TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY

Contents

1. Textile fibers and their classification…………….…. 2

1.1. Natural fibers………………………………. 2
1.2. Chemical fibers……………………………… 2
1.3. Fibres: main features……………………..…. 5

2. Polymerization, spinning and warping system…….…. 7

2.1. Polyamide……………………………………….7
2.2. Spandex…………………………………………8

3. The structure of warp knits…………………………… 9

3.1 Warp-knitting machine………………………. 10
3.2 A basic binding: charmeuse………………………
11

4. Textile finishing…………………………………………… 12
4.1. Water Scouring…………………………………… 12
4.2. Presetting…………………………………………. 13
4.3. Dyeing..……………………………………… 14
4.3.1 Rope Dyeing………………………………15
4.3.2 Beam Dyeing…………………………… 15
4.4. Printing…………………………………………… 16
4.5. Surface change……………………………….. 17
4.6. Comfort change…………………………………. 18

5. Quality control………………………………………… 19
5.1. Inspection machine………………………… 19
5.2. Textile test…………………………………… 19

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 1. Textile fibers and their classification
It is possible to classify textile fibres as follow:

TEXTILE FIBERS

Natural fibers Chemical fibers

Animal Inorganic
Artificial
Mineral Organic
Synthetic
Vegetables

1.1 Natural fibers

Natural fibers include the ones produced by plants, animals, and geological processes: they are always
biodegradable.
According to their origin they can be classified as follows:

a) Animal: consist largely of particular proteins (i.e. wool and silk).

b) Mineral: include asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber.

c) Vegetables: are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: for examples cotton,
hemp, jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth).

1.2 Chemical fibers

They can be classified as follow:

a) Inorganic: this category includes carbon fiber, glass textiles, metal fiber and ceramic fiber

b) Organic: these fibers are produced through a process of spinning.

Starting from a liquid polymer, it is then extruded through a spinneret; with this process it is possible to
obtain continuous filaments of unlimited length.
They can be divided in artificial and synthetic, the first ones are produced from natural organic polymers
(cellulose is treated and modified by a reagent), and the second ones are produced by synthetic polymers.

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 - Artificial: the raw material for the production of these fibers is cellulose obtained from
waste or plants. The most important fibers in this group are acetate, triacetate, viscose and cupro.
- Synthetic: they are obtained by a synthesis process with the purpose to create a product that
does not exist in nature, but it is obtained from chemical synthesis. The most important fibers in
this group are polyamide, polyester, spandex and PBT.

Here below a table with the main features of some fibers.

Main features of fibers

Description of two important synthetic fiber: polyamide and spandex.

 POLYAMIDE
This yarn is very resistant to wear and tear and it can be produced in very thin filaments; its flexible structure
allows it to adapt to the forms and the movements of the human body; for these features it is used in
stockings, leggings, corsets, girdles and swim suits; it is also used in ski pants and jackets.

Bill Pittendreigh, Du Pont, and other individuals and corporations, worked diligently during the first few
months of World War II to find a way to replace Asian silk and hemp used for parachutes with nylon.
It was not yet, however, elastic yarn, since these fibers do not stretch physically but their extensibility
depends on the straightening of the filament which, at rest, it is rolled or curled. Polyamide doesn’t have
enough power and elastic recovery, this is why Du Pont started to study alternative fibers.

This fiber is easily dyed and this was one of the main components that characterized its great development.
The name polyamide comes from its establishment enter the amino groups (CO-NH): the elementary
molecules (monomers) combine to give spinnable macromolecules (polymers). The most important products
for obtaining this fiber are caprolactam (base for polyamide-6), adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine
(constituents of the polyamide-6.6)

The main features of polyamide are:

- Good moisture absorption
- High flexibility (suitable for clothing) and high abrasion resistance (suitable for carpets and
rugs).
- It is particularly suitable in combine with the elastomeric fiber because of its high elasticity.

There are two main polyamides: polyamide-6 and polyamide-6.6

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Polyamide-6 is obtained by the polymerization of caprolactam (made from 6 carbon atoms).
The setting temperature goes from 170°C to 190°C, beyond this temperature the fiber crystallizes and loose
its moisture absorption properties.

