Enaptel FERROUS AND 42 | NoN-FERROUS MATERIALS INTRODUCTION Ferrous and non- materials in the world, Thes every walk of our life. The stu This chapter is wholly devo properties and applications. important group among all engineering de range of properties and are used in herefore, is very important, pes, compositions, ferrous alloys form the most i ¢ alloys have a very wi dy of ferrous and non-ferrous alloy’. ted to the study of tiese materials, their ty] FERROUS ALLOYS Ferrous alloys can be broadly classified into two groups- Steels and Cast Irons. Steels are those alloys of iron and carbon which contain upto 2.1% carbon by weight pon between 2.1 % and 6.67%. Another ‘ast Irons are those alloys which contain car! difference between them is that, steels always have carbon in the combined formi.e., combined with iron to form phases like ot - ferrite, austenite, cementite etc., whereas cast irons generally have carbon in the free form, i.e, as graphite. But there are a few exceptions in cast irons where carbon is also found in the combined form, as in the case of white cast iron. Ferrous alloys in practice are not made up of only iron and carbon but many alloying elements like anese, nickel, chromium and several others are added in order to enhance their whereas Ci silicon, mang properties. STEELS Steels can be classified in several ways. Some of them are according to : i) Carbon Content : 1) Low-carbon, medium - carbon and high - carbon steels. 2) Hypo-eutectoid steels (<0.8 % C) Hyper-eutectoid steels (>0.8 % C) ii) Method of manufacture : 1) Bessemer steel. 2) Open- hearth steel. 3) Electric furnace steel. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner4 iii) 1) 2 3 4 5 iy) 1) v) 1) 2) 3) 4) 139 Crucible steel etc., Applications of steel : Machine steel Spring steel Boiler steel Structural steel Tool steel etc., Chemical Composition : Plain carbon steels and alloy steels Standard Institutions : AISI - Americal Iron & Stee! Institute BIS - Bureau of Indian Standards, SAE - Society of Automotive Engineers. ASTM - American Society for Testing & Materials. The above Institutions have classified steels also according to chemical composition. For convenience, we shall study the different types of steels classified according to their chemical composition, i.., Plain carbon steels and Alloy Steels. 1) PLAIN CARBON STEELS a) b) c) Plain carbon steels can be classified once again according to the percentage of carbon. Low - carbon steel - up to 0.25% carbon. Medium - carbon steel - 0.25 % to 0.55 % carbon. High - carbon steel - above 0.55% carbon. Although by definition, plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon, they always come with traces of sulphur and phosporous and. also sometimes small quantities of Silicon & Manganese. a) Low - Carbon Steels : / _ Of all the different kinds of steels, those produced in the greatest quantities are low - carbon steels. The characteristics of low - carbon steels are : ition - upto 0.25 %C , / None cre - Predominantly a-ferrite and small quantities of pearlite. Prone Relatively soft and weak but outstanding ductility and toughness. Properties , They possess very good machinability and weldability Eg. : Mild Steel. Advantages _ Least expensive to product. @ scanned with OKEN Scanner140 at treatment because mastensite is, ca -ontent. Strengthening swing to very low carbon com 1% hed only by cold work. Very ow hardenability nts, structural shapes (- beams, Channel \d small cans. = Unresponsive to hardening hea difficult to form ¢ can be accomplis body componer dings, bridges an Disadvantages Application ~ Automobile and angle irons), bui b) Medium Carbon Steels : Composition ~ From 0.25% to 0.55% C = ¢¢- ferrite and pearlite / her than it. Microstructure han low - carbon steel but less tough - Stronger tl Properties Advantages _ Best range for adding alloying clements. Good mix of ductility & strength. Applications ~ Railway wheels and tracss, gears, crank shafts and other machine parts. ©) High - Carbon Steels : = From 0.55% C upto 2.1% C Composition Microstructure - Cementite (Fe,C) and pearlite (when C > 0.8%), 0 - ferrite and pearlite (when C < 0.8%) Properties ~ Hardest, strongest and