Education1 1 1

EDUCATION
OTUNGAH SAMUEL
© S. K OTUNGAH Page 1 of 253

Part One
(Paper 1)

Introduction
Definitions
Education
It is the process of receiving or giving systematic instructions, especially at school or university.
Psychology
The science that deals with mental processes and behavior.
Branches of Psychology
1. Experimental psychology
Involves lab research on the things like perception affecting memory, language and emotions
2. Biopsychology
Based on human behavior and mental process
3. Comparative Psychology
Similarities and difference in behavior and ability between human beings and animals
4. Development Psychology
Physical and psychological changes across life span
5. School Psychology
Concerned with evaluation of students performance in school, involves preparation of
programmes to improve students performance and behavior.
6. Educational Development Psychology
Aims at explaining educative process like curriculum development
7. Personal Psychology
Study different behavior among individuals.
8. Social Psycholog
Study that is concern with interpersonal
9. Counseling Psychology
Deals with problems of everyday
10. Clinical Psychology
Deals with severe disorder like phobia, drug abuse
11. Organization/Industry Psychology
Strategies of working conditions, methods of hiring workers,
12. Engineering Psychology
Study of human structure, behavior and mental processes which determine design equipment
13. Forensic Psychology
Determine validity of eyes witness training how to handle chores.
14. Sports Psychology
15. Environmental Psychology
Improve physical environment.

Chapter 1
History of Education
African indigenous education
What were the aims of traditional African education?
Traditional African education aimed at achieving the following:
 Preservation of cultural heritage of the extended family, the clan and the tribe.
 Adapting members of the younger generations (children) to their physical environment and
teaching them how to control and use it.
 Explaining to the youth that their own future and that of their community depends on the
understanding and perpetuation of the institutions, laws, languages and values inherited
from the past.
What were the major characteristics of traditional African education?

 There were no schools or written syllabuses to be followed.
 Teachers were not paid and the teacher-pupil ratio was ideal.
 It had well varied teaching methods such as games, traditional dances, riddles and legends;
all related to cultures and traditions of the people.
 Technical skills were acquired and learned on an apprentice principle.
 Education was given in stages from infancy to the time of marriage and there were no
dropouts.
 Promotion to the next stage was almost automatic. .
 It was the responsibility of the community to educate the youth.
 Discipline was instilled-by means of punishment and reward.
What was emphasized in traditional African education as a way of preparing an individual

for life?
 Obedience to elders.
 Good manners.
 Hospitality to friends.
 Co-operation in common tasks.
 Acquisition of practical skills in preparation for adulthood.
 Self-restraint and endurance of hardships.
 Pride of membership in a group.
In what instances was the traditional African education formal?

 Traditional African education was formal when in the evening a father or mother would narrate
a tribal legend, impart kinship knowledge, give advice or explain the meaning of a proverb.
 Formal lessons were given before and after circumcision by the elder brothers and sisters to
the initiates. Girls were instructed by mothers and aunts as to what was expected of them and
to whom they owe respect.
 Formal education took the form of succeeding a stage of initiation from one stage to another.

Why did Western education take up the place of traditional education?
 Western education was seen as a way of moving out of poverty and a ticket for upward social
mobility.
 The Africans wanted to discover the Western way of life.
 The ideas and values on which traditional education was founded lost meaning as Western
education promoted individualism which gives man satisfaction.
Why shouldn’t we wholly abandon the traditional African education in favour of Western
education?
 The fabric of our social systems would be disrupted if traditional education was abandoned as
we would lose our identity and nationality
 The knowledge and use of traditional medicinal herbs is becoming increasingly useful.
 The society expects children to continue respecting their elders and uphold such virtues.
 The values that were promoted by T.A.E are still important to us today as they were then.
Islamic education
What are the major features of Islamic education (madrassa system of education)?
Its major features are:
 The theory of Islamic education is found in ‘the Quran’ and in the ‘Hadithi’ or the tradition of
prophet Mohammed.
 The Quranic (madrassa) schools are an equivalent of Western primary schools. Religious
centres are easily turned into education centres where the fundamentals of Islam are taught.
 In madrassa, the intellectual level consists mainly of memorizing the chapters of the Quran.
This begins with learning letters of the Arabic alphabet, the vowel sounds and writing.
Memorization starts with the shortest chapter and eventually goes on to learning of the whole
Quran by heart (3Rs).
 Children are taught to respect their elders and the culture of which they are a part.
 Attendance to Quranic schools is not compulsory; therefore, students can attend and leave as
they wish.
 Classes are attended from Saturday to Wednesday with holidays on Thursdays ' and Fridays.
 Islamic education has less emphasis on awarding of certificates or diplomas.
 After Quranic schools (madrassa system), education for some students go on to Muslim school
(equivalent of Western secondary schools) where they learn a wide range of Islamic literature,
and theological or legal subjects.
Why Islamic education did not make great impact as Western education along the coast?
 Islamic education remained in the areas where the Arabs concentrated on business basically
along caravan route.
 Was seen as an ordinary way of life for the believers; non believers could not take it freely like
was the case with Western education.
 Was not associated with upward social mobility or economic gain unlike Western education
which was seen as a way out of poverty.

 Did not open the way to higher education like the western primary education did.
Establishment of Western education before 1963

Early missionary education
Although missionary work in Kenya hard started as early as 1846, it was not until the last twenty
years of the 19th century and early in the 20th century that it gathered moment. Give reasons
for the moment.
 Evangelisation gathered momentum towards the end of the 19th century partly due to the great
interest aroused in Britain by evangelical revivalists and mainly due to the religious
disturbances in Uganda where most missionaries and indeed Europeans' interest was centred.
 There was interest shown on the Galla tribe of northern Kenya and southern Ethiopia who were
said to be some of the earliest Christians cut off from Christendom when Islam swept across
north Africa in the 7th century.
 Dr. Krapf’s work on language prepared the way for all subsequent educationalists and
missionaries.
 The Opening of the Uganda railway helped the missionaries in extending their field of
activities.
Why missionary education did not make major impact at the beginning in coast?
Missionary education was not enthusiastically received at the coast because:
 Many Africans had already been converted to Islam through the Quranic schools and so they
did not want missionary education which was tied to Christianity.
 The concern of the missionaries was to rehabilitate freed slaves.
 The Africans there were not ready to forego their own culture in favour of a new one.
 Tropical diseases did not favour the settlement of the white missionaries who had brought the
Western education.
Why did the missionaries want to educate the Africans?

The aims of missionary education were to:
 Win converts.
 Rehabilitate the freed slaves:
 Westernize the Africans.
 Teach literacy to the Africans so that they could read the Bible.
 Teach hygiene and Western medicine to Africans.
 Introduce Western commerce and industry.
What type of education did the missionaries design for the Africans?
 The type of education given to the Africans was predominantly of a religious nature in which
the lives of the upright and holy men in the Bible were magnified.
 Africans were also taught to read, write and do arithmetic, but not to a level that would make
the recipients literary giants.
 Industrial and technical education was given but it remained elementary as no African artisan

was envisaged.
 Agriculture was taught, but Africans were not allowed to grow cash crops.
How was the early missionary education managed?

 The early missionary schools were established without the sanctions or help from the
government.
 The efficiency of such schools depended on the resources and initiative of a particular mission.
Each mission formulated its own policy, trained, employed and dismissed its own teachers.
 Each mission set its own curriculum and determined what would be examined.
 The result was obviously one of unbalanced education development.
How did Africans respond to the early missionary education?

At first the Africans’ reaction was indifferent, hostile and apathetic. The reasons were that:
 Parents preferred to see their children do family chores rather than go to school especially
when the utility of such education was not immediately seen.
 The missionaries were also known to preach against African cultures such as female
circumcision. This was not welcomed by the Africans.
 Manual work in missionary schools outweighed classroom work, something that was loathed
by Africans.
Later on, the Africans developed a liking for Western education because:
 They saw the sons and daughters of those who had sent their children to school begin to enjoy
the fruits of their labour after employment.
 They began to see education as an avenue of escape from poverty and a passport to a new urban
world.
 They also wanted to learn the ways of the white man, learn to speak English, and understand
the laws. Education was seen as a way of learning the secrets behind the white man’s success.
 The demand for Western (academic) education became so high that Africans found the
missionaries and the government too slow at providing it hence the determination to establish
independent schools.
Government participation in education

What made the colonial government to consider seriously its participation in education?
 There was pressure from the white settlers who wanted to see their children educated since
they were contributing to the growth of the country’s economy.
 The colonials realized that they needed skilled labour that was cheap instead of engaging
expensive labour from Asians
 The colonial government needed the services of literate chiefs, village headmen, etc.
What was the starting point for government participation?

The colonial government started by inviting J. Nelson Frazer in 1908, a man who had education
experiences from India, to survey the education system in existence and recommend ways of

organizing it. It is after recommendations made by Frazer that the government started to participate
in education in 1910. Before then education was solely in the hands of the missionaries.
Outline the recommendations made by Frazer.

Frazer recommended that:
 A department of education to be set up and a Director of education be appointed to head it.
 There be three branches of education, viz European, Asian and African.
 European and Asian children be given an academic type of education.
 African children be given industrial and agricultural type of education to provide labour
that is cheaper than that provided by Asians.
How did Frazer’s report influence the development of education?

 A department of education was established in 1910 and a Director of education appointed to
head it. The development of education continued to be controlled by the Director throughout
the colonial period.
 The government opened and managed a number of industrial and agricultural schools in areas
not effectively served by the missionaries to avoid duplication for example,Machakos
Technical School was opened in 1919.
 The government continued to assist in financing education for Africans although the
contribution was very low particularly the spending on education.
 Education continued to be on racial lines up to the time of independence.
Why did the colonial government institute the 1918 Education Commission?
The 1918 Education Commission was instituted because:
 A number of problems emerged as various groups attempted to participate in the development
of education, causing the government to want to bring together the views on the nature of
education from various groups (missionaries, white settlers and the government).
 The missionaries’ expansion of village schools was not favoured by colonial administration
because they had a tendency to include literary education in the instruction which was contrary
to the education policy.
 The missionaries on the other hand started experiencing shortage of funds to run the schools
they had started.
 The Asians and Europeans were concerned primarily with improving education facilities for
their own racial groups.
 The government had no staff on their own for the schools they had started and therefore
depended on missionaries for this.
What was the outcome of the Commission?

 The Commission stressed the need for literary education as the basis for technical education
for the Africans.
 The government and the missionaries formed a partnership which was to last up to 1957. The
government supplied the staff, buildings and some money.
 The Commission recommended that moral and religious instruction be given in all the native

schools. This remained so up to independence and even today in public schools.
 The Commission also urged the government to give greater support than it had previously to
the education efforts of voluntary agencies and of self-appointed school committees operating
on non-racial lines.
Outline the objectives of Phelps Stoke commission of 1924

 To find out what and how education work was being carried out for the African in each territory
they visited.
 To find out the educational needs of the people and ascertain the extent to which these needs
were met.
What recommendations did the commission make with regard to education for Africans in
Kenya?
 That the government and the missionaries should be cooperate more in the financing of
Education for the African. They drew the attention of the government to its negligible
expenditure on education for the African.
 That Africans be given an education which would equip them for rural life. The form of
education given to the Africans should not drive them away from their traditional cultures nor
encourage them to migrate to towns in search of white colour jobs.
 That emphasis be placed on the teaching of practical and prevocational subjects.
 That education continues to be racially segregated as recommended by Frazer.
.
How did the Phelps-Stoke Report influence the development of education?

 Co-operation between the government and the missions was formalised following the report.
 The Native Industrial Training Depot (NITD) at Kabete was formally opened in July, 1924, to
provide specialised training in various trades.
 Government subsidies to approved mission schools laid ground for a system which evolved
later i.e., “grants in aid”.
About the same time the Phelps-Stoke Commission was carrying out its tasks, the government
issued a document called the Education-Ordinance of 1924 to regulate development of
education. How did the Ordinance affect education development?
 The ordinance emphasised the control of mission schools. All schools had to be registered and
licensed.
 Teachers had to obtain a licence to teach after meeting certain qualifications.
 The schools which could not meet the requirements for registration were closed down.
 The Director was given more authority to inspect schools, to withdraw the ‘grants in aid’, and
even to close the school at will.
 The taxpayers were to contribute two shillings per head towards the financing of education.
 District education committees were established to advise the director on how the schools
should be developed.
 A central advisory committee was also established.

The first official policy on education for the Africans released by the colonial office in London
was known as Education Policy in British Tropical Africa or the 1925 ' Memorandum.
What guidance did the 1925 Memorandum give on education?

 It recommended that education for the Africans be adapted to the need of the local commmity,
considering the best aspects of the traditional society while preparing the individual for the
changing world.
 It urged the government to give greater attention to the education of girl because of their
potential contribution as wives and mother to the welfare of the entire community.
 It called on the government in the colonies to provide technical and vocational training leaving
the academic side to the missionaries.
What problems related to development of education was the memorandum attempting to

solve?
 One problem that had developed with the growth of education in the country was one of
conflicting interests in education for the Africans by various groups, The missionaries' interest
was to train catechists and teach the converts to read the Bible, The white settlers were
interested in getting cheap and skilled labour from the Africans. None of these groups cared
about the Africans‘ interests a: welfare.
 The second problem arose when the government began to take part in the education of
Africans. The missionaries saw the government as a threat in an area they considered
themselves experts. It was, therefore, necessary for the government to avoid duplication and
conflict by concentrating on technical education in technical schools, while the missionaries
dealt with academic matters.
Why has education of girls lagged behind in comparison to that of boys for a long time?
Education for girls has lagged behind because:
 Girls were considered an investment that would be exchanged for cows or goats at the time of
marriage. Educating girls was seen as a waste of resources.
 In some communities, girls were engaged or married while too young. This denied them a
chance to go to school.
 Early pregnancies among school girls forced many of them to drop out prematurely.
 Education for girls was not valued highly by parents because after marriage they would only
benefit the family where they got married.
 It was misconceived that girls who went to school would be immoral or loose.
 Female circumcision created a feeling of readiness for marriage hence causing girls to drop
out of schools.
Most of the education commission reports before independence emphasised the need to give
the Africans technical and vocational skills.
Why was there emphasis on technical and vocational education?

 First, this type of Education was seen by the colonial government and the white settlers as a

way of providing Cheap and skilled labour required for economic growth.
 Secondly, academic education was seen to accelerate the pace of Change which might alter the
whole frame of control by the colonial government. This was believed to have been the cause
of political agitation in India.
 The Europeans did not want to encourage the Africans to aspire for the same things as the
whites. The Africans were expected to have a different future from the privileged Europeans.
 The Europeans held a false view that “Africans were of lower intelligence” and, therefore,
could not benefit from academic education, hence the need to provide for “contact with the
material process” as they put it.
Why did technical and vocational education policy fail?

The policy on technical and vocational education failed because:
 This type of education was not popular among the Africans. They viewed it as an attempt by
the government to keep them in an inferior position and to harnper their economic and political
advancement.
 Those who learnt agriculture were not allowed to grow cash crops.
 The selective function of the school worked to defeat the ‘policy. Those who succeeded
through primary education secured jobs in the civil service or the private sector that were not
related to the vocational training they had received.
 The Africans obtained degrees and became determined to disapprove the perceived notion that
Africans were basically less able than Europeans.
Why is the present 8-4-4 education system re-introducing technical and prevocational
education that had been abandoned after independence?
 The re-introduction of technical and pre-vocational subjects has been as a result of school
leavers failing to secure formal employment. It is hoped that through this type of education,
the pupils will acquire and develop skills necessary for gainful self-employment.
 It is hoped that this will lay a foundation for pupils who are talented and advance the
development of such talents.
 It is also hoped at pupils will develop a positive attitude and respect for manual labour.
 This type of education will also help to develop the middle level manpower required for the
development of the country's economy.
Management and control of education

In 1924, the Department of Education established Local Native Councils (LNCS)
What was the purpose of such councils?

LNCs were established to:
 Provide education to those regions which were not affected by missionary activity.
 Provide secular education separate from religious influences where a particular religion
was predominant.
 Exercise power in college and voting for funds.
 Determine sites and build school.

What achievements did the LNCs make?
 The LNCs collected taxes and gave grants to mission school at the initial stages and later
to the government established schools.
 After 1934 they pressed for the development of primary schools and higher institutions of
education through the District Education Boards (DEBS).
 They began to allocate more money for scholarships for secondary and further education.
 The most notable success of LNCs was in the development of Kangundo, Kakamega and
Kisii secondary Schools whose performance outshone missionary schools in examination
results of 1939.
Why were the missionaries opposed to Local Native Council schools?

 The missionaries were opposed to the establishment of such schools because they did not
emphasise Christian teaching which they considered necessary in the formation of character.
Why was the Education Ordinance of 1931 passed?

 Control of the establishment of more schools and control of expenditure in financing
education was necessary because the government was experiencing financial constraints
due to the world economic recession.
 The Africans had established so many independent schools in a bid to provide the much
desired literary education that it was causing concern to the missionaries who complained
to the government.
 The Director claimed that standards of education in many schools had deteriorated; the
teacher-pupil ratio was not ideal and teaching of English Was poor particularly in African
independent schools.
What effects did the 1931 Ordinance have on development of education?

 With the release of the ordinance, a good number of African independent schools were closed
down.
 The Africans protested the move which they viewed as a measure aimed at keeping them
subordinate to the white man.
African participation in the development of education
Independent schools movement
Why did the Africans struggle to establish their own schools when the missionaries and the
colonial government were committed to providing education for them?
The Africans began to build their own schools because they:
 Wanted to provide themselves with the academic type of education denied them and which
they saw as an avenue to economic prosperity and high social status.
 Viewed the attempts to limit the Africans' education to technical and vocational ' training
as a design calculated to keep them in an inferior position.
 Wanted a form of education that was free from missionary control, since they were opposed
to the African traditional ways of life such as female circumcision.

 Resented the compulsory element of religious training in the education they were receiving
from the missionaries.
What problems did the Independent Schools Movement face in its struggle to establish such
schools?
Development of independent schools‘ faced problems such as:
 Lack of trained teachers.
 Lack of necessary facilities, e.g. textbooks, writing materials and a well-developed
curriculum.
 Limited finances raised through self-help (Harambee). Little or no financial aid from the
government was available.
 The missionaries were opposed to the establishment of such schools since they were
competing with them and occasionally making them to lose their followers, catechists and
teachers.
 They pressurized the government to have those schools closed.
What role did the government play in the development of independent schools?
 The colonial government did not heed the early calls by the missionaries to have the schools
closed.
 They slowly recognised the schools and aided some of them financially.
 In 1938, the colonial government actually’ organised an in-service course for independent
school teachers.
 The colonial government, however, kept on restraining the rapid pace at which the schools
flourished through the education ordinances.
 Assess the achievement of the Independent Schools Movement.
 In 1939, they established a training college for teachers at Githunguri.
 They openly demonstrate the African dissatisfaction with the type of education provided
to them by both the missionaries and the government; they did that by providing the right
curriculum for their schools.
 They demonstrated the remarkable sacrifices they were ready to make to get what they
wanted and their ability to organise so as to achieve these ends.
What led to the closure of the independent schools in 1952?

 Independent schools were closed down in 1952 under the pretext that they were training
grounds for militant political action.
A change in government policy

Education memorandum
Which one of the memorandums led to the establishment of East African Literature Bureau

(now known as Kenya Literature Bureau)?
The Education Memorandum of 1944 led to the establishment of East African Literature Bureau
to enable Africans in the rural areas to borrow books so as to enhance mass literacy.
Which one of the memorandums urged the government to give greater attention to the
education of girls?
The Education Memorandum of 1925
The Beecher Report 1949

What was the purpose of L.J Beecher’s Committee on Education?
The Committee was appointed by the Governor to examine the entire education system and to
report on the scope, content and methods of the African's education system. A wind of change was
blowing in the British colonies for independence and, therefore, there was need to prepare Africans
for future leadership roles.
Outline the major recommendations made by the Beecher Committee.

The Committee recommended:
 That something be done to prepare the Africans for their future leading roles in Kenya.
 That the Christian principles form the basis for African education.
 That the structure of the education system be changed from 2 year sub elementary, 3 year-
elementary, 3 year-intermediate and 4 year-secondary (2-3-3-4) to 4 year-primary, 4 year-
intermediate and 4 year-secondary (4-4-4).
 That a more positive approach be given to the industrial and agricultural orientation of the
African curriculum.
 That more effective government control of schools (which were greatly expanded at primary
level) be checked and greater expansion at secondary and teacher training levels be provided.
 That the government provide African education through the help of missionary societies.
 DEBS be charged with responsibility for primary and intermediate schools.
Why was the Beecher Report unpopular among the Africans?

 The report was unpopular because it was too limiting in its estimates of the number of existing
schools. It proposed 5 junior secondary schools when there were 10 in existence; and 20
intermediate schools when there were 80 of them.
 The Africans saw the recommendations as suppressive and enhancing the principle of
educating Africans to take up manual tasks.
 It proposed that only 30 per cent of the primary school pupils would proceed to intermediate
schools.
The Binns Group (1950)

Before the implementation of the Beecher Report of 1949 another committee called Binns Group
was appointed under the auspices of the colonial Officer in conjunction with Nuffield Foundation.
What was the purpose of the committee?
 The committee was expected to look into the educational policy and practice in ‘British
Tropical Africa’, to examine whether the existing education was of the right kind up to and
including secondary level.

 Its recommendations included forming a basis for education in the next twenty-five years
after Phelps-Stoke Report of 1924 which had guided education development for Africans
for the last 25 years.
What were the major recommendations made in the Binns Report of 1952?
The report recommended greater centralisation than the Beecher Committee had advocated and
criticized the Committee for leaving supervision largely in the hands of the missionaries.
It also:
 stressed the need for co-operation between the church and state for sound moral growth as
recommended by Beecher.
 agreed with the Beecher Report that emphasis be given to practical work so that the future
leaders of Africa are made aware of the paramount importance of agriculture and the
dignity of manual tasks.
 urged that the exam-oriented system of education he changed to help destroy the Africans'
desire for certificates leading to clerical jobs.
 expressed shock at the drop-out rate and estimated that only 30 per cent of the children in
schools successfully completed the fourth year, 3.7 per cent 4a eighth year, and 2 per cent
the twelfth year.
Why were the Beechers’ and Binns’ Reports not put to effective implementation?
The recommendations of the reports were not put to effective practice largely due to the State of
Emergency that followed, and the new colonial policies issued later.
In which ways was education for Africans financed before independence?

Education for the Africans was financed through:
 Grants-in-aid’ from the government. '
 Rates collected by Local Native Councils.
 Funds from mission centres.
 School fees from parents.

Chapter
Comparative Education
Introduction
Comparative education is the study of different educational system with aim to understand
similarity and difference among educational system.
Importance of Studying Comparative Education

 It satisfies the teacher intellectual.
 It enables the teacher to acquire knowledge of different educational system as to understand
how one educational system has been influenced by others.
 A teacher gain the insight of other nation hence bring harmony in the world.
 It enable a teacher to criticize him to education system in terms of quality, curriculum.
 It has history of borrowing from other countries systems of education with a view of
strengthening ones own.
 It enables one to understand and appreciate the foreign values hence creating international
understanding from the rest of the world.
 It broadened our thinking when dealing with educational issues and problems.
 It fosters international understanding, peace among the nations.
 It assists in achieving international standards in education.
 It assists countries to reforms or improves their educational system by providing reference.
 It enables us to understand differences and similarities between education systems.
The Scopes of Comparative Education

1. Subject Matter/Content
It covers the essential components of education system such as aim content, curriculum,
administration, finance etc
2. Geographical Unit
It comprises international, regional, Continental and global.
3. Ideological
It comprises country's education system on the basis of different political, social and economic
ideas.
4. Thematic
It focuses on the theme, topical issues or problems and compares them within one or more
geographical units.
5. Historical perspective
It deals with the study of historical development of cooperative education from the earliest period
of mankind known as travelers’ tale to the modern period (period of social science perspective)

Limitations of Comparative Education
1. Data collection
There are difficulties encountered in collecting data from foreign countries due to long distance
involved by researchers.
2. Cost
The cost of collecting data from foreign countries is prohibitive due to long distance.
3. Varied/different technology
There are variations in technology which may be found to be misleading or confusing hence mis-
interpretation of information.
4. Not Objective
One is likely not to be objective in the study, in the comparison and collection of data different
countries.
5. Dynamic society
Comparative education notes that the society is ever evolving. It is never static in nature hence the
information collected from one country may not be accurate at the time one wishes to compare.
6. Frustrated lesson
The application of lesson learnt from other countries, may be frustrated by the historical, political
and economic factors.
7. Different Ideologies
It does not put on concentration on social, economic and political ideologies which hinders the
provision of quality education.
Methods and approaches

What are the basic approaches used in comparative education studies?
The basic approaches used in comparative education studies are:
In the traditional method we have:
a) The selective education borrowing approach,
b) The descriptive approach and
c) The explanatory approach.
In the social science method we have:

a) The sociological approach,
b) The historical approach and
c) The philosophical approach,
In the conventional method we have:

a) Systematic area studies approach and .
b) The problem solving approach.

Explain what each of the following approaches entails:
a) The selective education borrowing approach
b) The descriptive and explanatory approach
c) The historical approach
d) The systematic area'studies approach
e) The problem solving approach
The selective education borrowing approach

It involves studying of institutions or foreign educational systems with the intension of
improving one’s own, e.g. Japan borrowed extensively from France and Germany in the
expansion and modernisation of her education systems in 1868.
It may also apply when a foreign expert is invited to advise on reform of institution or system of
education e.g. Mackay Report of 1985 that led to the change of Kenya’s educational structure
from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4. The expert then brings with him/her borrowed information and experience
from his/her own country or, school to be used in a different setting.
Descriptive and explanatory approach

The fundamental task of comparative study entails the collection, classification and array of data
about educational efforts of other nations. The findings are then collated, tabulated and published,
thus providing a standard against which each nation might measure its progress or shortcomings.
The International Bureau of Education (IBE), UNESCO and UNICEF have played a leading role
in the provision of such data.
The historical approach
In this approach it is assumed that the historical background of each country can explain the origins
and problems of its education system.
The systematic area studies approach

This approach recognises that comparative education has an interdisciplinary character and can
therefore profitably borrow from the contents and methods of various sciences e.g. sociology,
philosophy, history, politics, economics, etc. which can help explain similarities and differences
between systems of education.
It follows the following basic steps:

Description of the system of education.
Interpretation– explaining why things are the way they are.
Juxtaposition– preliminary matching of data or information.
Comparison– of features of one system with those of other institutions under study.
The major proponent of this approach is George Beredy.

