Chapter 1 – Essential Ideas

The Scientific Method:

Observations: numeric (quantitative) and other (qualitative) measurements.

Hypothesis: a tentative explanation of a phenomenon that’s testable and falsifiable.
Experiment: a test of a hypothesis; failure can disprove the hypothesis, but success can only
support the hypothesis.
Scientific Law: a summary of all known observations that describes or predicts particular aspects
of nature – often in the form of a mathematical equation (but with no explanation!).
Scientific Theory: a well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanation of particular
aspects of nature – usually developed from an earlier hypothesis.

Applies to single or small

Applies to all events
number of events

Describes what happens Observation Law

Explains why things

Hypothesis Theory
happen
Phases and Classification of Matter
• Matter: anything that has mass and occupies space.
• Pure substance: a substance that cannot be subdivided by physical (non-chemical)
means; contains only one substance; not a mixture.
• Element: a pure substance that cannot be subdivided by chemical or physical (non-
nuclear) means; a pure substance containing only one kind of atom.
• Compound: a pure substance that can be subdivided by chemical means; a pure
substance composed of two or more elements in a constant proportion by mass; a pure
substance containing more than one kind of atom.
• Homogeneous mixture: two or more substances mixed evenly with constant
composition throughout; mixture with only one physical phase present; a solution.
• Heterogeneous mixture: two or more substances mixed unevenly with different
compositions in different places; mixture with two of more physical phases present.
• Atom: the smallest unit an element can be subdivided into without changing its
properties; any further subdivision would no longer be the same element.
• Molecule: a group of atoms bonded together that acts as a unit; the smallest unit a
compound can be subdivided into without changing its properties.

• Chemical change: a change that produces a new substance.

• Physical change: a change where no new substances are made.
• Extensive property: a property of a sample that depends on size (mass, volume, length,
etc.).
• Intensive property: an inherent property of a substance that doesn’t depend on size
(density, boiling point, tensile strength, flash point, etc.).
o Chemical property: a property associated with a chemical change (flammability,
reactivity, acid, etc.).
o Physical property: a property that is observable without any chemical changes
(boiling point, density, tensile strength, etc.).
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Properties of Metals
• Silvery luster
• Good conductors of electricity and heat
• High melting points (solid at room temperature)
• Malleable (shapable by pounding) and ductile (can be drawn into wires)
Properties of Nonmetals
• Dull appearance
• Poor conductors of electricity and heat (good insulators)
• Low melting points (gases and liquids at room temperature)
• Brittle - shatter when struck
Properties of Metalloids
• Intermediate properties between metals and nonmetals
• Semiconductors
• Electrical resistance DECREASES with increasing temperature
Metric (SI) Units

Property Name of Unit Symbol of Unit Prefix Symbol Factor

length meter m tera T 1012

mass kilogram kg giga G 109

time second s mega M 106

temperature kelvin K kilo k 103

amount of substance mole mol deci d 10–1

centi c 10–2
Volume: one liter is the volume contained in a cube
milli m 10–3
3
1L = 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm = 1000 cm = 1000 mL
so, 1 cm3 = 1 mL micro µ 10–6

Mass: one kilogram is(was) the mass of one liter of water, so nano n 10–9
Density of water = 1 g/mL (varies with temperature)
pico p 10–12
Temperature change of 1 K = temperature change of 1°C
Density = mass/volume femto f 10–15

Measurements include a number, a unit, and an indication of the uncertainty. There are two
kinds of uncertainty (errors) in measurements:
• (in)Accuracy: how far away the measurement is from the true value.
• (im)Precision: how far away the measurement is from repeated measurements.
o More decimals mean more significant figures, but they are NOT the same thing.
Significant figures in measurements: In general, report every digit that is certain - plus one
digit that is estimated (uncertain). Record one (and only one!) more decimal than the smallest
scale division. NEVER ROUND MEASUREMENTS, only round calculator results!
Writing and reading significant figures. All digits are significant, except (1) “leading” zeroes
that are never significant, and (2) “trailing” zeroes, which are significant if there is a decimal
point. To remove ambiguity use scientific notation, which always begins with a non-zero digit
and always contains a decimal point, so every digit is always significant.
Significant figures and rounding calculator results: Every measurement used in a calculation
adds uncertainty. The result of a calculation cannot be more precise than the measurements that
went into it. Calculators can add lots of decimals to a result that don’t belong there. To avoid
reporting results that “look too good to be true” there are rules for rounding off those extra
decimals from the calculator display. Only measurements affect significant figures! Constants,
conversion factors, and numbers in equations are considered “error-free.”
There are different rules for addition/subtraction and for multiplication/division.
• addition/subtraction: the sum should have the same number of decimals places as the
number with the fewest decimal places.
• multiplication/division: the product/quotient should have the same number of
significant figures as the number with the fewest significant figures.
• Never re-use rounded numbers. You should only round once - when you finish the
entire chain of calculations. If you are required to report an intermediate result that you
have to use for further calculations, write down the unrounded intermediate result and
then write down a properly rounded version of that same number next to or underneath it.
Then only use the unrounded intermediate result to finish the calculations.
• Blended calculations. When addition/subtraction operations are combined with
multiplication/division operations in the same calculation sequence, the appropriate
rounding rule must be thought through at each step to identify the last significant figure
in each intermediate result so the rounding rule for the next step can be properly applied.
DO NOT ROUND AT EACH STEP. You are only analyzing what happened during the
calculation. Write the whole calculation out if you need to and mark where the last
significant digit is at each step until you get to the final result and then round ONLY that
final number.
Conversion Factors. Any two things that are (a) equivalent, or (b) the same, or (c) attributes of
the same object can be used to make a conversion factor, expressed as a fraction with different
units in the numerator and denominator. Algebraically, all conversion factors are “1”s, so you
can multiply them into any equation whenever you want because 1 × 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥. The reciprocal of a
conversion factor is also a conversion factor.
a) 1000 mm = 1 m, or 1000 mm/m.
b) 1 L = 1000 cm3, or 1000 cm3/1 L.
c) A piece of lead with mass of 100 g and a volume of 8.857 mL has a density of 11.29
g/mL
Dimensional Analysis: Problem-solving using the algebra of the units and conversion factors: if
your calculation sequence gives the exact correct units you are seeking, then it will also give the
correct numeric answer.
1. On the right side, write the exact units that the answer to the problem should have =
“units sought”.
2. On the left side, write all the numeric information provided with full units.
3. Choose a starting quantity that has at least some part of the units sought:
a. If the unit sought is present in more than one starting quantity, choose a starting
quantity that will get bigger/smaller the same as the final unit sought will.
b. If the unit sought is a ratio (fraction) you may need to do this twice – once for the
unit in the denominator and once for the unit in the numerator.
4. Choose (or construct) a conversion factor that will multiply the starting quantity into, or
at least in the direction of, the unit sought.
5. Repeat multiplying in conversion factors until the units of the calculation exactly match
the units sought.
6. If you get stuck, double-check your algebra first, and then start over at step #3 with a
different starting quantity and try again.
Chapter 2 - Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
• Matter is composed of microscopic particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of
an element that can participate in a chemical change.
• An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a mass that is characteristic of
the element and is the same for all atoms of that element.
• Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all other elements.
• A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements combined in a small, whole-
number ratio. In a given compound, the number of atoms of each of its elements are
always present in the same ratio.
• Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but instead rearrange
to yield a different type(s) of matter.
Discovery of the Electron
• High-voltage electrical discharges in partially evacuated tubes create “cathode rays.”
• Cathode rays are attracted to positive static electric charges and repelled by negative
static electric charges, showing they are negatively charged.
• Cathode rays travel in straight lines, cast shadows, and spin rotors, showing that they are
particles with mass.
• By studying the amount of electric charge on smaller and smaller oil droplets, Milliken
was able to measure the electron’s charge-to-mass ratio, and thus indirectly, the mass of
an electron.
• The electron has a mass about 1/1800th the mass of the smallest atom (hydrogen).
Models of Atomic Structure
• “Plum pudding” model: The mass and positive charge of the atom is distributed evenly
throughout a spherical volume, and the negatively charged electrons are stuck into the
atomic “pudding” much like raisins.
• Nuclear model: Rutherford’s gold foil experiment showed that most of the mass and all
of the positive charge were concentrated in a tiny volume at the center of the atom, while
the vast majority of the volume of the atom was filled with electrons. The positive center
of the atom was named the “nucleus.”
•
• Properties of Subatomic Particles
Name Unit Charge Mass (amu)
electron 1− 0.00055
proton 1+ 1.00727
neutron 0 1.00866