least ductile when compared with low and medium carbon steels. Advantages - Best range to make tool steels. Disadvantages - Cannot be used for operations where ductlity & mallealility are required. Applications - Knives, razors, hack - saw blades, high strength wire etc, 2) ALLOY STEELS Steels which acquire some characteristic i i properties due to the addition of alloyi : in elements, other than carbon, are known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added He for many purposes. lia steels Some of the reasons are to : i) increase hardenability ii) improve strength at ordinary temperatures. iii) improve wear and corrosion resistances. iv) improve mechanical Properties at either high or low temperature. v) improve toughness without greatly sacrificing strength ‘ vi) improve magnetic properties, aa vii) increase red hardness (clevated temperature hardness) @ scanned with OKEN Scanner141 Effect of alloying elements on Steel affect ee ee that are added to steey may be classified accordi a © principal phases of Steel i.e. g, - ferrite, Iron carbide (Fe C) and austenite. i) Elements which to, i a i ) BI a nts Ww en fend to form Carbides : These elements combine with carbon to form carbides just like carbi a ides just ie "ron forms Iron carbide (Fe,C). These carbides tremendously increase a ane Wear resistance of the Steels but at the same time render them brittle, ‘dium, molybdenum, manganese etc. 8raphitize carbon : These elements when added to steels bides where carbon is in the Combined form but instead its free form as graphite. Eg : Silicon, cobalt, aluminium, nickel ete, ng to the way they Eg.: Chromium, tungsten, titanium, van; ii) Elements which tend to Oppose the formation of stabil carbon to occur in iii) ements which tend to Stabilize austenite: temperatures and austenite is stable, These elements when added lowers the A, aises the peritectic point, thereby increasing the range in which Eg. : Manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper etc, iv) Elements which tend to Stabilize ferrite : These elements are more soluble in c-iron than iny-iron. Hence they are ferrite stabilizers, Eg. : Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, silicon etc. Some of the elements appear in more than one group and it means that they have more than one effect. ‘Types of Alloy steels Alloy steels may be divided into four classe: i) Structural steels ii) Tool and die steels iii) Magnetic alloys iv) Stainless and heat - resisting steels i al Steels : ee 7 ly low - carbon steels with the carbon percentage between Oto ee vr : ip: i" alloying eléiments that are added are silicon, copper, chromium, 0.30%. The principal a 2 e er. The combi ol increases ination of copper and phosphorus increas anese is that order. Th ination )ppel pl . ed rr me improves its st a me “S vaumospheric corrosion and the other elements improve: the resistance to al other properties. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerMatertat »~ ws 142 ii yortant : The following characteristics of structural steels are imP a) good yield strength. b) enough ductility to avoid brittle fracture: c) weldability. Pasties ips, bri d buildings. As the name suggests, structural stecls are used for ships, bridges an! iB! ii) Tool and Die Steels : / ; 7 These are basically high quality special steels used for cutting, forming and die-making purposes. Different types of commonly employed tool steels are : / % carbon. They are used in a) Water hardening tool steels : They contain 0.7 to 1.3 making drills, files, chisels, hammers and forging dies. Shock resistant tool steels : These are chromium-tungsten, silicot silicon - manganese alloys. They are used in making tools, punches, chisels and dies on account of their outstanding toughness and ability to withstand repeated shocks. Hot worked tool steels: In many applications the tool is subjected to excessive heat as in hot forging, extruding, die casting etc. Tool steels developed for these applications are known as hot-work tool steels and have good red hardness. The alloying elements added to improve red hardness are chromium, molybdenum and tungsten. d) High - Speed steels: These steels are among the most