbooks mostly from the White middle-class in Britain & US;
cultural contents presented are mostly American
o Japan: American English is the model

o Learners have negative attitudes towards "non-native speaker" varieties.
o South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong: many NSEs are recruited as teachers
o The hegemonic discourse of Anglo-centric pedagogies (e.g. communicative language

teaching (CLT)) vs. traditional teaching methods & representation of Asian students
as passive or rote learners
o à Hegemonic discourse, symbolic violation; sweeping generalizations to be avoided

2. RESOLVING THE PARADOX: RECONSTRUCTING
NATIONAL CULTURAL IDENTITIES THROUGH
THE DISCOURSE OF ENGLISH

A national culture is a discourse – a way of constructing meaning which influences

and organizes both our actions and our conceptions of ourselves… National cultures
construct identities by producing meanings about “the nation” with which we can identify;
these are contained in the stories which are told about it, memories which connect its present
with its past, images which are constructed of it.
(Hall, 1996, p.613)


Historical
National Spirit
Memory
National
Identity
Future Tradition and
Development Continuity
(Smith, 1990; Wodak, de Cillia, Reisigl, & Liebhart, 1999, as cited in Tsui & Tollefson, 2007)

How do certain countries in Asia use English to reconstruct their national

cultural identities through the discourse of English?
Study each case and share with your friends.

Japan
South Korea
Malaysia

How do certain countries in Asia use English to reconstruct their national

cultural identities through the discourse of English?
Study each case and share with your friends.

Japan
South Korea
Malaysia
Japan: "Deconstructing English" and Reaffirming Japanese

• 1990s - "the lost decade“: undermining economic structures, community values under
influences of global standards (esp. American)
• 2004 MEXT policy: educational reform, the need to acquire global literary skills,
including English
2. Resolving the paradox: reconstructing national cultural identities through

the discourse of English
Uniqueness of Japanese culture is a recurring discourse on mastering English by:
• differentiating Japanese cultures from Western cultures
• Japanese students: learn their Japanese language and develop a sense of Japanese "self“
• Japanese "self" vs Western "individuality"


• "deconstructing English", i.e. removing English from the core identity of Japan
• treating English as a mere technical tool
• reaffirming the unique cultural values and qualities of the Japanese
• maintaining cultural independence from the West
Þ resisting the hegemony of English & Western cultural homogenization


South Korea: English as a new language of nationalism
• National competitiveness is constructed as depending on English competence as South

Korea is highly dependent on foreign trade.
• "In order to win, know your enemy better."
• Revising English language textbooks & intercultural understanding
• Understanding Korean history, cultures, and values; fostering national identity and
national pride are fundamental motivations for understanding other cultures.

South Korea: English as a new language of nationalism
English is presented as an international language that benefits Korea.
• English curriculum is appropriated as a mediational tool for the construction of a national

cultural identity.
• English is appropriated for putting Korea on the global map, for representing Korean
views to the rest of the world.
• English is reconstructed as a new language of nationalism for Korea.


Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism through English
Learning the English language will reinforce the spirit of nationalism

when it is used to bring about development and progress for the country….
True nationalism means doing everything possible for the country, even if it
means learning the English Language.
(Mahathir Mohamad, The Sun, September 11, 1999, cited in Gill, 2002, p.101)
Malaysia: Reconstructing nationalism through English
• English curriculum is used as a mediating tool to resolve the paradox.
• Writers of English textbooks in Malaysia have tried to give equal emphasis to developing a
global outlook and enhancing national pride and cohesiveness.
• Ethnic harmony constructed by giving all ethnic groups considerable, if not equal,
representation
• Emphasis on mutual assimilation of ethnic cultures

3. RECONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL
CULTURAL IDENTITIES:
RECONSTRUCTING HISTORIES AND
CULTURES
3. Reconstruction of national cultural identities: reconstructing histories

and cultures
Hong Kong
• 1950s, 1960s: representation as "stateless" & "rootless" in British colonial days
Þ"De-sinicizing" the people of HK, e.g. not accessing history of China or Chinese-literature curriculum
ÞThe British successfully shaped HK's preference for English–medium education even after reunion with
China, & having Cantonese a lingua franca here instead of Mandarin
• After 1997: reunion with China - "re-sinicization" process
Þ Language policy from English medium to Chinese-medium education: significant and symbolic role
4. LINGUISTIC HOMOGENEITY
AND ENGLISH AS A RESOURCE
FOR DEMOCRATIZATION
4. Linguistic homogeneity and English as a resource for democratization
India
• During the partition of India and Pakistan (1947): Hindi & Urdu were separated into two languages
Þ Serving two separate identities, Hindu and Muslim
Þ Destroying the ethnic & cultural harmony
• Hindi became a dominant language
Þ Strong resistance of other groups
Þ English: the language of colonization, a tool for linguistic resistance, one of official languages
Þ Legitimizing the hegemony of English over all Indian languages
Þ Depriving Hindi or Urdu the opportunity to develop into a language of science & technology.
Bangladesh
• Linguistic conflict between Urdu & Bengali: Resistance to the dominance of Urdu and the struggle for
the recognition of Bengali as a co-official language
ÞTurned into military resistance
Þ Political independence of Bangladesh from West Pakistan (1971)
Þ Bengali became the state language and MOI supported by ideological and educational arguments
• English-medium education for the elite has remained at higher education.
• Unavailability of textbooks in Bengali
ÞDeepening social divide between the haves and the have-nots


Nepal
"Nepali-only" language policy in the early 1990s & Sanskrit made compulsory in primary and secondary
education
• Resistance from ethnic minorities, but unlike India, resistance led to positive outcomes.
• Ethnic minorities have more voice in policy making
• English served as a tool for resistance against dominance of Nepali.
• English-medium educationà deepening social divide but also a source of discourses of democracy à An
irony & conflict
• Similar tensions found in other countries, e.g. Cambodia, Pakistan

References
Tsui, A. B. M., & Tollefson, J. W. (2007). Language policy and the

construction of national cultural identity. In A. B. M. Tsui & J. W.
Tollefson (Eds.), Language policy, culture, and identity in Asian contexts
(pp. 1-21). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publishers.

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Unit 6:

The Future of English

A. The Rejection of English

What are some of the

How do you reflect on

Language – knowledge - thought

One common language not enough

Need for National & local identity

1. Why not insisting on English?

Read the course book "The rejection of English" (pp.124-127).

1. Why not insisting on English?

Reasons for the

1. Why not insisting on English?

• A strong reaction against continuing to use the language of the former

"The basis of any independent government is a national language, and we can

no longer continue aping our former colonizers."

(The President of Kenya, 1974)

1. Why not insisting on English?

To give millions a knowledge of English is to enslave them... Is it not a painful thing

(Gandhi, 1958, p.5, as cited in Crystal, 2003)

1. Why not insisting on English?

I am lamenting a neo-colonial situation which has meant the European bourgeoisie

(Ngugi wa Thiong'o, author of the book Decolonizing the Mind)

1. Why not insisting on English?

(Ngugi wa Thiong'o, author of the book Decolonizing the Mind)

1. Why not insisting on English?

1. Why not insisting on English?

the British Empire:

• Tanzania: English and Swahili jointly official languages

After 1967, Swahili became the sole national language

• Malaysia: After 1967 National Language Act

English no longer a joint official language

Malay became the national language

1. Why not insisting on English?

1. Why not insisting on English?

1. Why not insisting on English?

Which languages may rival

E.g. voice-transcription software, automatic translation

What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the

What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the

What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the

Þ Countries rise in economic status

Þ Source of skills and technology for neighbouring countries.

E.g. Mercosur, a trading block of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay & Uruguay

Þ promoting Spanish as the regional lingua franca

What are some factors for a local/regional language to be favored at the

Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language. Cambridge University Press:

Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the

C. A Single World Standard for English

D. The Future Demand for English

Discuss in groups of 3-4 students

• Watch the following video and answer the questions:

o Will there be a single world standard for English? Why?

2. Will a single world standard for English develop?

• Standard English is characterized by the standardized use of spelling, grammar,

• About 50% of English speakers use standard English.

• Standard English is typical of spoken English.

• Non-standard English is used by the majority of English speakers.