Alphabetical Element List For Studying

Name Symbol Atomic Number
Actinium Ac (89)
Aluminum Al (13)
Americium Am (95)
Antimony Sb (51)
Argon Ar (18)
Arsenic As (33)
Astatine At (85)
Barium Ba (56)
Berkelium Bk (97)
Beryllium Be (4)
Bismuth Bi (83)
Bohrium Bh (107)
Boron B (5)
Bromine Br (35)
Cadmium Cd (48)
Calcium Ca (20)
Californium Cf (98)
Carbon C (6)
Cerium Ce (58)
Cesium Cs (55)
Chlorine Cl (17)
Chromium Cr (24)
Cobalt Co (27)
Copernicium Cn (112)
Copper Cu (29)
Curium Cm (96)
Darmstadtium Ds (110)
Dubnium Db (105)
Dysprosium Dy (66)
Einsteinium Es (99)
Erbium Er (68)
Europium Eu (63)
Fermium Fm (100)
Flerovium Fl (114)
Fluorine F (9)
Francium Fr (87)
Gadolinium Gd (64)
Gallium Ga (31)
Germanium Ge (32)
Gold Au (79)
Hafnium Hf (72)
Hassium Hs (108)
Helium He (2)
Holmium Ho (67)
Hydrogen H (1)
Indium In (49)
Iodine I (53)
Iridium Ir (77)
Iron Fe (26)
Krypton Kr (36)
Lanthanum La (57)
Lawrencium Lr (103)
Lead Pb (82)
Lithiun Li (3)
Livermorium Lv (116)
Lutetium Lu (71)
Magnesium Mg (12)
Manganese Mn (25)
Meitnerium Mt (109)
Mendelevium Md (101)
Mercury Hg (80)
Molybdenum Mo (42)
Moscovium Mc (115)
Neodymium Nd (60)
Neon Ne (10)
Neptunium Np (93)
Nickel Ni (28)
Nihonium Nh (113)
Niobium Nb (41)
Nitrogen N (7)
Nobelium No (102)
Oganesson Og (118)
Osmium Os (76)
Oxygen O (8)
Palladium Pd (46)
Phosphorus P (15)
Platinum Pt (78)
Plutonium Pu (94)
Polonium Po (84)
Potassium K (19)
Praseodymium Pr (59)
Promethium Pm (61)
Protactinium Pa (91)
Radium Ra (88)
Radon Rn (86)
Rhenium Re (75)
Rhodium Rh (45)
Roentgenium Rg (111)
Rubidium Rb (37)
Ruthenium Ru (44)
Rutherfordium Rf (104)
Samarium Sm (62)
Scandium Sc (21)
Seaborgium Sg (106)
Selenium Se (34)
Silicon Si (14)
Silver Ag (47)
Sodium Na (11)
Strontium Sr (38)
Sulfur S (16)
Tantalum Ta (73)
Technetium Tc (43)
Tellurium Te (52)
Tennessine Ts (117)
Terbium Tb (65)
Thallium Tl (81)
Thorium Th (90)
Thulium Tm (69)
Tin Sn (50)
Titanium Ti (22)
Tungsten W (74)
 Uranium U (92)
Vanadium V (23)
Xenon Xe (54)
Ytterbium Yb (70)
Yttrium Y (39)
Zinc Zn (30)
Zirconium Zr (40)

Atomic Mass Unit (amu). Originally 1 amu was taken as the mass of one hydrogen atom, and
the masses of all the other atoms were expressed relative to the mass of hydrogen. Later, after
neutrons and isotopes were discovered, the amu was redefined by IUPAC as 1/12th the mass the
carbon-12 atom, which changed the mass of hydrogen from 1.0000 to 1.0078.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons (defines which element it is!)
• Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons (always an integer!)
• A-Z = number of neutrons

Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons and,
therefore, different actual masses.

Atomic Mass: The measured mass of the atoms in an element. Mathematically equals the
weighted average of the actual masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of that element.
• Atomic mass is a measured quantity, never a whole number.
• Mass number is just the count of protons plus neutrons and is always an integer.

Ions: Any microscopic bit of matter with a net electric charge is an “ion.”
• Positively charged ions are called “cations.”
• Negatively charged ions are called “anions.”
• Atomic ions are atoms with an unequal number of protons and electrons.
• Molecules with an unequal number of protons and electrons are also ions.
• Ionic charge = number of protons − number of electrons.

Chemical Formulas
 • Empirical formula: formula with the simplest whole-number ratio of the number of
atoms (or ions) in the compound; usually determined by elemental analysis; the only
formula for ionic compounds.
• Molecular formula: the formula representing the actual molecule; always an integer
multiple of the empirical formula.
• Structural formula: 2D drawing showing which atoms are connected to which atoms.
• Molecular models: objects or 3D images showing the shapes of molecules.
• Isomers: two different compounds with the same molecular formula
o Structural isomers: same formula, but different connectivity.
o Spatial isomers (“stereoisomers”): isomers that have the same formula and
connectivity (that is, the same parts) but that differ in the orientation of those parts
in space.
 Cis-trans isomers: in molecules with two sides, “cis” indicates the isomer
with two things on the same (near) side, while “trans” indicates the isomer
with two things on the opposite (far) sides. These are distinctly different
compounds with different physical properties.
 Diastereomers: molecules with the same formula and connectivity that
differ only in the absolute configuration (“handedness”) of more than one
atom. These are different compounds with different physical properties.
 Enantiomers: pairs of otherwise identical molecules with the same
formula and connectivity that differ only in the absolute configuration
(“handedness”) of a single atom – one is the right-handed isomer, and the
other is the left-handed isomer. Both molecules have identical physical
properties – except they rotate polarized light in opposite directions.
Enantiomers may have drastically different biological properties.
The Mole. The original definition of a mole (then called a “gram-atom”) was “the number of
hydrogen atoms in one gram of hydrogen.” It is the number of atoms of any element in “one
atomic mass” of that element, and thus, it is the conversion factor between amu and grams: one
mole of amu = one gram. The IUPAC definition is now “the number of carbon atoms in 12 g of
pure carbon-12” or 6.022 x 1023. The atomic masses on the periodic table may be interpreted as
“grams per mole of element” or as “amu per atom of element.”
Chapter 3

Ionic Bonding
• Metals lose electrons and nonmetals gain electrons until isoelectronic with the nearest
noble gas.
• Cations and anions attract each other through electrostatic forces to form a three-
dimensional, electrically-neutral crystalline array.
• Cations and anions combine in a ratio to achieve electrical neutrality:

Covalent Bonding
• Two nonmetals with high electronegativity will share, rather than transfer, electrons.
• Shared electrons are between the nuclei most of the time.
• Both positive nuclei are attracted towards the shared electrons and drawn together,
lowering the potential energy of the system:

• Each pair of shared (covalent) electrons constitutes one covalent bond (single, double,
triple).
• The more shared electrons, the stronger and shorter the bond.