highly alloyed of the tool steels and usually contain large amounts of tungsten or molybdenum along with chromium, vanadium and some times cobalt. The carbon content varies between 0.70 and 1.0%, although some types contain as much as 1.5%. High speed steels have excellent wear resistance, good red hardness and reasonably good shock resistance. The major application of high speed steels is for cutting tools, but they are also used for making extrusion dies, burnishing tools, blanking punches and dies » n molybdenum or ©) Following are the important classes of high speed steels : 1) Class : 18-4-1 steel Composition : 18% tungsten, 4% Chromium. 1% Vanadium, 0.7% Carbon Cobalt, rest iron @ scanned with OKEN Scanner. 143 2) Class > High-Mo steel Composition: 8.5% Molybdenum, 4% Chromi , nu) 1.5% Tungsten, 1% Vanadiun 0.8% Carbon, rest iron 3) Class + W-Mo Stee! Composition 6% Tungsten, 5% Molybdenum 4% Chromium, 2% Vanadium ; 0.8% Carbon, Testiron, iii) Magnetic Alloys: Ma i i and cangmnee alloys are basically made of the three magnetic materials namely iron, nickel ~ Magnetic materials can be broadly classified into soft magnetic materials and hard magnetic materials, Soft magnetic materials are those whose hysteresis loop gives a small area under the B-H curve (flux density - magnetic field curve) These:materials posses high permeability and are suitable for use in transformer cores, Eg. : Permalloy (45% Ni), Supermalloy (79% Ni, 5% Mo) Hard magnetic materials are those whose hysteris loop gives a large area under the B-H curve. They make permanent magnetic materials and are used for making magnetic poles for alternators and motors. Eg. : High carbon steel, Alnico (Al + Ni + Co + Fe), Cunife (Cu + Ni + Fe) iv) Stainless steels or chromium steels : ; Excellent corrosion resistance, heat resistance and aesthetic Properties have made stainless steel an outstanding material for both industrial and domestic purposes, Stains steels owe their corrosion resistance largely-to the presence of chromium in them. Cor : resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. / Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the predominant phase ainless tructure - mal c, ferritic or austenitic stainless steels. present in their micros! rtensitic, ferritic or austeni Ferritic stainless steels : ; . - Predominantly o.- ferrite Microstructure - Py - 11.5% - 27% chromium Pea Composition 0.8 - 0.2 % carbon, 1% manganese, 1% nickel, rest iron. jand ane : : an netic, heat and corrosion resistant, can be aE Res Properties " ee nas only by strain hardening because they s treatable. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere exhaust components 144 ature: automotiv {pplication valves (high temperatures)» plications - Valves a mu ombustion ambers 1" Austenitic stainless steel: ° b) Austenitic st enstens soomntemperat ) - 18-8 Stainless steel - predominantly - 169% - 26% Chromium 6% - 22% Nickel 0.05% - 0.25% Carbon 4% Molybdenum, res and corrosion Tes! - 18% Ch 8% Ni, rest Fe - austenitic _ radar, antennae, photo equipment jstant, strengthened and ¢ of low carbon. Microstructure Composition 2% - t iron. magnetic, heat Properties - Non- ; ; hardened only by strain hardening becaus Applications = Chemical and food processing equipment, cryogenic vessels, welding construction, kitchen utensils. c) Martensitic stainless steel: _ Predominantly martensitic. Composition ~ 11.5% - 18% chromium 1.25% - 2.25 % Nickel 0.75% - 1% Molybdenum 0.15% - 1.2% Carbon, rest iron. - Magnetic, heat and corrosion resistant, heat - treatable, high strength Microstructure Properties and hardness, wear resistant. Applications - Cutlery, rifle barrels, j i h s, jet engine parts, bearings, surgical t ° + . ‘ools etc., AISI Designation Steel ° 7 The American Iron and Steel Instit i \ tute has classified steels i i iti and has devised a numbering system to designate different seek ee AISI designation steels norm: ally have four igi ie : or five digits. The fi eel oe hApred the steel belongs. Thus | indicates Gatos ide, Pind iis digit is | whereas Uifferent alloy s eee oe Lees el is ee loy steels start with numbers other than 1 iiaeiacbrs = rela fates the approximate percentage of