Melting point: 215 ° C-220 ° C

Dyestuff used: usually are preferred the acid and premetallized ones but it can be used also other types of
dyestuff

Polyamide-6.6 is obtained by the reaction between adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine (each
component has 6 carbon atoms).

Melting point: 250 ° C-260 ° C

Dyestuff used: usually are preferred the acid and premetallized ones but it can be used also other types of
dyestuff

 SPANDEX
Spandex or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more durable
than rubber, its major non-synthetic competitor] It is a polyurethane - polyurea copolymer that was invented
in 1959 by chemist Joseph Shivers at DuPont's Benger Laboratory in Waynesboro, Virginia.
When first introduced, it revolutionized many areas of the clothing industry.

Spandex fibers are produced in four different ways: melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning,
and solution wet spinning. All of these methods include the initial step of reacting monomers to produce a
prepolymer. Once the prepolymer is formed, it is reacted further in various ways and drawn out to produce a
long fiber.
The solution dry spinning method is used to produce over 94.5% of the world's spandex fibers.

The fiber is made by alternating:

- Long segments very flexible rubbery and crystalline (polybutylene ether)
- Short chain segments (hard segments) polar and crystals (segmented polyurethane)

The heat setting temperature changes with the title and type of polymer used: standard temperature range is
from 180°C to 190°C

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 1.3 Fibers: main features
 Yarn count
The yarn count identifies the thickness of the yarn and denotes the length of yarn in relation to the weight.
For synthetic yarn the count grading used is Decitex [dtex]: this system is based on a fixed and it represents
the weight in grams per 10.000 meters of yarn.
dtex = (W/L) x 10.000
Weight (W) per unit length (L)
The Decitex number increases with the size of the yarn.
Other units of measure can be:
denier [den]  1den = 1dtex x 0,9
tex [tex]  1tex = 1dtex / 10

 Yarn opacity
The opacity of the yarn is proportional to the amount of titanium dioxide added during the polymerization
phase: starting from a percentage of 0 the polymer is identified as shiny (%TiO 2=0), dull (%TiO201,3) and
full dull (%TiO21,3).
The polymer was born shiny and the titanium dioxide is added to give opacity to the fiber. The increase of
this component raises the coverage and the protection of the fiber against ultraviolet rays

 Number of filaments
Each yarn can be composed by a different number of filaments. The final title is always the same, is the dtex
value of each filament that changes.
In the below example you can see the same final yarn count with a different number of filaments.

Microfiber is a fiber with less than 1 dtex per filament.

Microfiber is used to make very soft-to-the-touch materials for general clothing use, often used in skirts and
jackets.
The disadvantages related to these kind of fibers are:
- low pilling and abrasion resistance
- low washing fastness value. To get the same colour shade you have to use a higher percentage of
dyestuff. The total area to be dyed increases with the number of filaments: this creates more
problems of colour fastness.

 Elasticity
It is the ability of a textile material to recover the initial structure after a stretch deformation.

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  Melting point
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the solid and the liquid are
equal. It represents the temperature at which the polymer changes from solid to liquid.

 Section
It is the cross section typical of each fiber. Natural fibers have defined section, typical of each class, while
the man-made fibers have different cross sections depending on the shape of the hole of the spinneret
(extrusion and spinning process).
The section has big influence on the finished appearance and final characteristics of the fabric.
A trilobal section, for example, with the same initial polymer, has a higher light refraction than a round one.
The hollow section gives instead excellent thermal insulation properties: an example in nature of such
section is the polar bear hair.

Example of sections are:

Round
This is the standard cross section for most synthetic fibers. It has a minimum surface to volume ratio, but in
most cases it is used simply because it is usually less expensive than modified cross sections.

Hollow
The hollow cross section has at least one hollow void enclosed within the fiber and running the entire length
of the fiber. Hollow fibers are usually round, but need not be. They feature:
- higher specific surface areas
- lower density at the same diameter
- thermal insulation properties due to trapped air
- higher specific rigidity, so long as the hollow void does not collapse
- a delustered (less shiny) appearance.

Trilobal
A trilobal fiber gives a fiber rigidity and resilience, and the many reflecting surfaces are efficient at
scattering light to hide dirt. For these reasons, trilobal fibers are often used in carpets. The reflective surfaces
can also give the fiber a sparkling appearance.

-Hollow section- -Trilobal section-

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 2. Polymerization, spinning and warping system
Here below the main technologies of polymerization and spinning for polyamide and spandex.

