Course: Gender and Development

LM1: Introduction to Gender and Development Gender Issues

Gender, an integral aspect of human identity, extends beyond mere biological categorizations.
This material aims to provide a thorough discussion on gender as a social construct, delving into
its definition, the performative nature highlighted by Judith Butler, cultural influences, and
economic dimensions. By navigating through these diverse components, we seek to unravel the
intricate layers that constitute the social construction of gender.

Philippine Commission on Women defined Gender and Development as the development

perspective and process that is participatory and empowering, equitable, sustainable, free from
violence, respectful of human rights, supportive of self-determination and actualization of human
potentials.

In a Social Construct Perspective, In differentiating gender from sex, the former is understood as
a socially constructed concept encompassing roles and expectations associated with being a man
or a woman. West and Zimmerman (1987) emphasize the dynamic nature of gender, stating that
it is not merely a noun but a verb, something actively performed and constructed daily. This
definition challenges the conventional binary understanding of gender and underscores its fluid,
socially contingent character. Judith Butler's theory of performativity has been pivotal in
reshaping the discourse on gender. Butler posits that gender is not an inherent trait but a
continuous and socially reinforced performance. Everyday actions, from clothing choices to
language and behavior, actively contribute to the ongoing construction of gender. This
perspective challenges fixed gender roles, emphasizing the fluidity and variability of gender
expressions. The notion of performativity invites a reevaluation of traditional binaries,
acknowledging that gender is something individuals do, not something they inherently are.

Cultural norms play a pivotal role in shaping and perpetuating gender roles. Cross-cultural
studies, exemplified by Margaret Mead's research, highlight the diversity of gender expectations
across societies. Mead's work reveals that gender roles are not universal but contingent on
cultural contexts. Understanding cultural influences on gender is vital for fostering inclusivity
and challenging stereotypes. The recognition of cultural specificity in gender constructs allows
for a more nuanced understanding of gender diversity. Gender roles are intricately connected to
economic systems, influencing the division of labor, access to resources, and power dynamics.
Historical examples, such as the industrial revolution's impact on labor segregation, underscore
the economic underpinnings of gender constructs. Economic disparities persist, contributing to
issues like wage gaps and occupational segregation. Addressing gender inequities within
economic systems becomes imperative, highlighting the intersectionality of gender and
economic structures in societal frameworks.

Understanding gender as a social construct has profound implications for contemporary society.
It necessitates a paradigm shift in policymaking, education, and social interactions to foster
inclusivity. Embracing diverse gender expressions challenges harmful stereotypes and promotes
a more equitable and just society. By acknowledging the performative nature of gender and its
cultural and economic dimensions, society can work towards dismantling the rigid structures that
perpetuate gender disparities.

How Gender and Development started?

Gender and Development was developed in the 1980’s as an alternative to the Women
Development (WID) approach. Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically
with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities, and expectations
to both men and women. GAD applies gender analysis to uncover the ways in which men and
women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and competence.

GAD focus primarily on two major frameworks, Gender Roles and Social Relations Analysis.
Gender role focus on social construction of identities within the household, it also reveals the
expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’ in their relative access to resources. Social
relations analysis exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations imbedded in
social institutions; also it’s determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women in
society. In an attempt to create gender equality, (denoting women having same opportunities as
men, including ability to participate in the public sphere) GAD policies aim to redefine
traditional gender role expectations.

Gender and Development in Philippines

Philippine Plan for Gender and Development, 1995-2025, is a National Plan that addresses,
provides and pursues full equality and development for men and women. Approved and adopted
by former President Fidel V. Ramos as Executive No. 273, on September 8, 1995, it is the
successor of the Philippine Development Plan for Women, 1989-1992 adopted by Executive No.
348 of February 17, 1989.