the aie . In the case of alloy rhe ae : inant alloying element. divided by 100. Th Steels and usuall i Hie aa eae Fhe Snititn 2520 indicates a nickel ceslot oa ne eee oat and bon. The sy ee e ipproximately 5% Nickel and second digit of a plain carb edhe lain carb i . Sa paee ed indicates usually the t jon eel with 0.6% carbon. The of sulphur, phosphorus oes of production of steel or the ancanece @ scanned with OKEN ScannerThe basic numbers fo, with approximate percent; have been marked “XX? ind) 145 r the four-qi “Bes of identi 'eating that BI Series of a few grades of carbon fying clements carbon pere ' and alloy steels are listed below, The last two digits entage in variable, AISENo. [| -——____ a YPe, Composit oe ne eee Steels made from basic open - hearth and Bessemer 11XX a pben-hearth and Bessemer carbon steels, high sulphur, low Phosphorus, 12Xx Basic open - hearth carbon stels, high sulphur and high phosphorus 13XX Manganese - 1.75% 23XX Nickel - 3.5 25XX Nickel - 5.0 31XX Nickel - 1.25, Chromium - 0.60 33XX Nickel - 3.5, Chromium - 1.5 40XX Molybdenum - 0.20 or 0.25 43XX Nickel - 1.05, Chromium - 0.45, Molybdenum - 0.2 SOXX Chromium 0.40 61XX Chromium, Vanadium stecls 86XX Nickel, Chromium molybdenum ilicon - 2.00 92XX Si “Boron” i denum, ‘Boron 94BXX Nickel, Chromium, Molybde! @ scanned with OKEN Scanner146 1 alloy steels. AS far as tool steels are headit fh group oF subgrouy only carbon an ~ headings. and eae! The above classification 18 seven major concerned, they have been grouped nto ; has been assigned an alphabetical letter as follows | GROUP Symbol and Type f Water hardening w Shock - resisting © - Oilhardening - Medium alloy air hardening - High-casbon, high - chromium Cold - work o> HI to H19 - Chromium based H20 to H39 - Tungsten based H40 to H59 - Molybdenum based Hot work H- High Speed T - Tungsten base M - Molybdenum base Mould Steels P - PltoP19-low carbon P20 to P39 - other types Special purpose L - Low-alloy F - Carbon - tungsten @ scanned with OKEN Scanner147 nation Stee BIS BIS De and Cast Irons The Bureau of an Si aya au of Indian Standards Was set up in 195 sineering materials, products ang different pra cn 15 10 establish standards for all irons are concerned, each ; Processes in India, As far a cach and every fo, a. As far as steels and ca particular numbers, Under Bee ferrous alloy or group of ferrous alloys are ieee production, testing and applicationy ae pandard Number, the ew esition Properties, moe ‘a Of the particular alloy a 4 : » Institution _ 7 Particular alloy are ex, lained. The Indian S| a numbers of some Mportart steels and ¢: irons a listed b iow Standard s and cas a ed below. I E BIS CODE Alloy or Alloy group IS 7887 : 1992 Mild steel (low carbon Steel) IS 3748 : 1990 Tool & die steels IS 6528 : 1995 TS 6527 : 1995 IS 963 : 1958 Stainless steels Chrome steel IS 4522: 1986 Heat resistant alloy steels IS 7806 : 1975 Martensitic & Austenitic (high alloy) stainless steels. TS 210: 1993 } Grey cast iron IS 7754 : 1975 IS 9630 : 1980 Spheroidal graphite iron Is 14329 : 1995 Malleable iron IS 1570 Part I - 1978 While the above list gives the IS codes for various grades of steels, IS 1570 Part I- es sis for classifying steels. One such classification is jays s exclusively the various i Q : cto eee steels on the basis of their mechanical properties. Under this A-1.1 “lV f s gives the designation for plain carbon & oy alloy aden / A few grades of steels according to this classification i Fe410CuK, FeE300P35, Fe4l0Ql, Fees Fe 600T,, FeE 555F,, Fe 400R, FeESO @ scanned with OKEN Scanner148 the steel has been specified grade the gray : sé on wheth are spe thor yield Explanation of 1) Symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe on the basis of tensile streng this symbol EI cified depending n J strength respect! gthory jeld stre! ngth as the case 2) The digits following ive the tensile stren; e' may be in N/m’ in Fe E300 P35. the yiel y the major alloying is 300 N/mm’. d strength of the steel resent in the steel. For For example 4). The value of strength is followed b} clement p' eg. Copper as in Fe 410 Cu K 4) The alphabet or the alphabet - numer the various charecteristics of steel bination that