The problem solving approach
It is a step by step approach to problem solving in education, in which a problem is identified, the
conditions under which it is found examined, possible solutions thought out and the most likely
outcome predicted. Therefore, as proposed by the proponents of the approach such as Brian
Holmes, the following steps are used.
Problem identification:Which depends on one’s personal experience, background knowledge

and awareness of educational issues and debates. The universality of the problem may make it
attractive to compare.
Problem analysis: This involves subjecting the problem to a reflective and intellectual activity to
clear up a confused situation or complexity.
Proposed solutions to the problems: Proposals are put forward as likely solutions to the problems
identified earlier. Analysis is made with the aim of finding the best solution.
Specification of the context: Here factors, determinants and conditions that are likely to influence
the outcome of the proposed solutions to the problem are identified and described.
Prediction of the consequences: These are anticipated likely outcomes or conclusions to be drawn
from the study. Here the expected activities are described and how such practices pay on the
proposals.
Comparison: This is a verification stage to check on whether things have worked as anticipated
by those who put forward the proposals or solutions to the problem. That involves comparing the
proposed against actual observable practices.
What are the basic problems associated with selective education borrowing?
 Success in the institutions of one country is no guarantee for the similar results in those of
another. National institutions are meant to serve the communities or societies that house
them. The cross-national transplant often find a difference and uniqueness in the nationality
and national character that makes cultural borrowing difficult.
 While the general principles of education might be common to all nations, efforts must be
made to ensure that there is compatibility between the innovation to be imported and the
entire complex of history, aspiration and institution of the receiving country for such
principles to be viable.
What are determinants that help to shape the educational system of a nation?
The geographical factor:

Climate, land configuration and population distribution influence school programmes, activities
and nature of school building and age limits. For example, in the hot tropical climate of the and
lands learning takes place in the morning hours when it is cool, while mobile schools may be
popular where the population is nomadic. In the temperate lands, school vacations are taken during
winter. In a rural setting where children walk long distances, they attend school at an older age.

Economic factors:
The income of a country has great influence on the system of education offered. It determines
among other things the amount or percentage of national revenue spent on education, the content
and methods of educational and the division of labour between the central government and local
authorities in the administration of education. High income countries have sufficient grants
devoted to education hence better buildings, books, stationery, better paid and motivated teachers,
experimentation with new methods, hence better quality of education. The reverse is true of low
income countries or areas.
The social cultural factors:

The traditions and aspirations of a people are reflected in its system of education. It is through
education that a society strives to protect and perpetuate its traditions and aspirations. Culture
changes extremely slowly; therefore, radical reforms in an educational system may be slowed
down or even blocked due to cultural lag; for example, graduate teachers are known to teach in
secondary schools, hence it may take time to convince the public that graduate teachers should
teach in primary schools for quality education at the primary cycle.
Political factors:
The political philosophy adopted by a country determines the ' education system to be put in place.
Socialism for example may emphasise monopoly of education by the state, secular education free
of religious influence, physical military training, political indoctrination, etc. Nationalism as a
political ideology may use education as a means of attaining national unity. Apartheid as a political
ideology brought into existence a racially segregated education system. '
Historical factors
The countries that were conquered by others or are under colonial rule may have an education
system in both content and structure, that is modelled to the one of the coloniser. In Africa south
of the Sahara, there are the anglophone and francophone education systems in the British and
French clonies respectively; changes that have been introduced in these systems since
independence are minor.
Language factors
The countries that use similar language as the lingua franca tend to influence one another; for
example, French speaking countries share a lot in education exchange given that-the books and
other printed materials are easily shared.
Religious factors
The early education influence in sub-Sahara was introduced by the missionaries. The regions that
were dominated by the Muslims in Africa have Arabic as the language and Islam in their curriculla,
e.g. Somali, Sudan etc.
Education for All

Why is there a greater emphasis on Education for All (EFA) today than ever before?
EFA is not a new concept in many nations of the developing world. Education has often been
assigned a critical function of empowering individuals, transforming societies and economies of
Such nations, this is often emphasised in party manifestos.
What were the EFA goals set by the Dakar framework of Action (2000)?
The Dakar framework of action set forth the following goals:
 To expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education especially for
the most vulnerable and disadvantaged of children. There is greater evidence that shows
good quality early childhood care and education has a positive impact on survival, growth,
development and learning potential of children.
 To ensure that all children, with special emphasis on girls, including the poorest working
children and children with special needs, have access to and complete a primary education
of good quality by 2015.
 To ensure that the learning needs of all young people are met through equitable .access to
appropriate learning and life skills programmes. To enable them find useful employment
and protect themselves from risks of diseases and drugs.
 To provide equitable access to literacy and continuing education programmes for adults,
and achieving at least a 50 per cent reduction in current gender disparities within a decade.
 To improve all aspects of the quality of education so that recognisable and measurable
learning outcomes are achieved especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.
 To eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, as a milestone
towards achieving gender equality in education programmes. institutions and systems by
2015. Unsafe school environments and biases in teacher behaviour and training, teaching
and learning processes, curricula and textbook, often lead to lower completion and
achievement rates for girls hence changes in attitudes, values and behaviour are required.
 deterioration of educational quality as [a result of debt crises and cuts in government
spending in the developing world, The overall position by March 1990 when the world
conference on EFA was held in Jomtien Thailand was that, over 90 per cent of the children
of the school going age would still Start school. But of the 100 million children who begin
s
What are the challenges faced in attaining EFA goals?

 Many countries continue to face the challenge of defining the meaning, purpose and
content of basic education in the context of a fast moving world and of assessing learning
outcomes and achievements.
 Maintaining quality as access expands. Quality must not suffer as access expands and
improvements in quality should not benefit the economically well-off at the expense of the
poor.
 Ensuring that adequate, equitable and sustainable resources are provided for EPA. Each
government has the responsibility to provide free, quality basic education, so that no child
will be denied access due to inability to pay. Innovative ways of increasing the resources
available to support education need to be explored, e.g. priorities in debt reduction

programmes, poverty reduction strategy plans and civil society participation.
 Globalisation is both a challenge and an opportunity. Driven by the revolution in
information technology and the increased mobility of capital. It is bringing people together
in ways that have the potential to help reduce poverty and .inequality throughout the world.
Yet globalisation carries with it the danger of creating a marketplace in knowledge that
excludes the poor and the disadvantaged.
 The threat posed by HIV/AIDS presents an enormous challenge. Teachers are dying, thus
reducing the workforce, children are orphaned and are thus likely to drop out of school.
 Significant tensions, conflict and war both within and between nations is a great \
impediment to Education for All. Education has a role to play in preventing conflict in the
future and building lasting peace and stability.
Universal Primary Education

What targets does the Kenya Government have for attaining Universal Primary Education
(UPE)?
The Kenya Government’s target for attaining UPE was year 2005, while it hopes to attain EFA
by the year 2015. The government started by offering Free Primary Education in January 2003.
What challenges were faced in the implementation of free primary education?

 There were logistical problems faced at the beginning i.e. many schools did not have bank
accounts. Also all schools could not be reached easily.
 There were no sufficient classrooms for the extra children who wanted to join schools.
 The teacher-pupil ratio rose to 1:300 in some schools. More teachers were needed. Teacher
morale was low because other phases of salary increases awarded in 1997 had not been
implemented.
 Curriculum change was ongoing for some levels but not for others (e. g. classes 1,2,4 and'
5 were complete, while 3, 6 and 8 were yet to be done)‘
 Funding of Free Primary Education was still a major challenge. Initially the government
enjoyed the support of the development partners, but the programs should be self-
sustainable.
 There are those children who had not yet enrolled although education was free and children
have a right to education, over one million children were still at home.
 The orphaned children, mainly due to the effects of HIV/AIDS are threatened by lack of
support at home and thus likely to drop out of school. It has also increased internal
inefficiencies through both teacher and pupil absenteeism.
 Children of differing ages enrolled in the same classes. There are gender disparities
between ASAL and other areas. Fewer girls than boys enter and stay in school.
 In the marginal areas of the arid and semi arid lands (ASAL) and slums there ' are many
school age children who may never enter school hence the problem of equity. Gender
disparity exists in primary schools though it is minimal. 53.4 per cent girls and 53. 6 per
cent for boys.

 Retention rates continue to be affected by some social practices that Cause pupils to drop
out of school, e.g. economic hardships, circumcismn early marriages, cattle rustling, etc.
Education in East Africa

Structural duration of the education system of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi
Country Primary Secondary Higher Total

Kenya 8 4 4 16
Uganda 7 4+2 3 16
Tanzania 7 4+2 3 16
Burundi 6 3+3 4 16
Rwanda 6 3+3 4 16
The structural duration is the same 16 years -for all the five East African countries. However, they
differ in levels. The Kenyan structure used to be same as that of Uganda and Tanzania. They also
had a common examining body, but later changed in the mid-1980s to one of 8-4-4. Rwanda and
Burundi follow the French system of education. Education is undergoing reconstruction at present
after many years of civil strife in these countries.
What rationale would you advance for the integration of the educational system in East
African region?
 It would make it possible for one to further education in any of the countries.
 It would promote regional integration in trade and industry.
 It would promote cross-cultural interaction in the region.
 It would give greater credibility to educational standards in the region.
 It would promote sharing of resources and facilitate exchange of ideas, students and
teachers.
What similarities can one draw in the education systems of the East African countries
(Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania)?
 All the three countries have a system of education that starts from Early Childhood
Development (ECD), primary cycle, secondary education up to university.
 Except for Kenya, the other countries have two years upper secondary advanced level.
 In each of the three states, education is assigned key functions such as national integration,
individual/personal development and national development.
 The curriculum offered in schools attempts to address the issue of relevance and meeting
the national needs and reduction of poverty
 There is an attempt to reduce the number of subjects offered at the primary and secondary
cycles and thus make the syllabus less burden.

Chapter
Sociology of Education
Definitions
Sociology
It is the study of social institutions and human behavior in groups.
Sociology of education
It is a branch of sociology which studies how social institutions affect education process and
outcomes.
Group
It is number of things connected in a particular way.
Community
It is a group of people occupying a territory and share goals so that the individual's life may be
lived fully within the area.
Society
It refers congregation of human beings who share common cultural heritage in terms of language
and inhibit specific geographical region.
Culture
It is accepted way of life of a particular people.
Norms
Are specific guidelines that determine behavior and contact of members of a given society.
Are accepted rules for social behavior that specify how to act in given situation.
Values
General social principles that something is worthwhile.
Symbols
Are objects, sounds, gestures that gives us motion.
Language
A system of verbal and written symbols with rules about how those symbols can be put together
to convey meaning.
Knowledge
Practical skills that people accumulate over time.
Belief
Feeling that something is true or that something exist.
Social structure
A network of social institution within which personal relations takes place.
Social interaction
Any relation between people or group which changes the behavior of a participants.
Social groups
Set of people who identifies with one another and who interact in informal way based on the shared
values.
Social change
Alteration of social structure in a given direction.
Role

Behavior expected of an individual because of the social status he/she occupies in a given structure.
Institution
A set of rules that establish how group members agree to accomplish universal issues of survival.
Importance of sociology of Education to a Teacher.

1. It introduces a teacher with sociological perspective of understanding the whole institution
of education.
2. It acquaints the teacher of existing and upcoming socio-educational problem that may come
in the running of the school.
3. The teacher uses group situations to attempt to change the behaviour of Pupils and is
required to operate within an institutional setting thus applies sociology_ Knowledge of
sociology of education may improve the chance of an esteem way of applying it.
4. Knowledge of sociology of education would help the teacher to understand the group
structure of the class and how to use it to maximise learning.
5. The interaction of a teacher with the pupils and social relationships that develop have
considerable effect on academic performance of the pupils, hence the need to understand
how such interactions can be made to promote learning rather than hinder it.
6. Knowledge of sociology enables the teacher to realize the expectations of the people he
interacts with either directly or indirectly.
Which are the major Agents that Socialize a child

 Family
 The peer groups
 The school
 The community
 The church
 The Mass media
Sociological perspective of education
Issues that comes from the society that affect education
1. Family issues that affect the education
 Poverty
 Culture
 Family quarrel
 Provision of labor
 Financial support.
2. Economic issues that affect education system

 High cost of education
 Proper personnel payment
 Provision of fund
3. Religion
 Provision of school facilities.
 Give scholarship to the learner
 Put moral in the school.

 Uniting students
 Negative church doctrine that interfere with school.
4. Politics
 Provide funds to the school
 Political violence
 Reckless political pronouncements.
How Education affect the Society

 Job opportunities
 Provisions of employable skills.
 Socialization
 Transmit culture
 Bring about personality and behavior change.
 Promote the physical, mental and moral growth.
 It enhances social integration and national unit.
 It prepare and facilities individuals to obey authority and law in our society.
Concept of Socialization
Socialization is a process by which individual internalize a rule of a social order in which they are
raised.
Types of Socialization
1. Status Socialization
This is where an individual is exposed to a broad pattern of socialization design to prepare him
occupy a generalized status in life.
2. Role socialization
It prepares one to specific vacation/function in the society.
Agents of Socialization
Institutions under which Socialization takes place can be classified as:
a) Primary
b) Secondary
c) Reference groups.
Family
 Family is the oldest institution to the history of human existence.
 It is the most important primary agent of Socialization.
The family still remains the primary agent of Socialization because of the following reasons:
1. It introduces children to intimate personal relationship and gives the first experience of
being treated as distinct individual.
2. It introduces children to group life; learning how to share family resources.
3. Parents tend to have different ways of bringing to children and help to provide different

Socialization experiences.
4. The births of siblings add new complexities to family life. For example, through siblings
interaction children gain experience in cooperation and conflict negotiations.
5. The family introduces children to the society and locates them on the social maps.
What are the characteristic features of a family as a socializing agent?

An ideal family as a socializing agent:
 Has a population of father, mother, children, members of the extended family, occasional
visitors and neighbours.
 Has a hierarchy of authority ranging from the highest one of the father and mother to the
lowest of the youngest child.
 Has duties and responsibilities which are shared out and done as expected.
 Has a common language used at home and rules applied to select appropriate use of the
language.
 Has a culture transmitted in the family which has religious beliefs, attitudes, morals,
knowledge, values, skills, codes of behaviour, etc, learnt through stories, legends, plays,
advice, etc, as one interacts with the older members of the family.
 Has parents as models to be imitated and as symbols of truth and justice. They are seen as
custodians of moral values and a source of love and security.
 Has buildings, a house and other farm structures and a defined territory.
In which ways is the socialization function of the family changing from the traditional one?
 The size of the family is changing from the traditional extended family to a nuclear family
and in some cases single parents. Some children are even destiurtes who are poorly
socialized. The tendency is to have less socialization.
 Both men and women are now bread winner.
 Both men and women have become partners of the material properties.
 There are no specific roles for men and women.
 Some families have literate parents and others have illiterate parents. The literate parents
provide the child with more learning Opportunities books are bought for such children and
their progress is monitored. This may not be true of the latter homes.
 In some homes both the parents are workers. They have little time to be with their children.
Children are left in the hands and care of the domestic workers. Whatever they learn and
do is directed by such workers. The workers may not have authority over the children.
 For the school-going children, they are most of the times with the teacher. The family’s
role shifts to the school; therefore, the teachers become the surrogate parents.
 Nuclear family is also beginning to suffer because of:
a) Increased number of singles and cohabiting couples.
b) Fear of responsibilities.
c) General postponement of marriage.
d) Divorce
e) Remarriage
f) One parent family.

Peer Group
Is a group of people who share some important characteristics such as age, employment.
Importance of peer group

1. Through it the child is able to learn the way of life of other members.
2. Peer group is an information area for the child.
3. Child will learn their sex roles.
4. Act as a venue for learning and imitating adults.
5. Lead to unity.
What are the major characteristics of a social group?

A social group is a group of not less than three persons characterised by:
 Common goals, aspirations and expectations.
 Common interests.
 Common languages or ethnicity.
 Common beliefs and prejudices.
 Similar patterns of social behavior including social relationships.
 Common sex.
Boys tend to form their own groups which are commonly referred to as gangs, while girls form
their own peer groups which are called cliques.
How can peer group socialisation be harnessed to make learning effective?

 The teacher would need to identify social groups in the class, by either asking students to
indicate the individuals they would like to work With or asking them to be in groups of
given numbers. .
 Such groups can be used to carry out learning projects or activities requiring a high degree
of cooperation.
 Such groups would be ready to share learning resources with little or no friction particularly
if the resources are scarce.
 Group leaders would easily emerge without forcing a leader to any group.
 Class control and management would be easy since the group members are ready to co-
operate.
When is peer group socialization considered harmful?

Peer group socialization is regarded as harmful when its members are involved in:
 Antisocial behaviors such as bullying others, stealing other pupils' properties
 Dishonesty and disobedience.
 Drug abuse and smoking.
 Breaking school rules and regulations, etc.
School

The school is responsible for 3 types of knowledge:
 Normative
 Molding the youths
 Political organization.
Why is a school regarded as a social system?

 It usually has a population composed of pupils, teachers and the non-teaching staff.
 It occupies a territory the school compound, with complex buildings, playgrounds and
gardens.
 It has a set of goals which define the aims of the institutions.
 It has a structure of authority with the principal at the top and messengers and cleaners at
the lowest level.
 It has a network of patterned social relationships -teacher-pupil, teacher- teacher and pupil-
pupil relationships.
 There is a developed sense of belonging together, manifested during competitions with
other schools, and symbolized by the school flag and crest, school uniforms and stories of
the school's past.
 Time is divided in specific ways; every person is expected to be in a given place at some
particular time.
 There is an informal organization within the formal set represented by peer activities.
What are the socialization functions of a school?

In a school formal setting:
 The academic culture is transmitted.
 Students learn to obey and accept authority.
 Students learn to take up responsibilities. .
 Students are socialized to different status e.g. as members of different classes clubs. etc.
 Students learn to accept competition in academic achievements and excellence that is
rewarded.
 Students learn to co-operate for the success of a group or a team.
 Students learn good morals. e.g. respecting their seniors. They also learn their rights and
those of others.
Participation in the formal peer group activities teach students about certain important
things in life that may be neglected by the family and the formal school organization such as:
 They learn how to cope with emotions and stress.
 They learn manners of dressing and good grooming.
 They learn elements of specific modes of speech.
 They learn how to relate to members of the opposite sex.
 They learn useful skills of defense. e.g. swimming. Etc.
 They learn how to cope with the body changes as they get to adolescence,
 They learn to keep secrets.
 They learn how to endure pain and to sacrifice for a cause.
The school as a promoter of the child potential abilities

What should a school do in order to promote a child’s potential abilities?
To promote a child’s potential abilities a school should:
 Provide learning opportunities that enable pupils to acquire basic skills of literacy, reading,
writing, good speech foundation and numeracy to enable them to further their learning.
 Use child-centred methods of teaching to encourage pupils to participate in learning
activities so that they can learn.
 Give opportunities and encourage bright children to further their reading in the library
instead of holding their pace of progress.
 Encourage pupils to ask questions, express their opinion and take part in making sound
decisions.
 Help pupils develop their creativity and imagination as may be expressed in creative
writing, art work. music, drama or in games and sports.
This will help them to express and sharpen their talents.
What problems do teachers experience in their endeavors to develop students’ potential

abilities?
 Teachers often find themselves in a busy time schedule that leaves no time for creative
work.
 They find themselves too busy to cover the content provided in the syllabuses which form
a basis on which students will be examined or used.
 The success of a teacher is measured by the number of children who join university and
not how well they take part in music or drama at national level, or the number of trophies
they have scooped in sports.
 The number of students assigned to each teacher may be too large to enable him give
special attention to the bright students who need guidance and encouragement to further
their reading or class work.
 Several schools lack adequate facilities to enable them develop the numerous types of
talents that students may posses, e.g. musical instruments, art materials, tools for craft-
work. libraries, etc.
The School as a promoter of the spirit of nationalisms and national unity
What activities should a school demonstrate in order to foster sense of nationalisms among
its students?
To foster a sense of nationhood a school should:
 Display a photograph of the Head of State in every classroom and office.
 Paint the colors of the national flag at the school’s gate and at the assembly ground.
 Involve pupils in raising the national flag, singing the national anthem and reciting the
loyalty pledge at least once a week.
 Give short speeches on nationalism during the national days.
 Take part in singing patriotic songs during the national days.
 Highlight the aspects of the freedom struggle and national boundaries in the teaching of
GHC or other related areas in their teaching.
 Involve students in national music festivals, sports, games and drama.

 Treat the students equally without discrimination irrespective of race, ethnicity or region
of origin.
How can a school promote national unity?

A school can help to promote national unity by:
 Teaching Kiswahili which is a national language that enables Kenyans to understand each
other.
 Encouraging students to work together and take part in competitions with other schools for
the good of their school.
 Encouraging students to live like brothers and sisters irrespective of their regional or ethnic
differences.
 Selecting students for admission to a school from all parts of the republic.
 Encouraging the staff to work as a team.
 Involving pupils in community projects such as soil conservation, celebrating national
days, etc.
 Holding Parents' Days at least once a year to integrate the school with the community and
the nation at large.
Classroom Socialization
How does the seating arrangement in a class affect socialization?

 Within the conventional classroom, the teacher's desks have special status with the official
recognition of the teacher's privacy. Teachers may inspect student's desks whenever they
want, but the children are not allowed to inspect the teacher's desk.
 When the children are seated in neat rows facing the same direction (the front of the
classroom) it allows them to interact with the teacher but not with each other. Students have
little to learn from each other. That type of arrangement strengthens the authority of the
teacher.
 When on the other hand, if bright pupils are grouped together and the dull in a different
group. It results in the encouragement and reinforcement of the bright pupils while it causes
emotional strain and disgrace to those alleged to be dull.
 If the bright children are put in one class, the allegedly average children into another and
the weak into a third class it results in self-fulfillment. The bright ones will do well while
the dull ones develop negative self-image. Thus, even when the initial classification is
invalid, the results could seem to bear it out
In which ways can a teacher hinder learning in the classroom?

A teacher can hinder learning in the classroom:
 When he uses scientific or subject’s specialist terminology.
 When he uses closed type of questions which do not encourage students to think.
 When he uses punishment and rewards badly, e.g. using punishment to encourage learning
or reward pupils even when they give wrong answers.
 When he has a bad reputation and pupils fail to respect him.
 When he is ill-prepared and has no lesson plan or relevant teaching aids, or keeps
wandering in his teaching or gives wrong facts.

 When he uses a local language instead of the official language for instructions.
 When he discourages students from asking questions or ridicules them when they give
incorrect responses.
 The way he/she dresses.
What social and economic problems do examinations cause?

 Examinations put teachers and pupils under pressure and stress. They create anxiety for
parents because it is examinations that are used to select and place those who have
performed well in good secondary schools.
 Examinations determine who joins higher institutions of learning those who fail to be
selected are dumped as failures, and often take too long to prove themselves otherwise after
schooling.
 Examinations create the repeater problem. Students are made to repeat several classes
before they are allowed to proceed to the final examination class. This habit is expensive
to the country besides denying other children a chance in the same class or a fair chance in
the final examination for the non-repeaters.
 When the examination results are unfavourable, parents and leaders heap blame on teachers
and school heads. This lowers the teachers' morale to work effectively.
 Cheating and impersonation during examination time is often experienced, all of which are
aimed at ensuring success by all means.
 Examinations have a 'back-wash effect‘. They cause teachers to teach for examination;
those topics or subjects that are not examined regularly are often ignored irrespective of
their value in life.
How has the Government Encouraged high Enrollment of Pupils in Primary Schools?
In the past, the government has encouraged enrolment in primary schools by:
 Declaring primary education free.
 Paying the salaries of such school teachers.
 Meeting the cost of running schools in the arid and semi-arid areas.
 Providing books and other equipment freely through the Kenya School Equipment Scheme.
 Providing free milk through school feeding projects. etc.
What have been the causes of students dropping out of school?

Pupils drop out of school as a result of:
 Early pregnancy among school girls.
 Forced early marriages among certain communities.
 Inability of some parents to meet the non-fee costs, such as building funds, uniforms and
books in cost-sharing.
 Failure to achieve for some students who resort to other activities for economic gain.
 Teachers mistreating pupils and putting some girls in the family way.
 Poverty in some houses where children are left free to fend for themselves particularly for
destitute children and children in slum areas.
 Distance-some children have to walk for long distances before they get to school. This
discourages them from attending school and eventually they drop out.
 In some communities children called upon to herd cattle and thus eventually drop out of

school.
How can the problem of school drop-out be controlled?

 Educating parents about the need to send their children to school instead of using them for
their own economic gains.
 Educating those communities where girls are made to marry early to deceased from that
practice or institute laws that prevent early marriages.
 Instituting stiff punishment to those who make school girls pregnant.
 Controlling non-fee costs and providing the required facilities through encouraging
Harambees as a way of funding school projects.
 Discouraging corporal punishment and stepping up school inspection
Population Growth
What problem is the development of education facing with the rising population growth?
Education development at primary level is facing the following problems as a result of population
growth:
 It is becoming increasingly difficult to provide sufficient number of classrooms particularly
in the urban areas.
 This has led to scramble for places in form One and overcrowding in the classrooms which
reduces effectiveness of teaching.
 The increase in enrolment each year has strained the supply of trained teachers. This has
resulted in employment of untrained teachers, a factor that is likely to lower the quality of
education at primary level.
 The budget of education which is nearly rocketing, is incapable of meeting the growing
cost of financing education. This has forced the government to adopt a policy of cost-
sharing.
 The chances of continuing education are narrowing each year.
In the recent years students have been reported to have gone on strike in a number of schools.
What have been the causes of student strikes?
The causes for school strikes could be one or due to a combination of the following reasons:
 The failure by the school administration and management to meet students' needs, e.g. the
students' desire for quantity and quality in their diet, students' need need to change their
uniform.
 Fear of failure in mock examinations and final examination. It dawns on the Students that
they need to put additional efforts than usual to pass. They realise that they do not have all
the time to prepare and hence anxiety and fear creep in. In such instances they are easily
provoked and are ready to look for an outlet to release the tension.
 Lack of dialogue between school authorities and students’ bodies shuts the door for
students' grievances leading to violence and strikes.
 Agitation by parents, local politicians or teachers who are not for the establishment. e.g.
school board, headmaster etc., lead to students demanding for the removal of such heads
through strikes.

 Influence by awave of strikes in the neighbourhood may cause students to look for faults
in their school's administration to justify their cause to go on strike.
How can school strikes be controlled?

School strikes can be controlled by:
 Appointing competent and experienced teachers as school heads and posting them to work
in any school. Also discouraging parents from demanding ahead of their choice.
 School heads establishing avenues for dialogue with students so that they can listen to
students' grievances and explain to them the limitations of the school administration in
meeting their demands.
 Encouraging parents to provide their local schools with the learning and recreational
facilities so as to engage the students in co-curricular activities effectively.
 Encouraging parents' days in schools so that various issues that cause problems can be
discussed.
Role of Education.
1. Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
2. Promote social, economic and industrial needs for national development.
3. Promote individual development and social fulfilment.
4. Promote moral and religious values.
5. Promote social equality and responsibility.
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya rich and varied culture.
7. Promote positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection.
The Community as a Socialising Agent
How does the community assist the school in the socialisatian of children?
The community assists the school by ensuring that:
 It provides classrooms and other buildings required in the school.
 It encourages parents to take their children to school.
 It provides houses for teachers and makes them feel welcome.
 It supports the school in ensuring that children are disciplined when they go wrong.
 It supports the school financially through Harambee collections.
 It assists the school to ensure that pupilsarenot allowed tomisbehave while out of school
e.g. taking alcohol or other drugs.
 It supports the school in discouraging early pregnancies or early marriages.
What does the community expect from the teachers and the school?
The community expects a teacher:
 To be morally upright.
 To guide and counsel the pupils.
 To keep high standards of discipline, both the teacher and the children

 To set good examples in cleanliness and character.
 To be sober and attend to work punctually
The community expects the school and the teachers:

 To make pupils pass in the national examinations.
 To contribute to community projects.
 To educate the community in educational changes, adult eduaition classes and take part in
the development of local churches. etc.
Social Factors and their Implications on Educational Achievement

1. Family
a) Family background
Relatively large family will affect education activities in terms of:
 Provision of learning activities.
 Personal effects
 Payment of fees
b) Types of family
In a polygamous family setting each wife will prefer her children to be adequately.
Such a competition is not healthy because it will disadvantage the most deserving cases.
C) Parental level of education

Parents who have been in school will positively encourage their children to school. On the other
hand children from parents who have not gone to school have intrinsic motivation.
2. Social Economic Status of the Parents

Rich parents will provide every learning materials unlike poor parents.
3. Type of school
Adequate time in boarding school and have more time of study. Those in day school will waste a
lot of time.
Children who normally come from village school will not communicate effectively.
4. Unemployment of parents
A parent who is employed will provide for the child easily unlike unemployed.
5. Discipline
Discipline children will perform well.
6. Delegacy tendencies
This is behavior exhibited by young people that is not accordance with acceptance social standard
Truancy- staying away from school.
Bullying- forcing someone to do what is not supposed to do.
Sexual Immorality-

7. Gender issues
This will affect education in terms of the roles, attitude and nature of support provided to children.
8. Allocation of household task.
Family as a Social Institution

 It play an important central role in socializing the child.
 The child spend his early years in the family such such learn his first language from the
family.
 A family is regarded as a group of two or more people who live together in a committed
relationship and care for one another.
Types of Families
1. Monogamous family
It is a form of marriage where a husband marry one wife at time.
2. Polygamous family
Custom of a man having more than one wife at a time.
3. Monandrous family
A type of family based on community where a woman fetches her husband and go to live with him
in her domain. Children customarily belong to the woman.
4. Polyandrous family
Woman marries several husband at a time and bring them to her domain and exercises authority
over the household.
5. Extended family
Type of family that covers parents of the couples (grandparents) their children, brothers and sisters
of couple who live nearby.
6. Single parent family.