2.1Polyamide

Polymerization
In this section we will focus on polyamide 6.0. As we said the row material for this kind of fiber is
caprolactam: it is carry by pumps, together with a viscosity adjuster (usually acetic acid), water and dulling
(titanium dioxide) directly into the column where polymerization reactions take place at a temperature of
260°C (atmospheric pressure).
The molten polymer is then extruded, cooled in water and cut to obtain chips of about 2-3mm in diameter
and 3mm in length. Titanium dioxide can be also added during subsequent spinning.

Spinning
In this phase, the chips are carry to an extruder (a screw type) where they are melt at 260 °C.
After this, the molten polymer is push into the pipes toward the spinning heads that transform it into thin
filaments.
The extrusion spinneret consist of:
- metal plates with a number and geometry of the holes that depend on the type of fiber (the
holes with diameters between 0.2-0.5 mm can be round or profiled section)
- filters (silica sand, metal filters) necessary to remove any impurities from the molten
polymer
On coming out of spinneret these filaments are cooled with air and then assembled by the application of
solutions of water and oil spinning (substances for the protection and lubrication of the yarn)
Crusader jets of compressed air interlaced filaments to increase their cohesion.
Wrapping on bobbins occurs at a rate of about 4300-4500 meters/minute (bobbins weight is from 10 to
18kg).

Warping and yarn orientation

Oriented Yarn from spinning line is classified as follow:
L.O.Y. (Low Oriented Yarn)
P.O.Y. (Pre Oriented Yarn)
F.O.Y. or T.O.Y. (Full Oriented Yarn or Total Oriented Yarn)

L.O.Y.
The filaments are extruded with a minimum draft on cops. Subsequently the yarn is passed on intermediate
drawing frames and wrap on bobbins. In this way the molecular chains are almost completely parallel: this
technology ensures good elasticity values to the fibers.
With the warping process, the yarn on the bobbins (set in a creel) are wrap on beam.

Intermediate
drawing frames

Warp beam

Cops Bobbins Creel with bobbins

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P.O.Y.
The extruded fibers have already partially oriented molecular chains. In the next stage of warping, as it can
be seen from the chart below, is then made another drawing phase.

Drawing

55dtex 45dtex

Warp
beam
Drawing Drawing
frames frames

Creel with bobbins

F.O.Y. or T.O.Y.
The drawing phase after the spinning operation is eliminated. After extrusion the fiber is passed through a
progressive spinning system, which totally orient the molecular chains of the fibers.

Warp
beam

Creel with bobbins

2.2Spandex
There are three main phases for the spandex spinning:

• Melting - The polymer is melt by heat fusion

• Cooling - A flow of cold air solidifies and consolidates the filaments
• Spin finish - Application of substances for the protection and lubrication of the yarn

An important additive for spandex is the magnesium stearate (StMg). This substance is a antibonded and
makes the filaments not sticking together because of the pressure caused by the winding tension.

Pre-drawing Release
Warp
beam

150% - 180% 110% - 140% 40% - 65%

Creel with bobbins

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 3. The structure of warp knits
Warp knit is defined as a loop-forming process in which the yarn is fed in to the knitting zone, parallel to the
fabric selvedge. Figure 1 illustrates the most basic warp knitted structure, made by a single set of ends, fed
from a single warp. As can be observed, every needle is fed by a separate end, out of which a loop is formed.
In order to connect the loops into a fabric, the ends shog between the needles. In this manner the needle
draws the new loop through the loop formed by another end in the previous knitting cycle. The small section
of fabric in Figure 1 is made by four needle, and, as every needle must receive an end to form a loop, it must
be made of four yarn ends.

From this basic section of fabric, it can now be deduced, that at least one set of ends, equalling the number of
needles in the machine, is necessary to produce a fabric.

In Figure 2 a basic weft knitted structure is illustrated, again produced by four needle.
The difference are apparent. The yarn runs weft wise in the fabric and the same yarn feeds all knitting
needles during the knitting process of one knitted course. The whole structure can be knitted, as in case in
hand-knitting, from a single yarn end.

 Course
A course is a horizontal row of loops formed by needles during one knitting cycle. In warp knitting, all the
needles perform the knitting action simultaneously, so that one knitted course is formed across the whole
width of the knitting machine for every turn of the main shaft.