follows alloying element gives al com follows : hich is explained as Method of oxidation : R (Rimming steel) K (Killed steel) Steel Quality -Q, 10 Q, (depencing on grain structures) ii, iii) Resistance to brittle fracture B, BO, B2 or B4 (Extent of resistance) Surface conditions - S, to S, (Peeled, rolled, scaled etc.,) vy) Formability - D1 to D3 (drawing quality) vi) Surface finish - F1 to F14 vii) Heat treatment - TI to T14 vili) Cryogenic quality - L CAST IRONS. Cast irons are those alloys of iron and carbon w! on where the carbon content varies between 2.1% and 6.67%. How i B hi. c ce hi Boece caily eine high carbon content tends to make th i a ¢ types of cast irons are in the range of 2 : See eae ons are low in ductili Sy genoa ic omenpemnTeliae tikes iY therefore cannot be rolled, draw a i melting temperature are considerab ‘ie a penne, Babel readily. Fluidity of molten cast jron it ae shapes which can be later machined of process applied to these alloys, they ms ; 8, re iy) an th s bs ee and therefore can be melt Ore can be cast into complicated nal dimensi : sions. Since casting j known as cast irons, Sting is the only suitable @ scanned with OKEN Scannernays 199 Cirons are brittle eheaper than them, tn proper alloying, good foundry have combined to make cast i production of larg “rsttength properties than m ! host steels but are much "ange of properties ¢ ene p ‘an be given to cast irons by and appropriate heat treatment. All these advantages em ron the MOst popular material for casting and has led to the Haves of cast iron in the industry, librium di According tothe hon carbon equ ti the microstructure of east ion Bram (fig 4.1), the phases that are observed 4LTOOM temperature are @-ferrite and cementite (Fe,C), ons. But cementite being amet: stablecompound, under Sto form. ferrite and graphite, according to the reaction, Which occur at equilibrium conditi eertineiroumstinces, decompose: Fe\C ——>» 3Fe(a) + C (graphite) Thus the actual microstructure of cast irons would contain the phases a. - ferrite and {ree eurbon in the form of graphite rather than ct - ferrite and cementite. Therefore, cast irons can be generally distinguished by the presence of free carbon in thei microstructure, But there are a few exceptions like white cast iron which contain carbon in the combined form of cementite and pearlite. ‘Types of Cast Irons : Cast irons are classified according to their microstructure. In other words cast irons awe classified according to the shape of the free carbon (graphite) present in their microstructure or the absence of carbon itself, 1) Gray cast irons 2) White cast irons: 4) Malleable cast irons 3.G Ductile iron, 4) Nodular or S,G, Iron or 7 uni gu 7 are also classified according to carbon content - hypo-eulecue cast irons tne ©) and hyper-eutectic cast irons (between 4.3 and 6.67%C). What ae iall types ofcast irons, apart from carbon, silicon is also principal eo Ef ows the approximate carbon content and silicon content of different 2.1 shows i i" ne nN 11 of steel. Please note the overlapping compositions of the ever be the eli alloying element, 1 types of cast irons and also thi various grades, @ scanned with OKEN Scanner150 5.0 WHITE IRON [| (MALLEABLED 10 STEELS 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Silicon %o ——> Fig. 12.1 : Carbon and Silicon percentages in various Cast irons 1) Gray Cast Irons: Gray cast irons are the most widely used type of cast irons. They are distinguished by the presence of graphite in the form of flakes (like fibres). Gray cast irons can be divided into different types based on the average length of the flakes in them. The general charecteristics of gray irons are : Composition - 2.5% - 4% carbon 1% - 3% silicon, rest iron Microstructure ~ O-ferrite and flake graphites (fig 12.2 and fig 10.13) Properties High fluidity, very high ssi dam ligh fl : igh compressive strength, very effective i ing vibrations, low cost. - escveindanps Fracture surface Greyish, blackish surf: sh, Surface when fractured (bec: ite flakes). Hence the name grey iron too. aa maaan Pressure vessels. cv}; i Pressure vessels, cylinder heads, Pistons, clutch plates, base structure for machines g 7 and heavy