Metallic Bonding
• Metals donate loosely held outer electrons to a delocalized pool of electrons that
permeates the whole array of metal “cations” and bonds them together.
• Mobile electrons make metals good conductors of electricity.
• Electron “glue” allows metals to be shapeable.
Polarity
• Covalent bonds between non-identical atoms may have electronegativity differences
large enough to make the bond polar.

Ionic compounds are composed of cations and anions in a fixed ratio that depends on their
respective charges, such that the net charge is zero. Ionic compounds are held together by the
electrostatic attraction between the positive cations and the negative anions.
• Charges of atomic ions can be predicted from the Periodic Table:
Group Charge
1A 1+
2A 2+
3A 3+
5A 3-
6A 2-
7A 1-

• Polyatomic ions are charged molecules that occur within ionic compounds. Their
formulas and charges must be memorized.
• Formulas of ionic compounds may be calculated from the charges on the cations and
anions, such that the sum of the charges is zero.

Molecular compounds are composed of discrete, neutral groups of atoms (molecules) held
together by covalent bonds. The elements may be present in any whole number ratios.

Recognizing molecular vs ionic compounds:

• A metal and a nonmetal will form an ionic compound.
• Two nonmetals will form a molecular compound.
• Any formula (in this course) that begins with a metal is ionic.

Binary compound names and formulas are generally left-to-right on the Periodic Table.
Metals (or the leftmost element) come first in the name and formula and their names are not
changed. The rightmost element comes last in the name and formula and that element’s name is
modified to end in “ide.”
Chemical Bonds: atoms lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration.

Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

 • Names and formulas of binary compounds are assigned from lower left to upper right
(least electronegative first).
• First element’s name is not changed.
• Second element’s name is changed to end in “-ide.”
• Ionic compound names are “name of cation” + “name of anion”
o Variable-charge cations are named by appending charge as a Roman numeral.
o Classical system uses Latin names for metals: the cation with lower charge ends
with “-ous” and the cation with higher charge ends with “-ic.”
• Molecular compound names add Greek prefixes to specify the subscripts in the formula.

Acid Nomenclature
• Acid formulas are always written with Hydrogen first.
• Binary acids (and HCN) are named “hydro-” + stem of element name + “-ic acid.”
(Alternatively this is the rule for non-oxy acids)
• Oxyacid names are derived from the corresponding anions:
o If the anion ends with “-ate” the acid ends with “-ic acid.”
o If the anion ends in with “-ite” the acid name ends with “-ous acid.”
o If the anion contains more oxygen atoms that the anion ending in “ate” then add
the prefix of “per-” to the acid name.
o If the anion contains fewer oxygen atoms that the anion ending in “ite” then add
the prefix of “hypo-” to the acid name.
Number Prefix Number Prefix
1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
Formula Mass: sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in the compound’s formula.
Molar Mass: mass of one mole of compound (sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in the
compound’s formula expressed as grams per mole)
Percent Composition:
• from analysis: (mass of element)/(mass of compound) x 100 %
• from formula: (mass of element atoms)/(formula mass) x 100%
Empirical Formula:
• convert mass of each element to moles of each element using molar mass
• make pseudo-empirical formula using raw # of moles if each element
• divide all subscripts by the smallest subscript
• if all subscripts are whole numbers, then done
• otherwise, multiply all subscripts to remove fractions
Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula
• molecular formula = “n” x empirical formula
• “n” = (molar mass)/(empirical formula mass)

Combustion Analysis: Indirect gravimetric determination of carbon and hydrogen in a

hydrocarbon compound by burning it and trapping the carbon as CO2 and hydrogen as water.

Percentage Concentrations:
• Mass (m/m): (mass of solute)/(mass of solution) x 100%
• Volume (v/v): (volume of solute)/(volume of solution) x 100%
• Mass/Volume (m/v): (grams of solute)/(ml of solution) x 100%
• Parts-per/million(billion): (mass of solute)/(mass of solution) x 106 ppm (x 109 ppb)
Balancing Chemical Equations
• Write an unbalanced equation.
• Make a table of atoms of each element on the reactant and product sides.
• Start by balancing an element that appears in only one molecule on the reactant side and
in only one molecule on the product side.
• Continue balancing elements, doing the easiest ones first, until all elements are balanced.
• Use fractional coefficients, if necessary, then multiply the whole equation to remove the
fractions.
• If you’re having difficulty balancing diatomic elements, try multiplying the coefficients
of all the other substances by 2. Make sure you have the lowest possible whole number
coefficients.
Chapter 4 – Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions
Stoichiometry
Any two terms in a balanced chemical equation may be combined into a conversion
factor to mathematically convert moles of one substance into an equivalent quantity of
another substance. These “stoichiometric factors” usually take the form of mole ratios.

• Limiting Reactant and Theoretical Yield

o The “limiting reactant” is the reactant that runs out first.
o Calculate how much product can be made from the provided quantities of each
reactant.
o The reactant that could produce the smallest amount of product is the limiting
reactant.
o The amount of product the limiting reactant could make is the theoretical yield.

• Percent Yield = (actual yield)/(theoretical yield) x 100%

Molarity: moles of solute/liter of solution

Molality: moles of solute/kg of solvent (only unit with solvent in denominator)
Dilution Equation: M1V1 = M2V2
Titration (Volumetric): Indirect measurement of a substance by measuring the quantity of
another substance it reacts with. Usually performed by metering the volume of an aqueous
solution of one of the reactants required to reach a visual endpoint. Stoichiometric factors are
used to convert the quantity of reactant used into the quantity of analyte being determined. An
acid-base titration is depicted below:

Aqueous Solubility Rules: (rules at top take priority over rules lower in the list):
1. Group I (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) or ammonium (NH4+) compounds are always soluble.
2. Nitrate (NO3-) and acetate (C2H3O2-) compounds are always soluble.
3. Cl -, Br -, or I - are generally soluble, except salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+.
4. Most silver, lead and mercury salts are insoluble. ...
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble, except CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, Ag2SO4 and SrSO4.
6. Most hydroxides are only slightly soluble.

Electrolytes: Substances whose aqueous solutions conduct an electric current.