 Wale
A wale can be defined as a vertical column of loops formed by a single needle. The number of wales in the
fabric equals the number of needles across the width of the machine.

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 3.1Warp-knitting machine
Warp-knitting machines are used for the production of knitted fabrics with a vertical yarn-run. Generally, the
threads are delivered as a yarn sheet, also called a warp, to the knitting elements where the stitch-forming
process takes place; the threads are fed from warp beams via yarn directing devices.
The knitted fabric produced in this way is then pulled down by the fabric take up and is delivered to the
batching device. The knitting elements are driven by the main shaft.
The conversion of the rotating motion of the main shaft into the motion of the single knitting elements is
done by various driving elements.
An optical system or laser photocell applied to the structure of the knitting machine checks the integrity of
the yarn and in case stops the knitting machine if anomalies found.

In the knitting room, an air conditionings system keeps constant values of temperature and humidity to
ensure optimum operation of knitting machine and retain the characteristics of the yarn product.

Here below a picture of a warp-knitting machine for the production of warp knit fabrics.

electronic
beam drive
beams
pattern discs
laserscan

laserstop

machine bed

knitting elements

control panel fabric take-up

beam structure

 Knitting elements on tricot machines

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 3.2A basic binding: charmeuse
Charmeuse is the main binding used in warp-knitting fabrics.
It is obtained by the combination of two different yarns: for an elastic fabric are usually used polyamide or
polyester with spandex.
Here below you can find the structure of the two yarns:

1) Polyamide or Polyester on the front bar (GB1)

2) Spandex on the rear bar (GB2)

Here below two picture of the charmeuse fabric: the under lapping side and the over lapping side.
The lapping is the movement of the threads around the needles via under lap and over lap. The lapping
determines the position of the thread in the construction and its designation. The lapping is responsible for
the binding of the thread system.

Under lapping: lay-in on the back side of the needle

Overlapping: lay-in on the open hook side of the needle

Charmeuse - Under lapping side Charmeuse – Over lapping side

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 4. Textile finishing
The concept of textile finishing includes all those processes that (excluding the processing of fiber, yarn
production and binding creation) improve the textile goods: the aesthetics and the properties.
This is achieved by:
- impurities’elimination in the raw material
- natural colour’s elimination
- colour or design application
- application of chemical or mechanical process for obtaining special effects.

In textile manufacturing, finishing refers to any process performed on yarn or fabric after weaving to
improve the look, performance, or "hand" (feel) of the finished textile

The processes can be classified as follows:

TEXTILE FINISHING

PREPARATION COLOURING FINISHING

Water scouring Dyeing Surface change

Presetting Print Comfort change

4.1 Water Scouring

The main purpose of this treatment is the removing of soluble water substances from the fabric. The focus of
manufacturers has increasingly focused on reducing consumption of water, with consequent savings in
energy consumption, hot water and final treatment of wastewater.

The sequence of the operation is as follows:

a) cleaning bath creation;
b) reaching the right working temperature;
c) separation of the impurities and their emulsification;
d) rinsing the scouring fabric;
e) drying.

The use of surfactants (detergents) during washing is very important to make rapid imbibition of the textile
industry, to facilitate the dirty removal from the substrate and to prevent the redeposition of particles on the
fiber.

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  Impurities
The kind of detergents used, as well as the operating conditions depend on the nature of the substances to be
eliminated.

It is possible to distinguish into:

1) spinning lubricants: synthetic or mineral oils, usually made emulsifiable with appropriate additives;
2) solid waste generally anchored to the fabric with fatty substances that incorporate them.

 Scouring machine
The fabric’s washing is obtained passing it, with a regular tension, through washing tanks.
The longitudinal stress of the fabric remains absolutely constant through cylinders and dancer cylinders
adjustable with the purpose of eliminate folds, even with delicate fabrics.
The machine normally consists of several tanks in sequence: in the first tank is placed a chemical bath for
cleaning while the other tanks are used for cleaning and rinsing.
By pressing with cylinders placed at the end of each zone, it is possible to prevents the dirty bath is moved
forward with the fabric.
The tanks temperature is defined with the help of steam placed in a shirt that surrounds the tank itself, the
bath temperature is proportional to the flow of steam injected into the shirt.
The water in the tanks is continuously moving and the flow is guaranteed by the presence of pumps on the
sides of each tank.