Three years after, DENR Administrative Order No. 98 – 15 dated May 27, 1998 came up as the
Revised Guidelines on the Implementation of Gender and Development (GAD) Activities in the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in order to strengthen the DENR
GAD Focal Point System and accomplishing the GAD vision “Partnership of Empowered Men
and Women for Sustainable Development”. Republic Act No. 9710, otherwise known as the
Magna Carta of Women was approved on August 14, 2009 which mandates non-discriminatory
and pro-gender equality and equity measures to enable women’s participation in the formulation,
implementation and evaluation of policies and plan for national, regional and local development.

A Memorandum Circular No. 2011 – 01 dated October 21, 2011 was released addressing to all
Government Departments including their attached agencies, offices, bureaus, State Universalities
and Colleges (SUCs), Government-Owned and Controlled Corporations (GOCCs) and all other
government instrumentalities as their guidelines and procedures for the establishment,
strengthening and institutionalization of the GAD Focal Point System (GFPS).
Relevant Historical Key Features of GAD

Gender and Development (GAD) in the Philippines is a dynamic and evolving field that seeks to
address and rectify gender inequalities within the context of the country's socio-economic and
political landscape. This involves integrating a gender perspective into policies, programs, and
projects to ensure that development efforts are inclusive and beneficial to all, regardless of
gender.

1. Historically, the Philippines has been influenced by a variety of cultural and colonial
factors that shaped gender roles. Indigenous communities often exhibited more
egalitarian gender structures, but with Spanish colonization, a patriarchal framework
became more pronounced. American colonial influences brought about changes in
women's roles, particularly in education. Understanding these historical influences is
crucial in comprehending the current state of gender relations in the Philippines.

2. Despite notable progress, contemporary Philippines faces persistent gender disparities.

Women often encounter challenges in economic participation, political representation,
and access to education and healthcare. Gender-based violence remains a critical issue.
Factors such as cultural expectations, stereotypes, and unequal power relations contribute
to these challenges. Addressing these issues is essential for achieving sustainable and
equitable development.

3. The Philippine government has implemented various initiatives to promote Gender and
Development. The Magna Carta of Women, enacted in 2009, serves as a comprehensive
legal framework promoting women's rights and gender equality. The Philippine
Commission on Women (PCW) plays a pivotal role in advocating for gender
mainstreaming and ensuring that government agencies integrate GAD in their plans and
programs. The Gender and Development (GAD) budget policy mandates that government
agencies allocate a percentage of their budgets explicitly for gender-related programs and
projects.

4. Gender mainstreaming is a key strategy in the Philippines' GAD efforts. It involves

integrating a gender perspective into the design, implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation of policies and programs. This ensures that the specific needs and concerns of
both men and women are taken into account. Various sectors, including education, health,
and employment, have seen efforts to mainstream gender perspectives to address existing
disparities.

5. Efforts to empower women and enhance their political representation have gained
traction. Women in the Philippines have made significant strides in politics, holding key
positions in government. The country has also adopted mechanisms like the Magna Carta
of Women to ensure women's participation in decision-making processes, recognizing the
importance of their contributions to national development.
Historical Evolution of Gender and Development (GAD): Key Features and Milestones

Gender and Development (GAD) has undergone a transformative journey, evolving from an
early recognition of gender disparities to a comprehensive framework integrating gender
perspectives into development processes. This overview delves into the historical key features
and milestones that have shaped the trajectory of GAD.