Family that has one parent bringing up the child/children.
Types of Marriages
1. Customary/Traditional Marriage
Customary marriage provide for the couple to get married while paying attention to the customs
of one/both of them.
Sub-types of customary Marriage

a) leviratic- arise when a husband dies before his wife and a relative/brother of the deceased
husband assume the role of deceased.
b) sororate- where a wife dies before a husband and her family replaces her by offering her young
sister. The young sister assumes the role of deceased sister.
c) widow inheritance- this is where a husband dies and then wife is inherited by one of brothers

wife.
2. Religious Marriage
Refer to marriage that contacted by the faith of one or both of the spouses.
a) Christian marriage- should be conducted by a licensed church. It should be conducted in a
public place of worship.
b) Islamic marriage- it should be conducted by kadhi, imam,sheikh.
c) Hindu marriage-
3. Civil marriage
This type of marriage should be conducted in a place determined by registrar of marriage.
4. Come We Stay Marriage

This arises when couples chooses to cohabit. I.e the couple chooses to live together and have sexual
relationship.
Family Structure
Traditionally, the family structure consists of; father, mother, children, brothers and sisters to
the parents, grandparents and other relatives.
Functions of the Family

1. Child bearing
This is an essential function of the family because it replenishes a country's population.
2. Child Rearing & Socialization

Child rearing is bringing up a child. Family create a first relationship for a child. Through
Socialization children acquire language, knowledge, attitude, beliefs and value of their culture.
3. Economic security/Functions
The family provide basis needs for the child.
Social Stratification
What is meant by social stratification?
Social stratification refers to the way a society is divided into layers/class, some of which can be
identified to be socially superior to others.
What factors create social stratification?

The basic factors that combine to create social classes are:
 Educational levels attained by individuals.
 Occupation of the family from which an individual is born and brought up and the attitudes,
values and aspirations instilled in him.
 The income of the family and what an individual inherits.
 The economic structures of the society.
How does an education system reinforce social stratification?

 Where education is not universal, those who attend school secure better paying jobs than
those who fail to attend school.
 Even where education is universal some differences exist. Some pupils fail to attend school
due to non-fees costs of building classrooms, textbook fee and uniform costs.
 Some rural schools have some untrained teachers and so pupils are likely to perform poorly
or get bored with schooling and thus drop out early.
 The tendency to repeat classes is high among pupils from low social-economic background
in rural areas, and since the other group proceed through the education system more rapidly
they receive advantage and stratification is maintained.
 Parents are expected to buy books for their children. It is those parents from higher social-
economic groups that are likely to possess the financial means and willingness to encourage
and assist such children in their homework given by the school and in other school values.
 The existences of high cost boarding primary schools whose pupils have more interaction
with the fellow pupils and generally perform better, reinforce the stratification because
such schools are only affordable by parents of the high and middle classes.
 The existence of better nursery schools in some areas and not others which charge high
fees give the pupils who attend such schools a lead in preparations for primary school work,
e.g. they learn and use English language which is a medium of instruction in primary
schools, etc.
 The fees charged in such schools is affordable by few parents in the middle and upper
classes thus reinforcing social stratification.

Chapter
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT
Organization: group of people with a common unity of a purpose.
Organizing: process of arranging information and designing activities in order to improve
efficiency in an institution.
Leadership: process of influencing the activities and behavior of individual or group in order to
achieve a common goal.
Authority: a right to exercise power that is bestowed upon one by the office he/she holds.
Power is ability to influence behavior and actions of other people.
Communication process of transmitting information from a sender to a recipient using a
medium in which the information is understood by both.
What is management?
Working with available resources through individuals and groups to achieve desired organizational
goals.
What do educational managers do?

 Set objectives for using available resources. .
 Formulate plans for achieving those objectives.
 Identify the activities to be performed;
 Organise the activities into groups.
 Define the tasks to be done.
 Group the tasks into jobs.
 Staff the jobs with people.
 Initiate work activities. .
 Supply incentives to stimulate work productivity. '
 Set up controls to measure the achievement of objectives.
 Take remedial action if the objectives are not being met.
Administration
This is universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activity
towards achieving common goals and objectives.
What are the objectives of educational administration?

The basic objectives of educational administration are:
 To provide a child with proper atmosphere and desirable conditions to enable it to develop
socially, intellectually, morally, physically, etc.
 To provide in-service training for teachers so that they may develop professionally and be
worthy of tasks entrusted to them. It should also enable them keep pace with advances in

knowledge in their respective fields.
 To develop abilities and skills in teachers, by providing links between ideas and tested
scientific knowledge on the one hand and practical problems and existing conditions on
the other.
 To gear up all school programs and activities to achieve the purpose of the school.
What are the functions of school administration?

 The basic functions of school administration is one of implementing educational
programmes.
Other related functions include:

 Planning the school programmes bearing in mind the school’s objectives, the resources
available, the priorities, the strategies of implementing the programmes and evaluation
procedures.
 Procurement of funds and other material resource and budgeting.
 Obtaining and developing staff or personnel, e.g. indicating the staff needs of the school,
ensuring that staff are properly deployed and motivated, collaborating with the education
officials on matters of discipline, promotion, etc.
 Steering pupil personnel services such as selection and orientation of pupils; guidance and
counseling of pupils; providing pupils with adequate motivation to learn; encouraging
participation in co-curricular activities; ensuring ' good health services; and, establishing
and maintaining high standards of discipline.
 Maintaining of effective interrelationships with the community and extemai agencies, e.g.
parents’ associations and school committees.
 Determining in alarge measure the organisational climate and working relationships,
 Evaluating the quantity and quality of outcomes actually accomplished.
 Shaping, to a large extent, the image and prestige of the organisation.
 Trying to build into the organisation provisions for change and for development.
What do educational administrators actually do?

 Planning
 Decision-making
 Organising
 Communicating
 Co-ordinating
 Motivating
 Budgeting
 Evaluating.
Elements of administration
Division or labour
Division of labour means a way of determining who is responsible for what. Different people are
assigned different jobs according to their skills.

Why is it necessary to give different jobs to different people?
 People are only really happy when they are placed in jobs that require the use of their
talents and abilities and when they are working in groups composed of people who
understand the type of job they are doing.
 It makes it possible for the work of the organisation to proceed quickly and smoothly.
Hierarchy of authority
Hierarchy of authority refers to ranking of workers in an organisation according to their job
responsibilities within the organisation and the authority attached to such job beginning from the
top person downwards to the bottom person.
What is it important to establish a hierarchy of authority in an organisational setting?

 It ensures that policies made by an organisation are implemented.
 It ensures mat law and order are maintained.
 It ensures that there is no confusion and that the operations of an organisation run smoothly.
Each worker knows to whom he/she is answerable.
 It provides for sharing in decision making.
 It affords an early opportunity to solving of problems by those in lower ranks.
Co-ordination
Co-ordination is a means of arranging the various activities of an organisation in such a way that
the whole process flows smoothly without delay, collision or stream
How is co-ordination effected in a school system?

Co-ordination in a school is affected in many ways:
 Through use of a timetable which allocates time, room and teachers without collision,
duplication or conflict.
 Through school notices and circulars that direct cause of action or communicate changes
at times.
 Through use of assembly meetings where the whole school is informed of changes or
activities that affect them.
 Through use of syllabuses and schemes of work that guide teachers handling similar
subjects but in different streams.
 Through staff briefs and meetings where vital information regarding changes is
communicated to the members of staff in good time.
Leadership
Leadership is the process of influencing the activities and behaviour of an individual or a group in
an effort to achieve a given goal.
Outline the behaviour of a school head that would result to successful leadership.
A successful school head:
 Is seen to be committed to a specific purpose or goal.
 Is sensitive to the feelings of others while being considerate, helpful, responsible and

friendly.
 Is one who takes interest in improving the group while also pussessing the ability to get the
work done quickly and economically.
 Understands the complex situation of his/her administration in order to use effectively
rather than to exploit the situation.
 Is one who ‘knows the way, shows the way and goes the way
 Is sincere, straightforward, approachable, easy to talk to, alert to get the best out of people
without aggressiveness, enthusiastic, warm, inspiring, relaxed and has a sense of humour.
 Is strong in his/her feelings of self-confidence and the ability to identify easily with co-
workers, including those who supervise him/her and those whom he supervises. Is
consistent, generous, humble, honest, modest and fair in dealing with others.
 Is firm but not proud or stubborn in making judgement and decisions.
 Is willing to learn to improve himself/herself and to encourage others to learn.
 Is enthusiastic in informing others about the policies and regulations of the school system. .
 Has the ability to know when to pressurise and when to stand off.
 Is tolerant especially of opposing ideas.
 Is able to cope with opposition and unpopularity as well as with support and
encouragement.
 Has ability to deal with problems as they arise and still have a smile.
Leadership styles
Autocratic leadership
An autocratic leader is one whose approach to everyone in the school is authoritarian, coercive or
dictatorial.
How does this type of leadership affect the staff and the pupils?
 Create fear among the staff and students
 Kills or stifles initiative and creativity
 Leads to high staff turnover.
 Leads to resistance and breakdown of discipline.
 Makes the teachers feel less confident in their own ability to engage in decision making
outside their own classrooms.
How effective is autocratic leadership

Autocratic leader work well in times when urgent decisions are required. It tends to save time as
there are no discussions.
What are the attributes of a paternal head?

A paternal head:
 Cares about people.
 Wants to be liked.
 Avoids conflict by smoothening and coaxing.
Democratic leadership

Democratic leadership is the type of leadership that rests on the idea that:
 Authority to lead must be rendered legitimate by the people. .
 People's basic needs, rights and freedoms must be guaranteed and respected by the
organisation.
 Decisions about organisational matters should he arrived at after making necessary
consultations and communications with the various sections of the organisation.
What are the attributes of a democratic leader? '

A democratic leader:
 Encourages personal initiative and delegates real responsibility clearly
 Encourages the staff members to find solutions to problems as a group
 Involves staff in decision-making which affects them
 Monitors performance against goals. .
 Faces up to conflicts calmly. .
 Seeks to create a good working atmosphere in the school .
 Takes decisions as and when they are needed.
What are the effects of democratic leadership?

 Democratic leadership leads to:
 Promotion of co-operation.
 Harmony and unity among the staff.
 Respect of the school head.
 Acceptance of responsibility by the staff.
 Initiative and creativity by members of the staff.
 Job satisfaction among the teachers.
Laissez-faire leadership
Laissez-faire leadership is a type of leadership where there are no definite rules and regulations to
guide the organisation. It is a form of leadership that allows people to do what they want.
What are the limitations of this type of leadership?

The laissez-faire type of leadership:
 Is least effective -the goals of an organisation may not be achieved.
 It leads to confusion and utter despair.
 It lowers the morale of workers.
Delegation of responsibility
What is meant by delegation of responsibility?
Delegation is a process whereby the leader of an organization divides up his/her total work and
assigns part of it to his/her subordinates.
Elements of delegation

1. Authority
Authority is the right to give commands and get things done. All people who have authority should
know the scope of their authority. Authority always flows from the top to the bottom.
2. Responsibility
This is the duty of a person to complete a task assigned to him. Responsibility flows from bottom
to top.
3. Accountability
Giving explanation for any variance in the action performance from the expectation set.
Accountability can not be delegated. The top level of management is for more accountable.
Accountability cannot be escaped it arises from responsibility.
Steps to achieve effect delegation

1.Assignment of duties
The delegator first tries to define the task and duties to the subordinates. He also has to define
results expected from the surbonates.
2.Granting of authority
Sub division of authority takes place when superior divides and share his authority with the
surbonates. It is for this reason that every surbodinate should be given enough Independence to
carry out the task given to him. The managers at all levels delegate authority and power which is
attached to their job subdivision.
3.Creating responsibility and accountability

Delegation process does not end , once powers are granted to the surbonates they at the same time
have to be obligatory towards the duties assigned to them.
Types of delegation
1. Downward and upwards delegation
Delegation is downwards when a higher authority deligates it to a lower authority. Delegation is
upwards when the lower authority deligates to a higher authority e.g shareholders delegating to
their board of directors.
2. Sideward and outward delegation

Delegation is sideward when it is at the equal level. Delegation is outwards when authority is
granted to an outside body which is not under direct control of delegation.
3. Permanent and temporary delegation

Delegation is permanent when authority is conferred forever while it is temporary when authority
is granted for a short period.
4. Full and partial delegation

Delegation is full when complete power are granted to take final decision. It is partial when the
delegate has to consult the delegator on important aspects of job assigned to him.
5. Conditional and unconditional

Delegation is conditional when the decision and action of the delegate is subject to control and
confirmed by the delegator while it is unconditional when the delegate is free to take decision and
act without any reservation.
6. Formal or informal
Delegation is formal when based on written rules and order. It is informal when based on custom
and convention.
7. Direct and indirect delegation.

Delegation is direct when no third person is involved while it is indirect when it is met through a
third person.
Advantages of delegation
 Reduce the burden on the superior.
 Avoid delays in administration process
 Have proper adjustment of policies and program to local condition.
 Train the subordinates In act of sharing responsibility and making decisions.
 Develop a second line of leadership.
 Overcome complexities in procedures I.e delegation to specialist.
 Increase the sense of responsibilities and influence on the employees.
 Overcome congestion of work at the top level.
Disadvantages/limitations/hindrance to effective delegation

 Lack of well established organization methods, procedures and rules.
 Unstable and non repetitive character of work.
 Lack of effective means of internal communication.
 Centralization requirements of special programs.
 Small size and narrower geographic coverage of some organization.
 Lack of well defined position in terms of responsibility and authority.
 Incompetence and low caliper of some lower level personnel.
 Constitutional, legal and political restrictions.
Principles of effective delegation

 Should be specific and written.
 Should not be made to an individual but to a position/office.
 Competent of surbodinate should be taken into consideration
 Should follow usual chain of command.
 Well defined policies and procedures should be adopted in delegation.

 Communication systems should be kept free/open
 Delegation should be followed by a performance appraisal system.
 Back up by adequate resources.
Powers that are not delegated

 Power to supervise work of first line/immediate subordinate.
 Power to sanction expenditure.
 Power to sanction new policies and departure from old policies.
 Power to make rules and regulations.
 Power to make specified higher appointment.
What are the difficulties and fears of delegation?

 A school head may lack confidence in the capability of his/her teachers and this may lead
to fear of delegation or to an overemphasis on control.
 A school head might fear that the teachers to whom he/she delegates might do better on the
job than him/her.
 A school head might be having an attitude of a perfectionist and think that no one else can
do it the way it should be done.
 Some heads fear to delegate because they feel that it might reduce their importance.
 Some teachers may be reluctant to take up responsibilities assigned to them they feel the
school head is lightening his/her own burden and thrusting additional work on them, while
at the same time taking all the credit.
Elements of leadership
Taking decisions
What is decision-making?
A decision is a conscious choice from a well defined set of often competing alternatives. Decision-
making is therefore a sequential process that claims into a single decision or a series of choices
that stimulates moves or actions.
Decision-taking can be a painful process since it usually involves:

 Change
 Conflict
 The risk of being wrong and being called to account.
 Having to cope with a bewildering number of facts and alternatives.
What are the logical steps to follow in decision-making?

The following steps should be followed in decision -making:
1. Define the problem and identify its cause.

Decisions are made either to correct a situation or to improve it. Therefore, the situation must be
understood and its causes explored.

2. Establish criteria.
To help establish priorities, it is useful to determine the needs of the situation expressed as essential
and desirable ends.
3 Generate alternative courses of action.

In mere complex cases, the task of finding alternatives can call for a high degree of original and
effective thinking. This might require engagement of other minds or sleeping on a problem’.
4. Evaluate and test alternative courses of action.

Evaluation consists of comparing the alternatives generated. Any alternative that does not satisfy
the essential criteria (those needs which unless they are achieved will mean that the situation has
not been put right or improved) can be weeded out immediately.
5. Test the proposals for side effects’, i.e. for the fact that they may bring new problems and
disadvantages.
6 Select the course of action.
In which areas is a school head expected to take decision?

A school head is expected to take decisions in the areas of:
 School discipline
 Welfare of pupils and teachers
 Security of school property
 Time factor.
 School finances.
Motivation of staff
What is motivation in the context of administration?
Motivation means getting the best out of people, in line with the goals of an organisation
What should a school head do in order to motivate his/her teachers? ‘

For a school head to motivate his/her teachers, he/she needs to do the following:
 Learn about the teachers and their families, their hobbies and interests; they have different
motivations, needs and aspirations.
 Demonstrate that he/she cares for the teachers as individuals, look them in the eye when
talking to them and listen to what they want to say. Helshe should findat least one positive
item to mention when helshe knows that someone is discouraged or depressed.
 Always try to help his/her staff achieve success in some small way so that feel important
and, above all, needed.
 Ensure that the staff have specific and clearly defined responsibilities
 Make consultations in a staff meeting before instituting changes
 Provide suitable environment for work, eg comfortable and seomeothm staff room.
working tools, etc.
 Recognise the extra time or effort put in by staff.

 Provide support in case of difficulty being experienced at work
 Treat the employees With fairness and respect
 Should not personalise opposition; he/she should keep it at a professional level
 Lead by example
When are teachers least likely to be well motivated?

Teachers are likely to least feel motivated when:
 They are simply told they must work.
 They are put in a threatened position.
 Their work is not well planned. . .
 They feel that the plan is mounted merely to satisfy the senior staff or higher authority.
 They feel alienated from the school or whoever is responsible for the plan;
 The head assumes the role of the ‘ expert’ and there is lack of opportunity for teachers
to develop or to exercise responsibility. '
Elements of management
Planning
What is planning?
Planning is a purposeful preparation in advance of what is to be done in future.
Plarming therefore involves:

a) Determination of what is to be done _-objectives.
b) Developing strategies for attaining the objectives, e. g. identifying the personnel, time plan
and allocation of resources.
c) Monitoring and evaluating procedures to adjust to changing needs and situations.
What are the characteristics of an effective plan?

An effective plan:
 Is Purposeful ----' the activities are clearly linked to change. goals and priorities.
 Is task-specific -,the activities are clearly identified and assigned to the doers.
 Has target dates specified and achievement monitored.
 Is integrated– the discrete activities are linked to show interdependencies and Sequencing
networks.
 Is adaptable to unexpected problem such as time slippage and unforeseen resistance.
 Is cost-effective in terms of the investment of both time and people.
Why is it necessary to plan?

 Helps the school to achieve its mission and aim.
 Helps to achieve the long term vision of the school.
 Brings various parties together I.e teachers and parents.
 Avoids frustrations of having to do things the last time.
 Ensures efficiency.

 Provide for the future needs
 Enhances co-operation of various stakeholders in achieving common goal.
 Links staff development to school curriculum development.
Physical planning of a school

What factors should be taken into consideration when selecting a school site?
The following factors should be considered when selecting a school site:
 Availability of land there should be ample land for school buildings, play fields agriculture
and for future expansion.
 Topography the land should be fairly level but easily and naturally drained.
 Accessibility to public roads for transport.
 Remoteness from factories that are noisy and those that produce offensive odour.
 Noise –the site should stand some distance away from the railway and bus roads so that
teaching is not disturbed by external sounds.
 Vicinity the site should be situated as near as possible in the centre of the area from which
the pupils are drawn so that no child has to walk long distances.
What should be taken into account when developing a new site for a school?
When developing a new site for a school the following should be taken into account;
 Setting aside site for school building and assembly area, teachers’ compound; access road
and flower beds, recreational areas, sports-field, school farm! and reserve for nature study.
 Laying down of foot paths. . .
 Planting of boundary hedges.
 Planting of a variety of trees, shrubs and ornamental plants, flowers, etc.
What precautions should be taken when carrying out physical planning to ensure high
standards of health and safety of the school community?
 Public roads through the school compound should be excluded to reduce accidents.
 School exit should be designed in such a way that it hinders pupils from running on to the
road.
 An area should be allocated for assembling of pupils and staff during an emergency
Rubbish disposal site should be allocated for burning or decomposing of wwte:
 Sufficient number of latrines should be installed. '
 Toilets or latrines should be placed in such a way that air moves away irons the compound.
What should be considered in designing the layout of school buildings?

The following considerations should be made:
 Ease of school supervision.
 Outside access to the school office by visitors.
 Accessibility of the toilets to the users. '
 Avoidance of foul smell from the toilets.
 Controlled flow of movement at lesson change-overs
 Reduction of noise.
 Free movement of air inside the rooms

 Illumination of the rooms from above.
 Confining the rooms on the ground floor
Organisation
What is an organisation?
An organisation is a system of consciously co-ordinated activities or forces of two or more persons.
It implies a group of persons working together for a common purpose. This collective effort and
pooling of resources to achieve a common aim is what is termed as an organisation.
Organisation in educational institutions therefore involves an integration of resources, teachers,
learning materials and equipment in the most effective manner to realise the goals of the school.
What are the basic elements of a well-established organisation?

A well established organisation has the following distinctive elements:
1. Purpose: Effective organisation tends to be purposeful and goal-directed. The teachers and
pupils have a clear sense of direction. The school vision and mission statement plus the school
slogan and badge express the purpose of a school.
2. Structure: This embraces the organisational chart, the committees, the roles, the hierachial
levels and authority. The procedure in the staff manuals, experience and structure is determined
by work requirements, not by authority, power or conformity.
3. Process: Decisions are made near where the requisite information is rather than referred up
the hierarchy. Authority is delegated accordingly and communications are frank, open and
relatively undistorted. Everyone manages conflicts using problem-solving methods.
4. People: Each individual’s identity and freedom are respected and work is organised as far as
possible to this end. Everyone’s work is valued. People’s interdependence is stressed.
5. Realism: People deal with things as they are. An ‘action research’ mode of management
predominates. There is widespread awareness of ‘health’ of the organisation and its parts,
just as the human body knows when it feels well or ill. .
6. Environment: The organisation is seen as an open system embedded in a complex
environment with which it constantly interacts. A school would have its eyes and ears open,
alertly sensing what is going on in the community and making appropriate responses.
Communication
Elements of communication
 Sender
 Encoding-process putting meaning into words
 Message
 Medium
 Recipient
Barriers of communication
 Noise
 Lack of interest

 Personality
 Difference in perception
 Inadequate information
 Poor timing
 Inappropriate language
 Poor listening skills
 Distance
 Difference in status
 Geographical features.
What are the requirements of effective communication?

 Have something to'say and know exactly how to say it. .
 Clarify all your ideas on the subject before seeking to Communicate to others
 Be prepared, know the purpose of the communication to the audience. the scope of the
subject, where communication will take place and when and hOW best to communicate. .
 Communicate well in time
 Strive for brevity, clarity and relevance.
 Use simple straightforward language Whenever possible.
 Develop a natural style of delivering your communication. 0
 Check and recheck whether your message has been understood. 0
 Seek to be understood all the time and also to understand others.
 Wait for the receiver’s response before taking action.
Why is communication important in a school setting?

Communication is important in the school in order to:
 Inform everyone involved in the life of the school pupils, teachers, other staff, parents and
school committee, about policies and practices which affect their lives or that of the school.
 Inform teachers of the intended changes so that their views can be heard and considered in
the final decision.
 Inform the parents of the development and progress made by the school. °
 Seek understanding between the different players involved.
 Co-ordinate activities and take corrective measures.
 Guide others and reward or appreciate their contributions.
 Exchange necessary information for problem solving.
 Prevent something wrong from happening.
Controlling
What is control'?
Control means to see that everything is done in accordance with the rules that have been laid down
and the instructions that have been given.
Basically there are three steps to follow in controlling:

(i) Setting standards to achieve at strategic points.
(ii) Checkng and reporting on performance.
(iii) Taking corrective action.
Team building
What is a team?
A team is a highly communicating group of individuals with diverse background skills and abilities
with a common purpose, working together to achieve clear defined goals.
What is team building?

Team building is a process by which members of a Work group diagnose how they work together
and plan changes to improve their effectiveness
Why is team approach to management recommended?

 It increases co-operation among organisational members.
 It spawns new ideas and generates solutions to problems, 0
 It reduces redundant efforts.
 It improve product quality.
 You achieve more as a team as the acronym ‘TEAM’ suggests
T -together
E -everyone
A-achieves
M-more
What would you consider to be stages in team development?

1. Forming:“Everyone accepts more”. This refers to the process of seeking basic information
defining goals, developing procedures for carrying out certain tasks. It is characterised by
uncertainty, confusion, dependence on a leader to provide guidance, sizing up others and options
given.
2, Storming:“Everyone adjusts more”. Members experience conflict as they locate and attempt
to resolve differences. Competition for leadership may arise. The major issue is who is responsible
for what.
3. Norming:“Everyone accomplishes more”. Cohesion and evidence of teamwork now begin
to emerge. Members identify with the group, share feelings, give and receive feedback and develop
positive sense of success. There is team structure and high level of dependence on each other.
4. Performing:“Everyone fully functioning”. A high level of interdependence is imminent.
Cohesion progresses to collaboration. Members are getting tasks accomplished.
5Adjourning:“Existing in style”. Team terminates its task, behaviours and disengages from
relations-oriented behaviours.
What factors influence team effectiveness?