• Strong electrolytes: substances that completely release/produce ions (soluble salts,
strong acids, strong bases.
• Weak electrolytes: substances that only partially release/produce ions (weak acids, weak
bases, slightly soluble salts)

Types of Chemical Reactions

• Combination: Two or more reactants form one product
A + B ⟶ AB
• Decomposition: One reactant forms two or more products
AB ⟶ A + B
• Single Displacement: One metal (A) displaces another metal (B) from a compound
and replaces it. Single displacement reactions are also redox reactions.
 A + BC ⟶ AC + B
• Double Displacement: Two compounds swap positive/negative parts. Double
displacement reactions are NOT redox reactions.
AB + CD ⟶ AD + CB
o Precipitation reactions: Two aqueous solutions produce a solid product.
o Acid-Base reactions: “acid + base ⟶ salt + water” or any hydrogen ion
(proton) transfer reaction.
o Gas Evolution reactions: Two aqueous solutions produce a gaseous product.
Look out for unstable products that decompose into gases:
 Carbonic Acid: H2CO3 ⟶ H2O + CO2(g)
 Sulfurous Acid: H2SO3⟶ H2O + SO2(g)
 Ammonium Hydroxide: NH4OH ⟶ H2O + NH3(g)
• Oxidation-Reduction: Electrons are transferred, as reflected in changed oxidation
states (“oxidation numbers”) of elements.
Equations for Ionic Reactions
• Complete (or “Molecular”) Equation: all substances shown as standard chemical
formulas.
• Total Ionic Equation: fully ionized substances are shown as individual cations and
anions, while non-ionic and partially-ionized substances are shown as standard chemical
formulas.
• Bystander (or “Spectator”) Ions: ions that appear, unchanged, on both sides of the
equation, and do not participate directly in the reaction.
• Net Ionic Equation: the equation remaining after bystander ions are subtracted from
both sides of the equation. Only substances that undergo a chemical change are shown in
the net ionic equation.
Assigning Oxidation States (“Numbers”)
• The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental substance is zero.
• The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the ion’s charge.
• Oxidation numbers for common nonmetals are usually assigned as follows:
o Hydrogen:
 +1 when combined with nonmetals
 −1 when combined with metals
o Oxygen:
 −2 in most compounds
 Sometimes −1 (so-called peroxides, O22−)
 Very rarely − ½ (so-called superoxides, O2−)
 Positive values when combined with F (values vary)
o Halogens:
 −1 for F always
 −1 for other halogens except when combined with oxygen or other
halogens (positive oxidation numbers in these cases, varying values)
 • The sum of the oxidation numbers for all atoms in a molecule or polyatomic ion equals
the charge on the molecule or ion.
• Use algebra to calculate the oxidation numbers of other atoms.

Balancing Redox Equations

• Write the two individual half-reactions: the oxidation and the reduction.
• For each half-reaction:
o Balance all elements except oxygen and hydrogen.
o Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O molecules.
o Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+ ions.
o Balance charge by adding electrons.
• If necessary, multiply each half-reaction’s coefficients by the smallest possible integers to
yield equal numbers of electrons in each.
• Add the balanced half-reactions together and simplify by removing species that appear on
both sides of the equation
• For reactions occurring in basic media (excess OH− ions), carry out these additional
steps:
o Add OH− ions to both sides of the equation in numbers equal to the number of H+
ions.
o On the side of the equation containing both H+ and OH− ions, combine these ions
to yield water molecules.
o Simplify the equation by removing any redundant H2O molecules.
• Finally, check to see that the number of atoms and the total charge are balanced.
Chapter 5 Gases
Pressure = Force/Area
• Measured as height of a mercury column held up by the gas pressure.
• “Atmosphere” = average air pressure at sea level, 760 mmHg

Basic Gas Laws

Gas Law Formula Description
Charle’s Law V1/T1=V2/T2 At constant P, as the volume increases the temperature also
increases.
Boyle’s Law P1V1=P2V2 At constant T, if pressure increases then volume decreases.
Gay- Lussac’s P1/T1=P2/T2 At constant V as pressure increases the temperature also increases.
Law
Avogadro’s Law V / n = constant When the amount of gas increases, the volume of the gas also
increases.

Ideal Gas Law: 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

• Pressure in atm, Volume in liters, n in moles, Temperature in Kelvin.
• at constant "n": (P1 x V1)/T1 = (P2 x V2)/T2
• at constant "n" and P: V1/T1 = V2/T2
• at constant "n" and V: P1/T1 = P2/T2
• at constant "n" and T: P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
• at STP 1 mole of ideal gas occupies 22.4 liters
o STP is 0°C and 1 atmosphere pressure

…remembering that “n” (the number of moles of gas) always equals the grams of gas
(“g”) divided by the molar mass of the gas (“M”), n=g/M, we can substitute g/M for n in
the Ideal Gas Equation, giving:

PV = (g/M)RT … this equation can be re-arranged into:

(1) M = gRT/PV to solve for molar mass… or:

(2) g/V = density = MP/RT … to solve for density

• total pressure (P) of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures (Pi) of the
component gases, P = Σ Pi
 • gas stoichiometry by volume is the same as by mole ratio

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Assumptions:
1. The particles of the gas (either atoms or molecules) are constantly moving.
2. The attraction between particles is negligible.
3. The size of the particles is negligible. There is a lot of empty space between the gas
particles compared to the size of the particles.
4. The collision of one particle with another (or with the walls of its container) is
completely elastic.
a. When two particles collide, they bounce off one another without losing any
energy or changing their structure (i.e.-”no reaction”)
5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature.
a. As the temperature of the gas increases, the average speed of the particles
increases (but not all the gas particles are moving at the same speed).

Effusion/Diffusion:
• at a given temperature, average particle speed is inversely proportional to the square root
1
of the particle mass: 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ∝
√𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
• rates of effusion and diffusion are inversely proportional to the square roots of the
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟1 𝑚𝑚
particle masses: ∝ √𝑚𝑚2
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 √ 1
Limitations of the Ideal Gas Law (violations of KMT assumptions):
• At Low Temperatures, inter-particle attractive forces become significant (liquids form)
and pressure is underestimated by the Ideal Gas Equation.
• At Very High Pressures, crowding causes the particle size to become significant and
volume no longer decreases as pressure increases.
• Van der Waals equation:
Chapter 6 – Thermochemistry

Energy is the capacity to supply heat or do work.

• Potential energy: energy an object has because of its relative position, composition, or
condition.
• Kinetic energy: energy that an object possesses because of its motion.
• Thermal energy: kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and
molecules.
• Heat (q): the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies at different temperatures.
• Temperature: a quantitative measure of “hot” or “cold.” Average kinetic energy.
• Endothermic process: a reaction or change that absorbs thermal energy.
• Exothermic process: a reaction or change that releases thermal energy.
Energy Units
• Calorie: the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by
1 °C.
• Joule: the amount t of energy used when a force of 1 newton moves an object 1 meter.
𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
One “newton-meter”, 1𝐉𝐉 = 𝟏𝟏 𝐤𝐤𝐤𝐤 𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐
Heat Capacity: amount of thermal energy to raise the temperature of an object by 1 °C.
Specific Heat (“c”): amount of thermal energy to raise the temperature of a pure substance by
1 °C. Units are J/(g-°C) or cal/(g-°C).
Heat Measurement: 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚∆𝑇𝑇, m = mass of object, c = specific heat, ∆𝑇𝑇= change in
temperature of object (always final temperature minus initial temperature)
Conservation of Energy Law: in a chemical reaction energy is neither created nor destroyed,
only changed from one form to another: 𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −𝑞𝑞𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Energy Changes:
• Heat into system: +q
• Heat into surroundings: -q
• Work on system (compression): +w
• Work on surroundings (expansion): -w
Internal Energy (“U”): thermodynamic state
function representing the sum of the kinetic
and potential energies of the particles that
form the system.
Enthalpy (“H”): thermodynamic state
function representing the sum of a system’s
internal energy (U) and the mathematical
product of its pressure (P) and volume (V).
• At constant pressure and if no work is done (𝑤𝑤 = 0), then ∆𝐻𝐻 = 𝑞𝑞. For this reason,
enthalpy is usually measured and referred to as “heat.”
 • The enthalpy, or heat transfer, associated with a chemical reaction may be included as a
stoichiometric quantity in the chemical equation, either appended as a notation (“∆𝐻𝐻 =
−34.5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘”) or included as another reactant (endothermic) or product (exothermic).
• Because enthalpy is a state function, the states of all reactants and products in a
thermochemical equation must be specified.
Thermodynamic Standard Conditions: 1 atm pressure, 298.15 K, 1M concentrations. Standard
state functions are represented with a superscript degree symbol: ∆𝐻𝐻 ° , ∆𝐺𝐺 ° , etc.
Standard State of a Compound: the state a compound is in at 1 atm pressure, 298.15 K, and
1M concentrations.
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion: Heat associated with the complete reaction of one mole of
a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with O2 to produce only CO2 and
water.
Standard Enthalpy of Formation: Heat associated with the formation of one mole of a
compound in its standard state from its constituent elements in their standard states.
Hess’s Law: If a process can be written as the sum of several stepwise processes, the enthalpy
change of the total process equals the sum of the enthalpy changes of the various steps. This is
true for all state functions (∆𝑈𝑈, ∆𝐻𝐻, ∆𝑆𝑆, ∆𝐺𝐺).
The standard heat of reaction can be calculated for any reaction, provided the standard heats of
formation are available for all reactants and products:
°
∆𝐻𝐻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑛𝑛 × ∆𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓° (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) − � 𝑛𝑛 × ∆𝐻𝐻𝑓𝑓° (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟)
where n represents the stoichiometric coefficients.
Chapter 7 - The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
Electromagnetic spectrum (shortest to longest wavelength): gamma/x-rays, ultraviolet,
blue/green/yellow/red, infrared, terahertz, microwave, radio.

Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional: 𝑐𝑐 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

Constructive and destructive interference of waves, and interference patterns.

Double-slit experiment with light shows lights acts as a wave (“diffraction”)

ℎ
Wave-particle duality: wavelength associated with a moving particle, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑚𝑚v (“v” is velocity)

Double-slit experiment with electrons shows electrons acts as waves (“diffraction”)

Continuous spectra versus line spectra. Origin of spectral lines.

ℎ𝑐𝑐
Energy of a photon: 𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝜈𝜈 (“𝝼𝝼” is frequency), or 𝐸𝐸 = 𝜆𝜆

Photoelectric effect: kinetic energy of photoelectron = photon energy − binding energy

Bohr model of the atom: potential energy proportional to distance from nucleus; electron orbits
restricted to discrete distances/energies; electron transitions absorb/emit photons.

1 1
Electron energy in Hydrogen atom: 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = −2.18 × 10−18 J(𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛2 ) (Reference Material only
1 1
shows equation for a single energy level.) In a hydrogen atom, all orbitals within a shell are
degenerate (same energy).
Subshell Energy Splitting: In larger atoms, electron-electron interactions cause the subshells to
split to different energies, with s < p < d < f. because the orbitals in higher shells penetrate the
inner shells of electrons

Pauli Exclusion Principle: no two electrons in the same atom can have exactly the same set of
all the four quantum numbers. Therefore, electrons fill a subshell with half-filled orbitals until all
the orbitals in that subshell contain a single electron before electrons start pairing and filling
orbitals with 2 electrons each.

Aufbau Principle: Each added electron occupies the subshell of lowest energy available.
Electrons enter higher-energy subshells only after lower-energy subshells have been filled to
capacity.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: It is fundamentally impossible to determine simultaneously
and exactly both the momentum and the position of a particle.

, where ℏ=h/2π

Quantum mechanics: Schrödinger equation describes the probability an electron will be at a

position “x” at a specific time, “t”. Repeatedly calculating and plotting these probabilities builds
up a cloud of points that reveals the shape of the area where the electron is likely to be. These
areas are called “orbitals.” The density of points (“electron density”) represents the relative
amount of time an electron would probably be at that place. The state (not the exact location!) of
an electron can be completely described with 4 “quantum numbers”- n, l, ml, and ms

Quantum Numbers, Their Properties, and Significance

Allowed
Name Symbol values Physical meaning

shell, the general value of

principal quantum
n 1, 2, 3, 4, …. energy for an electron at this
number
distance from the nucleus
 Quantum Numbers, Their Properties, and Significance

Allowed
Name Symbol values Physical meaning

angular momentum subshell, the shape of the

l 0≤l≤n–1
quantum number orbital (s, p, d, f)

magnetic quantum
ml – l ≤ ml ≤ l orientation of the orbital
number

direction of the intrinsic

spin quantum
ms -½ or +½ quantum “spinning” of the
number
electron (‘up” or “down”)
Chapter 8 - Periodic Properties of the Elements
Periodic Table Recapitulates Electron Configurations:

Atomic Radius:
• Atoms get larger as you go down each group.
o Each step down is an atom with the same valence electron configuration but in a
larger outer shell, making the atom bigger than the one above it.
• Atoms get smaller as you go left to right across a period.
o Each step right adds one electron to the same shell as the atom on the left but also
adds one more proton to the nucleus. The increased positive charge of the nucleus
increases the electrostatic force pulling the outer shell of electrons closer to the
nucleus, making each atom generally smaller than the one to its left.
 “Effective Nuclear Charge” is the pull exerted on a specific electron by the
nucleus, taking into account any electron–electron repulsions.
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑍𝑍 − 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

o This trend is smooth for the “representative” or “main-group” elements but there
are discontinuities in this trend in the 4th and 5th period transition elements, where
the d orbitals are half-filled, which changes the amount of shielding.
• Ionic Radii
o Cations lose electrons and get smaller
 o Anions gain electrons and get bigger.

Periodic Trends in Element Properties

• First Ionization Energy (IE1) is the energy required to remove an atom’s outermost
electron.
o IE1 decreases as you go down each group.
 Atomic radius increases as you go down each group, so the outermost
electron is further from the nucleus than the atom above it. Because the
effective nuclear charge is about the same, but the distance is greater, the
electrostatic force holding the outermost electron in a larger atom is
weaker and the energy to remove it is lower.
o IE1 generally increases as you go left to right across a period.
 The increased effective nuclear charge and the smaller atomic radius
increase the electrostatic force holding the outermost electron, which
requires more energy to remove.
 There’s a small deviation from the predicted trend occurring each time a
new subshell begins.
 There are also discontinuities in this trend where the p or d orbitals are
half-filled.

• Electron Affinity (EA) is the energy change for the process of adding an electron to a
gaseous atom to form an anion. EA does not show clear trends, but:
o EAs of Group 2 elements are large and positive (endothermic).
o EAs of Group 17(7A) elements are the largest and most negative (exothermic).
o EAs of Group 16(6A) elements are also large and negative (exothermic).
Ionic compounds are composed of cations and anions in a fixed ratio that depends on their
respective charges, such that the net charge is zero. Ionic compounds are held together by the
electrostatic attraction between the positive cations and the negative anions.
• Charges of atomic ions can be predicted from the Periodic Table:
Group Charge
1A 1+
2A 2+
3A 3+
5A 3-
6A 2-
7A 1-

• Polyatomic ions are charged molecules that occur within ionic compounds. Their
formulas and charges must be memorized.
• Formulas of ionic compounds may be calculated from the charges on the cations and
anions, such that the sum of the charges is zero.

Molecular compounds are composed of discrete, neutral groups of atoms (molecules) held
together by covalent bonds. The elements may be present in any whole number ratios.
Recognizing molecular vs ionic compounds:
• A metal and a nonmetal will form an ionic compound.
• Two nonmetals will form a molecular compound.
• Any formula (in this course) that begins with a metal is ionic.