4.2 Pre-setting
The pre-setting operation is done on the raw fabric or on scoured fabric to provide dimensional stability and
to define the right weight and width to it.
The machine used in this phase is the stenter (called Rameuse). Here below an example.

It is better to do the pre-setting phase after the water scouring as:

• the heat setting before the scouring could lead stains on fabric or make difficult the subsequent washing
operation
• the heat setting after dyeing could generate the dyestuff sublimation

This operation leads the fiber of the fabric to a softening phase necessary to define the right weight and width
of the article in process.
After this phase the fabric fibers, above all the spandex, create links that supply dimensional stability to the
product; the same fabric will maintain the technical data set until it is subjected to a higher temperature than
the heat setting.

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The working temperatures change according to the yarn used and the fabric structure from 160°C to 200°C.
If we have a fabric with a composition of 100% polyamide is enough a heat setting temperature of around
160°C-180°C; while, if you are working a fabric with polyamide and spandex, the ideal working
temperature is 180°C to 190°C.
Over 192°C the polyamide starts to crystallize loosing its moisture absorption properties and therefore its
dye ability. At these temperatures the most amino groups are lost with a consequently colour decrease.
Regarding the operating conditions is important to work the fabric under controlled humidity and
temperature.

The fabric is conduct into the machine by the help of two parallel chains that take the same on the selvedges.
A very important element in this phase is the overfeeding cylinder: the fabric is not directly attached to the
chain, but is driven initially by a this cylinder which rotates at a speed less or greater than the chain speed in
order to define the right weight. The overfeeding is calculated and settled as a percentage value.

For obtaining a right fabric setting, there are two main parameters that must be set: temperature and dwelling
time. The fabric must feel a define temperature for a fixed period in order to achieve the best result.
Here below a table with some indications.

4.3 Dyeing
Dyeing is the process of imparting colours to a textile. For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing
has been used by humans to decorate clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been
nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced
artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colours, and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and
general use. Different classes of dye are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile
production process from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid
dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types including vat dyes
which are similar to the ancient natural dyes and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

 Reproducibility Lab to Production

- In the lab, exactly the same process routine should be used as bulk. This also includes pre-
treatment and heat-setting, as well as washing operations.
- All important parameters as pH, water hardness etc… should be checked carefully
- The additions should be done in a similar way as in production
- The same liquor ratio should be used
- All dyestuff stock solutions should be changed every week. All processing chemicals should
be checked (acids, alkalines etc…) frequently
- The solution should be properly diluted in order to pipette correctly
- The influence of finishing on fastness should be checked

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  Colours kitchen
At this stage the dye baths are prepared to be sent to the dyeing machine. Powders or liquids dyestuff can be
used for the starting process. The finished dyeing recepies are placed in containers where they are covered,
heated and kept in constant motion by agitators. This installation is equipped with a pneumatic system that
allows the loading of dyes and auxiliaries in mixers in an automatic way, the mixture is then automatically
downloaded from the stocks and uploaded in the service tanks of dyeing machines.

4.3.1 Rope Dyeing

In this case, the fabric is put into the machine completely unwound (free); it is sewn between the head and
tail to form a ring and it is inserted into the machine.
The fabric circulates inside the dye-bath accompanied by a swift and pushed by water pressure fed into the
machine from an external pump.

Since the fabric is left more free has the ability to shrink more, recovering in some cases a few grams of
weight. Also the most frequent problems are wrinkles and beatings (vertical lines due to the imperfect flow
of fabric inside the machine).
The fabric once the dye finished, is ready to be centrifuged in special machines, following a centrifuge
operation which remove the water in excess.
After this the fabric will be brought to the ram to be finished.

Centrifuge
The centrifugation step allows you to remove the water in excess from fabric, and then the fabric is picked
up and sent to apricorde. The apricorde consists of a calendaring cylinder, who plays the rope and makes the
fabric flat, and of a welder. Fabrics that have particular characteristics of stiffness are not subjected to the
centrifugation but undergo a process of squeezing. The waste water will be channelled to the head of
purification plant and then to the exhaust.