1. Size and purpose. When the team is too large or diverse, some members tend to slack off and
wait for others to do it.
2. Membership and composition. Homogeneous groups tend to function quickly for routine
standard tasks. More skill is called for in managing heterogeneous grouprs.
3. Norms. Failure to adhere to norms makes others try to enforce them. That results in sympathy,
unrest, etc.
4. Status relationship or social ranking. This affects respect, prestige influence and power
accorded to all individual members.
5. Cohesiveness. This is the strength of members desire to remain in a group and how they share
in group goals.
6. Roles. This is the set of expected behaviours attributed to someone who occupies a given
position and how she perceives it.
Function of authority
Determine how individuals who occupy different position in an organization relate to each other.
Help administrators to enforce a number of house keeping rules such as no smoking, no corruption
Types of authority
1. Legal/formal authority
This is the type of authority which has its source in a Constitution. It is divided into
a) Line authority policy and operations
b) Staff authority advice, recommends and offer services
c) Functional authority delegated authority for special purposes.
2. Technical/expert authority
Authority that an individual poses as a result of his extraordinary ability, to do things with a high
level of understanding.
Classification of power
a) Reward power
This is the type of power exist when A person has power over person B because A has reward in
his custody that B values and wants. The reward that A controls include a wide variety of
possibilities such as pay raises , promotion.
b) Coercive power.
Power based on fear. The holder of coercive power has the ability to conflict punishment or
negative consequences on the other person.
c) Legitimate power
This is the legal power that a person possess by virtue of his/her position in an organization.
Administration of education in Kenya

Organization of structure of education in Kenya

Duties and responsibilities of the ministry of education
 Formulation and implementation of primary and secondary school policy.
 Quality assurance and supervision of pre primary, primary and secondary school.
 Teachers education and management of TTC
 Ministry oversee school administration and programmes.
 Registration of basic education and training institution.
 Curriculum development
 Examination and certification
 School equipment
 Early childhood education care and development.
 Special needs education
 Adult education
 Operationalization and management of agencies SAGA (semi autonomous government
agencies) e.g TSC, KNEC etc.
Role of the cabinet secretary

 Responsible for the overall governance and management of basic education.
 Promote free and compulsory basic education to every child.
 Ensure compulsory admission and attendance of children of school age at school.
 Ensure that children belonging to marginalized, vulnerable or disadvantaged group are
not discriminated against or prevented from persueing and completing basic education.
 Provide human resource including adequate teaching and non teaching staff according to
established norms.
 Provide infrastructure including school, learning and teaching equipment and appropriate
financial resources.
 Ensure quality basic education, conforming to the standard.
 Monitoring functioning of the school.
 Advice the national government on financing of infrastructure development for basic
education.
Duties of principal secretary

 Excursion of all policies matters concerning education
 Formulation and implementation of policy.
 Overall supervision and control of matters related to bodies and institution under the
ministry of education.
 Chairing the cabinet management committee and he is also a member of board of higher
institution of learning and education.
County director of education

Duties
 Implement education policy in the county.
 Coordinate and supervise all education officers and all staffs at the county level.
 Manage basic education, adult and continuing education, special need education and
other educational programs.
 Initiates educational policy at the county level.
 Lies with KNEC on management of national examination
 Ensure quality education and high standards in the county.
 In charge of management and monitoring implementation of educational programs.
 Advice and facilitate the establishment and registration of learning institution by the
county government.
 Facilitate auditing of all basic education institution in the county level.
 Advice the county education board on selection under board of management.
 Coordinate admission, transfer and discipline of children.
Functions of the county executive

 Evaluate performance in the county and advice the government.
 Work with partnership with the county education board in establishing efficiency and
effective delivery of education in the county.
 Suggest budgetary allocation for education department.
 Represent the governor at county level educational meeting.
 Promote private investment in education.
Semi autonomous government agencies

TSC (teacher service commission)
Functions
 Registration of trained teacher
 Recruitment and employment of registered teachers.
 Remuneration of teachers
 Promotion and transfer of teachers.
 Exercise disciplinary control over the teachers.
 Terminate employment of teachers.
 Maintenance of teaching standard
 Review the demand and supply of teachers.
 Monitor the conduct and performance of teachers in teaching service.
Functions of TAC county director

 Registration of teachers and reinforce teacher employment.
 Teacher recruitment in the county and recruitment guidelines are adhered to.
 Assignment of duties l.e managing teachers placement process within the county.

 Promotion of teachers.
 Remuneration, undertake timely and accurate amendment of pay roll on monthly basis.
 Exercising disciplinary control over teachers. Initiates investigation on all allegations made
relating to misconduct of teachers across the county.
 Maintaince of teaching standard.
Teachers discipline issues that are handled by TSC

1. Immoral contact with the students.
2. Conviction for a criminal offence.
3. Infamous contact include lack of decorum, using abusive language being drunk etc.
4. Desertion of duties. Occurs when a teacher is absent from duty for at least 14/days without
written permission.
5. Chronic absenteeism
6. Insubordination. Failure to obey instructions from the senior.
7. Negligence of duties. Failing to perform the assigned duties.
8. Breech of peace. Involves inciting students or other members of staff against school
administration.
9. Forgering and impersonation. Involves forgering of official documents and alteration and use
of official endorsement tool such as rubber stamp.
Types of leave
1. Annual leave. It is taken during school holidays and cannot be accumulated to be carried off
year to year.
2. Sick leave. A teacher employed on permanent terms is eligible for a maximum of three
months of full pay and a further three months with half pay of the salary.
3. Compassionate leave. A teacher may need time of his work to be with his immediate or
family in times of distress e.g occasion by death.
4. Special leave. Granted for a short duration for teachers who are to travel abroad to
participate in seminars/ short courses.
5. Maternity leave

Chapter
Philosophy of Education
What is philosophy?
Philosophy is the study that deals with the ultimate of the universe and general causes and
principles of those things that man observes and experiences.
What is 'philosophy of education?

Philosophy of education is the sum of the practical ideals of a society in general which guide the
content and practice of education.
Why is the knowledge of philosophy of education necessary to a teacher?

Knowledge of philosophy of education is important to a teacher because it:
 helps the teacher to seek meaning and clarification of the terms used in education and the
objectives of education.
 enables one to subject norms and content of a given syllabus syllabus to critical evaluation.
 promotes one’s level of reasoning and critical judgement about educational issues,
 creates responsibility, effort and faith in a teacher based on the value systems developed in
him/her,
 guides the teacher in his/her educational practice.
 enables one to understand and emphasise the absolute value of the human person.
 enables one to think about the basic foundations of his/her outlook.
 helps the teacher in formulating beliefs, arguments, assumptions and judgements
concerning teaching and learning.
Western philosophies of education

What were the major contributions of the following Western philosophers in education and
how have they influenced education practice in Kenya?
a) John Comenius
b) Jean Jacques Rousseau
c) John Pestalozzi
d) Frederick Froebe
e) John Dewey
f) Maria Montessori
John Commenius (1592–1690)

The contribution made by John Commenius can be summarised as follows:
 That the aim of education should be teaching of all things to all men.
 That education should appeal to the child’s natural interest; for example, allowing
children to write compositions in English language from topics they are familiar with.

 That teaching should be orderly according to the age of the learners.
 That whatever is taught should be of practical value to everyday life.
 That whatever is to be known should be taught by presenting the object directly to the child.
 That religion should be emphasised so that one would gain control over oneself and the
environment. .
 That learning should proceed from known to unknown.
 That children should learn to do by doing.
 That punishment should not be used to motivate learning.
 That learning should be through experience or through purposeful activity.
The ideas of John Commenius have greatly influenced education practice in Kenya in that:
 Children in primary schools learn all the subjects offered in the curriculum.
 Religious Education is still emphasised to lay moral foundation for the learner.
 There is more emphasis on practical subjects to making learning practical. o Emphasis is
on what children should do to enable them to learn rather than what the teacher should do.
 Teacher trainees are drilled on the practice of developing their lessons starting from known
to unknown.
 Reward rather than punishment is used to motivate learners.
 Topics in syllabuses of various subjects take into consideration the learners interests.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1772-1778)

 Rousseau is considered the father of child-centred education.
 He believed that the child is the Centre of the learning process and that its needs and interests
at all times must be considered.
 His major contributions were:
 That the major aim of education is that of developing the whole man.
 That education should be based on the natural stages of the child’s development and
growth.
 That each child should be given individual attention.
 That the child’s early education should consist of sensory and motor activities based on
its curiosity.
Rousseau’s thinking has influenced education practice in Kenya today in that:

 The curriculum developers have focused on the child’s growth and development.
 The content selected in any given subject for each grade takes into consideration the stages
of mental development and ability of the targetted children.
 The class teacher for each grade is expected to plan and cater for individual differences;
however, the enlarging classes often limit a teacher from giving attention to every child.
 Methods/activities that place the child at the centre of the learning process are emphasised
globally.
John Pestalozzi (1746-1825)

 The belief of John Pestalozzi, like that of Rousseau, was that the child must be the centre of
the education process.
 His major contributions were:
 That education should aim at developing the child from within and not imposing adult
standards on it.
 That pupil’s activity is the vital method.
 That oral teaching should be applied in all lessons.
 That progress should be from concrete to abstract; from particular to general (inductive
method).
Pestalozzi’s thinking has influenced education in Kenya in the following ways:

 The child is still highly regarded in the process of education.
 The emphasis in teacher education is on the child as the centre of the learning process.
 Pupil’s activity is given prominence at the level of :lesson planning.
 The induction method is one of the many methods Used in teaching in order to engage the
learner in the learning process.
 Oral teaching is emphasised in the teaching of languages.
 The involvement of all the child’s senses in learning is emphasised.
 The creation of a condusive learning environment is also emphasised.
Frederick Froebel (1782-1852)

 Froebel recognized that children are naturally creative rather than receptive and that self-
activity is one of the most important ways in which a child learns.
 He emphasised the importance of early childhood education.
 His other contributions were:
 That play is the best way of self-expression.
 That socialisation is a key principle in learning.
 That children should be encouraged to cooperate with one another in various activities.
 That children learn through work and play.
His thinking has influenced education practice in Kenya in that:

 He is regarded as the champion of the pre-school education and the father of the
Kindergarten.
 Play is emphasised as a major method of teaching and an enjoyable way through which
children learn.
 Nurseryschools in Kenya use play as a way of teaching and learning for children.
Playthings and play are no longer considered a waste of money and time.
 The teacher’s role is seen as that of a guide and provider of a suitable environment and
play things.
John Dewey (1859-1952)

John Dewey is associated with the project method and child-centred education. His contributions
were:

 That formal education has to be life itself.
 That children prepare best for life by taking an active part in the life at home, the village
and under the community, through co-operative and active participation in real life
challenges.
 That the duty of the teacher is one of a guide to the child encouraging participation in
village projects and assessing the value of the project by its products.
Dewey’s thinking has greatly influenced education practice in Kenya in that

 the project method he advocated is considered a useful mode of teaching and learning in
upper primary and higher levels of learning
Maria Montessori (18701952)

Montessori, like Froebel, saw the value of play in the process of learning.
Her contributions were based on the following:
 She used carefully designed playthings to help mentally handicapped children learn. They
learnt so well that they actually outstripped normal children in public examinations.
 She emphasised the need to provide a rich and a suitable environment in the classroom
where the child would be free to move around and react to it and its playthings according
to the child’s own preference and at his own pace.
 She did not advocate rewards or prizes as motivation for learning. The child’s own
curiosity and the mastery of the skill it is interested in is sufficient motivation.
 Thus, the child becomes independent and lives and learns harmoniously with the other
children in class.
Montessori's thinking has influenced education practice in Kenya in that there are a few nursery
schools which follow Montessori‘s ideas. The basic problem is one of shortage of properly
trained teachers and poor provision of the variety of materials required in such schools.
African philosophies of education

The Harambee philosophy
What is Harambee philosophy?

The word Harambee literary means “pooling together”. Harambee philosophy is the guiding
principle of working together and pooling resources according to individual ability and willingness
to bring about development in education and other areas of national development.
Who is associated with Harambee philosophy and how did the idea start?
Harambee philosophy is associated with the founding father of the Nation of Kenya, MzeeJomo
Kenyatta. He used the word "Harambee" as a clarion call to pool efforts and resources for
development of an independent nation.

The idea of Harambee stems from the way of life of the Kenyan traditional society where members
of certain communities joined hands to construct houses for families, till the soil and herd cattle.
The growth of independent schools before independence was through similar co-operative efforts
by the communities involved to provide facilities of the much desired Western education.
After independence, Harambee was seen as the only viable alternative to adopt in forging ahead
with social and economic development.
How has the Harambee philosophy contributed to the development of education in Kenya
since independence?
Harambee has contributed immensely to the development of education in Kenya in the following
ways:
 A majority of primary and secondary schools have been built through Harambee efforts.
Money raised in Harambee meetings and by parents has been used to build the required
classrooms and workshops.
 Colleges of technology and polytechnics built in the early seventies are as a result of the
Harambee spirit of the Kenyan people.
 A large number of students have studied in foreign countries through use of funds raised
during Harambee meetings.
 The introduction of cost-sharing policy in development of education is a form of Harambee
that involves the government and the citizens in the development of education.
What are some of the problems that threaten to kill the Harambee spirit in Kenya today?
The problems include: '
 Forced contribution in some areas by the local leaders.
 Misuse and misappropriation of funds collected during Harambees by some leaders. Some
donors issuing bouncing cheques.
 Some people viewing Harambee as a form of indirect taxation.
 Failure to account for funds collected.
 Looting of government funds by some officers to buy political favours during harambees.
What should be done to sustain the Harambee spirit?

 Leaders should educate the local people on the need to contribute voluntarily instead of
forcing them to do so.
 Harambee financial records should be audited to reduce incidents of misuse and
misappropriation.
 Harambee efforts and projects should be co-ordinated to avoid duplication of efforts and
overtaxing of contributors
 Local people should be the beneficiaries of the Harambee projects they have funded.
 Government officials should be banned from presiding over fund raising ceremonies.

How can the Harambee spirit be developed amongst pupils?
The Harambee spirit can be developed in pupils: '
 When cooperation is encouraged in sharing of ideas through class discussions.
 When pupils work together in school projects such as farming, controlling soil erosion,
tree-planting and other forms of co-pperative learning.
 When pupils take part in walks to raise money for a given project in the community.
 By learning to co-operate in games, drama and other co-curriculum activities.
The African Socialism

What was conceived as the meaning of African socialism in Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965?
 'African socialism' was a term used to describe an African political and economic system that
is positively African and not imported from any country.
 It was seen as a system that is capable of incorporating useful and compatible techniques from
whatever source.
 The system was expected to meet the following conditions:
 Draw on the best of African traditions, ‘

 Be adaptable to new and changing circumstances.
 Not rest for its success on‘a satellite relationship with any other country or group of
countries.
What are the main features of African socialism?

The main features of African socialism are that:
1. there should be political democracy a government of the people by the people for the
people.
2. there should be a mutual and social responsibility.
3. there should be various forms of ownership.
4. a range of controls should exist to ensure that property is used in the mutual interest of
society and its members.
5. there should be diffusion of ownership to avoid concentration of economic power on an
individual, or group of persons.
6. there should be progressive taxation to ensure equitable distribution of wealth and income.
What are the guiding principles to educational goals and practices as stipulated in Sessional
Paper No. 10 of 1965 (African socialism).
The Sessional Paper states that:
 The aim of education (seven years free education)'will be to produce good citizens inspired
with the desire to serve their fellow men.
 Education should meet the needs for economic growth by producing the required
manpower.
 Education should promote national unity.
 Education should encourage proper use of leisure time.

 Education curricula should meet the government specified standards.
 All citizens shall be expected to contribute to the development of education through self-
help activities, payment of school fees, taxes and service as teachers.
How has the Sessional Paper influenced the development of education in Kenya?
The ideas contained in Sessional Paper No. 10 have been instrumental in the shaping of
development of education in the country in that:
 One of the goals of education, which is to foster a sense of nationhood and promote national
unity,has been adhered to.
 Another goal which states that education should meet the needs of social and reconomic
development is given consideration. .
 Curriculum development is centralised at Kenya Institute of Education (K I. E.) and
therefore the government controls the curricula followed in both primary and secondary
schools.
 The citizens have and continue to contribute immensely to the development 0f education
in all ways.
One of the African traditions which form an essential basis for African socialism is "Mutual social
responsibility”.
How can mutual social responsibility be promoted in a school environment?

The pupils would be expected to carry out certain duties for the school while the school has
responsibility to the pupil in return. These are to:
 Represent the school in inter-school competitions such as in drama, music, sports and
games.
 Promote the image of the school in both academic and disciplinary matters. '
 Take part in keeping the school compound and classrooms clean.
 Provide leadership where required; for example, as a prefect in the school administration.
 Take care of school property.
The school on the other hand has responsibility to the child and is expected to provide:
 Suitable learning opportunities.
 Guidance and counselling services.
 Security and service.
 Emotional, social and security needs.
The Nyayo Philosophy

What is the Nyayo philosophy?
The word ‘Nyayo’ is a Kiswahili word that means ‘footsteps. The word was given an impetus
by President Daniel ArapMoi when he took over Kenya’s leadership from the late President

MzeeJomo Kenyatta in 1978. President Moi swore to follow in the footsteps of the late MzeeJomo
Kenyatta.
Outline some specific educational issues that were emphasised under the Nyayo philosophy.
The education issues that have been emphasised are: .
 Education for self-reliance in the 8-4-4 system of educatlon.
 Expansion of university education through opening of new universities. ‘
 Environmental education through planting of trees, establishment of tree nurseries.
protection of endangered species of indigenous trees, establishment of the presidential
commission on soil conservation and afforestation and introduction of environmental
education in colleges.
 Wildlife conservation through establishment of a special department.
 Control of population growth through introduction of Population and Family Life
Education as a subject in teacher training colleges.
How can the Nyayo philosophy of peace, love and unity be propagated in a school setting?
The Nyayo philosophy can be propagated in a school by:
 Teachers showing a good example, by loving their pupils as they love their own children,
and cooperating among themselves in an atmosphere of peace.
 Encouraging pupils to be mindful of other people's welfare through assisting the less
privileged members such as the disabled pupils.
 Encouraging pupils to join clubs and societies which provide for them an opportunity to
serve others, such as scouting and girl guides.
 Encouraging pupils to share learning resources and experiences in a learning situation.
 Highlighting the themes of peace, love and unity when teaching subjects such as Religious
Education.
Education for self-reliance

Why is MwalimuIuliusNyerere of Tanzania associated with “Education for Self-reliance"?
MwalimuNyerere is associated with ‘education for self-reliance’ because he spelt out the policy
of self-reliance in the Arusha Declaration of 1967. The word he adopted for self-reliance was
‘Ujamaa’, which means brotherhood or family hood. This principle emphasised co-operation,
equality and self-help in the community. He saw education as a means of teaching the principles
of self-reliance.
Why was Education for Self-reliance introduced in Tanzania?

Education for self-reliance was introduced to:
 Foster the social goals of living and working together for a common goal.
 Solve the problem of unemployment of university graduates.
 Stress the concept of equality and responsibility to give services which go with special
ability.

 Emphasise cooperative endeavour and not individual advancement. .
 Prepare young people for the work they will be called upon to do in the society.
 Break the dependence of Tanzania’s development on foreign assistance and control.
 Reduce the alarmingly rising budget on education.
How was Education for Self-reliance introduced in Tanzania?

Education for self-reliance was introduced in Tanzania as follows:
 First the content of primary educationwas changed so as to prepare Children for the future.
 Kiswahili was made the medium of instruction in primary schools.
 The age of entry for primary schools was raised from seven to eight years. ,
 Teaching methods were to emphasise learning by doing, experimentation and experience

in real life situation
 Through Ujamaa schools, education was to be taken to the community. The community
was to share in educating children, e. g. sharing its skills in art and craft with the children,
 Each school was expected to have, as an intergral part of it, a farm or workshop which
would provide the food to be eaten by the school community and contribute to national
income.
What problems did the Tanzanians encounter in the implementation of ’Education for Self-
reliance’
The problems encountered were that:
 The concept some teachers had towards the change was misleading. For some teachers
‘Education for Self-reliance’ initially meant little more than a return to school farming
with optimum credit likely to go to the school with the largest acreage and heaviest crop.
 There was a problem of publication and production of new reading materials in Kiswahili.
There was a shortage of well-educated teachers.
 There was a negative attitude towards ‘Education for Self-reliance’ by students of
advanced levels.
What is the relationship between Tanzania’s Education for Self-reliance and the Kenya’s
8-4-4 system of education?
‘Education for Self-reliance’ and the 8-4-4 system of education are similar in that:
 Both aim at enabling school leavers to be self-reliant by engaging themselves in self-
employment.
 The two systems put emphasis on practical skills.
 Both systems address themselves to the issue of enabling education to @9119, positively
to the challenges of national economic development.
 The implementation of the two systems suffered from lack of facilities, shortage of trained
teachers, negative attitude towards the change in certain circles, and falling standards in
education.

The Common Man’s Charter (1970)
What is the Common Man’s Charter of 1970?
 The Common Man’s Charter is a document made in Uganda after independence by Dr. Milton
Obote.
 The aim of the document was to change Uganda from a feudal system of kingdoms to a
socialistic state.
What were the aspects of change that the Charter intended to introduce?
The aspects of change intended were that:
 all people be regarded as equal in sharing the fruits of their labour regardless of their
background.
 the bulk of the population be educated and be involved in the election of their rulers.
 the masses be educated to co-ordinate the hands and the brains for economic productivity.
 industries be nationalised and foreign industries be 60 per cent government owned.
 all practices of corruption such as tribalism and nepotism be destroyed.
 national youth service be established.
Why were the ideas of the Common Man’s Charter not implemented?
The ideas were not implemented due to:
 The overthrow of Obote’s government.
 The political instability that existed in Uganda for many years. °
 The changing times, which may have rendered some of the ideas irrelevant.
Meaning of Education
What is education?
 It is a process that enables one to acquire and develop desired new knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
 The word 'proccss' underscores the fact that education is a conunuous activity that never ends.
 The word "desired" implies that some form of learning may be excluded from education if the
society considers it undesirable; for example, if one learns to be a thief, he would not be
regarded as an educated person.
Differentiate the terms formal, non-formal and informal education.
Formal education
 It is a form of educationWhere learning takes place in special institutions such as schools,
colleges-etc.
 That is carefully structured by means of syllabuses which have contents, method and
timetables.
 That has the teaching supervised and teachers well trained and paid to teach.

 That has the outcome assessed by use of tests and examinations and achievement recognised
by award of certificates.
Non-formal education
 Is less structured and has flexibility in choice of content and methods.
 Has an open membership and has flexibility in its timetables and meeting places.
 Is often organised outside the usual formal time in the school.
 It may be seen to take the forms of adult education, family planning programmes, seminars,
club activities inschools, etc.
 Learning may be evaluated or not evaluated at all.
 Is aimed at specific learning needs of a particular group of people in the programmes, e.g. open
learning, correspondence courses, adult education, etc.
Informal education
 It is a form of education that is not structured
 Takes place anywhere and at any time. .
 Takes place almost unconciously.
 Is haphazard and there is no award of certificates.
 Involves what pupils learn as they interactwith family members, peers, teachers, the church
and the mass media.
 Leads to the acquisitlon of good habits and behaviours during interactions.
In which ways does a school provide formal, non-formal and informal education?
Formal education takes the lion's share of the time spent on learning. The teaching of the subjects
in a syllabus by the teachers is programmed in the schools’timetables. Tests and examinations
are used to determine the levels of achievement, and certificates are awarded to indicate the
individual's performance at the end of the course.
Non formal education takes place through games, clubs and societies such as: young farmers,
wildlife, drama, school choirs, scouting, Christian Union, etc. The level of performance or
achievement is occasionally indicated in school leaving certificates. '
Informal education takes place within the planned school structures and activities as the pupils
interact with peers, teachers, headteachers and guests, etc. Some worthwhile habits, behaviour,
knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired either consciously or unconciously.
In which ways does the education system in Kenya foster a sense of nation/hood and promote
national unity? ‘
The education system fosters a sense of nationhood and promotes national mutiny in the following
ways:
 Through the establishment of national boarding institutions such as primary schools,

secondary schools, teachers' colleges and universities that admit pupils and students from
all parts of the country.
 Teachers employed by the Teachers Service Commission can be deployed to teach in any
school in the Republic.
 The teaching of Kiswahili which is a national language makes it easy for citizens to
communicate, share ideas and understand one another.
 Through school practices such as flag raising, singing of the national anthem and reciting
the loyalty pledge. ‘
 The curriculum followed in public primary schools in Kenya is uniform and examinations
at the end of the cycle are administered by a national examination council
 National school festivals such as music, drama and sports enable pupils and students from
various parts of the country to meet and compete as Kenyans. '
 Emphasis on the need for national unity when teaching the areas that are related to it in the
syllabuses.
Why is it necessary to foster a sense of nationhood and promote national unity?

A sense of nationhood and national unity are necessary because:
 Citizens need to work together to achieve greater heights of social and economic
development.
 People need to share ideas to find rapid solutions to the problems the country faces. Sharing
of ideas is possible when unity prevails.
 People need to be united to counter any form of aggression or attack from a foreign country.
 They form the basis for peace and harmony which would attract foreign investors to a
country and promote tourism.
How can music as a subject be used in preserving and promoting the rich and varied
cultures?
The useful culture expressed through music can be promoted and preserved by:
 Teaching pupils traditional dances.
 Providing Opportunities for competition in music and traditional dances at the national
level
 Encouraging pupils to learn traditional dances and play traditional musical instruments.
 Encouraging pupils to collect and preserve traditional musical instruments.
 Encouraging pupils to make traditional musical instruments which are about to be forgotten
or face extinction.
How does one demonstrate the love for his/her country (patriotism)?
One demonstrates patriotism by:
 Taking pride in one’s own identity, sense of belonging and culture.
 Putting the interest of one’s own country before individual interest.
 Desiring to serve one’s country and citizens without expecting major gains or
commensurate pay.

 Championing the aspirations and desires of one’s nation.
 Laying down one’s life for the sake of the security and freedom of one’s country.
 Paying taxes that are due to one’s country and refusing to be corrupted at all cost
 Respecting the constitution and laws of the land.
What do you think our country’s philosophy of education should concern itself with?
Our country’s education philosophy should concern itself with:
 Expression of Kenya’s identity; what is our identity
 Personal character formation; the kind of citizen we wish to develop.
 Respect for authority, human dignity and social equality.
 Patriotism for the nation of Kenya and desire for continued integrity, stability and
prosperity.
 Enhancement of moral and spiritual values in inter-cultural and inter-ethnic relations.
 Encouragement of mutual social responsibility.
 Internalisation of a positive and life-long work ethic.
 Conservation and maintenance of a clean environment.
 Cultivation of national unity.
 Promotion of physical, emotional and psychological health of citizens.
 Appreciation of national, regional and global concerns.
 Respect and appreciation of abilities and limitations of persons with special needs, etc.

Chapter
Financial Management in school

Authority to lncur Expenditure
This is the power given to an administrator or chief executive of an institution organization to
spend money within approved estimates. For a school, this is limited to the head teacher only.
lmprest
This is money advanced to an individual organization for meeting financial needs within a
specified period. Usually an imprest helps in meeting incidental expenses or taking care of petty
business of the institution. An imprest is normally retired at the end of the spending period. There
is an exercise book called an imprest account book which shows how an educational administrator
or chief executive of an educational institution has spent a particular imprest (advance) given to
him.
Virement
This is the transfer of money from one vote head/sub-unit of an institution/organization to another
e.g the Principal, with approval of the BOM, may decide to vire (transfer) funds from the activity
fees vote-head into the payment of staff salaries and allowances and later replace the sum so vined.
Sources of School Funds

These include:
 Grants,
 Fees,
 Donations.
 Income generating projects,
 Loans.
 Bank overdraft etc
Book-keeping, Accounting and Auditing

Book-keeping
This is the recording of financial transactions and is part of the process of financial accounting.
 Book-keeping is meant to ensure that records of an individual‘s financial transactions are
correct, up-to-date and comprehensive. Accuracy is vital in the process. It provides
information from which accounts are prepared. It is therefore a distinct process that
occurs within the broader scope of 'accounting‘.
 In book-keeping structures/quality controls every transaction must be recorded to ensure
timely and accurate records.