equipm: . ons. Valves fittings, leversere, = pment that are exposed to vibrations Applications @ scanned with OKEN Scanner151 2) White Cast Iron; Composition ~ 1.8% -3.2% Carbon 0.3% - 1.8% Silicon, rest iron Microstructure - Tron carbide (lightphase), pearlite (dark phase) / No graphite (fig, 12.3 and fig 10.15) Properties ~ Very hard and brittle, hi ighly wear resitant, no ductility and malleability, not machinable Whitish surface (hence the name too) Liners for cement mixers, ball mill, certain types of drawing dies, extrusion nozzles etc., Fracture surface - Applications : Fig. 12.3: White cast iron Fig. 12.2 : Gray Cast iron i (cementite + pearlite) (ferrite + flake graphite) 12,5: SG Iron 2.4 « Malleable iron ¢ + nodular carbon) per carbon) Fig. (ferrite + ten @ scanned with OKEN Scanner_ in the free form in isin = carbon rests, they are pani: “gata the €aPO suggests. 3) Ma jeable Cast Iron + | ays rere ee va . cet irons are those @ see aT oe on. seat el ra known eae aument ‘of while © As carried out to convert he shape of veg Tr iained PY heat plization and is 7,6 shows the cycle tremly malleable, and are < ett a : a ea ent process © varbon a Bator. Ae ie for maleablizing wAHe NO" es yf temperature a —_—— ee | 1000 >] gsc |__| 95900 — _ 00 Ji runt vane PE |} ——) | | | —+——_ | . _L—— oc 2g | osc eo 5 = 6 00 0 yn » » © D0 © D ® aadion Hous =——> Fig, 12.6 : Malleablization of White Iron The Characteristics of malleable iron are Composition - 1.8% - 3.2% carbon, 0.3% - 1.8% silicon rest iron Microstructure - dark graphite rosettes (temper carbon) in an o - ferrite matrix (fig 12.4 and fig 10.16) Properties - Highly malleable, vi » Very good inabili i i i dri ty good machinability, good magnetic properties: \pplications S Connecti § trancmiect cases Toran amssion gears, flanges, pipe fittings, differential works, industry, valves, parts for rail roads and marine @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFerrous and Non-Ferrous Alloy 4) Spheroidal Graphite (SG) 1 SG) Iron S.G. Iron is characterised by th ornodules. S.G. Iron i foyer ae yw are Nodular Iron or Ductile tiny “ ne Morits duct ~ Spheriod: Presence of free c: arbon in the shape of compact spheroids tility. Hence the other names of SG iron ercentage of magnesi al shape i percentage of magnesium orCeriy al shaped graphite is obtained by adding a small . 4M to the alloy Compos § 3% dere the alloy in the molten state 1.6% - 2. Microstructure ~ Dark gr Highly ductile, ve i He ductile, very good machinablility, high corrosion resistance and g00d creep properties at elevated temperatures. Applications - Flywhee APP Flywheels, fumace doors, wrenches, lathe chucks, motor frames, pump bodies etc., NON - FERROUS ALLOYS We know that steels and cast irons are consumed in exceedingly large quantities because they have such a wide range of mechanical properties, may be fabricated with relative ease, and are economical to produce. However, they have some distinct limitations like : i) arelatively high density ii) acomparatively low electrical conductivity iii) susceptibility to corrosion in some common environments. applications it is advantageous or even nec’ Therefore, for many i " . alloys rrous alloys in order to have more suitable property combin a loys rather E : s materials, the bulk of them are made up of the alloys of the Himitations: ae eae wickel, tin, lead and zinc, Other non-ferrous metals and allo ys OPES er tent inlude cadmium, molybdenum, cobalt, zirconium, beryllium, ae aoa fe precious metals gold, silver and the platinum group. / / : de variety of 10"~ ne following alloy groups are discussed ir Among the wi detail : 1) Copper and its alloys- 2) ‘Aluminium anditsalloys- 10 use non-ferrous jons and overcome ferrous alloys, th @ scanned with OKEN Scannerproper Acs: 1s ‘s several f COPPE ANDITS ALLOYS sees nee worand copper based alloys chpossesadesiit coer Copper and uu ry of applica jons since antiquity: mea Ne aioli re ane eet ectrical and ‘ermal conductiViDy, os cme tsa most important ha hele ean In ON a _ ne ial hese is h ar ig. brazed and soldered andis ily finished by © F pee An econ . her : i ii ents! es i ses canbe farther improved by adding alloying cloments* ania