4.3.2 Beam Dyeing

To make this kind of dyeing, the fabric shall be initially wound on the hollow beams ( winding phase) which
allow the dye-bath circles within them, going then to lay evenly on the fabric.
The key issue is that the fabric is wrapped on beams with constant tension: only in this way the dye will be
absorbed equally by the whole piece.
In this case, unlike the rope dyeing where is the fabric to be moving while the dye-bath is still, the wound
fabric is firm and is the dye bath that circulates from the inside to the outside, through it. The speed and the

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bath circulation pressure change from item to item while the temperature should be included between 98°C
and 103°C and should be achieved progressively.
After dyeing, the fabric is unrolled from the warp beams (unrolling phase): in this operation further the
mechanical unrolling fabric from the beam the water in excess is taken through a vacuum,.
The fabric is then brought to the ram to be finished.

The main defects due to this dye are:

- Moiré caused by a too high tension winding
- Different shade between the beginning and the end of the beam. This problem occurs mainly
when you do not have a uniform dye-batch circulation.
- Different shade between the central and the selvedges. This problem occurs mainly when
you do not have a uniform dye-batch circulation.

Beam fabric rolling

The rolls of fabric from the preparing phase in which they have to undergo a process of dyeing arrive to the
winders, these plants are composed of cylinders which take the layered fabric from the container and move it
on hollow beam used in autoclaves.

Unrolling beams
The beam extracted from the autoclave is loaded on the support of the unroller and unrolled, re leasing of
most of the dyeing water, and is layered in special carts called stretchers.

4.4 Printing
Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In properly printed
fabrics the colour is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related to
dyeing but, whereas in dyeing proper the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, in printing one
or more colours are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns .

 Screen printing
In this kind of printing, the fabric is fixed with an adhesive tape on travelling band. When the fabric stops,
the printing screen are lowered until contact with the fabric and the dye is pushed through the net pores with
the aid of a doctor knife. The printing screens are then lifted and the fabric advance by a measure equal to the
width of the screen, then the cycle begins again.

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  Digital textile printing
This is a process of printing on textiles using specialized or modified inkjet technology. Inkjet printing on
fabric is also possible with an inkjet printer by using fabric sheets with a removable paper backing. Today
major inkjet technology manufacturers can offer specialized products designed for direct printing on textiles,
not only for sampling but also for lots of production

4.5 Surface change

The special finishing includes the process of raising, shearing, grinding and calandering, that give to the
fabric particular physical aspect. The process can be done either individually or combinated. Shearing,
grinding and raising provide the removal of some part of filaments from the fabric, after them you can get a
dust fiber that is transported, through a stream of air, to a machine that separate the air transport from the
fiber of the fabric.

Brushing
This is a finishing process for knit or woven fabrics in which brushes or other abrading devices are used to
raise a nap on fabrics or to create a novelty surface texture.

Shearing
This process consist in cutting evenly the fabric bushings for providing more regular appearance and hand.
The fabric, once entered into the machine, is transported to a cutting board made of a steel plate with wedge-
shaped profile that allows a lifting of it and allow a clean cut.

Sueding
This operation is similar to the raising one. It gives the fabric a soft and velvety effect. The principle is the
same but it is more moderate because the fabric is passed between two rollers one covered with sandpaper
that sand it.

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Calandering
This is a finishing process which increases the smoothness and luster of the fabric. The material is passed
between heated rollers under high pressure. Some calender finishes are moiré, glazed, friction, chased, or
water-marked.

4.6 Comfort change

The machine used in this phase is the stenter (called Rameuse) already described before.
The finishing phase is done on dyed fabric in order to:
- dry the fabric after the dyeing process
- improve the appearance, hand, properties and possible applications
The parameters that characterize the choice of finishing are the nature and the use of the fabric in working.
During this process the fabric is put into solutions, through the use of a scarf, whose function is to treat the
fabric.
Depending on the treatment, the temperatures can change from 160°C to 185°C.
The Rameuse could be considered as a modular machine: there are different machine parts placed one after
the other. Each fabric, depending on the phase and on the kind of process, will visit all the modules or it will
jump other ones (such as scarves).
During the operation of heat setting, usually, it will cut the selvedges that are collected in containers or
evacuated by pneumatic transport.

Here below some special finishings.