 In principle, transactions must be recorded daily into the books of accounting system. For
each transaction, there must be a document that describes it e.g. invoices, receipts, bank
payments, supplies payments, journals etc.
 The accompanying documents provide the audit trail for each transaction. hence are an
important part of maintaining accurate records in the event of an audit.
The Double-Entry Book-Keeping System in Book-keeping

This is based on the fact that every transaction has TWO parts that affect TWO ledger accounts.
Every transaction involves a debit entry in one account and a credit entry in another account. This
serves as an error detection system. If at any point, the sum of debits does not equal the
corresponding sum of credits, then an error has occurred.
Accounting
This is the process of managing the income and expenditure of an institution or organization.
Financial accounting is the process of measuring, summarizing and communicating the financial
information produced by bookkeeping. It makes it possible to forecast future financial
developments analyze different areas of the business/imutation/organization and evaluate it's
potential. Three reports that are typically generated in financial accounting include balance sheets.
Income statements and statements of cash flow 5.
Auditing
This is the systematic/objective and independent examination and Verification of an institution's
books of accounts, transaction records, status records, other relevant documents and physical
inspection of inventory by qualified accountants known as auditors, in pursuance to appointment
and compliance to any relevant statutory obligation.
 It is meant to ascertain how far the financial statements and non-financial disclosures present
a true and fair view of the institution/organization.
 It attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the institution as
required by law.
 As a result of an audit, stakeholders may effectively evaluate and improve the effectiveness
of risk management controls and governance of the institution.
Objectives of Auditing
1. Good Governance- Reviewing the governance mechanisms of the entity and mechanisms
for transparency and accountability with regard to the finances and assets of the entity.
2. Internal Control -Conducting risk based, value-for-money and systems audit aimed at
strengthening internal control mechanism that could have an impact on achievement of the
strategic objectives of the entity.
3. Asset Management Verifying the existence of assets administered by the entity and ensuring
that there are proper safeguards for their protection.
4. Good Practices Providing assurance that appropriate institutional policies, procedures and
good business practices are followed by the entity.

5. Decision Making Evaluating the adequacy and reliability of information available to
management for making decisions with regard the entity and its operations.
Types of Auditing
1. Internal Auditing
This is an internal management activity and service intended to ensure regular and frequent
checking of an institution’s financial transactions and records. it also serves to check whether all
financial transactions have taken place according to the budget. to set procedures and following
management policies. The objective of internal auditing may differ from one institution to another,
but the general aim is to promote efficiency in the institution‘s financial control and management.
2. External Auditing
This is conducted by an external auditor who gives an independent report on the financial
performance of an institution. The focus of external auditing is on establishing the truth and
fairness of the accounts. It gives added credibility to unaudited financial statement and records of
the institutions financial transactions and confirms their compliance to the statutes.
Examples of Common Audit Queries

 Misappropriation of funds
 Embezzlement of funds
 Misappropriation of funds
 Non-acquittal of payment vouchers
 Incomplete programmes
 Unused funds
 Mis-procurement
 Deficiencies in stores records
 Undue retention of with-holding tax ,
 Personnel Payroll irregularities
 Refusal Failure to pay back stall‘ advances
Types of Audit Opinions

1. Unqualified Opinion The auditor has no material reservations regarding financial statements
as a whole
2. Qualified Opinion The auditor is satisfied that the financial statements present a fair and
accurate picture of the institution and comply with generally accepted accounting principles.
A qualified opinion contains exceptions, which may include the scope of the audit.
3. Adverse Opinion The auditor has accumulated enough evidence to indicate that the financial
statements, as a whole are not fairly presented.
4. Disclaimer (Denial) of Opinion The auditor is unable to form an opinion on the financial
statements as a whole due to a scope limitation.

School Books of Account:
1. Cash Book
 This is used to record cash receipts and cash payments
 It provides a statement of debit and credit records hence can be used to manage cash outflows
and inflows
 It provides an easy way of keeping up with how much money is coming in and what bills are
getting paid
2. Journals
A journal is a formal and chronological record of financial transactions before their values are
accounted for in the general ledger as debits and credits. An institution/organization e.g. school,
can maintain one journal for all transactions, or keep several journals based on similar activity (i.e.
sales, cash receipts. revenue etc.), making transactions easier to summarize and refer to later. A
journal is known as the book of original entry because it is where the information from the source
document first enters the accounting system.
A journal entry takes the following format
Date Account(Account to be debited) Debit Credit
NB: For every debit journal entry recorded, there must be an equivalent credit journal entry to
maintain a balanced accounting equation.
3. Ledger:
A ledger is a record of accounts “here accounts are recorded separately showing their
beginning/ending balance. Unlike the journal, which lists financial transactions in chronological
order, without showing their balance but showing how much is going to be charged in each
account, the ledger takes each financial transaction from the journal and records them into the right
account for every transaction listed. It also sums up the total of every account which is transferred
into the balance sheet and income statement. There are three kinds of ledgers that deal with book-
keeping. They include:
a) Sales Ledger Consists of the financial transactions made by the customers to the institution or
organization
b) Purchase Ledger This is a ledger that goes hand in hand with
c) General Ledger this represents the original lite main accounts i.e. Assets. Liabilities. Equity,
Income and Expenses
4. Balance Sheet
This is a financial statement that summarizes an institution‘s assets, liabilities and equity capital
at a specific point in time e.g. end of its financial year. It gives investors an idea as to what the
organization owns and owes. as well as the amount invested by the shareholders (i.e. it gives a
snapshot of an institution‘s financial condition at a specific moment in time. usually at the close
of an accounting period).

The balance sheet must follow the following formula: Assets =Liabilities + Shareholders‘ Equity.
An asset is anything the institution owns and has monetary value. Liabilities are claims of creditors
against the assets of the institution.
5. Cash Receipt Books

A cash receipt book is a list of all the income an institution receives. The school's receipt book may
have more income columns: rows in the receipt book so that it can separate the income into
categories that apply to the school (e.g. along different vote-heads)
6. Bank Reconciliation Statement

The bank reconciliation reports on the differences between the balance on the bank statement and
the balance in the institution‘s financial records such as cheque register, cash book, general ledger,
rash account, balance sheet. etc. (i.e. it compares the bank balance as per the institution‘s
accounting records with the balance stated on the bank statement). The reconciliation results in the
true cash balance that appears on the balance sheet. It’s normal for an institution‘s bank balance
as per the accounting records to differ from the balance as per the bank statement due to timing
differences. Bank reconciliation statements can be used to identify errors and omissions in both
documents. so that corrections can be made as soon as possible.
Reasons for differences between the cash book and the bank statement
1. Uncredited Items These are deposits paid into the bank. The items occurred too close to the
cut-off date of the bank statement and so do not appear on the statement. They will appear on
the next statement.
2. Unpresented Cheques They are Cheques iSsued by the institution that have not been
presented to its bank for payment.
3. Standing Orders They are standing instructions from the institution to the bank to make
regular payments
4. Direct Debits They are payments made directly through the bank
5. Bank Charges Charges made by the bank to the institution for banking services used
6. Dishonoured Cheques They are Cheques deposited but subsequently returned by the bank
due to the failure of the drav. er to pay
7. Credit Transfers/Direct Credits They are collections from customers directly through the
bank
8. interest Allowed by the Bank They are interest received for deposits or fixed deposits
Importance of Bank Reconciliation

 Preparation of bank reconciliation helps In the identification of errors in the accounting
records of an institution
 Cash is the most vulnerable asset of an entity. Bank reconciliation provides the necessary
control mechanism to help protect the valuable resource through uncovering irregularities
such as unauthorized bank withdrawals

 If the bank balance appearing in the accounting records can be confirmed to be correct by
comparing it with the bank statement balance, it provides added comfort that the bank
transactions have been recorded correctly in the organization‘s records.
 Monthly preparation of bank reconciliation assists in the regular monitoring of cash flows of
an organization.
Bank Reconciliation Methods

(i) Book to Bank
This starts with the books of accounts and reconciles them to the bank statement. All the books of
accounts are added up including Cheques, deposits and any other form of money that that has gone
in and out of the institution since the pre\ious statement. The final result and its components are
then compared to the banking statement If the two disagree. then the institution goes back through
its books to see what the problem is. and makes adjustments through new journal entries.
(ii) Bank to Book

Bank to book method starts by calculating what the bank account should be then compares the
result to what the institution‘s books state. This method therefore uses the bank balance to find the
book balance and compares errors from there. Since bank processes are mostly automated. but not
all the institution‘s processes are, bank statements may be more reliable than the institution‘s books
of account.
Income and Expenditure Account
An Income and Expenditure Account is a record through which the surplus or deficit of an
institution is ascertained.
All the information necessary for preparation of the account is available from ledger accounts. Its
left-hand (i.e. Debit) side records all revenue expenditure, while the right-hand (i.e. Credit) side
records all ma revenues relating to the current year. The balance of the account, if credit, indicates
surplus (i.e. excess of income over expenditure). Conversely, the balance of the account, if debit,
indicates deficit (i.e. excess of expenditure over income). It is similar to a profit and loss account
of a profit-seeking business organization.
Importance of Income and Expenditure Account

Government schools/institutions, like Non-Profit Organisations would wish to know the net result
of their activities of a particular period which generally is one year. As much as the institutions do
not engage in trading activities and their objective is not earning profits, they would still wish to
know whether their income exceeds expenditure or vice versa. The amount of such difference is
not termed as Net Profit or Net Loss as it is so termed in case of business organisations. It is instead
termed as ‘surplus‘ or ‘deficit' as the case may be. Moreover, preparation of income and
Expenditure Account is a legal statutory requirement. It helps the institutions/organisations to
control their expenditure.
Procurement Procedures and Stores Management

Definition: Procurement is an activity or function that involves buying or purchasing or acquisition

of goods. works or services to meet a specifically identified need.
Steps in Procurement
(i) Identify the need
(ii) Procurement planning
(iii) Specitication of requirement
(iv) Preparation of tender documents
(v) Receive tenders based on choice procurement method
(vi) Award contract
(vii) Contract management
Benefits of Good Procurement

 Security of supply
 Lower total cost
 Reduced risk
 Improved quality
 Added value
 Greater efficiency
 New innovations
Methods of procurement
These include:
 Imprest
 Request for Quotation
 Open Tender
 Restrictive Tender
 Direct Procurement
a) lmprest
Using the imprest, the following steps are followed:
i. A request (Requisition) is forwarded by the user to the one with authority to commit
funds for expenditure (AIE holder) for approval, and then directed to
procurement/supplies office.
ii. Costing is done based on the technical specifications.
iii. Imprest (Cash) is applied for and is used to buy the item.
iv. The item is then received by the stores clerk and a record made and kept.
v. Eventually the item is issued to the user.
b) Request for Quotation

This procurement method is used for small-valued goods or services. It is by far the least complex
procurement method available. If used. it ensures a fast procurement process and not a lot of
paperwork. There is no formal proposal drafted from either party in this method. Essentially, the
procurement institution selects a minimum of three suppliers or service providers that they wish

to get quotes from. A comparison of quotes is analyzed and the best selection determined by
requirement compliance is chosen.
A procuring institution may use a request for quotations for a procurement if the procurement is
for goods that are readily available and for which there is an established market; and the estimated
value of the goods being procured is less than or equal to the prescribed maximum value for using
requests for quotations. The successful quotation shall be the quotation with the lowest price that
meets the requirements set out in the request for quotations
c) Open Tender/Competitive Bidding

This is a method that allows the supplier or contractor to submit a tender to an advertised tender.
The institution advertises openly in the press inviting suppliers to apply for the project. The
institution is required to advertise at least twice in a newspaper of general nationwide circulation
which has been regularly published for at least 2 years before the date of issue of the advertisement,
and on its website in instances where the institution has one.
In open tendering procedure, any interested supplier can submit a tender. The submission is then
considered together with the applicant‘s tender bid and supporting documentation.
d) Restrictive/Restricted/Selective Tender
Restricted tendering is a procurement method that limits the request for tenders to a select number
of suppliers/contractors/service providers. Like open tendering, restricted tendering is considered
a competitive procurement method; however, the competition is limited to agencies that are invited
by the procuring team. Unlike open tendering, restricted tendering places a limit on the amount of
request for tenders that can be sent by a supplier or service provider. The procuring entity
institution should establish a set of guidelines to use when selecting the suppliers and service
providers that will be on the imitation list. This method is selective to find the best-suited and most
qualified agencies to procure goods and services from. It is employed as a way for the procuring
team to save time and money during the selection process. Restricted tendering is used under the
following conditions:
Complexity: The complex or specialized nature of the goods, works or services is best limited to
pre-qualified contractors
Cost: The time and cost required to examine and evaluate a large number of tenders would be
disproportionate to the value of the goods, works or services to be procured, and there are only a
few known suppliers of the same
Few Suppliers: there are only a few known suppliers of the goods, works or service as may be
prescribed in the regulations.
e) Direct Procurement
Direct procurement is the act of acquiring raw materials and goods for production without
competition (Single-source). These purchases are generally done in large quantities, acquired from
a pool of suppliers at the best possible cost, quality and reliability. These purchases are made
frequently and are necessary for key business/institutional practices, such as acquiring flour to
bake bread. Historically, direct procurement stems from the manufacturing industry e.g. an existing

contract for supply of goods and/or services may be extended for additional goods, works or
services of a similar nature. However, direct procurement must be highly regulated. A procuring
institution may use direct procurement based on the following conditions:
a) Single Supplier: There is only one person who can supply the goods, works or services
being procured.
b) No alternative: There is no reasonable alternative or substitute for the goods, works or
services.
c) Urgency: There is an urgent need for the goods, works or services being procured. Because
of the urgency, other available methods of procurement are impractical; the circumstances
that gave rise to the urgency were not foreseeable and were not the result of dilatory conduct
on the part of the procuring institution.
Role of the Procurement Unit/Procurement Officer

He/she should ensure that:
 An officer is appointed to be in charge of stores.
 All stores purchased are actually received and taken on charge; arrange occasional visits to
the stores at least twice every calendar year to ensure store-keeping is well done,
 Stores are not allowed to suffer deterioration from any preventable cause.
 Overstocking of any particular item is avoided.
 Adequate fire-fighting appliances as approved by the relevant fire authority are installed in
the store premises, maintained in good working order and readily available for emergencies.
Process of receiving and disbursing supplies

The procurement and stores unit of the institution ptocures stores/supplies, receives them, records,
maintains a secure storage of the materials and provides an eflicient disbursement of the supplies
to the user departments.
Stores in Educational Institutions

Definition: Stores imply all the movable property acquired purchased by the institution using
public funds. It covers all goods and materials given to, bought by or lent to the institution. for the
use of the institution or its officers.
Storekeeping refers to physical storage of the materials carried into the store-room in a scientific
and systematic manner with a view of safeguarding them from damages or losses.
Types of stores
(i) Permanent Store.
These are items which have a long life span and also are expensive. When in use, they are expected
to be maintained and when they become unserviceable they are also expected to have salvage
value, and they should be disposed off in accordance with the provisions of the act and regulations.
In educational institutions, permanent items are those with a value of K.sh.5000 or more and the
items have an expected life of 2 or more years.

(ii) Consumable Store
These are stores whose nature changes in use or are consumed, and are therefore issued only once
and they are not entered into any inventory e.g. stationery, foodstuff, drugs, fuel etc.
(iii)Expendable Stores
These are items procured, but cannot be purely classified as permanent or consumable. The
management of expendable items is similar to that of permanent items. Examples are cutlery.
bulbs, fluorescent lighting tubes, rulers, staplers, lamps etc. This category of stores does not need
to be controlled from the stores and therefore there is no permanent record of them in the stores.
Other categories of classifying stores include:

(i) Administrative and Stationery Supplies
These include office and computer supplies such as paper, pens, toners, printer cartridges,
notebooks, compact discs, flash discs, memory cards etc. Such stores may be kept in locked
facilities within the offices and do not require separate warehouse facilities.
(ii) Shelf life items

These are characterized by an expiry date less than five years, beyond which, the item cannot be
used e.g. drugs and medical supplies and chemicals. Specialized storage facilities must be used for
such items. Issuance of Shelf-life items should be strictly on a first in-first out basis.
(iv) Foodstuff and other sensitive perishable

These items should be stored in separate facilities which are clean and do not permit contamination
from chemicals and other toxic Pollutants.
(v) Fuel and Lubricants

These items should only be stored in special storage facilities approved specifically for fuel and
lubricants should be subject to the highest standards of safety and protection against environmental
damage.
(vi) Assets such as stores of a capital nature

These include items such as plant. machinery. vehicles, office and house furniture and equipment.
books etc. excluding consumable stores. They should be properly tagged, recorded in appropriate
Asset inventory Registers indicating the location and the asset holder.
Role of the Storekeeper/ Head of Stores

 Receive the stores purchased by the institution
 Maintain the storeroom clean, ventilated and in good condition for storing
 Ensure ease of access to stores
 Examine locks
 Check storing and stacking conditions
 Check storing periods
 Report part-worn, obsolete or deteriorated storm Separate stores into various categories
e.g. explosives, inflammables etc.

 Ensure FIFO (First In First Out) is applied when issuing stores
 Keep tally cards
 Ensure signage is in place e.g. security signs. no-smoking etc.
Stores Management Records

It‘s not possible to manage stores without records. Any officer receiving store items should have
access to the relevant stores documents such as a copy of the LPO, LSO, Delivery Note, Invoice
or Receipts. The aim of this process is to ensure that the institution receives stores of the right
quantity and quality as expected. The following records are important in the process:
a) Stores Ledger/Stock Ledger

This is a manual or computer record of the raw materials and production supplies of the institution.
It is used to ensure that the institution receives stores in the right quantity and quality as expected.
Ledgers are opened according to the nature of the store items (i.e. permanent. expendable or
consumable). A stores ledger is particularly useful for maintaining a perpetual inventory system,
since it tracks the current quantity of items on hand.
NAME OF EDUCATION INSTITUTION:

STORES LEDGER
Item Code: Item Description
Date of Receivin Quantit Uni Tota Date To Quantit Balanc Comment

Receipt g delivery y t l of who y issued e s
note No. received cost cost issu m
e issue
d
b) Stores Inventory
This refers to an itemized catalogue/list of tangible goods/property or the intangible
attributes/qualities. Inventory is often the largest item in the current assets category of the income
and expenditure account. The goods/property must be accurately counted and valued at the end of
an accounting period to ensure accurate and ongoing controls.
c) Local Purchase Order (LPG)

This is a legally binding document issued by the institution to sellers/suppliers indicating types,
quantities and agreed prices for products. It is used to control the purchasing of products from
external suppliers.
d) Local Service Order (LSO)

This is similar to an LPO, but deals with services. rather than tangible items. It is a legally binding

document issued by the institution to sellers/suppliers indicating types, quantities and agreed price:
for services. It is used to control the purchasing of services by the institution, from external
suppliers.
NB: Both the LPG and LSO must outline the delivery date and the terms of payment for the
institution.
e) Commitment Register
This a written assurance signed between an institution and a supplierts) to show that a specified
amount of product/service will be made available at a certain agreed rate and during a certain
agreed period.
Taking and handing over in schools/institutions

Taking over refers to the act of assuming control or possession of responsibility. Handing over
is the act of passing over position of responsibility authority from one person/group to another.
This happens a lot in schools or educational offices e.g. in a situation “here a school principal is
transferred to another institution, retired or his services terminated, there must be taking and
handing over process. This also happens internally within the school, with change of leadership
ranging from department to department, subject to subject or section to section. Even a staff
member, who temporarily covers the functions of another one due to the colleague's absence,
should write a handover note to ensure a smooth transition back.
Handing over notes/minutes/report, should be finalized during the week before the staff member
leaves his/her position. Ideally, there should be a period of overlap with the staff member‘s
successor. However, if this is not possible, then the staff member should send the handover note to
his/her successor before departing and supplement the note with telephone/email communication.
If the successor has not been appointed, the staff member should leave the handing over document
with his/her immediate supervisor.
Similarly, when staff members assume duties at new positions, they should request a handover
note from their predecessor(s). The handover note so prepared should preferably be triplicate (i.e.
a copy for the person handing over, for the successor and for the immediate supervisor). Copies of
the handover notes should be securely kept in the files of the successor, supervisor and the
personnel office (Human Resource Office) for record and future use purposes. If the information
is still valid and relevant, the successor may pass it on to the next successor, along with his/her
own handover note.
Examples of information to be included in the handing over report include a flnancial report. the
name of recent and current projects/reports/meetings, their status, actions needed, partners,
budgets, critical issues/challenges/priorities, where to 5nd files (hard copy & electronic),calendar
of major events/activities, other key documents relevant to the position and his/her own contact
information after departure.
Importance of Handing over and Taking over

1. It assists an institution‘s successor to carry out duties of the previous administrator.

2. It provides the staff member's successor with key knowledge and information regarding the
position so that the transition period is as short and smooth as possible.
Revision Questions in Educational Administration and Financial Management

1. Discuss and outline the procedure of taking and handing over in schools.
2. Discuss the importance of taking and handing over in schools.
3. Discuss reasons that make some managers/school administrators to avoid delegating duties
4. Explain the importance of school administrators liaising with stakeholders, concerning the
welfare of staff in a learning institution
5. Explain the following terms in relation to school administration and management: Planning.
Organising, Staffing. Delegating, Controlling, Coordinating. Budgeting, Administration.
Management etc.
6. Differentiate between Administration and Management
7. Discuss management skills that would make a head teacher etTective in school
administration
8. Discuss/Identify the functions of Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (NB: Discuss
the same for the rest of the SAGAs Le. KEMI, KNEC ISC, KLB, JKF, KISE etc)
9. State the meaning of ‘Financial Management’
10. Discuss challenges that a manager may experience in management of school finances
11. Describe any TEN financial records maintained in a school
12. Examine the role of a County Director of Education in educational administration and
management (Examine the same for Sub-County Director of Education etc)
13. Examine the role of a tender committee in procurement
14. What is procurement?
15. Discuss FIVE methods of procurement in school
16. Discuss FIVE strategies that a head teacher may use to motivate staff for improved
performance
17. Identify F IVE challenges a learning institution may encounter in promoting discipline
among students
18. Outline FOUR benefits of financial management in a school
19. Identify SIX control measures to consider in granting tenders for procurement of school
material requirements and services
20. Discuss FIVE elements of communication that may contribute to the effective management
of school
21. State FIVE benefits of delegating responsibilities in management of school projects and
programmes
22. Discuss FOUR challenges faced in using information Communication Technology (ICT) in
management of schools in Kenya
23. Give FIVE reasons for maintaining Financial Records in schools
24. Discuss TEN functions of a school committee in the management of a primary school
(Discuss the same for BOM in secondary schools and colleges)

25. Explain the importance of the following in school administration: Remuneration. Personnel,
26. Describe the following types of leadership: Laissez Faire, Autocratic/Authoritarian.
Democratic etc
27. Discuss the THREE advantages and THREE Disadvantages of Autocratic/Authoritarian
leadership in a school (Do same for Laissez Faire, Democratic etc)
28. Explain ways through which democratic leadership style strengthens school operations
29. Describe Discuss SIX characteristics of democratic leadership style (Do same for Laissez
Faire. Autocratic Authoritarian etc)
30. State SEVEN functions of an administrator in a school
31. Discuss SEVEN challenges a school administrator is likely to face in public school
administration in Kenya
32. State SEVEN ways of managing challenges in the administration of public SChoolsinKenya
33. Citing relevant examples, explain THREE budget related problems that are likely to be round
in many schools in Kenya.

Part Two
(Paper 2)

Chapter 1
Human Growth and Development

Definitions
Growth
An increase in size that begins at conception until late childhood.
Development
These are changes that occur as human beings grow and mature.
Child Development
Age changes in children characteristics that are sequency and successive of early conditions.
Maturation
It is process of differentiation that produces the adult form of an organism.
Heredity
Transmission of the physical and genetic qualities of a parent to their offspring.
How is a child formed in the mother's womb?

 The life of a child begins at conception when the mother’s reproductive cell (ovum) unites
or fuses with the male reproductive cell (sperm).
 Usually each of the above named cells carries 23 chromosomes (hereditary materials) that
contain genes (hereditary factors that determine individual characteristics).
 When reproductive cells fuse, after fertilization, the newly formed cell (zygote) has 23
pairs of chromosomes or a set of 46 chromosomes like any other ordinary body cell.
 The zygote becomes implanted on the wall of the uterus and starts dividing to form a
multiplicity of cells which eventually become differentiated into various body tissues that
form body parts during the pre-natal growth period.
 The connection that develops between the foetus and the enlarged part of the uterine wall
(placenta) is known as the umbilical cord. Through the umbilical cord, and with the help
of the selectively permeable placenta the foetus receives oxygen, glucose. amino acids, etc,
from mother’s blood, and releases carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes into the
mother’s blood circulatory system.
 The foetus develops an independent blood circulatory system that supplies food and
oxygen to its body tissues and carries away the waste products.
How is the sex of a baby determined?

 A normal body cell in a normal human being is known to have a pair of chromosomes for
sex and sex-related traits. A male would have type XY while a female would have type XX.
 At the time of formation of reproductive cells, a male sperm cell would either have an X
chromosome or a Y chromosome, while a female reproductive cell (ovum) would carry X
chromosomes only.
 At the time of fertilisation, if the sperm cell carrying the X chromosome fuses with the
ovum X the resulting offspring becomes a female.
 On the other hand if the sperm cell that causes fertilisation is carrying a Y chromosome,

the resulting offspring becomes a male baby.
 It is therefore the father who determines the sex of the baby although he has no control
over it.
How would you differentiate identical twins from fraternal?

 Identical twins must be of the same sex, although fraternal twins can be of the same sex
but they are likely to be different.
 The identical twins' physical characteristics are identical with a high degree of correlation
although they have a degree of variation.
 Their level of intelligence has acorrelation of .88 compared to that of fraternal twins of the
same sex which is .63.
What advice should be given to expectant mothers?

 Ensure they take a balanced diet, rich in vitamins and iron, to ensure that they are not
malnourished since malnourishment would adversely affect the growing foetus. .
 Not to take drugs without a doctor’s advice.
 To avoid long exposure to sun rays and any form of radiation.
 To attend a health clinic regularly for advice regarding her health and that of the unborn
baby.
 To go by the doctor's advice and not traditional beliefs that may harm the developing foetus.
Significance of Human Growth and Development to a Teacher

1. Enables a teacher to select and adapt the method suitable for a given phase of development.
2. Help a teacher to deal with emotional disturbed learners in a class.
3. Helps the teacher to identity and provide individual needs in the class.
4. Enables the teacher to understand and explain certain behavior exhibited by the students of
a given age.
5. Enable a teacher to make provision for the development of students’ talents and
potentiality.
6. Enable the teacher to identify various challenges of development and provide suitable
learning experience that could be further mental development.
7. Enable the teacher to subject traditional beliefs about growth and development to critical
evaluation based on scientific findings.
Principles of Human Growth and Development

1. Development is a product of interactions of the organism and its environment.
2. Development is a continuous process which begins at conception until death.
3. Different aspects of development interrelate with social behavior.
4. Development is an individual process i.e every child has his rate of physical, mental and
emotional regardless of stage.