say sea rangcor materials “ant assified as follows * zy popular and wi ortant commercial copper d zinc) alloys may be cl and its The most imp Brasses (alloys of copper an 1) Alpha brasses 3) Yellow alpha brasses b) Red brasses 2) Alpha plus beta brasses ii) Bronzes (alloys of copper and elements other than zinc) 1) Tin bronzes 2) Silicon bronzes 3) Aluminium bronzes 4) Beryllium bronzes iii) Cupronickels - alloys of copper and nickel iv) Nickel silver- alloys of copper, nickel and zinc. (i) BRASSES : of copper and zinc, But they may have small amounts of Brasses are essentially alloys other elements such as lead, tin or aluminium added to improve their properties Fig 12.7 shows a portion of the copper - zinc pha agri ich is phase diagram which is applicable to commercial alloys. The two important types of commercially used Drasses are shown in th f d brass s in the phase diagram - ot - Brasses and (0. + B) Brasses. 1) Alpha Brasses : i) Composition - Copper + upto 36% zinc Mors structure - Only solid solution 0 - brass (FCC structure) (Fig. 1 roperties - Hi i = operties High corrosion properties, suitable for cold ae > ‘ing. Types of 0 basses - a) Yellow o.- brasses b) Red brasses @ scanned with OKEN Scanner155 1100 1083 1000 Liquid 900 800 700 TC 600 500 400 0 10 20 Cu 100% 30 40 50% Zinc % = ——>> Fig. 12.7 : Portion of Cu - Zn phase diagram a) Yellow &- brasses : = Copper +20 to 36% zine High ductility, good strength, yellow in colour, sus cracking (weakening due to inter-granular corrosi Composition Properties - i) Cartridge brass ii) Leaded yellow brass iii) Admiralty brass Common Type - i) Cartridge Brass ¢ Composition a mm ae Oe Na ammunition, automotive radiator core, stor Applications _ Pee " an ii) Leaded Yellow Brass” og, zy + 3% Pd 1% Sn eoreostien f eae hardware, radiator fittings, light fixtures ctc., Applications - @ scanned with OKEN Scanner156 Admiralty Brass 5 Admiralty i oo Zn + 1% Sn iit) Composition tut 2! , pump parts, Applications _ Ship parts, gene? b) Red Brasses ¢ usceptible to 9% Zine. stance than n colour. 25, NOLS! - Copper+5> 2 gsion re yellow abr Composition Properties Better Corr season cracking, 1 (i) Gilding metal (95% Cut5% Gi) Low Brass (8 - Coin: medals, tokel stume jewellery ete n) 0 Cu + 20% Zn) lates, musical instruments, rivets, SCTEWS, Common Types s, name pl Applications 2) Alpha Plus Be per + 38-46% zinc s s (FCC) Electron compound B - brass (BCC) (8 12.9) Suitable for hot working, harder and more brite at room temperature nd therefore difficult to cold - work. Cop! Composition id solution o- bra Microstructure Properties than @ - ~ a) Muntz metal Types b) Naval Brass a) Muntz Metal Composition = 60% Cu + 40% Zn Applications - architectural work a ‘al work, condenser tubes, brazi ee , brazing rods etc., Composition = 69% Cu + 30.25% Zn + 0.75 % Sn Applications - Marin 3 IS arine hardware, propeller sh: . ‘afts, condenser 4 plates etc., Tl) BRONZES Bronzes are those copper allo i i aye alloys which contain upto ay i a est “ ornmercial bronzes are primary alloys of izes are generally higher Based on the alloying additio ron pe eee Ee ho, tin rick ean ronzes are clas fied as tin bi Phorus, lead, zine or nickel. ronzes. India is very famous a silicon bronzes, aluminium s nze castings and have beet making them since centuri Cc ft s enturies, especi ee centuries, especially the Chola bronzi ; € statues from 10: C D. th to 141 @ scanned with OKEN Scanner157 C-grains G-grains B-grains Fig. 12.8 : o- bras: a Fig. 12.9 : (c+ B) brass i-phase 8-phase ig. 12.10 2 Phosphor branze Fig. 12.11 ; Aluminium bronze dark y phase at ot- phase grain boundaries jum bronze rg. 12.12 2 Ben @ scanned with OKEN Scanner158 5 ' fy P prone)? ng - 0.5% hor qo Tin + OF 12.10) ree from seit of friction. ee Tom season hos) 1) ‘in Bronzes copper!" 5. phas : Composition q-phaseand ar " co-efficiem i re . , toug” eictance+ Microstruct . High store co rrosion resistance Properties cracking ig) etal ponces ~ 8 ‘Admiralty 84" Types of bron: py Bel met al - alty Gun Metal: a) Admiralty UN" (oy 889%, Tin 10%, 20 29° Composition «Bearings: steam pipe fittings Applications b) Bell Metal : a Composition - Cu-10%rTiN (Ei Malik-e-maidan - a stupendous 55 ton ications B Casting of bells, canons. 