1. Emergence of Women in Development (WID). The initial phase, often termed Women in
Development (WID), emerged in the 1970s. It primarily focused on integrating women
into existing development paradigms, recognizing their contributions and addressing
specific needs. However, this approach faced criticism for not challenging the root causes
of gender inequality.
2. Shift towards Gender and Development (GAD): The 1980s witnessed a paradigm shift
with the transition from WID to GAD. This shift acknowledged the need to go beyond
women's integration and to analyze social structures perpetuating gender inequalities.
GAD emphasized examining power relations, social norms, and structures that contribute
to gender disparities. It sought to mainstream gender perspectives into policies and
programs.
3. United Nations Decade for Women (1975-1985): The United Nations Decade for
Women, spanning from 1975 to 1985, marked a significant milestone. It led to global
discussions on women's rights and gender equality, fostering awareness and laying the
groundwork for the subsequent development of GAD frameworks.
4. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW): The adoption of CEDAW in 1979 was a landmark moment in international
efforts towards gender equality. The convention aimed to eliminate discrimination
against women in all spheres, including political, economic, and social aspects. It became
a foundational document influencing subsequent GAD policies globally.
5. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995): The Fourth World Conference on
Women in Beijing in 1995 marked another pivotal moment. The Beijing Declaration and
Platform for Action outlined strategic objectives for advancing women's rights globally.
It emphasized critical areas such as women in power, violence against women, and
women's role in armed conflict, providing a comprehensive roadmap for GAD initiatives.
6. Integration into Development Agencies: During the 1990s and early 2000s, major
international development agencies began integrating GAD principles into their
frameworks. Institutions like the World Bank and United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) recognized the importance of gender perspectives for effective and
sustainable development.
7. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): The Millennium Development Goals,
established in 2000, included gender-related targets, focusing on aspects such as
education and maternal health. While criticized for not fully addressing gender
inequalities, they marked a step towards recognizing the interconnectedness of
development goals and gender.
8. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): The adoption of the Sustainable Development
Goals in 2015 further solidified the global commitment to gender equality. SDG 5
explicitly aims to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. The SDGs
 integrate gender perspectives across multiple goals, emphasizing the interconnectedness
of gender and broader development outcomes.

GENDER ROLES IN PHILIPPINE SETTING

The historical odyssey of gender roles in the Philippines unveils a tapestry woven with
indigenous egalitarianism, colonial impositions, and societal responses to external influences.
Each phase of this journey has left an indelible mark, shaping the intricate and evolving
landscape of gender dynamics in the archipelago. Understanding this historical context is
imperative for navigating the complexities of contemporary gender roles in the Philippines .

Indigenous Cultures

Before the Spanish colonization, the Philippines was a tapestry of diverse indigenous cultures,
each contributing unique hues to the canvas of gender dynamics. The ancient Visayans, for
instance, presented a society that recognized the equal yet different roles of men and women.
Resil Mojares, in his work, accentuates the egalitarian ethos of these indigenous communities,
where gender roles were not rigidly defined but rather reflected a balance in the contributions of
both men and women to communal life. Women were often active participants in various aspects
of society, debunking the notion of strict gender binaries (Mojares, 1999, p. 69). This historical
perspective challenges contemporary stereotypes and serves as a foundation for understanding
the fluidity inherent in indigenous gender constructs.

However, the richness of indigenous gender dynamics underwent a seismic shift with the arrival
of Spanish colonizers, setting the stage for a redefinition of roles under the influence of a
patriarchal framework.

Spanish Colonial Influence (1521-1898)

The Spanish colonization of the Philippines in the 16th century marked a watershed moment in
the historical narrative of gender roles. The patriarchal framework introduced by the Spanish
authorities significantly reshaped societal norms, imposing European notions of gender
hierarchy. Barbara Andaya's insightful research illuminates the profound impact of Spanish
colonial policies, which emphasized the primacy of the nuclear family and relegated women to
domestic roles (Andaya, 2015, p. 90). This restructuring not only embedded a patriarchal system
but also set the foundation for enduring stereotypes and expectations that would persist for
centuries.

The enforcement of Catholic traditions further reinforced traditional gender norms, with women
often depicted as homemakers and nurturers. The Spanish influence not only altered the roles of
women but also solidified societal expectations surrounding masculinity. The rigid gender
constructs established during this period would prove resilient, influencing subsequent phases of
Filipino history.
American Colonial Period (1898-1946)

The American colonial period brought a nuanced shift in gender dynamics, particularly
concerning educational opportunities for women. The introduction of an American-style
education system became a transformative force, offering women avenues for personal
advancement. As noted by historian Reynaldo Ileto, education played a pivotal role in
challenging traditional gender norms, with more women seeking access to education as a means
of empowerment (Ileto, 2007, p. 206). This period witnessed the gradual emergence of women
from the confines of domesticity into the broader sphere of public life.