5. Development is stimulative, i.e development changes occur as a result of maturation of the
organism.
Traditional Child Bearing Practices

 An African is born into extended family of parents and relatives.
 The child learns values and norms as he interacts.
 Child counselors are aunt, uncle.
Taboos and Ceremonies

Taboos are the do’s used as social control. e.g never swipe a house at night.
Frightening taboos were avoided because they hinder understanding.
Functions of Ceremonies
1. The child is made to remember.
2. It trains the child to withstand pain.
3. Making decision.
4. It confirms a child as genuine member of a community.
5. It gives a child label by naming.
6. Train the child to withstand pressure.
Stages of Human growth and Development

Life starts from conception as a result of fertilization as a result of union between sperm and ovum.
1. Prenatal
This is the time a baby spends in the womb before birth.
Signs of pregnancy
 Enlargement and firmness of breast
 Feeling nausea
 Likes and dislikes of certain food and people.
 Frequent urination
 Enlargement of abdomen
 Mood fluctuation
 Mensuration stops
Stages of prenatal
 Germinal
 Embryonic stage
 Fetal stage.
Germinal stage
 Starts at conception and last for 2 weeks.
 Zygote is formed during this stage.
 It is characterized by rapid cell division known as mitosis.
 The zygote moves from oviduct to the uterus.

 Villi finger like structure intertwine to form umbilical cord and placenta.
Functions of Placenta
1. It acts as link between a mother and a baby.
2. It is feeding channel.
3. Excretion, removal of waste products
4. Exchange of gases.
Embryonic stage
 It starts at around 3 weeks and ends at eight weeks.
 Body organs begin to form.
 The embryo takes the shape of human being.
Perinatal stage (During birth)

 Start with onset of labor pain.
 This happens due to contraction of uterine wall.
 The force and pressure pushes the baby's head towards the cervix.
 As the baby's head touches the cervix, it stimulates it to open slowly.
 Contraction, pressure and direction of baby increases and placenta detouches itself from the
uterine walls.
Causes of baby underweight

 Poor nutrition and health.
 Drinking alcohol.
Delivery of placenta
New born baby is a neonate
Delivery
Things to be done:
1. Open the baby airways
2. Cutting of umbilical cord.
3. Take the weight.
Reflexes
Reflex is an inborn instinctive automatic responses to a particular stimulus.
Importance of Reflexes
1. Helps for survival
2. Help the baby to avoid danger.
3. Helps in feeding activities like sucking of breast.
T y p e M e t h o d R e s p o n s e
Rooting reflex Stroke cheek near the corner of mouth Baby turns the head towards the finger, open the mouth and tries to suck the finger.
Sucking reflex Place the finger in infant mouth Infant sucks the finger rhythmically
Startle reflex Produce sudden loud noise The baby thrust out arms in an embrace like gesture Carls arms as if to grasp something.

B a b i n s k i ' s Gentle stoke the sole foot from the heal. The toes will fan out and curl back as foot twist in.
Factors Affecting Prenatal Development

They are classified into:
1. Hereditary factors
2. Environmental factors
Hereditary factors
The following can be inherited:
 Skin colour
 Hair texture
 Cognitive ability
 Personality
 Albinism
 Tough hair
Others are pkuphenylketonuria (inability to metabolise amino acid)
Rhesus factors
Down syndrome
Environmental factors
They include: maternal disease, xray, maternal diet, age of the mother and emotional stress.
1. Maternal diseases
 Diseases like rubella
 Sexual transmitted diseases are dangerous at first 3 months, they can cause blindness.
2. Maternal diet
 Poor nutrition may result to present mature birth and underweight.
 Cultural practices which prohibit expectant mothers from certain food.
3. X-ray
Exposure to radiation during pregnancy it may damage central nervous system.
4. Use of Drug
Smokers and alcoholic mothers are at risk of having child with attention problem.
5. Age of the Mother

 The older the mother the higher the chances of giving birth to a child with complications.
 Teenage mother are complicated during giving birth.
Post natal
This is after birth
Importance of play time in children

It leads to development of
 Intellectual

 Physical
 Social
 Emotional
Personal development
A g e T o y s A c t i v i t y
1 - 3 m o n t h s B r i g h t c o l o u r Arms and leg movement
4 - 6 m o n t h s Rattle, teething rings, stuff toys Touch, handle, rattle, chew, suck
7 - 9 m o n t h s Balls, large plastic bead s Throwing, counting, and shaking
1 0 - 1 2 m o n t h s Boxes, container, simple books Manipulation, pushing and pulling.
1 — 2 y e a r s Balls, simple books, large beads Catching, drawing, opening and closing.
2 — 3 y e a r s Book, pencils, balls Pick, draw, jump, read throw.
Factors that influence postnatal development

1. Post natal anoxia
Occurs when the child is exposed to situation that is deprive from oxygen.
2. Diet and nutrition
Poor nutrition affects fertility especially in a boy child.
3. Lack of immunization
4. Diseases like meningitis may cause inflammation.
5. Contact with chemical
It affects child development and brain
6. Trauma
Caused by head injuries due to accident.
What problems are associated with pupils between 12 and 18 years of age?
 They experience rapid growth changes in their bodies which may be a source of worry -
particularly for those who are early or late matures. For example, a girl who experiences
the first menstrual period may develop worries because she might think that she has fallen
sick. She may be a subject of discussion by boys or other girls, she may also be ridiculed
or jeered at. All these may cause her to fail to concentrate on her studies.
 Girls who fail to develop breasts and boys who fail to develop secondary sexual
characteristics fear and withdraw from peer group play.
 They have problems in meeting their need for independence and social approval.
 They have problems in relating to members of the opposite sex to whom they feel attracted.
 They often feel frustrated when their needs are not met and have deep feelings of their
emotions.
Stages in Physical Growth

lnfancy (0-2 years)
Outline the major physical and psychomotor changes that occur in the growth of children at

infancy.
The child develops very quickly during this time.
 Body weight increases from the average birth weight of 2.5 kg to about 3 times at the end
of the first years.
 Brain size increases from 25% of ultimate adult's brain weight to 50% by the end of the
first year.
 At five months sitting is fully achieved.
 By eight months the child can walk with help.
 By nine months it can take its first step.
 By ten months it can walk without help.
 By the time the child is two years; it can run, jump and climb.
Early childhood (2-6 years)
Outline the physical and psychomotor changes associated with early childhood.
 Growth slows down in the second and third years of life and a period of stagnation follows.
 For children who receive proper care, growth is steady and at three years the child will be
approximately half the ultimate average adult height.
 The child will begin to assume the body proportions of an adult, legs grow more rapidly
and represent abouthalfof the child’s height. Growth of the head is slow and the trunk's
growth is intermediate.
 The brain will develop to about 90% of its adult size.
 The child will have increased coordination of hands, legs and body muscles.
 Older children within this age range will be ready to engage in a lot of exercises -e.g.
climbing, running and playing games.
What implications do these changes have on the parents and nursery school teachers?
 Children should be weaned on a balanced diet.
 In order to sustain the advantages present at birth, social, motor and tactile stimuli such as
frequent holding and amusement, are necessary.
 The nursery or pre-school teacher should encourage interaction between the teacher and
the pupils to enhance intellectual development.
 Providing playthings for children to enhance horizontal development of intellectual
behaviour, e.g. talking, thinking and doing.
 Encouraging children to play so that they can develop and refine psychomotor skills.
Adequate nutrition, rest, and social and emotional stability should be provided.
Late childhood (6-l2 years)
Outline the major physical and psychomotor changes expected in children at the stage of late
childhood.
 Growth rate slows down but remains steady.

 Between the ages of 5 and 10 years, the height of both boys and girls is distributed over
almost identical ranges.
 The rate of development for boys and girls is also nearly identical before the growth spurt
in puberty sets in.
 The brain size is nearly at the maximum.
 Towards the end of this period, at the age of 10 onwards, the pre-adolescent growth spurt
sets in. A sudden increase in height and weight may result, which is often greater in girls
than in boys.
 Differences in height and weight, which are associated with socio-economic status of
parents, become more pronounced during this period when children are in primary school.
 There is increased manual dexterity, increased strength and increased resistance to fatigue
as children become older. Boys and girls begin to differ in motor skills as a result of
different activities they perform at home and the culture expectation of them.
What should teachers do in order to enhance physical and psychomotor development of

primary school pupils?
 Teachers should provide for individual differences in physical growth by providing suitable
activities.
 They should ensure that pupils who are unable to perform well or are clumsy, are not
ridiculed, laughed at or unnecessarily scolded for this may lead to withdrawal and failure
to learn, and often to permanent awkwardness in a particular skill.
 They should also show sympathy and encouragement, point out incorrect procedures and
give more efficient ones and praise successful efforts.
 They should provide necessary health care and nutrition in school feeding programmes
where applicable.
Adolescence (l2-l8 years)
What are the major landmarks in physical growth and psychomotor changes associated with
adolescence?
 This stage is characterised by a growth spurt associated with the onset of puberty.
 The hormonal secretion from the pituitary gland initiates growth changes. This growth
spurt occurs earlier in girls (10 -13 years) than in boys (12–15 years)
 There is a marked increase in height and weight.
 At the age of 13 years girls are heavier than boys of the same age, but at the age of 15
years, boys are heavier, thus overtaking the girls.
 Secondary characteristics become apparent the pelvic bones of the girls widens, breasts
enlarge, pubic hair grows, and first menstrual period is experienced. The voice also
changes.
 The boys' testes become larger, pubic hair grows, the voice-box enlarges and the voice
breaks, shoulders and neck widen and have increase in weight and height.
 Early maturing boys tend to look feminine in body structure while late maturing girls tend
to look more masculine.

Cognitive Development
Cognition is knowing or thinking.
 Cognitive abilities include:
 reasoning,
 interpreting,
 assessing etc.
 It is explained through theory e.g
a) Theory of infant fear.
b) Theory of cognitive development.
c) Theory of learning.
Importance of Theory
1. They help to explain how things happen.
2. To understand life better.
3. To interpret data.
4. Help to give facts.
5. To put information together and synthesis.
6. Information for sound practical.
7. To formulate questions in different ways.
Theory of Cognitive Development

(Jean Piaget)
He believed:
1. All children go through four stages in intellectual development to attain cognitive ability.
2. He emphasizes that all the stages occur in the same sequence for everyone.
3. The rate at which are reached depends on maturation and experience.
Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensory motor
2. Pre operational
3. Concrete operational
4. Formal operational stage.
Sensory Motor
 From birth 0–2 years
 It refers to sensory motor because a child understand the environment through five sense.
 The child should be able of:
i. Moving, grasping and explore.
ii. Acquisition of language and understand words of objects.
iii. Objects continue to exist irrespective of whether is physical or hidden.
Pre operational (2–7 years)

 It is called pre' because children in this stage are incapable of performing complex mental

activities.
 They lack logical reasoning.
 They have problems in:
a) Different between living and non living.
b) Classification of objects.
c) Serialisation.
d) Reversibility
e) Conservation.
Concrete Operational stage

 It refers to a concrete operational because child reasoning is limited to things that are physically
present.
 Logical thinking present but is highly begged on real objects.
 They need concrete materials to solve their needs.
Formal operational stage

 This is a adolescent stage 12 years and above.
 The child can study the history of Africa.
Cognitive Development
 Parents and teachers should ensure that children get stimulating environment.
 To provide stimulating environment the following must be done:
a) Provide variety of toys to play.
b) Provide opportunity for interaction and play.
c) Give meaningful attention.
d) Give effective feedback to their children.
Indicators of Cognitive problems

1. If the child is slow in sensory motor characterized by problem in perceptions (interpreting
incoming stimuli)
2. If the child lack independent characterized by inability to perform self help skills.
3. When a baby lack language development.
4. If the child lack interaction – inability to socialize with others.
During concrete and operational indicators are as follows:

1. Poor performance in academic subjects.
2. Lack of abstract thinking I.e. poor reasoning.
3. Poor decisions making.
4. Antisocial behavior I.e poor social perception.
Intelligence
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is defined in various ways depending on purpose and orientation of each research.
However, the following definitions are most common:
 A composite of abilities to grasp relationships. .

 The ability to act purposefully and to think rationally.
 The ability to use past experience for the solution of present and future problems.
What characterizes intellectual development?

Intellectual development is characterized by increased abilities such as:
 Remembering events.
 Dealing with symbols.
 Mastering remote events and stimuli.
 Benefiting from a systematic interaction with adults.
 Dealing with several alternatives simultaneously.
 Reasoning.
Intelligence therefore grows throughout childhood and adolescence but the rate of development
differs in children of similar age.
On administering intelligence test on an 8 year old pupil, it was found out that he was capable
of solving mental problems intended for 10 year old pupils.
What was the intelligence quotient (1 Q) of that pupil? Show your work.
1Q = mental age × 100
Chronological age
Mental age of the pupils = 10
Chronological age (actual age) = 8
1Q = 10/8 × 100
= 125
What precautions should one take when measuring the intelligence of pupils?
 One should select a test that is suitable for the culture of the pupils being tested.
 A low intelligence test score should not be taken to mum that a child cannot achieve
educationally.
 The information of intelligence deficiencies should be used as a guide to action rather than
excuse to inaction.
 The teacher should be aware that parents would not like to learn that their children are
labelled as dull or average performers.
Why is it important to measure the intelligence of pupils?

 The more intelligent an individual is the more benefits he will be able to get from learning
situations.
 The knowledge of pupils' intelligence can be used in the grouping of pupils for the purpose
of providing for individual needs to enhance cognitive development.
 It can be used for placement of pupils in different categories of schools.
 Itcan be usediu guiding pupils who may be experiencing learning difficulties.
 It can be used to predict what to expect from a given child in education achievement.

Language Development
Language is the man ability to communicate by using arbitrary self initiated symbols, learned
from fellow human beings who know.
Speech. Act of altering, voicing various sounds in a given order to convey meaning.
Function of language
a) It facilitates social interactions.
b) It enhances social relationships.
c) Exchange of ideas.
d) It provides individuals with a tool of thinking.
What functions does a language serve to a growing child?

 It enables a child to get things done for him.
 The child uses language to regulate or control the behaviour of others.
 It is used by a child to interact, with others.
 It can be used to express individuality within the concept of self as an actor.
 It can be used as a means of investigating reality, also as a way of learning about things.
 It can be used to explore imagination, e.g. through stories, dramatic games, etc.
What role does language play in cognitive development?

 It helps in labelling naming objects and events in the environment.
 It aids in the process of association, e.'g. book-reading, tarp-drinking. dogbarking, etc, so
as to simplify understanding i.e. to help in the transfer of ideas. concepmal learning and
retention.
 It aids in abstraction and categorisation.
Conditions Necessary for Child Language Development

1. Vocalizing and experience with vocal sounds.
2. Responsive environment to the child vocalization.
3. Interpret child early communication and speaking.
4. Active interaction with others.
5. Ability to remember what is said and heard.
Stages of language development

1. Pre linguistic stage.
2. Bubbling
3. One–word stage.
4. Two words stages
5. Acquisition of grammar.
Why do some pupils suffer speech retardation even when parents and teachers have done
what they can?
Speech retardation may be caused by:
 Physical defects such as partial deafness or defects of the mouth, larynx or tongue.
 Inadequate or defective models to imitate, e. g. teachers who are poor speakers of English.

 Excessive fear of punishment or ridicule.
 Lack of stimulating environment, e.g. lack of story books and failure to eneomage pupils
to speak in English or the language in question. Stuttering created by excitement.
 Brain damage.
 Introduction of more language before the mastery of one language has been acquired.
Emotional Development
Emotions are internal feeling that affects the way we relate to environment.
Types of Emotions
a. Negative emotions
Include: anger, fear, rejection
b. Positive emotions.
Include: joy, happiness, love.
Importance of Emotions
1. Helps in organizing and controlling people behavior e.g if a child love a subject tends to
love the teacher.
2. It affects our attitude towards learning. E.g a child that likes a teacher develop positive
attitude.
3. Helps us to understand other people’s feelings.
4. Helps in initiating and maintaining relationship with other people.
Ways of Helping Children to Develop Positive Emotions

a) Give children time to socialize.
b) Provide feeling of security I.e let them feel safe with you.
c) All children should be loved regardless of the economic social and cultural background.
Stages of Emotional Development

Stage 1 (birth — 1month)
The baby uses cry to communicate.
Stage 2 (1– 2 months)

 The baby is able to show social smile.
 The baby can show positive emotions of joy.
Stage 3 (3 – 6 months)
 The baby create smile with similar faces.
 The baby creates stimulation of joy.
Stage 4 (7 months)
 The baby is able to express anger and joy.
 The baby is able to discriminate among others.

 The baby can be able to show surprise.
Stage 5 (At 8 months)

 The baby is able to respond to emotions of fear.
 The baby is able to know if he is in danger.
 They start recognizing family members by names.
 They can be able to interpret ambiguous situations in the house e.g when mother and father
quarrel.
Stage 6 (12 months)

 They are able to express complex emotions like start owning things in the house.
 They can be able to show pride.
Stage 7 (2,to 6 years)

 They start realising that there are other people besides them.
 They learn to control their emotions.
 They enjoy playing with peer of the same sex.
 They are able to express their feeling especially where the one is favourable or friendly.
Emotional development depends of the following

 Culture
 Learning in school and home.
 Motivation
 Feeling of confidence.
How Teacher and Parents Stimulate Emotional Development in children

a) Rewarding and encourage achievements.
b) Acknowledge effect and recognize and this will help in self-esteem.
c) Answer all questions asked by children sincerely and in a simple language.
d) Be firm on dealing with temper.
Social Development
 Socialization is a process through which a person acquires skills and knowledge that help
one to integrate in the society.
 The role of Socialization is to prepare individual for specific function/role in the society.
Stages of social Development in the Society

1. Infancy
2. Early childhood 2–6 years
3. Late childhood 6–12 years
4. Adolescence 12–18 years
Infancy
 By the age of four months the child responds discriminately to its mother’s facial
expression, e.g. it smiles when smiled at and cries when the mother’s facial expression is
harsh.

 By the age of one year it responds meaningfully to hand gestures that are meant to show
friendship.
 It spends most of its time in solitary play. It plays alone and ammm itself.
 It shows social aggression, e.g. a child of six months stiffens its back when it is put down
by the mother if it doesn’t want to lie down.
 At one year it invites adults to its play.
Early childhood (2-6 years):

 The child shows interest in parallel play-playing side by side with other children with
occasional interchange of play-things.
 At the age of five years the child engages itself in shifting group play.
 Friendship keeps shifting-the child has a friend today and a different one the foll0wing day.
 Cooperation begins with sharing of toys and learning to take turns on the swings. slides
and other play-things.
 The children engage in competitive activities as a group. Children of both sexes play
together without any discrimination.
Late childhood (6-12 years):

 Their social circles widen when they enter school.
 They form peer groups of separate sexes.
 They engage themselves in organized group-plays which are often prolonged.
 They show social cooperation, team spirit and loyalty to the group.
 They show social aggression, e.g. can knock, push and treat other children roughly when
angered.
Adolescence (12-18 years):

 There is attraction towards members of the opposite sex. Boy-girl relationships begin.
 They show cooperation in team games, school projects,drama production, etc.
 They crave for acceptance in peer groups.
 They show social aggression in more subtle and mature forms than younger children.
Moral Development
What is morality?
Morality is a social variable which involves exercising of self control and consideration of others.
It is the ability to draw a balance between what is due to oneself and what is due to others.
In which ways is morality learnt?

 Punishment: This is given in the hope that the unpleasant experience will prevent the
recurrence of the unwanted behaviour for which punishment is given.
 Reward: Examples of reward include praise and approval. These make a child see morality as
a positive and purposeful way of living.
 Unconscious imitation of others: Here the examples of parents and teachers of good morals are
imitated by children without conscious effort.
 Constructive-reflective thinking: Here the child needs to think and reason about why certain

modes of behaviour are socially and ethnically acceptable while others are not. It leads to
insight into what constitutes good moral behaviour and to practise in implementing this
knowledge.
What are some basic moral behaviours that pupils should acquire?
Students should be encouraged to:
 Be honest
 Respect other people's property.
 Have respect for the truth.
 Develop respect for other people's feelings
 Be tolerant.
 Acquire self control.
Stages in Moral Development
1. Egocentricity (0-2 years):

At this stage the child's major need is his own personal satisfaction. He is not capable of
consideration for anyone and reacts without restraint. The idea of morality is not yet understood.
2. Moral realism (2-4 years):

At this stage the child develops his first conception of right or wrong based entirely on what his
parents permit or forbid. For him things are absolutely right or wrong and there is no relativity
Play at this stage is imitative of adults’ behaviour and is rule-regulated.
3. Reciprocity (4-9 years):

At this stage the child learns that rules are made by people and are subject to modification. Its
concept of morality is still largely one of conforming to the given rule.
4. Stage of equity (10–19years):

At this stage the child is able to see the motives, reasons and Circumstances behind the execution
of rules. At this stage, it is also able to see flexibility of rules. ‘
Why is it becoming increasingly difficult today to train children in good morals?

 Some children have poor models to imitate particularly the parking boys and brought up in
slum areas in towns where immorality is commonly practised.
 The traditional social fabric which made it the responsibility of every adult to educate and
correct misbehaviour of children has been broken.
 Exposure of children to acts of sex abuse, crimes, films on sex. bad literature etc., has made
it difficult to train children in good moral behaviours.
 Poverty in certain groups of the society makes it increasingly tempting for such people to
resort to immoral behaviour for survival.

Chapter
Personality Development
Personality is the sum total of behavior and mental characteristics that makes one an individual.
Significance of the knowledge of Personality to a Teacher

 It enables the teacher himself in order to exploit their potential and improve their
weaknesses.
 Enables the teacher to understand other people and predict their behavior.
 It enables the teacher to cater for individual differences by selecting appropriate teaching
activities that will facilitate learning.
 Enables the teacher to improve communication with other people.
 Enables the teacher to assign duties and activities depending on the temperament.
 Temperament refer to the inborn traits that are passed on through the genes the genes of
environmental influence that can be seen in early childhood e.g temper.
 Traits is any characteristics that a person exhibits in a consistent manner e.g way of thinking
 Characters: it is consistency with the individual follow morals and disciplinary rules.
Theories of Personality Development

They include:
1. Psychoanalytic theory/sexual by Sigmund fraud
2. Psychosocial theory by Eric Erickson
3. Humanistic theory by Abraham muslow
4. Traits theory by William Sheldon
5. Social-cognitive theory by Albert Bandura
Psychoanalytic Theory
 Fraud was Swiss doctor who treated patients using psychoanalytic.
 He discovered that human beings are guided by two behavior instinct behavior:
 Sexual instinct
 Dead instinct (anger)
 He described sexual energy as libido.
 This libido occupies different parts of the body.
 He came out with three structure:
1. Id
2. Id ego
3. Id super ego
Id
 It is the primitive part of Personality
 It is common during 1–2 year

 It is selfish/mean
 It seeks for pleasure and pain immediate gratification.
 It does not have voice. It operates on pleasure principle.
Ego
 It is the rational Personality
 It is immediate between I'd and super ego.
 It operates on reality principles.
 It controls the need of ego by selecting what to respond to.
 It is called executive arm of Personality.
Super Ego
 It is the conscious part of Personality.
 It works on Moral principles.
 It controls sexual aggressive impulse of the id.
 It enables the child to learn what is right and wrong.
According to fraud he believes:

 All children go through five stages of Personality Development (crisis)
 That stage occur in sequence 1–5.
 At each stage the child must resolve the crisis before moving to another stage.
 Failure to resolve crisis in a stage leads to fixation. Fixation is when an individual remain
locked in earlier stage of development due to under/over gratification.
Five Stages
1. Oral stage birth– 2 years.
2. Anal stage (2–3) years.
3. Phallic stage (3–5) years
4. Latency stage (6–12) years
5. Genital stage (12–above)
There are 3 pleasure areas in human beings:

 Mouth
 Anus
 Genital
Oral Stage
 The sexual energy is focus on the mouth.
 The baby derived pleasure from sucking the breast, biting, chewing.
 Baby uses the mouth to understand the environment.
 Regular breast feeding is important because it helps the baby to bond with the mother hence
reduce tension.
Failure of gratification

It leads to:
 Fixation I.e adults extension
 Adult fixation implications
 Thumb sucking
 Smoking too much
 Gum chewing
 Over eating
 Drunkard
 Kissing everybody
Anal stage
 The libido is focus on the anus.
 Children derived pleasure from the anus or elimination or relief function associated with the
anus.
 Existing and control of anal muscle reduces tension in the body.
 Parents should teach toilet training only when the children are ready.
Indicators of fixation
If the child fails to get gratification in anal stage the child
 Mean: cannot share anything with another.
 Careless: empty bowel.
Phallic Stage
 It is a Greek word meaning penis
 During this stage, the libido is focused on the genital.
 The boys feels superior and the girls envoy the boys.
 The boys suffer from odiepus complex where boys are attracted to their mother.
 Girls experience Electra complex. They are attracted to their father and they feel jealous of
their mother.
Fixation of phallic
In adulthood they suffer:
 Sexual pathological disorder
 They like flittering with opposite sex
 They want to confirm whether they are men or women.
 They express adolescence like features.
Latency Stage (6—12years)

 The sexual energy is suppressed (not acting)
 It is suppressed because it is interested in other areas.
 They divert their energy to academics and talent areas.

Latency fixation
 People who are social defiant
 Poor in communication skills
 They don't keep friends and acquiring
 Poor in academics
Genital Stage (12 years and above)

 It is adolescence stage that end up in adulthood
 Libido arises again they feel attracted to peer of the opposite sex.
 There is true sexual attraction that leads to intimate relationship.
Fixation
 Relating to opposite sex.
 Children who goes through this stage successful end up with balance personality while
others end with defiant personality.
Causes
 Sexual abuse during phallic and genital stage
 Failing to meet one's need at that stage.
Defence mechanisms
These are unconscious processes that defend a person against anxiety by distorting reality in some
way.
1. Denial
This is when we deny the existence of an external reality that is too unpleasant to face.
Example
A situation where a person who has been diagnosed as fatally ill refuses to admit that anything is
seriously wrong.
2. Repression
Repression refers to situations where impulses or memories that are too threatening are excluded
from action or conscious awareness. E.g. Amnesia
3. Rationalisation
This is the mechanism by which the individual justifies his beliefs and action by giving reasons
other than those which activated or motivated him.
Examples:
1. A child who fails in the examination blames the teacher’s methods of teaching or the lack
of books.
2. A person who was not invited to a function he desired to attend had the following excuse,
“I wouldn’t have gone to that function even if I had been invited. I just don’t like

crowds”.
4. Reaction formation
Reaction formation refers to a situation where individuals conceal a motive from themselves by
giving strong expression to the opposite motive.
For example:
1. A person who has extremely aggressive tendencies is afraid of his own destructive impulses
and thus acts humble.
2. A parent with a conscious guise of being kind is unconsciously cruel to the child with the
pretext that he is doing it for that child’s own good.
5. Projection
It is a process by which we ascribe the rejected impulses of the id to the external world.
Examples include:
1. Students who are doing poorly are often very critical of the teacher or of the other students
who do well.
2. The student who cheats in an examination may have the excuse that everybody else cheats.
6. Displacement
In displacement, a motive that cannot be gratified in one form is directed into a new channel.
Examples include;
1. A person who is hostile may find socially acceptable ways of expressing his hostility
through participating in physical-contact sports.
2. A person who is angered by his boss at work may take his frustration home and quarrel
with his wife or children.
7. Compensation
This is a tendency to make up for a deficiency in one area of one’s personality by excelling in
another area so that when a person feels weak and fails in one area, he compensates in another
field.
Examples are:
1. A student who does poorly in schoolwork may compensate in non-academic activities by
becoming an outstanding athlete.
2. A person who may be physically weak may make up for his physical weakness by excelling
in intellectual tasks.
Application of the Theory

 Finding out background of the children which may help in understanding the children
better.
 Helps the teacher/parents to understand themselves to have better relationship.