Binary compound names and formulas are generally left-to-right on the Periodic Table.
Metals (or the leftmost element) come first in the name and formula and their names are not
changed. The rightmost element comes last in the name and formula and that element’s name is
modified to end in “ide.”
Chapter 9 – Chemical Bonding I- Lewis Structures and Determining Molecular Shapes
Chemical Bonds: atoms lose, gain, or share electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration.

Ionic Bonding
• Metals lose electrons and nonmetals gain electrons until isoelectronic with the nearest
noble gas.
• Cations and anions attract each other through electrostatic forces to form a three-
dimensional, electrically-neutral crystalline array.
• Cations and anions combine in a ratio to achieve electrical neutrality:

Covalent Bonding
• Two nonmetals with high electronegativity will share, rather than transfer, electrons.
• Shared electrons are between the nuclei most of the time.
• Both positive nuclei are attracted towards the shared electrons and drawn together,
lowering the potential energy of the system:

• Each pair of shared (covalent) electrons constitutes one covalent bond (single, double,
triple).
• The more shared electrons, the stronger and shorter the bond.

Metallic Bonding
• Metals donate loosely held outer electrons to a delocalized pool of electrons that
permeates the whole array of metal “cations” and bonds them together.
• Mobile electrons make metals good conductors of electricity.
 • Electron “glue” allows metals to be shapeable.

Polarity
• Covalent bonds between non-identical atoms may have electronegativity differences
large enough to make the bond polar.

Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

• Names and formulas of binary compounds are assigned from lower left to upper right
(least electronegative first).
• First element’s name is not changed.
• Second element’s name is changed to end in “-ide.”
• Ionic compound names are “name of cation” + “name of anion”
o Variable-charge cations are named by appending charge as a Roman numeral.
o Classical system uses Latin names for metals: the cation with lower charge ends
with “-ous” and the cation with higher charge ends with “-ic.”
• Molecular compound names add Greek prefixes to specify the subscripts in the formula.

Acid Nomenclature
• Acid formulas are always written with Hydrogen first.
• Binary acids (and HCN) are named “hydro-” + stem of element name + “-ic acid.”
(Alternatively this is the rule for non-oxy acids)
• Oxyacid names are derived from the corresponding anions:
o If the anion ends with “-ate” the acid ends with “-ic acid.”
o If the anion ends in with “-ite” the acid name ends with “-ous acid.”
o If the anion contains more oxygen atoms that the anion ending in “ate” then add
the prefix of “per-” to the acid name.
o If the anion contains fewer oxygen atoms that the anion ending in “ite” then add
the prefix of “hypo-” to the acid name.

Number Prefix Number Prefix

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
Writing Lewis Structures
1. Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule.
• Hydrogen atoms are always terminal.
• The more electronegative atoms are placed in terminal positions.
2. Calculate the total number of electrons for the Lewis structure by summing the valence
electrons of each atom in the molecule.
• add 1 e- for each negative charge.
• subtract 1 e- for each positive charge.
3. Distribute the electrons among the atoms, giving octets (or duets in the case of hydrogen)
to as many atoms as possible.
4. If any atoms lack an octet, form double or triple bonds as necessary to give them octets.
5. If all atoms have an octet and there are electrons left over, add them to the central atom as
non-bonding electrons.
6. Show any resonance structures with minimized formal charges.
• Resonance Structure: two or more Lewis diagrams between which the location of
electrons is the ONLY difference.
• Formal Charge:
1
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = (# 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑒𝑒 − ) − (𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒 − ) − 2 ( 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑒𝑒 − )
Electron Geometries and Effect of Lone Pairs on Molecular Shapes (lone pairs take up more
space than bonding pairs)

Molecular Shape and Polarity

Is a molecule polar? (A polar molecule must contain at least one polar bond that is not canceled
by symmetry).
• Does it contain any polar bond(s)?
o No => it is non-polar.
• Does molecular symmetry cause multiple polar bonds to cancel?
o Yes => it is non-polar.
Chapter 10 - Chemical Bonding II- Valance Bond Theory and Molecular Orbital Theory
Valence bond theory describes a covalent bond as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals
(each containing a single electron) that yield a pair of electrons shared between the two bonded
atoms.

Sigma (σ) Bonds (shared electrons localized on axis between atoms):

Pi (Π) Bond (shared electrons localized off-axis between atoms):

Hybrid Atomic Orbitals are mathematical combinations of atomic orbital wave functions that
create new atomic orbital shapes.
• The number of hybrid orbitals created always equals the number of orbitals used.
• The lowest energy orbitals are hybridized first, s then p, and then d.
• The geometries of hybrid orbitals are the same as balloons:
o 2 balloons or orbitals = sp linear
o 3 balloons or orbitals = sp2 trigonal planar
o 4 balloons or orbitals = sp3 tetrahedral
o 5 balloons or orbitals = sp3d trigonal bipyramid
o 6 balloons or orbitals = sp3d2 octahedral
• Unused half-filled p orbitals can form 2nd and 3rd parts of multiple bonds according to
standard Valence Bond Theory.

Molecular Orbital Theory describes the distribution of electrons in molecules using quantum
mechanics to mathematically combine the wave functions of atomic orbitals from two separate
atoms to form molecular orbitals that cover the molecule in a cloud of electrons.
• Electrons occupy molecular orbitals according to the same rules used for filling atomic
orbitals: lowest energy first; single electrons in degenerate orbitals before pairing.
• Electrons in molecular orbitals located between atoms (“bonding orbitals”) attract the two
atoms together in a bond.
• Electrons in molecular orbitals located outside the region between the atoms (anti-
bonding orbitals) pull the two atoms apart and weaken the bond.
• Bond order (single, double, triple):
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = (# 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 − # 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) ÷ 2

Bonding and Anti-Bonding Sigma MOs:

Bonding and Anti-Bonding Pi MOs:

Molecular Orbitals for second period elements (only valence shells shown):

Molecular Orbitals in Bulk Materials merge in huge numbers into two bands:
• Valence Band where electrons are located in the ground state.
• Conduction Band at higher energy where electrons are delocalized and free to move
through the material.
Chapter 11 – Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces

Physical States of Matter: determined by the relative strengths of intermolecular forces

compared to the kinetic energy of the particles.
• Solid: high density, definite volume, definite shape.
• Liquid: high density, definite volume, takes shape of container.
• Gas: low density, indefinite volume, takes shape of container.

Intermolecular Forces (IMFs): (weakest to strongest)

• Dispersion (London) Forces:
o Weakest IMF (on a one-to-one basis) but gets stronger as molecules get bigger.
o Due to instantaneous “induced dipole-diploe” interactions between adjacent
atoms.
o Universal attraction between atoms - present between all molecules.
o Only IMF between non-polar substances.
o Increases with higher area of contact between molecular surfaces:
 Stronger in bigger atoms and larger molecules.
 Weaker in compact, branched, or bent structures than in straight chains.
• Dipole-Dipole Forces:
o Present in all polar molecules.
o Increase with increasing dipole moments (more polar = stronger).
• Hydrogen Bonds:
o Only present if O-H, N-H, or F-H bonds are present.
o Hyper-polarized H atoms bond to non-bonding electron pairs on O, N, or F.
o Consist of a hydrogen-donor and a hydrogen-acceptor (non-bonding electron
pair).
o Up to a few percent the strength of a covalent bond.
o Can also form between different molecules in a solution.
• Ion-Dipole Bonds:
o Only present in mixtures/solutions (and macromolecules).
o Solvation mechanism of aqueous ionic solutions.