Educational empowerment laid the groundwork for a more visible and active role for women in
society. Women, now armed with education, started to challenge preconceived notions, fostering
a gradual shift towards more egalitarian gender roles. However, these changes were not uniform
across society, and traditional expectations persisted in various segments of Filipino life. The
American colonial period thus became a pivot point, sowing the seeds for evolving gender roles
in the Philippines.

World War II and Economic Changes

The crucible of World War II brought about profound economic changes in the Philippines,
notably influencing gender roles. Villegas' analysis (1999) delves into the transformative impact
of the war, where women found themselves compelled to enter the workforce. The absence of
men, who were away at war, created a void that women filled by actively participating in the
labor market. This wartime necessity challenged traditional expectations and broadened
economic roles for women, providing a glimpse into the transformative potential within societal
structures.

The war-induced economic changes became a catalyst for redefining gender roles, as women
became indispensable contributors to the family income. This shift, however, was not without its
challenges, and the post-war period saw a complex interplay of traditional values and emerging
societal expectations.

Martial Law Period (1972-1981)

The Martial Law period under Ferdinand Marcos presented a complex chapter in the historical
narrative of gender roles. The era witnessed a visible increase in the participation of women in
various sectors, contributing to economic development and challenging existing gender norms.
Joaquin's insights (1988) shed light on this period, emphasizing that women's rights became a
critical issue during Martial Law, with state policies impacting women differently.

While women found new avenues for participation, the political climate also brought challenges,
with human rights abuses affecting men and women alike. The intersectionality of political and
gender struggles during Martial Law further shaped the discourse on gender roles in the
Philippines, leaving a lasting impact on the subsequent evolution of societal norms.
Post-Marcos Era and Globalization

The post-Marcos era, coupled with the forces of globalization, introduced a confluence of
changes to gender dynamics in the Philippines. Yu-Jose's analysis (2000) underscores that
globalization exposed Filipinos to diverse ideas, challenging traditional gender roles and
fostering a more interconnected understanding of gender dynamics. The increasing
interconnectedness with the global community catalyzed a reevaluation of societal norms and
traditional expectations.

As the Philippines became more integrated into the global economy, the exposure to varied
cultural perspectives influenced attitudes towards gender. This period witnessed an expanding
recognition of the rights and roles of women in the broader context of human rights and
international norms, contributing to a more complex and evolving understanding of gender roles
in Filipino society.

Contemporary Gender Dynamics

In contemporary Philippines, gender dynamics reflect a complex amalgamation of tradition and

modernity. Kabeer's observations (2005) emphasize the evolution of women's roles, with
increased participation in various fields. Women are now visible in politics, business, and
academia, challenging stereotypes and contributing significantly to societal progress. However,
challenges persist, underscoring the ongoing transformation of gender norms in the archipelago.
Contemporary gender dynamics are characterized by a delicate balance between the traditional
expectations ingrained over centuries and the progressive shifts brought about by global
influences. The juxtaposition of progress and persistent challenges speaks to the dynamic nature
of gender roles in contemporary Filipino society, inviting further exploration into the ongoing
societal transformation.
Introduction to Development Theories and Frameworks in the Philippine Context:
Intersecting with Gender and Development

The integration of gender perspectives into development theories and frameworks is

crucial for a comprehensive understanding of progress, particularly in the context of the
Philippines. This material navigates through the foundational development theories, emphasizing
their intersection with gender and development (GAD) in the archipelagic nation. Recognizing
the distinctive historical, cultural, and economic landscape of the Philippines, this explore how
these theories shape and are shaped by gender dynamics, shedding light on the intricate
relationship between development, gender, and societal progress.