 It helps the teacher to be warm towards children and provide love which facilitatehealthy
personality development.
 Helps the teacher to explain to the pupils that feelings are natural and other also experience
such feelings.
 Helps children to learn the use of ego and super ego in decision making.
 It enables the children to use the knowledge of defence mechanism for the teacher to know
if the children are over using defence mechanism.
 Protect children from painful and traumatic experience during their early childhood,
because it can interfere with the proper development and adjustment in later years.
Strength of the Sigmoid Theory

 It says that some of our behaviour is influenced by our motives that we are an aware
 Personality is determined by the past and present experience.
 Personality is understood through understanding of the reality of the person.
 It emphasizes on conflict and anxiety where people have to examine their dark part of life
and be ready to change.
 It stimulate study in sexual behaviour
 Demonstrate how our earlier experiences influence behaviour in later stage.
 It has influence the work of artist, writers, film maker, because in all these they describe
personality.
 Provide a lot of ideas and vocabularies used in resolving conflict.
 It has contributed to the study of personality adjustment through defence mechanism.
The Psychosocial Theory

 It is attributed to Erik Erikson who started as an anthropologist and had psychoanalytic
training.
 Erikson (1963) suggested that a person goes through eight stages in the process of development
from infancy to old age and those stages depend on social interaction but not on the body.
Stages of personality development
Basic trust vs. mistrust (0–2 years)

Erikson proposes that the first phase of development centres around how much trust the child can
give to its environment. For example, if the child,s bodily needs are met promptly and soothingly,
it will develop trust in the world. But if they are not readily met, the child will tend to acquire a
sour and pessimistic outlook a View that the world cannot be trusted. Instead of gratification, the
child will suffer deprivation and frustration.
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2–4 years)

Erikson suggests that the 2nd stage begins when the child learns that it can control its environment
to some extent. Activities denoting control will include:
 Toilet training and control of bowels and bladder.
 Hand activity (i.e. grasping, holding, manipulating, etc.
These activities will push a child towards autonomy (independence) and hence give it a sense of
pride.
If this problem is not worked out, the person will never have adequate self confidence and ego
strength. He will always lean on others or he may develop a reckless approach to life as a defence
mechanism to conceal his lack of inner control of his fate.
Initiative vs. guilt (4-6 years)

Initiative indicates that the child now feels sure enough of itself to under take positive actions of
his own (i.e. dress oneself, feed oneself, put on shoes, etc). Failure to solve problems at the stage
of autonomy will delay initiative or may even destroy it. The negative aspect of this developmental
stage is guilt.
Industry vs. inferiority (6–11 years)

By now, the child is of school-going age and is expected to do a few things for and by himself. If
his initiative was successfully solved, then he will produce actions and develop the attribute of
industry.
Erikson holds that feelings of inferiority are particularly likely to appear at this age. Feelings of
inferiority are likely to interfere with the development of industry whereby the child will fear all
tasks and hence will withdraw his energies from the task.
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence)

The youth is no longer sure just who he is and what role he is to play. Parents are known to confuse
children at this stage even more. When they do childish things, they are reprimanded. When they
engage in grown up activities, they are equally reprimanded, hence they experience confusion.
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood)

A person who has established a firm awareness of his own identity is in a position to establish an
intimate relationship with someone of the opposite sex. Failure to achieve the basis for intimacy
means that the person is doomed to a feeling of isolation.
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood)

This stage involves the achievement of a productive, creative, helping personality. This person is
needed by the others. Parenthood becomes natural fulfillment of a personality need. He will also
generate and fulfill roles (e.g. teaching, helping, counseling, etc). With stagnation, the above does
not take place.

Ego integrity vs. despair (old age)
At this point the personality achieves what Erikson calls “ego integrity” when a person has a
wide view of himself -with an understanding of what he is, what he has done, whom he has helped,
what he can be, and what he cannot be. A person appreciates others without feeling inadequate,
embarrassed or inferior. Lacking a sense of integrity as old age approaches, the individual is likely
to sink into despair.
Educational implications
 Teachers need to be aware of the changes going on in the learners as they grow and mature.
 During the initiative vs. guilt stage, the teacher should not block the learner’s initiative too
often because this can lead to the development of guilt and inhibition in the learner.
 If the teacher rebukes the leaner too often, the learner may develop without a fully developed
conscience.
 Teachers should also create successful experiences for each learner in order to enhance the
development of industry.
 This requires knowledge of each learner’s capabilities so that the learning environment can be
tailored to each learner’s needs.
 During the adolescence period, the learner experiences the identity crisis. The guidance,
friendship and the genuine concern of the teacher may help the learners go through this
unusually stressful period such that healthy, mature and integrated personalities emerge.
 The teachers should be a good model for the learner to emulate.
The Phenomenological Approach

The theories of Carl Rogers, G. Kelly, Kurt Lewin, Abraham Maslow, Henry A. Murray and Karen
Horney all fall under the phenomenological model of human
General characteristics of the theories

 Emphasis on the importance of subjective experiences of the person.
 Emphasis on the importance of perception, organisation and structuring of experiences.
The perceptual process is the most important determinant of human behaviour.
 Emphasis of self concept in the development of personality.
 Emphasis of present experiences.
 The way in which a person perceives events in his environment determines his mode of
action.
The self theory (by Carl Rogers)
In 1947 Carl Rogers presented a theory called the Self Theory of Personality. This theory is
basically based on his client-centred therapy for which the individual determines his own fate.
Rogers was of the view that human behaviour is not primarily based on physiological needs, drives
or avoidance behaviour. He advanced the assertion that human behaviour is based on a higher

driving force within the human being which impels him towards complex personality pattern.
The two basic concepts underlying this personality theory is the organism and the self. The
organism is the centre of all experiences which are taking place within the individual at a particular
time. The totality of experience is called the phenomenal field and it makes up a person’s unique
outlook or frame of reference. The phenomenal field includes both conscious (symbolised) and
unconscious (unsymbolised) experience.
The self, as a part of the phenomenal field, can perhaps be best thought of as the concepts of ‘l’,
‘me’ or ‘myself’. The self is one’s own awareness of himself as he works, plays, studies, sings
and relates to others. This is the real self. ln addition to this, there is the ideal self whict represents
what we would like to be. Rogers talks about incongruences to refer to the inconsistent way we
think of ourselves. These incongruences are damaging to a person in that they bring about
discomfort, anxiety and psychopathology.
Dynamics of personality
According to the self theory, the organism constantly strives to develop and expand the self. An
individual seeks to achieve the goal of self actualisation. In order to achieve this goal of self
growth, four conditions are necessary: First, the choices available to the individual must clearly
symbolised. Second, the individual must have clear-cut descriptions and full understanding of the
choice available. Third, he must be loved .and. respected by others(i.e. he must receive positive
regard from others). Fourth, as a result of this he develops self regard (i.e. he must respect and
have faith in himself).
According to Rogers, a person is continually striving to develop the 'self and, therefore, personality
development can be described as a reciprocal relationship between the way a person views his
experience and his actual social and interpersonal experience. For Rogers, all personality
development is a stream of continuous growth which occurs because of our inherent tendency
towards self growth on one hand and our personal, environmental and social experiences on the
other hand.
In order for the normal personality to continuously strive for and grow towards self-actualisation,
it must be flexible enough to take in, Understand and organise the experiences which are
inconsistent with the person’s self. A developing and reasonably mature person must have values
that are consistent with his behaviour and be aware of his feelings, attitudes and impulses. If the
four conditions of self growth are met, then the normal person will grow more tolerant, more
flexible and more creative as he matures.
Karen Homey's view
The nee-Freudian personality theories are chiefly characterised by an emphasis on social factors
as opposed to the Freudian emphasis on biological factors (instincts).
The phenomenological theorists hold the view that Freud failed to realise the social-cultural
aspects of personality development. They claimed that personality is shaped and influenced more
by society, culture and other people in the life of the individual than it is by instincts. According

to Horney’s theory , relationships with others play a dominant role. The primary personality
construct is called basic anxiety which has its roots in childhood when the primary fear of the child
is that he is isolated and helpless. Therefore, basic anxiety stems from threats to the child’s safety,
security and physiological needs. The child develops strategies for dealing with its basic anxiety,
and any of these strategies can become permanent characteristics of its personality. These strategies
can easily develop into irrational and maladaptive forms of behaviour. They become such an
important part of the personality structure that it takes on all the characteristics of a drive or a need.
Horney identified ten neurotic needs which constitute three basic attitudes that a person might
acquire in his relationships with other people, The individual’s strategies might cause him to
move (1) towards other people (2) against other people or (3) away from other people.
Educational implications of phenomenological theories
Phenomenological theories have various educational implications. Firstly, they emphasise the need
for safety, security and satisfaction of physiological needs. The school environment should be
made safe. The learner should be made to feel that he is both physically and psychologically , safe
while he is at school. Threatening situations asuch as the fear of being bullied by others, fear of
severe punishments, terrorism by gangsters and rape, should be prevented from occurring in
learning settings. Where possible, the school should provide for the basic physiological needs and,
where relevant, parents should be enlightened about the importance of satisfying their children’
s physical needs.
Secondly, relationships with others play a dominant role in personalitil development. The school
should, therefore, provide plenty of opportunities for the learner to interact freely with others in
order to satisfy the needs to belong and at the same time learn to be independent and useful.
Thirdly, according to Rogers, an individual consistently strives to develop and expand the self. For
a learner to achieve this, plenty of oportunities and experiences should be provided for, through
which the self can be expanded. Praise and positive regard should be given for all good work done
by the learner. This will enhance the development of positive self concept. The teacher should also
handle each learner with respect regardless of their shortcomings.
Fourthly, students should be given freedom of choice and self initiative should be encouraged in
the student.
Fifthly, the teacher assumes a facilitator role rather than the traditional disseminator role. Finally,
students should be given more responsibility for self evaluation.
The Interpersonal Theory
The interpersonal theory is attributed to Harry Stack Sullivan who presented a unique point of
view on personality. In his view, personality is purely a hypothetical entity that cannot be isolated
from interpersonal situations. Interpersonal behaviour is all that can be observed in personality.
Speaking of the individual as the object of study is meaningless because the individual does not

and cannot exist apart from his relations with other people. All psychological processes (e.g.
perceiving, remembering, thinking, imagining, etc) are interpersonal in nature. This view is very
radical when compared to other theories.
The developmental perspective of personality is very important in Sullivan’s theory. He outlined

seven socio-psychological stages of personality development, three of which are assigned to
adolescence. Just like Freud, he stressed the importance of energy in personality development.
According to this theory, personality develops as the individual interacts with the society; it is a
matter of how we see ourselves and how others see us. In the child, the energy in personality
development is directed towards social relationship with the mother so that this early social
interaction forms the basic pattern of personality. The early childhood social interaction with the
mother is important.
As the child enters the school years, it becomes a truly social organism and experiences social
subordination to authority figures outside the family. The child learns to be competitive and
cooperative and also learns the meanings of ostracism, disparagement and group feeling.
Successful handling of these basic social dimensions of personality lays the groundwork for a
serious assault on the difficult and unavoidable social problems of adolescence.
During pre-adolescence, genuine human relationships begin and in these early periods, relationship
is dependent on an older person. At this stage peer relationships are dominant whereby the pre-
adolescent forms intimate relationship with a peer of the same sex. This is a friend with whom
they can share confidences, problems, desires and feelings.
In early adolescence, strong sexual desires and further development of the need for intimate
relationship tend to shift to members of the opposite sex.
In late adolescence, initiation into the privileges, duties, satisfactiont and responsibilities of social
living and social citizenship takes place. Fully successful adolescence development thus involves
a strong sense of security, anxiety control and full autonomy and the ability to have human
interpersonal relationships fully.
Sullivan did not believe that personality is set at an early age. Rather, by adulthood, the person has
been transformed largely by means of his interpersonal relations from an animal organism into a
human one. A person may change at any time as new interpersonal situations arise.
Sullivan also felt that rules and norms of society are extremely restrictive. When these rules are
forced by parents and the society, personality problems often occur.
According to the interpersonal theory, mothers should be encouraged to spend quality time with
their children during the early childhood period. During the school years, healthy social interaction
with peers should be encouraged which could easily be done through group activities inside and
outside the classroom. Each child should be encouraged to participate by providing him with

opportunities for successful social interaction. During adolescence, opportunities should be
provided whereby the adolescent can learn to be responsible and independent. Reasonable amounts
of freedom should be permitted so that the adolescent can safely try out new roles and experiences
without fear of severe consequences.
The Trait Approach
The trait approach is associated with G.W. Allport, R.B. Cattel and H.J Eysench. It tries to isolate
and describe the basic properties of the individual that direct behaviour, and is mainly concerned
with the public personali,y. It is more concerned with attempting to describe and predict
behaviourhan with describing the process of personality development.
These trait approach theories assume that people vary on a number of personality dimensions or
scales, each of which represents a trait. ln this case, an individual could be rated on a scale based
on such traits as rtelligence, emotional stability or aggressiveness.
A trait can be defined as any characteristic that differs from person to person in a relatively
permanent and consistent way. When we describe ourselves and others using adjectives such as
“aggressive”, “cautious :excitable”, “intelligent” or “anxious”, we are using trait terms.
However, we infer a trait from behaviour and we cannot use it as an explanation for behaviour.
The trait theories focus on two main areas determining the basic traits that provide meaningful
description of personality and finding ways to measure these traits. One approach of determining
the traits that describe personality is through the use of factor analyst's, a complex statistical
technique for reducing a large number of measures to a smaller number of independent dimensions.
The trait approach appears to be an objective and scientific way of studying personality.
Nevertheless.some problems arise when this method is used, one of which concerns the number of
basic personality traits. Some invetigators have come up with five factors as the basic dimensions
of personality while others have come up with as many as 20 factors. In most factor-analytic studies
of personality, two dimensions have been found. These are the introversiona-extroversion and
stability instability dimensions.
Introversion-extroversion has been described as the degree to which a person‘s basic orientation
is turned inward towards the self or outward towards the external world. At the extroversion end
of the scale are individuals who are sociable and prefer occupations that permit them to work
directly with other people and, in times of stress sue seek company. At the introversion end of the
scale are individuals who are shy and prefer to work alone. This type of people tend to withdraw
into themselves particularly in times of emotional stress or conflict.
Stability-instability is a dimension of emotionality with calm well adjusted, reliable individuals at

the stable end, and moody, anxious, temperamental and unreliable individuals at the other end.
One of the most important criticisms of the trait theory is the possibility that behaviour may vary
widely from one situation to another. For example, a boy who is rate as docile by teachers in the

classroom may be rated by peers as aggressive in situations outside the classroom. Another
weakness is the reliance on the quantification of human traits. There is really neither zero reference
nor equality of units in trait measurement. Thus, there is no suitable measuring tool of trait
dimensions except the Use of paper and pencil tests which can be manipulated by the subject by
giving fake information. Moreover, there is the question as to whether a trait is viewed as an inner
process which causes differences among in dividuals or it is a situation which brings into play
certain organisational tendencies which create the behaviour
Despite all the above criticisms, the trait approach has been accepted .as an objective and scientific
way of studying personality.
The social learning theory emphasises the role of observational learning through which an
individual attempts to imitate the behaviour of the model: whose behaviour has been observed.
Besides, children can also learn to imitate those behaviours that are rewarded and avoid those that
bring negative consequences.
In an educational setting, teachers need to be aware that they are role models for their learners.
They should display those behaviours that are acceptable for their learners to imitate. Appropriate
student behaviour in the classroom should be rewarded and inappropriate behaviour should be
discouraged. This will help the learner to distinguish between behaviour patterns that are
acceptable and those that are not acceptable. The teaching aids, such as films, pictures and books
should display' appropriate behaviour because the learners imitate or adOpt the behaviours of the
characters displayed through these media.
Chapter
EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Who is an exceptional child?

It is that child who deviates from the average or normal in mental, physical or social characteristics
to such an extent that it requires modification of the normal school practice or special education
services in order to develop his/her full potential
An exceptional child may ' fall In one or several of the following categories:
 The mentally Gifted and Talented (GT)
 The intellectually/mentally challenged
 The visually impaired
 The hearing impaired
 The behaviourally disordered
 The physically impaired/challenged
 The multiple handicapped
 Children with learning disabilities .
 Children with communication disorders
What is meant by handicap?

 Handicap refers to limitations (disadvantages) caused to an individual in his/her society,
culture or environment by the presence of impairment; e.g. a blind pupil has visual
handicap, the deaf have hearing handicap, etc.
 Impairment is the loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, anatomical structure
or function e.g. eye, leg, ear, brain etc.
 Disability is any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity within the range
considered normal for human beings.
What causes exceptionality?

Most causes of exceptionality are associated with:
 Infectious diseases such as polio, German measles, etc.
 Poor or inadequate nutrition for expectant mothers and growing children.
 Accidents and wars.
 Various environmental factors.
 Heredity.
 General factors.
What Educational opportunities exist for exceptional children?

 Placement
 Special schools
 Small homes
 Inclusion
 Integration

How are handicaps viewed traditionally?
The handicapped are viewed as helpless creatures who are to be pitied and handled delicately.
Why is the early identification of exceptional children necessary to a primary school teacher?
Identification of exceptional children enables a teacher to:
 Advise parent.
 Identify children with learning difficulties.
 Develop remedial programmes for such children.
 Refer such children for further assessment and placement.
 Become agents of changing attitudes to facilitate inclusion.
 Have information on existing services for the exceptional children and their families.
 Use the best instructional methods according to the learner’s needs.
The visually impaired (VI)

How can a class teacher identify a pupil with visual problems?
The blind ones are easy to identify while the partially sighted will show the following:
 Blinking excessively or makes quick eye movements from side to side.
 Appearing bothered by bright light.
 Holding books close to the face.
 Shutting or covering one eye while reading.
 Not noticing things placed to his/her side.
 Having general reading problems.
 Complaining of headaches, dizziness, eye itching, etc.
 Eyelids may appear red, rimmed, swollen or crusty. The eyes are often crossed.
 May complain of not seeing at all.
 Has problems reading and copying from chalkboard.
 May complain of double vision.
 Reads and writes with head tilted on one side.
 Has problems in grasping objects thrown to them e.g. a ball.
What causes loss of sight?

Loss of sight is associated with:
 Hereditary factors such as albinism and colour-blindness.
 Infectious diseases such as trachoma, measles, venereal diseases, etc.
 Abnormal pre-natal conditions such as blood poisoning in expectant mothers as a result of
drugs, blood transfusion, etc.
 Congenital abnormalities, e.g. cataracts.
 Inadequate nutrition to mothers and children, e.g. lack of adequate vitamin A. Accidents
causing sharp objects to pierce the eyes.

 Environmental factors such as pollution.
 Refractive error, e.g. short and long-sightedness.
 Reading in dim light or excessive light.
 Contact with poison, e.g. plant latex, poisonous pollen grains, etc.
How should a teacher help a pupil with visual problems in a class?

The teacher can help the pupil by:
 Notifying the parents so that they can seek medical attention for the child in good time.
 Referring the blind pupil to a special school for the blind. However, integration with normal
children is possible given the facilities such as braille materials and equipment.
 Giving proper mobility training and orientation to the blind pupils so that they can move
freely in their environment and access services, e.g. toilet, library, classroom, play fields,
etc.
 Making it possible for the child to use braille for reading materials, taped cassettes, a white
cane, optical low vision aid, a reading stand, etc.
 Encouraging the partially-sighted to use prescribed glasses or spectacles
 Seating the partially-sighted pupils in a position they find convenient for them to read what
is written on the chalkboard.
 Encouraging them to use their listening skills.
 Ensuring that the chalkboard is clean before writing on it to reduce glare.
 Writing in bold and clear writing to facilitate reading.
 Provide large print materials, e.g. charts, maps, etc
 Assign sighted pupils to act as a guide when needed.
 Treat the visually handicapped in the same way as the sighted ones.
The hearing impaired

How can a teacher identify a child who has a hearing problem in a class?
A teacher can identify a child who has a hearing problem by observing certain behaviours. A child
who has a hearing problem will:
 Tend to shout.
 Turn his/her head towards the source of sound.
 Get confused about directions.
 Cup his/her hands over the ears.
 Often ask, “What?”‘Uh?’ or even ask the teacher to repeat what he/she has said.
 Not follow verbal instructions correctly.
 Make frequent mistakes in carrying out verbal requests and even answer a question
wrongly.
 Frequently be inattentive and lack interest in conversations. .
 Complain of earaches and may have discharge from the ears. .
 Often have puzzled facial expressions and stares at the speaker’s face.
 Display poor speech, omit words and his/her voice may be harsh and extreme loud.
 May fail to answer when called by name.

What are the major causes of hearing impairment?
 Some children are born deaf either due to genetic defects in the ears and their nerve
connections to the brain or due to illness of the expectant mother during pregnancy or
difficulties at the time of birth.
 German measles (Rubella) occurring during the early months of pregnancy.
 Blood group incompatibility between Parents.
 A child may also suffer hearing loss due to an infection of meningitis, scarlet, fever and
measles.
 Accidents that damage the ear
How does hearing impairment affect learning?

 It hinders development of language and communication.
 Instructions are poorly perceived and those affected act wrongly.
 Children make mistakes in carrying out verbal instructions.
 They suffer from socialization and acceptance.
How can deafness be prevented?

Deafness can be prevented through:
 Improved pre-natal, postnatal and maternal care.
 Regular attendance at child clinics.
 Early immunisation against the common diseases.
 Avoidance of accidents involving ears.
 Wearing protection devices against loud noises.
How can a teacher help a child with a hearing problem?

A teacher can help a pupil with a hearing problem by:
 Trying to keep the general noise in the classroom at low level.
 Facing the pupils when talking to them.
 Identifying those who need help early and advising appropriately.
 Advising parents of those who need medical care to take them to hospital and those who
need special education to take them to schools for the deaf or use _ hearing aids.
 Writing key ideas and facts on the chalkboard when talking to the class.
 Using pictures and concrete aids as much as possible, point or touch the objects when
talking about them.
 Ensuring that he/she talks at normal speed for the pupils to follow and in clear tone.
 Seating those who have hearing problems at the front of the class.
 Provide written notes and assignments.
Behaviour disordered children

Who is a child with behaviour disorder?
It is one who shows serious behaviour, habits, nervous or psychotic disorders which deviate from
age-appropriate behaviour. Consequently, its behaviour is socially unacceptable and thus interferes
with its growth and development.
How can a teacher identify a child with behaviour disorder?

A child who has behaviour disorder is likely to exhibit the following:
 Unable to relate well with others.
 Marked fear, anxiety and sometimes depressed.
 Marked solitariness and timidity
 Do not take criticisms positively.
 Defiance to school authority.
 Showing temper tantrums and frequent change of moods.
 Likelihood to steal and tell lies.
 Likelihood to experience hallucinations and sleep problems.
 Lack of concentration and slow learning.
 May be lazy, sluggish andinattentive.
 Bully otherchildren or be cruel to other pupils.
What causes behaviour disorder?

The following are some of the causes:
 Frustration and strained relationships between the child and parents.
 Strained relationship between the child and the teacher. ,
 Withholding affection or generating of a feeling of insecurity by the teacher or parents.
 Inability to cope with schoolwork or a teacher whose approach is too demanding or
intimidating.
How can a teacher reduce incidents of behaviour disorders among pupils?

To reduce incidents of behaviour disorders among pupils the teacher should:
 Recognise pupils’ feelings and behave flexibly without oversensitivity.
 Work in liaison with the child’s parents to determine the possible causes of behaviour
disorder.
 Avoid situations whereby he/she is likely to increase the pupils’problems through his/her
own reactions.
 Be understanding, sympathetic and helpful.
 Individualise teaching and use effective teaching methods and materials known to facilitate
learning.
 The planned activities should be within the child’s attention Span and interest.
 Use rewards and punishment wisely.
 Explain to the pupils what you expect of them in a firm and clear way.

The mentally gifted and talented children
How can a teacher identify a mentally-gifted and talented pupil in a class?
A mentally-gifted and talented child should show the following behaviours
 Learns rapidly and easily when interested.
 Shows independence of thinking.
 Reasons out issues or arguments.
 Reads fast and enjoys reading.
 Shows much curiosity and a wide range of interests.
 Knows about many things that other pupils are unaware of.
 Is capable of handling academic work meant for pupils who are ahead of his/her class.
 Is original, uses good but unusual methods or ideas, and initiates learning activities.
 Is alert, keen, observant and responds quickly.
 May be specifically gifted in certain areas of learning.
 Asks very difficult questions.
 Recalls events, people and information with ease.
 Is good in languages and expressions.
 Finds class work for senior-class easy to deal with.
What challenges do the mentally gifted and talented pupils pose to their teachers?
 They are often restless and inattentive when they lack challenge in the learning activities.
 They often appear to be rude, unruly and indisciplined to the teachers who do not
understand them.
 They may prefer to say that they do not know the answer to a question, particularly if the
question requires a very familiar answer.
 They can be seen as a threat to an intellectually insecure teacher.
 They may deliberately conceal their ability from teachers' in order to avoid being assigned
additional work.
 Some of them write poorly because their thoughts come faster than they can write.
 They are frustrated when teachers do not meet their learning needs.
What qualities should a teacher of the gifted and talented develop in his/her personality?
 Should be open-minded, adaptable and resourceful.
 Should have thorough command of subject matter and have a desire to increase knowledge
and understanding.
 Should have favourable attitude towards the pupils and try to See things from the pupil’s
point of view.
 Should not intimidate such pupils to silence them.
 Should have literacy interest and a desire for intellectual growth.
In which ways can a teacher provide for intellectual growth of the gifted and talented pupils?

The teacher should:
 Provide additional reading and extra but challenging assignments.
 Mark or correct such work to motivate the pupils.
 Offer additional learning courses, e.g. study of a new language, computer lessons, driving,
etc.
 Put such pupils in their own group for special instruction.
 Use of acceleration method/programmers, e.g. earlier admission, skipping of
standard/grade etc.
The mentally challenged

Who is regarded as a mentally challenged child?
A mentally challenged child is one who has significantly sub-average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and which is manifested
during the developmental period. Children with mental handicap have sub-average general
intellectual functioning.
What characteristics do the mentally challenged children show?

The mildly mentally challenged children are like the other children in all aspects of human growth
and development. They are indeed difficult to identify.
 In school they have some difficulties in some academic areas.
 The moderately mentally challenged children:
 Have noticeable delays in all aspects of growth and development.
 Are very slow to learn simple games and class routine.
 Have a short attention span.
 Imitate rather than create.
 Have awkward motor coordination. They drop things and fall easily.
 May have an abnormally large or small head.
 Display social immaturity and have problems initiating interactions
 Have problems in all academic areas, e.g. they are unable to follow instructions.
 The severely and profoundly mentally challenged have short memory span. A majority of
them fail to develop expressive speech. They may have abnormal growth becoming heavier
and larger than their peers.
What are the causes of mental handicap?

Mental handicap may be due to a number of factors
Before birth (pre natal period) due to:
 Hereditary factors
 Prenatal infectlon
 Irradiation, e.g. X-rays
 Drugs taken by the expectant mother

During birth (peri-natal) mental retardation due to:
 Prolonged and difficult labour.