Viscosity:
• A fluid’s resistance to flow, or “thickness” in common speech.
• Measured by time it takes a fluid to drip through a calibrated funnel, units of “poise.”
• Caused by crowding of molecules as they all try to squeeze through the same opening.
o Smaller molecules squeeze through more easily and quickly ⟶ lower viscosity.
o Bigger molecules pile up and take longer to squeeze through ⟶ higher viscosity.
o Spherically shaped molecules can slip through the opening more easily than
elongated shapes ⟶ lower viscosity.
• Stronger IMFs cause molecules to hang onto one another, which makes it harder to
squeeze through ⟶ higher viscosity.
• Higher temperatures act against IMFs ⟶ lower viscosity.
Surface Tension:
• The energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid, which causes the surface of a
liquid to behave like a stretched elastic membrane.
• Imbalance between the IMFs acting on particles at the surface (no IMFs on the “air” side)
cause liquid surfaces to curve into spherical shapes, or at least try to.
• Stronger IMFs ⟶ higher surface tension.
• Higher temperatures act against IMFs ⟶ lower surface tension.
• Adhesive forces: IMFs between different substances, usually at interfaces between
insoluble substances.
• Capillary Action: movement of a liquid against gravity due to the attraction of the liquid
molecules to the surface of a material and to other liquid molecules.
o Water soaks cotton or paper because the cellulose fibers they are made of have
many -OH groups that form hydrogen bonds with water.
o Water climbs the walls of thin glass tubes and forms a meniscus in graduated
cylinders because the surface of glass (silicon dioxide) has -SiOH groups where
the next silicon atom would be if it weren’t the surface. Water forms hydrogen
bonds with the -SiOH groups at the surface.

Vapor Pressure: (“vapor” is a term for a gas when present over its own liquid phase)
• The equilibrium partial pressure of a vapor in a closed container with both liquid and gas
phases of the same substance present.
• Vapor pressure depends only on temperature and increases with increasing temperature.
• Boiling point is the temperature where the vapor pressure is equal to the ambient
atmospheric pressure. Normal boiling point the temperature where the vapor pressure is
equal to 1 atm or 760 mmHg.
• Enthalpy (“Heat”) of Vaporization (𝞓𝞓Hvap): energy required to vaporize one mole (or
one gram) or a substance at its boiling point.
• Enthalpy (“Heat”) of Fusion (𝞓𝞓Hfus): energy required to melt one mole (or one gram)
or a substance at its melting point.
• Enthalpy (“Heat”) of Sublimation (𝞓𝞓Hsub): energy required to sublimate one mole (or
one gram) or a substance. Approximately equal to the sum of the heats of fusion and
vaporization.
• Stronger IMFs ⟶
o ↑ 𝞓𝞓Hvap ⟶ ↓vapor pressure & ↑boiling point
o ↑ 𝞓𝞓Hfus ⟶ ↑melting point.
• Clausius-Clapeyron Equation:

o Whole equation:

o Two-point form:

• Heating and Cooling Curves

 o Below the melting point, added energy warms the solid to higher temperatures
according to its specific heat capacity.
o At the melting point, added energy goes into melting more solid into liquid while
the temperature remains locked at the melting point.
o Above the melting point, added energy warms the liquid to higher temperatures
according to its specific heat capacity.
o At the boiling point, added energy goes into vaporizing more liquid into gas while
the temperature remains locked at the boiling point.
o Above the boiling point, added energy warms the gas to higher temperatures
according to its specific heat capacity.

• Phase Diagrams

o Pressure on the vertical axis, temperature on the horizontal axis.

o Find a horizontal line at a height where it passes through all three areas:
 Leftmost area is the solid phase.
 Middle area is the liquid phase
 Rightmost area is the gas phase
o Triple point: point where all three lines come together – only
pressure/temperature where all three phases are in simultaneous equilibrium.
 o Vaporization curve: line between the liquid phase and gas phase.
o Melting curve: line between the solid phase and liquid phase.
o Sublimation curve: line between the solid phase and gas phase.
o Critical point: rightmost point on the vaporization curve, where gas and liquid
merge into a single phase called a “supercritical fluid.”

Chapter 12 - Solids and Modern Materials

• May be crystalline (long-range repeating structure) or may lack a regular repeating
pattern, “ amorphous.”
• Molecular solids: Composed of molecules held together by IMFs.
• Ionic solids: Composed of cations and ions in a crystalline array.
• Metallic solids: Composed of metal cations in a crystalline array held together by
delocalized electrons that act as a “glue.”
• Covalent Network solids: atoms are held together by covalent bonds that extend
throughout the material as if one gigantic molecule. May be crystalline or amorphous.
• Crystal Unit Cell: a geometric shape representing the
positions of the atoms, which, when repeated in three
dimensions, forms the crystal lattice structure. Unit cells
can be described with 3 angles (𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽, 𝛾𝛾) and 3 lengths (a,
b, c). There are only 14 possible unit cells that fill space
with no gaps.
• Metal Unit Cells have only metal atoms at the lattice
points. However, in other forms of matter there may be
entire molecules or even larger assemblies at each lattice point.
• Cubic Unit Cells: 𝛼𝛼 = 𝛽𝛽 = 𝛾𝛾 = 90° and a = b = c. We considered 3 cubic metal unit cells:
• Cubic and Hexagonal Closest Packed Structures: Cubic closest packed (face-centered
cubic) has the same
packing density (74%l)
and coordination
number (12) as the
hexagonal closest
packed unit cell.
 • Ionic Crystal Unit Cells: The ions of one charge occupy voids or
“holes” created by the cubic unit cell structure of the other
charged ion in such a way that overall charge per unit cell is zero.
• X-Ray Crystallography: Diffraction of x-rays passing through a
crystal creates an interference pattern from which the positions of
atoms in the unit cell can be determined.

Chapter 13 – Solutions
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances whose components are
uniformly distributed on a microscopic scale.
• Solvent – the component that does not change phase when mixed, or the component
present in the greatest amount.
• Solute – the component(s) that changes phase when mixed, or the component(s) present
in lesser amount(s).
Miscible - substances that are miscible, such as gases, form a single phase in all proportions
when mixed.
Immiscible - substances that form separate phases are immiscible.
Solubility – maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at a given temperature, usually 25°C.
• Saturated – concentration of solute is at the solubility limit; dissolution is in equilibrium
with crystallization.
• Unsaturated – concentration of solute is below the solubility limit.
• Supersaturated – concentration of solute is (temporarily) above the solubility limit;
usually observed when concentrated solutions are cooled.
Molarity: moles of solute/liter of solution
Dilution Equation: M1V1 = M2V2
Percentage Concentrations:
• Mass (m/m): (mass of solute)/(mass of solution) x 100%
• Volume (v/v): (volume of solute)/(volume of solution) x 100%
• Mass/Volume (m/v): (grams of solute)/(ml of solution) x 100%
• Parts-per/million(billion): (mass of solute)/(mass of solution) x 106 ppm (x 109 ppb)
Molality: moles of solute/kg of solvent (only unit with solvent in denominator).

Energetics of Solution Formation

Most solution formations are endothermic.