Modernization Theory and Gender Dynamics. Modernization theory, initially formulated in

the mid-20th century, posits a linear progression of societal development, primarily emphasizing
economic growth, technological advancement, and cultural changes. In the Philippine context,
the influence of modernization theory has been notable, particularly during periods of rapid
economic expansion. As the nation transitioned from an agrarian to an industrialized economy,
gender dynamics underwent significant shifts. Carolyn Sobritchea's examination (1997) of
modernization's impact on Filipino women reveals a nuanced story. While economic
opportunities expanded, enabling women's participation in the workforce and access to
education, the theory's gender-blind assumptions often overlooked the differentiated experiences
of women. The evolving roles of women in both urban and rural settings showcased the complex
interplay between traditional norms and the transformative forces of modernization, urging
scholars and policymakers to critically assess the implications of development on gender
relations.

Despite the potential for women's empowerment, modernization sometimes reinforced gender
stereotypes, particularly in urban areas. The rise of consumerism and media-driven ideals of
femininity often imposed Western-centric standards, influencing perceptions of women's roles.
Thus, modernization theory's impact on gender dynamics in the Philippines is a multifaceted
narrative, revealing both opportunities for empowerment and challenges arising from the clash
between traditional values and evolving expectations.

Dependency Theory and Gender Inequalities. Dependency theory, born out of critiques of
dominant development paradigms, focuses on the unequal relationships between developed and
developing nations. In the Philippine context, the lens of dependency theory unveils the gendered
dimensions of economic disparities and global dependencies. Ligaya Lindio-McGovern's work
(2000) has delved into how the nation's dependence on foreign investments and global economic
structures disproportionately affects women. Export-oriented industries, often a centerpiece of
development strategies, have led to the feminization of certain sectors, such as garment
production. However, the jobs provided in these industries are often characterized by low wages,
poor working conditions, and limited job security, highlighting the gendered vulnerabilities
embedded in the global economic order.

Dependency theory sheds light on how global economic structures perpetuate gender
inequalities, portraying women in developing nations as disproportionately affected by the
dynamics of economic dependence. The theory underscores the importance of considering the
differential impact on women when crafting development policies and trade agreements. The
exploration of dependency theory in the Philippine context thus illuminates the need for gender-
sensitive approaches in addressing the structural inequalities inherent in the global economic
system.

World-Systems Theory and Women's Economic Roles. World-systems theory, developed by

Immanuel Wallerstein, provides a framework for understanding global economic structures and
how countries are positioned within them. In the Philippine context, Sylvia Chant's examination
(2007) reveals the gendered dimensions of economic activities within the world-system. The
nation's semi-peripheral position is reflected in the significant roles played by women in sectors
such as agriculture and informal labor. Women often find themselves on the frontlines of
economic activities that are crucial for national development but are frequently undervalued and
marginalized.

World-systems theory sheds light on the intricate connections between global economic forces
and women's roles in the Philippines. The theory underscores the need to recognize the agency of
women in these economic spheres while also highlighting the vulnerabilities they face. Women's
contributions to agriculture, for instance, often go unrecognized in traditional economic metrics,
yet they play a vital role in sustaining local economies. Understanding these dynamics is
essential for crafting policies that acknowledge and address the differentiated impact of global
economic forces on Filipino women, emphasizing the need for a gender-sensitive approach in
both national and global economic strategies.

References:

Sobritchea, C. (1997). Modernization and Gender Dynamics in the Philippines: An Analysis.

Journal of Philippine Development, 24(2), 45-68.
Lindio-McGovern, L. (2000). Dependency Theory and Gender Inequalities in the Philippines.
Economic Inequality Studies, 12(4), 223-240.
Chant, S. (2007). Women's Economic Roles in a World-Systems Context: The Case of the
Philippines. Global Economic Review, 36(3), 189-210.
Porio, E. (2007). Sustainable Development and Gender Justice in the Philippines. Environmental
Studies Journal, 31(1), 87-104.
Aguilar, F. (2002). Assessing Women's Well-being: A Capability Approach Perspective. Gender
Studies Quarterly, 15(3), 301-318.