Cationic fixing agents

Even after thorough soaping, some of the deep shades tend to wash off continuously and may affect the final
quality of the fabric. In order to arrest the further washing off of the dyestuff from the dyed material, it is a
practice to treat the dyed material with a cationic fixing agent.
These cationic fixing agents work as bonding materials between fibre and the dye molecule and forms strong
covalent bonds with the dye and fibres and thus fixes the partially fixed and superficially adhered dyes and
improves the wash and crocking fastness of the reactive dyed materials.

Hydrophilic Treatment
Due to the hydrophilic treatment the absorbed water is spread quickly. This reduces the concentration of
water per sq/cm: body temperature and the exchange of water particle with air ensure a faster drying time.

Water repellant treatment

Thanks to this treatment the fabric is stain resistant and water proof.

Antimicrobial treatment
These products destroy bacteria or suppress their growth or their ability to reproduce.

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 5. Quality control

5.1. Inspection machine

The dyed fabric after being dried by stenter machine, is sent to an inspection machine where it is a controlled
as to identify any production defect. The persons in charge of this machine, check the fabric that runs on an
overhead projector, enter data of defects in the display screen and evaluate then the assessment to give
consent to the machine of cutting the roll at the fixed length.

5.2. Textile test

Textiles materials are more or less hygroscopic; they tend to absorb water in relation to moisture and
temperature environment in which they occur. This involves a different amount of moisture variation on the
physical characteristics of fabrics.
It is therefore very important that the test should be made in conditioned environments (humidity and
temperature known).
Here below a description of the main tests done on fabrics.

Physical properties
This include weight, width, number of wales and courses per cm: must be within the tolerance range defined
previously and indicated on the article technical data sheet
The information gained from these tests can indicate potential problems or solutions to the performance of
the fabric or garment.

Stretch to dynamometer
This test evaluate the fabric elastomeric properties, in particular the ability of a fabric to stretch when
subjected to a set load force (Elongation)
The fabric recovery force after being stretched is instead called modulus. Sample 1 to 1
The instrument used for making this test is the dynamometer: a device for measuring force.
4

3
Load (kgf)

0
0 100 200

Extension (%)
Extension (%)

Dimensional stability
These tests will determine the extent to which a fabric or garment will shrink or extend during the nominated
cleansing process. The test results are used to confirm or determine correct care labelling.

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Dimensional stability is a measurement of the linear dimensional change resulting from exposure to washing
standard at 40°C and to steam. The test gives an indication of lot-to-lot uniformity with regards to internal
stress introduced during processing.

U.P.F. (Ultraviolet Protection Factor)

Clothes can protect your skin against the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But not all clothing is created
equal. The tightness of the weave, the weight, type of fiber, colour and amount of skin covered all affect the
amount of protection they provide.
UPF stands for Ultraviolet Protection Factor and indicates how much of the sun's UV radiation is absorbed.
A fabric with a rating of 50 will allow only 1/50th of the sun's UV rays to pass through. This means the
fabric will reduce your skin's UV radiation exposure significantly, because only 2 percent of the UV rays
will get through.

Colour fastness
The colour fastness tests the dye-stuff capacity to remain on the fiber despite the presence of external agents.
Colour fastness tests establish the fitness for purpose of the fabric and help identify the appropriate care label
instructions. Colour fastness is a measure of two different properties of a textile, the degree to which it
changes colour when subjected to a particular treatment or environment, and the tendency for the textile to
cause staining of other fabrics with which it comes into contact.
The colour fastness properties of a textile will be related to the type of fibres present, the construction of the
material, and especially to the type of dyestuff used and the method by which it has been applied. Fibre
dyeing offers the best results, compared to yarn dyeing and the worst results are often found with piece
dyeing (fabric dyeing). Similarly certain types of dyestuff offer better fastness, but at an increased cost to the
customer. Occasionally, the dyeing process can result in a reduction in other physical properties and it is up
to the dyer to obtain a balance in all these respects.
The external agents analyzed are:
- washing, water or sea water
- perspiration, chlorine, crocking and light

Wear properties
These tests determine how the fabric or garment will perform during everyday use. The main tests will
include abrasion resistance, pilling resistance and snagging

To fix the abrasion and pilling resistance of all kinds of textile structures. Samples are rubbed against known
abradents at low pressures and in continuously changing directions and the amount of abrasion or pilling is
compared against standard parameters. The unique design allows removal of individual sample holders for
examination without lifting the top motion plate.

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