A positive value for ΔHsoln does not mean that a solution will not form. Whether a given process,
including formation of a solution, occurs spontaneously depends on whether the total energy of
the system is lowered as a result. Enthalpy is only one of the contributing factors. A high ΔHsoln
is usually an indication that the substance is not very soluble. Exothermic (ΔHsoln<0) processes
favor solution formation. In addition, the change in entropy, the degree of disorder of the system,
must be considered when predicting whether a solution will form. An increase in entropy (a
decrease in order) favors dissolution.
Formation of Aqueous Solutions of ionic Solids
 • If the heat of hydration is larger in magnitude than the lattice energy, then solution
formation will be exothermic.
• If the heat of hydration is smaller in magnitude than the lattice energy, then solution
formation will be endothermic
Solutions of Gases in Water - Gases are less soluble at
higher temperatures, and solution formation is
exothermic.
• Henry’s Law – the solubility of a gas is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid surface. C=kP, where k is
“Henry’s Constant” for the particular gas.
Colligative Properties - properties of a solution that
depend on only the total number of dissolved particles in
solution, not on their chemical identity. Colligative
properties include vapor pressure, boiling point, freezing
point, and osmotic pressure.

Vapor Pressure Lowering- The addition of a

nonvolatile solute (one without a measurable vapor pressure) decreases the vapor pressure of the
solvent. The vapor pressure of the solution is proportional to the mole fraction of solvent in the
solution, a relationship known as Raoult’s law. In a mixture of a volatile solute in a volatile
solvent, each component’s vapor pressure will be proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.
For ideal solutions (solute-solvent attractions are same strength as solute-solute and solvent-
solvent attractions), the total vapor pressure of the solution (Ptot) is the sum of the vapor
pressures of the components:

Ptot=Pa+Pb=χaP0a+χbP0b
• Non-Ideal Solutions. If solute-solvent attractions are WEAKER that solute-solute and
solvent-solvent attractions, then the solution’s vapor pressure will be GREATER than
Raoult’s Law. If solute-solvent attractions are STRONGER that solute-solute and
solvent-solvent attractions, then the solution’s vapor pressure will be LESS than Raoult’s
Law.

Boiling Point Elevation – Liquids boil when their vapor pressure equals the ambient
atmospheric pressure. Because the vapor pressure of a solution is lower than the pure solvent, the
boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent.
Freezing Point Depression – Because the presence of solute particles blocks some sites where
liquid solvent particles might be able to freeze to the solid phase, the system must be even colder
to get the solvent to freeze.
Osmotic Pressure is a colligative property of solutions that is observed using a semipermeable
membrane, a barrier with pores small enough to allow solvent molecules to pass through but not
solute molecules or ions. The direction of net solvent flow is always from the side with the lower
concentration of solute (higher concentration of water) to the side with the higher concentration
(lower concentration of water). Unlike the other colligative [properties, osmotic pressure (π) is
proportional to molarity (moles solute/liter solution), not molality (moles solute/kg solvent).

π = MRT
Chapter 15 – Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts

Reversible Reactions: Reactions that do not go to completion because the products build up and
start to react backwards forming reactants again.

Equilibrium: The state of a reaction in which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate
of the reverse reaction. At equilibrium the RATES of the forward and reverse reactions are the
same, but the CONCENTRATIONS of reactants and products ARE NOT EQUAL.

Law of Mass Action Equation: The concentrations of ALL product molecules multiplied
together, divided by the concentrations of ALL reactant molecules multiplied together. This
quantity always gives “Q” the reaction quotient. When the concentrations are measured at
equilibrium, this quantity will equal “K” the equilibrium constant. No matter what amounts of
reactants and products are initially present, all reactions will proceed until reaching equilibrium,
where Q = K.

Equilibrium Constants: Depends only on temperature. Kc, based on concentrations, Kp based

on gas pressures. Solids and pure liquids do not have “concentrations” per se, so they are NOT
included in equilibrium constants or reaction quotient expressions. Increasing the surface areas
of solids and liquids makes a reaction reach equilibrium faster, but it DOES NOT change the
value of K or shift the position of equilibrium. Equilibrium constants do not have units, so
concentrations calculated from Kc are always in molarity, while results from Kp are in pressure
units.
• If you reverse a chemical equation, then invert the equilibrium constant.
• If you add chemical equations, then multiply the equilibrium constants.
Reaction Quotient and Reaction Progress:
• If Q>K, then there is extra product, and the reaction will progress to the left until
equilibrium is re-established.
 • If Q<K, then there is extra reactant, and the reaction will progress to the right until
equilibrium is re-established.
• If Q=K, then the reaction is at equilibrium.
Le Chatelier’s Principle: if a system in a state of dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by a change
to its conditions, then the position of equilibrium will shift to (at least partly) counteract the
change.

Effect of Changes in Concentration:

• Increasing the concentration of a reactant will shift the equilibrium to the right, which
will increase the amounts of all products, AND decrease the amounts of any other
reactants. The added reactant’s concentration will decrease but will remain higher than it
was initially.
• Decreasing the concentration of a reactant will shift the equilibrium to the left, which
will decrease the amounts of all products, AND increase the amounts of any other
reactants. The removed reactant’s concentration will increase but will remain lower than
it was initially.
• Increasing the concentration of a product will shift the equilibrium to the left, which
will increase the amounts of all reactants, AND decrease the amounts of any other
products. The added product’s concentration will decrease but will remain higher than it
was initially.
• Decreasing the concentration of a product will shift the equilibrium to the right, which
will decrease the amounts of all reactants, AND increase the amounts of any other
products. The removed product’s concentration will increase but will remain lower than it
was initially.
Effect of Changes in Temperature: The rates of all reactions are increased when temperature is
increased. However, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are affected differently, so the
equilibrium constant (K) will change depending on the enthalpy change. To predict how K will
be affected by a temperature change, we can apply Le Chatelier’s principle, viewing heat (q) as a
reactant if the reaction is endothermic, or as a product if the reaction is exothermic.
• Raising the temperature of an endothermic reaction shifts the reaction towards
products and increases K.
• Raising the temperature of a exothermic reaction shifts the reaction towards reactants
and decreases K.
• Lowering the temperature of an endothermic reaction shifts the reaction towards
reactants and decreases K.
• Lowering the temperature of an exothermic reaction shifts the reaction towards
products and increases K.
I.C.E. Tables to Find Equilibrium Concentrations from Initial Conditions
 • Write the balanced chemical equation.
• Make an I.C.E. table underneath.
• Fill-in given concentrations.
• Calculate Q to see if the reaction
proceeds right or left.
• Choose “x” to represent the change (+
or -) in concentration of one of the
reactants or products with a
stoichiometric coefficient of “1”.
• Express the changes in the other components based on stoichiometry.
• Express the equilibrium concentrations of all components in terms of initial
concentrations and “x.”
• Plug the expressions for all the reactants and products into the Law of Mass Action
equation and set it equal to the numerical value of K.
• Solve the equation for “x.” Use simple algebra, find “perfect squares” that can be solved
using square roots, use the “small x” approximation, or use an equation solver to find “x.”
• Calculate the requested concentrations from “x.” Remember to apply “x” appropriately –
were you solving for the change itself, or the result of the change?
• Check your answer by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the mass
action formula and comparing that to the given value for K.

Small x Approximation: A way to simplify complex algebraic equations into more easily
solved forms. Can only be used if K>104 or K<10-4 and there is a term where x is added to or
subtracted from another number that is so much larger that adding or subtracting x won’t make
that much difference. Just assume that x = 0 and see if the equation can then be reduced to
something simpler that you know how to solve. When you get a value for x, make sure it really is
small compared to the number it was supposed to be added to or subtracted from (less than 5%).
You can also plug the equilibrium concentrations you get from this approximation back into the
mass action formula to see if you get something close to the given value of K.