8. Applica anon in Bijapur, North Kamataka) 2) Silicon Bronzes ¢ . Composition - Copper + upto 5% silicon Microstructure ~ Single a - phase | Properties - Very strong, mechanical properties comparable to those of mild steel, high corrosion resistance. Applications - tanks, pressure ressels, marine construction, hydraulic pressure lines. 3) Aluminium Bronzes : Composition - Copper+4- 11% aluminium aes ~ Two phases primary ot - phase, Eutectoid (0. +Y,) (fig 12.11) "roperties - it 5 a au for cold working, good strength combined with corrosion Applications oon ance to atmosphere, and water attack. - Corrosion resi 5 Tesistant vessels, nuts and bolts, blades, bearings, bushings etc., 4) Beryllium Bronzes ; sampesiion - Copper + 1.5 -2% Be +0.2%C licrostructure - dark y- . ° Properties - Enos fa nin grain boundaries of - phase (fig 12.12) ormability, good fati on ‘ plier hardened, high electrical atigue and creep resistance when \pplications ~ Diaphragms, sure; Onductvity, » SUrgic; al i instruments, bolts, firing pins etc @ scanned with OKEN ScannerALUMINIUM AND ITs ay i 159 Aluminium an “OS and its aly compared 107.9 gem for c°¥S te charecteri T steele, we ecteriz ' , Cnvin ‘ermal conductivities, and a resistance to loysare hight. uments, j ~ eae being veal ehly ductile ang Fi eat ne hi ambient atmosphere, Aluminium and ' 9 COVer g Ie as obst i i and non-sparking. Othe: f and roll served by the thin foil sheets made out of ther materi inium i ‘aterials. Aluminium is non-toxic, non-magneti be cast by any \ characteristi ini itis ma stcan bec. Y any known met ea To nattisties of aluminium are thatit is machinable, itcan Aluminium atloys AY sited thickness and soon. are generally ela... are added to them, Senerally classified according to the principal alloying elements that 1) Aluminium Copper Alloys: Al-Cualloys generally contain ro sinall amounts of silicon, iron, magnese known aluminium copper alloyis the be m 2.5 to 5% copper. These alloys may also contain m, Manganese, chromium and zinc. The most well ralium which contains 4% copper. Name of the alloy ~ Duratium Composition - Al+4%Cu Microstructure ~ Solid solution oc- phase, Intermediate phase - Cu Al, Properties One of the best non-ferrous alloys for age - hardening, high strength, corrosion resistant etc., rivets in air craft construction, electrical cables, automobile components etc., Applications 2) Aluminium - Silicon alloys: The aluminium - silicon series of alloys is most widely used for the production of all types of castings due to excellent fluidity and casting characteristics of the molten metal. stem forms an eutectic at 11.6% silicon at SITC (fig 12.13). One of the most loys, LM6, is of approximately eutectic composition. = upto 12.5% silicon Solid solution c- phase + Eutectic (a+) ; rgeability, low co-efficient of thermal expansion, excellen This alloy used commercial Compostion Microstructure “ae - Good for , Properties castability and resistance to corrosion. Intricate castings, food - handling equipment, marine fittings. Applications - a VAT ys: 3) Aluminium Zine re 6%6 Zn, 0.6% Mg. 0.5% Cr, 0.2% T, h - 10 9.0% a : i i il i Composition ne ve composition gives highest mechanical properties waihont 1c Properties - Abo! ent, They have good castability, corrosion resistance and g00 . treatment. ? . machina Aircraft ctural parts, turret housings, radio equipment. Airera Applicaitions @ scanned with OKEN Scanner160 soo ; 16% “0 Pa ed Al 100% Silicon, % Fig, 12.13 : Portion of Al - Si phase diagram 4) Aluminium - Magnesium alloys + Composition = uptoS% magnesium Properties - good weldability, good corrosion resistance, moderate strength, poor casting properties. Applications architectural extrusions, tubings for automotive gas and oil lines, fittings for chemical and sewage use, aircraft brake shoes etc., 3) Aluminium Lithium alloys : Composition > upto 2.5% Lithium, 1% Mg Properti : v densiti roperties wey low densities (2.5 to 2.6 g/ cm*) excellent fatigue strength, low : ae high specific modulus (elastic modulus. ity), v . Applications 'y), Very expensive. ~ aircraft and aerospace industries @ scanned with OKEN Scanner