 Injuries to the skull during birth.
 Lack of oxygen.
After birth (postnatal) due to:
 Infections and poor health

 Malnutrition
 Unsatisfactory environmental conditions, e.g. economically and culturally poor homes, etc.
How should a teacher provide a suitable learning environment for the mentally challenged
children?
The teacher should:
 Make the learning environment rich with teaching and learning materials.
 Let such children learn one step at a time, carefully practising each step.
 Use concrete experiences.
 Make learning as practical as possible.
 Use drills and repetition.
 Stress accuracy rather than speed, to begin with. Allow more time to perform tasks.
Individualise instructional programmes.
 Praise the children for every small effort and achievement that they make.
 Give the learners opportunities to participate in physical activities where the mental
differences are unlikely to influence performance.
 Show patience and understanding to such children. Give the children a feeling of self-
worth. Provide continuous feedback.
 Make learning interesting even when it is slow.
 Encourage interaction with others for emotional development.
 Design training programmes in daily living skills.
NB: Exceptional children need modification and accommodation of examination papers and
questions and extra time for exams.
Children with specific learning disabilities

Who are the children with specific learning disabilities?
They are normal children and quite difficult to pick them from amongst other children; however,
their achievement is low compared to their ability. That could be as a result of a disorder in their
basic processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written. They thus show
inability to listen, speak, think, read, write, spell or do arithmetic calculations.

What are the characteristics of children with specific learning disabilities
They:
 have verbal expression problems – mispronouncing etc
 have problem of attention; they are easily distracted.
 are hyperactive i.e. they do not stay still even when asked to have, Short attention span.
 lack social skills.
 have letter reversal problems ‘d’ as ‘b’, ‘6' over a long period of time,
 are unable to write on straight lines or follow columns when writing.
 have problems associating lines or follow columns when writing.
 have spelling problems --i.e. incorrect order of letters.
 have difficulties with motor co-ordination activities, e.g cutting with scissors, kicking a
ball, etc.
What causes specific learning disabilities?

In most cases, the causes are not known but can be associated with:
 Premature birth
 Alcohol and smoking by mother before birth
 Maternal infection
 Difficult and long delivery
 Induced labour
 Diseases after birth
 Malnutrition
 Brain tumor, etc.
How can a teacher assist children with learning disabilities?

 Set reasonable goals.
 Provide clear instructions.
 Set guidelines for appropriate classroom behaviour.
 Plan activities to last short periods of time.
 Make use of corrections at each learning step.
 Make use of drills in verbal and written work.
 Design and implement individual instructions in reading and writing.
 Remove materials that can cause divided attention for pupils to concentrate on work given.
 Us, concrete object to develop Perceptual skills.
Children with communication problems

Who are the children with communication difficulties?
They are those children who have problems in speaking or whose speech or language deviate from

what is expected. Such children are said to have communication disorders or difficulties.
Communication disorder is thus of two types, namely speech and language disorders. i.e.
Abnormalities in sound production and inability to use the speech appropriately.
What are the common indications of communication disorders?

A child with communication difficulties is one who;
 Stutters or stammers i.e. have speech flow disorders, or has excessive speed of speech.
 Omits sounds or distorts sounds
 Substitutes one sound for another
 May have addition in articulation of sounds e.g. ‘Ngo’ for ‘go’.
 Have problems with pitch loudness and quality of sounds they make can be too loud or too
weak or soft.
 May exhibit a mixture of too loud then too soft a voice
 Have listening and reading disorders. May find it difficult to comprehend a story or enjoy
reading on their own.
 May prefer to be quiet or avoid activities that involve talking.
What are the possible causes of communication disorders?

 Hearing impairment.
 Brain damage to the speech and motor areas
 Bilingualism having to speak more than one language may cause interference
 Poor language environment and poor models to imitate and lack of stimulating language
environment.
 Breathing difficulties. .
 Growth on or around the cords.
 Structural problems -poor development of the larynx, teeth, lips, palate, etc.
 Genetic causes and diseases, e.g. inflammation of vocal cords.
How can children with communication difficulties be assisted?

 Encourage the children to speak/talk about the activities they are involved in.
 Give pupils opportunities to speak without interruptions. Do not finish sentences for them.
 Listen to what the pupils have to say.
 Reinforce and provide appropriate corrections and drills.
 Ask open ended questions and not Yes or No type of questions.
The physically impaired/challenged

Who are said to be physically impaired or physically challenged?
They are those children whose physical limitations or health problems interfere with normal

physical functioning to such an extent that training, equipment, materials, special services and
other facilities are required. They exclude children with visual and hearing impairment. The
physical impairment is basically of two types, namely orthopaedic and health.
Orthopedic impairment includes conditions that children are born with such as club foot and hunch
impairments caused by diseases such as polio, tuberculosis, cerebral palsy, amputation, fractures,
burns and accidents. Health impairment may be due to chronic heart diseases, asthma, diabetes,
leukemia, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, epilepsy, arthritis, etc.
How can a teacher and the community provide support for such children?
 Spend time to develop positive attitude for such learners in the class and the school.
 Treat such children as worthwhile people.
 Provide special equipment such as crutches and wheelchairs to ease their movements.
 Adapt the school and classroom environment to their needs, e.g. pathways for wheel chairs,
suitable toilet, etc.
 Give such pupils more time to perform a given task. .
 Design and implement initialised activities and programmes.
 Provide ample space for such pupils and their equipment.
 Encourage the use of other body organs in place of the ones missing, e. g. use of one foot
or the mouth to write.

Chapter
Curriculum Development
Definitions:
Education: is process of acquiring desired knowledge, skills and values in order to enable one
take up various roles and be useful member of the society.
Purpose of Education
 Acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitude.
 For career development.
 It moulds into a better human being.
 It helps to develop positive character and ideas in the society.
 It prepares individuals to take up roles and career in the society.
 It creates critical thinkers.
 It helps to preserve and transmit cultural heritage.
 It helps to improve the quality of life in the society.
 It enables one to develop basic interpersonal skills.
Curriculum
This is a plan that enables learners to acquire and develop desired knowledge, skills, attitude and
values.
Syllabus:
It is simple plan extracted from the broad curriculum showing contents to be covered by a given
level of learners over a certain period of time.
Components/elements of school curriculum

 Objectives
 Contents
 Learning experience
 Evaluation
Objectives
These are simple subjects, formulated to guide and control teaching, learning process in a system.
E.g by the end of the lesson the learner should be able to describe the constitutional making
process.
Content
It refers to the selected topics, subtopics to be taught to the learners in order to achieve the set
objectives above.
Learning Experience
Refers to the opportunities, activities, procedure and methods of strategy utilized by the teacher to

facilitate the teaching learning process in order to deliver the selected content to the learners.
Evaluation
This is the process of making value judgements using collected information about the teaching
learning process in order to determine whether the set objectives have been achieved. It involves;
oral questions, assignment, project, examination etc.
Formative Evaluation
This is a type of evaluation conducted as the process runs/as the course is being undertaken.
Reasons for formative Evaluation

 Enable us to establish whether the set objectives are being achieved or not.
 It enables us to determine whether the teaching method applied was appropriate.
 Enables to understand the level of understanding of the learners.
 Enables one to understand the teaching learning materials are effective in teaching.
 Enables us to inform parents/guardians about the progress of their children in school.
 It enables to promote learners to the next class.
 It motivates learners.
 It encourages competition among the learners.
 Enables to grade learners and group them.
 Enables us identify areas/topic that requires remedial teaching.
Summative Evaluation
Conducted at the end of learning process/at the end of a given course to determine whether the set
objectives have been achieved or not.
Reasons for Summative Evaluation

 Help to determine whether the set objectives for a given course have been achieved or not.
 Enables learners to be promoted to the next level of learning.
 It enables to grade learners and award certificate.
 For job placement/employment.
 Guides decision making on career matters.
 Helps us to determine whether the teaching/learning resources used were effective.
 Helps us to determine whether the teaching/learning methods used were effective and
efficient.
 Motivate future learning.
 Helps us to identify challenges experienced by teachers and students during the curriculum
implementation.
 It gives the opportunity to provide a feedback to the curriculum development centre about
the adequacy of the curriculum used.
Challenges faced during curriculum development

 Examination cheating

 Forging of certificates
 Insecurity in various areas.
 Wrong packaging of papers.
 Teachers strike
 Inaccessibility to some schools due to bad weather conditions.
 Inadequate funds to facilitate evaluation activities.
 Absenteeism of candidates.
 Late registration of candidates.
 Negative attitude towards examination especially by administration.
Dimensions of a school curriculum

These are:
 Formal dimension
 Non formal dimension
 In formal dimension.
Formal Dimension
Refers to the learning experiences/activities that students undertake formally as a class.
Specific characteristics
 Learning takes place in specific classroom.
 Learning is highly structured by the use of syllabus and the timetable.
 Teaching and activities are supervised by professional teachers.
 Activities are provided on regular and systematic basic.
 Attendance is compulsory by both teachers and learners.
 Evaluation is a must and is carried throughout the program.
 Awarding of certificate is a must.
 Rules and regulations are highly emphasized.
Non Formal (co-curriculum)

Refers to learning activities that take place inside/outside the classroom in specific groups.
 Membership is voluntary
 Learning is less structured.
 Professional guidance is not a must.
 Highly flexible in terms of choice content.
 The activities are organised outside normal class time.
 Learning is not confined to specific compound.
 Evaluation is not a must.
 Learning is a life long process.
 Rules and regulations are not highly emphasized.
 Contributes a lot to the physical and learning process of the learners.

Informal Dimension
Refers to the learning experience that occurs inside or outside the classroom and outside the school
compound as a result of the learners interaction with immediate environment. Learners interact
with fellow learners, teachers, non teaching staff, public and physical environment.
 Learning is totally unstructured. No timetable no syllabus.
 Learning is unplanned occurs spontaneously and by coincidence.
 Learning takes place any time anywhere.
 The learners acquire skills, values, and attitude unconsciously.
 Learning is interest driven
 Leads to acquisition of attitude, skills and values.
 Learning is a life long process.
 Contribute to character building of the learners.
 No formal evaluation.
 It is a by product of both formal and non formal programs.
Determinants of a School Curriculum

 National goals of education
 National education policy
 Nature needs and expectations of the learners.
 Nature needs and expectations of a given country.
 Emerging issues in a given country.
 Global aim and changes in education.
 Advance technology.
 Educational directives. Especially from the head of state.
 Economic status.
 Pressure from special groups.
 Historical development. Through implementation of report from education commission.
National goal of Education

 Kenya has 8 goals of education
 Was proposed by ominde commission in 1964.
What is a national goal?

It is a broad target that guides and directs the learning activities in a given system of education in
a given society.
Educational goals in Kenya

 Promote/foster nationalism, patriotism and national unity.
 Promote national development.
 Promote individual development and self fulfilment.
 Promote sounds moral and religious values.
 Promote social equality and responsibility.

 Promote respect and development of Kenya's rich and varied culture.
 Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other nations.
 Promotes positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection.
Curriculum Objectives
An objective is a simple target intends that describe the kind of change that we want to bring in
the learner as a result.
Relationship between National Goal of education and curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objective are derived from the national goal of education. The goals are broad target
that are achieved after a long period of time.
Sources of Curriculum Objectives

The learners
The learners' nature, needs and expectations must be provided for in the curriculum.
The subject specialist

The subject specialists provide a guide on the objectives that we facilitate learning of the selected
content in their area of knowledge.
The contemporary Society

The society provide physical, social and cultural context within which Learning take place.
Identify and describe the three types of curriculum objectives as stated by bloom
The Curriculum Development Process

 This is a systematic process of planning and developing the learning experience for the purpose
of bringing about change in the learner behavior.
 It occurs in two major ways:
a) Re writing/Reviewing an existing program.
b) Taking a complete overhaul of an existing curriculum.
Re writing an existing Program

This is where curriculum developers revise a certain aspect of an existing program.
Examples
 They can revise the national goal of education.
 They can revise subject objectives.
 They can revise evaluation procedure.
Taking a complete overhaul

 This is where a complete new curriculum is produced.
 Involves:
 Forming new objectives
 Selecting new subjects.
 Selecting new method of teaching.
In Kenya, the Kenya institutes of curriculum development (KICD) is in charge of curriculum

development below universities.
Models of Curriculum Development

Taylor model (1949)
 Taylor suggested four questions which when answered guide the curriculum development
process.
 These question are:
a) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? Forming objectives.
b) What educational experiences can be provided to attain this purpose? Select relevant
learning experience, content.
c) How can this educational experience be effectively organised?
d) How can we determine whether these purposes have been attained? Evaluations.
In summary four stages are:

 Statement of aim or objectives.
 Selection of learning experiences
 Organization of learning experience
 Evaluations.
Elements of Curriculum Development

 Objectives
 Content
 Evaluations
Limitations of Taylor's model

 He failed to show a clear relationship between the four stages of curriculum development.
 The model was too simple to guide curriculum development process.
 This model leaves evaluations to the last stage; evaluations should be continuous throughout
all the stages.
 The model was too static; does not accommodate any changes.
 The model does not bring out a clear interrelationship of separate elements in the curriculum.
 He put a lot of emphasis on objectives and this limits learning to specific outcomes.
Taba Model (1962)

 It was proposed by Hilda Taba in 1962.
 She pointed out that in developing the curriculum we should always start with formulation of
relevant objectives.
 She perceived the curriculum to have four major elements that is:
 Objectives
 Content
 Evaluations
 She suggested that the scholar should realised these elements are interelated and influence each
directly.
 She also suggested that, these elements should be selected carefully basing on certain
considerations:
 The nature of the learners
 Theories of learning
 The nature of knowledge to be taught.
 The state of contemporary society.
 Evaluations should be continuous throughout all the stages leading to a cyclic model.
 She came up with four stages
 Formulation of aims and objectives
 Selection of contents
 Selection and organization of learning experience.
 Evaluations
Similarities between Taylor's and Taba's models

 In both there is a lot of emphasis on objectives.
 Both suggest four stages of curriculum development.
 Both acknowledge the major three source of curriculum.
 Both acknowledge that curriculum has four elements.
Differences
 In Taylor model evaluations is the last stage while Taba's model evaluations is a continuous
process.
 Taylor has a linear model while Taba is cyclic.
 Taylor seems to bring out separate elements or stage as distinct while Taba's model various
elements are interrelated and influence each other.
Wheeler's Model (1967)

 It was developed by D.K wheeler in 1967
 He converted Taylor original idea into a cyclic form and produced a 5 stage model of
curriculum development.
 In this model, evaluation is linked back to the back stage of formulating objectives to create

continuous process of curriculum development.
 It has the following stages.
 Statement of aims and objectives
 Selection of content
 Selection of learning experience
 Involves method of teaching, learning activities etc.
 Organization and integration of learning experience. There will be a systematic
arrangements of both selected content and other learning activities for effective learning.
Curriculum developers should be able to merge similar experience, content and other
learning activities.
 Evaluations
Similarities between Taylor's model and Wheeler's model

 In both there is a lot of emphasis on formulation of objectives.
 In both acknowledge three sources of Curriculum.
Differences
 In Taylor's model is linear while Wheeler's model is cyclic.
 In Taylor's model there is four stages of curriculum development while in Wheeler's model
there is five stages of curriculum development.
 Education in Taylor's is ended up in evaluations stage while in Wheeler's learning is
continuous.
Lawton model
It has five stages in form of flow charts
1. Explore philosophical questions
2. Explore sociological questions
3. Selection of contents
4. Explore psychological questions
5. Curriculum organization.
Oluoch Model
 It was developed by Gabriel Oluoch in 1982
 He borrowed idea from previous model and customise to the Kenya situation
 He recognizes curriculum has four major elements.
 He points out that when developing curriculum these elements should be well covered across
all dimensions of the curriculum.
 According to oluoch information should be collected from major stake holders that should be
utilised in formation of relevant objectives.
 He proposed seven stages for developing school curriculum.
Stage
 Information gathering

 Project formulation
 Curriculum planning
 Selection and development of curriculum materials
 Try out/piloting
 Implementation
 Project evaluation
 All these stages are interrelated and influence each other.

 One stage lead to the other.
Information gathering
 This stage involves collection of relevant information from various stake holders e.g learners,
teacher, NGOs, religious groups.
 It is also known as needs assessment
 The information collected will be used to identify gaps in the existing curriculum.
 From this information also we establish the needs of the learners and society as well as any
problem being encountered in curriculum implementation.
Project formulation
 The data collected in stage one is analysis in order to select issues that are most relevant to the
learners at a given time.
 This analysis will guide curriculum developers to take decision on whether to review
curriculum or take a complete overhaul.
 From the same analysis curriculum developer can state the general objectives that will guide
learning.
Curriculum planning
 A plan should be prepared showing specific objectives that will guide learning.
 Specific contents, evaluations procedure, teaching methods for each level of learning are also
suggested
 Syllabuses are also produced at this stage and budget.
Selection and development of curriculum materials

Curriculum support materials e.g text book, equipment and facilities are selected from already
existing stock where necessary new materials equipment and facilities are developed especially
Try out/piloting
The new curriculum and the materials are tested in a few selected schools across the country to
check visibility and make necessary arrangements
Importance of Try out/piloting

 To determine if it's positive effective and affordable by both parents and government
 To determine its suitability and effective
 To identify any weaknesses that need to be corrected
Challenges
 Challenge resistance for students and entire society.
 Inadequate facilities.
 Inadequate funds to support piloting.
 Inadequate professional
Implementation
If the trial is successful and necessary adjustments are done the new curriculum and materials are
taken to schools for use.
Challenges
 Negative attitude towards the new curriculum.
 Inadequate facilities
 Teachers are not well prepared.
 Unequal distribution of materials
 Inadequate teaching staff
 Inadequate supervision of teaching activities
 Insufficient funds.
Curriculum organization
 Both formative and summative is conducted to support program to determine if the set
objectives are being achieved.
 A lot of monitoring is done on the teaching Learning activities by both KICD and other
educational administrators.
Kerr model (1968)

 This was developed by John Kerry in 1968
 In this model he points out that formulation of Curriculum objectives should be always the
starting point of any curriculum development process.
 He also acknowledge that curriculum has certain element that are interrelated and even the
stages followed in Developing a curriculum are also interrelated therefore both these
elements and stage influence each other directly.
 He also suggested that formulated objectives should always lead to desired changes in the
pupils behavior.

 From this information he says the curriculum developers can identify the learners needs ,
their interest, expectations and even then social conditions and problems that the learner is
likely to encounter during the process of learning.
 The subject specialist will help to identify or clarify the nature of the subject matter to be
considered.
 He also points out that effective curriculum development process should be dynamic and
continuous in order to accommodate changes.
 Kerry offers a four stage cyclic model to guide curriculum development process.
KICD model
 This is development of Oluoch's model.
 It was a proposal by KICD
 It has ten stages.
 It was developed using the panel system.
 KICD adopted an electric approach in developing a school curriculum. I.e it borrows a lot of
ideas from other models.
 KICD was formerly known as kie (Kenya institute of education). This name changed the year
2013 through a KICD act no. 4 of 2913 of the law of Kenya.
Co function of KICD
Conduct research and develop curricular all levels of education below university.
Three Major Panels

 Subject panel
 Course panel
 Academic panel
Subject panel
 Each subject at each level of learning has a panel at KICD that formulate objectives for
teaching that subject, select contents, suggest learning experience, evaluation procedures as
well as learning materials.
 It comprises of twenty subject specialist. Among these could be
a) Experienced subject teacher
b) University lecturer in the same area.
c) Subject inspectors
d) Publisher
 The chairman of this panel is normally the inspector in charge of this subject at national level
while its secretary is the director of KICD.

Specific functions
 Initiates and guide the curriculum development activities in their subjects. E.g formulates
objectives, select relevant topics to be taught.
 Conduct research in their specific subject
 Constantly review the existing syllabus in their subjects and make recommendations to
the course panel.
 Review and recommend books and other teaching materials for use in school.
Course panel
 Each level of education has a course panel that looks into the contents, evaluation
procedures, learning experience and learning materials to be used at this level.
 It comprises of 35 members whose chairman is the chief inspector of schools or quality
assurance officer while the Secretary is the director of KICD.
 These members are selected from various institutions, organizations and groups that have
interest in a given level of learning.
Specific functions
 Constantly review the existing curriculum and syllabuses for their specific level of
education.
 Coordinate and guide the activities of subject panel at this level of education.
 Recommend the curriculum support materials to be used at each level of learning.
 Offer advice to other institutions and agencies engaged in training of manpower.
Academic board
 This committee has a major task of coordinating the profession aspects of KICD
 It consists of Curriculum specialist, some staff of KICD, expert in special education.
 It has a membership of 35
 The chairman of this board is usually the director of education at national level while its
secretary is the director of KICD.
 The committee receives advices from both the subject and course panels before making any
approval on a proposed curriculum and syllabuses.
Specific functions
 Coordinate the work of both the subject and course panel.
 Approves the curriculum and all syllabuses develop in all of education below university.
 It is in charge of publishing and introduction of syllabus for distribution in all learning
institutions.
Stages Followed in Developing Curriculum by KICD

The stages depict a cyclic approach. They are:

1. Policy decisions (formal request stage)
2. Needs assessment
3. Conceptualization and policy formulation
4. Development of curriculum design
5. Syllabus development
6. Selection and development of curriculum support materials
7. Teachers preparation
8. Curriculum piloting
9. Curriculum implementation
10. Monitoring and evaluation
Policy Decisions
 Policy statement released by the government through the ministry of education directing KICD
to review the existing curriculum or start off the curriculum development activities.
 This could be as result of public expressing a lot of dissatisfaction on the current curriculum.
These directives could be aimed at:
 Addressing the current needs of the learners to the society.
 In cooperating emerging issues in the curriculum.
 Reducing subjects in overload curriculum.
Needs assessment
 It is information gathering stage in the Oluoch's model.
 Information is collected from educational stake holders to help establish the gaps in an existing
curriculum as well as confirming the information provided in the policy statement above.
 A systematic investigation is therefore done to help to determine the current needs of the
learners by checking on the number of subjects, confirming the emerging issues and their
effects to the learners.
 Major participants include KICD staff, members of subjects and course panels.
Conceptualization and policy formulation

Using the information in stage one and two a decision is made on what kind of curriculum
development activities should be taken. For example, a decision to be taken to revise a new
curriculum or introduce new curriculum. Strategies are laid out and policy formulated. For
example this could be number of subjects to take at each level. The report is written by subject
panel and presented to the subject panel and academic board for approval and formulation of
operational policies. Main participants are; member of subject panel and KICD staff.
Development of Curriculum Design

Course panel for different levels produce their broad plan. I.e they produce syllabus and combine
them into a curriculum. While doing so the formulated general objectives, confirm content to be
taught and skills to be acquired, approved methods of teaching, learning materials and even
evaluation procedures.
Syllabus Development

Subject panel extract their syllabus from the curriculum designed above. In doing so they clarify
the specific objectives for reaching their subjects, clarify actual content to be taught, specify the
exact time to be taken during teaching. This draft is again forwarded to the course panel and
academic board for approval before publication.
Selection and Development of Curriculum Support Materials.

Refer to the notes on stage 4 of oluoch
However where private publishers are involved their materials must be veted and validated by
KICD before taken in school for use.
Teachers Preparation
Teachers are prepared for the task of Curriculum implementation. KICD contact orientation
process for all educational officers and even retrain teachers in subject areas enabling them
interpret new curriculum accurately. Teachers need psychological preparation in order to receive
and implement new ideas without resistance.
Curriculum Piloting
Refers to Oluoch stage 5
It involves those teachers who would have under taken orientation process.
Curriculum Implementation
Refers to Stage 6
Monitoring and evaluation

It involves supervision of curriculum implementation activities. This is done to ensure that the new
plan is being implemented in learning institutions as purposed. Monitoring is also done to check
on the reception of the new curriculum by the learners and the teachers as well as establishing if
there are any challenges being encountered during the the implementation of new curriculum. Both
formative and summative evaluation are conducted on the new curriculum and the feedback given
out to the KICD to help kick off new curriculum development activities.
Specific role of KICD

 Conduct and coordinates educational research in Kenya.
 It develops the curriculum for all levels of education below the university.
 Prepare syllabus for all level of education below the university.
 Develops both print and electronic support materials e g text book.
 Evaluates vets/validates the curriculum support materials for basic and tertiary education.
 Prepares and transmits, mass media programs to support curriculum development activities
e.g sensitize the public about any changes in the curriculum.
 Organizes and conducts in-service and orientation cause for curriculum implementors.
 Offers curriculum based constantan service in basic and training.
 It advices the government on matters of education and training.
The roles of other agencies in curriculum development process.

KICD works closely with other agencies in planning, Developing and evaluating school
curriculum. They include:
1.KNEC
Functions
 Registration of candidates.
 Setting and administering national exams.
 Invigilating national exams.
 Recruiting and training examiners.
 Awarding certificates and diploma to the successful candidate.
 Participates in need assessment through giving feedback to KICD.
 Some KNEC officers’ seats on subject and course panel.
 Help in preparing syllabuses etc
Challenges facing KNEC

 Exam leakages
 Insecurity
 Forging of certificates
 Inadequate funds to support.
 Inadequate materials.
 Late registration of candidates.
 Wrong packaging of papers.
 Inaccessibility to some areas.
2.Teachers service commission (TSC)

Specific functions of TSC
 Recruits and employ teachers.
 Implement curriculum
 Pay salaries to teachers.
 Formulate policies to govern teaching profession.
 Participates in need assessment by offering advice on teachers education and training.
 Transfer teachers to various institutions to ensure equity. Discipline teachers to ensure
effective learning take place in school.
 Advices the government on matters of the teaching profession. E.g standards of teachers
training.
Functions delegated by TSC to its agencies

 Teachers recruitment
 Transfer of teachers
 Discipline of teachers
 Promotion of teachers

 Supervision of curriculum implementation.
Why teachers can be disciplined

 Lack of professionalism
 Chronic absenteeism
 Violates the life of students
 Excessive drinking
 Insubordination
 Prolonged health problem.
3. Inspectorate
Functions
 To monitor effective curriculum implementation in school.
 Offer advice to teachers as they go through implementation. Organise orientation course for
teachers especially when there are changes in curriculum.
 Participates in curriculum development in subject and course panel.
 Some e.g subject specialist participates in preparation of subject materials e.g textbook.
 Carry out registration of schools and deregister school if they don't meet the standards.
 Initiates guidance at school to ensure use of funds in curriculum implementation.
 Organizes and conduct Management courses for school managers to improve their
leadership.
 Ensure schools have enough and appropriate physical facilities.
4. Publisher
Roles
 Developing curriculum support materials.
 Source of information to curriculum advancement.
 Some have membership on subject and course panel.
 Participates in educational research.
 Sponsor needy students.
 Organises seminar to sensitize teachers on new curriculum materials.
 Act as a resource person in the classroom.
5. Universities
Roles
 Conduct educational research to support curriculum revenue activities.
 Engage in administrative roles at KICD e.g some lectures are members of KICD.
 Participates in the need assessment to help establish group in existing curriculum.
 Have membership on the subject and course panel
 Participates in summative evaluation through setting examinations at KNEC.

6. Trade union (KNUT & CUPPET)
 Participate in preparing syllabuses.
 Participate in preparing curriculum support materials.
 Participate in supervising curriculum implementation.
 Fight for rights of teachers.
 Represent teachers in court of law.
 Represent teachers at TSC on disciplinary matters.
7. NGOs and religious groups

 Source of information to curriculum developers.
 Offer physical facilities in some institutions.
 Develop own institutions for learning.
 Some offer curriculum support materials.
 Sponsor needy students.
 Apart from these two, we have CBO(community based organization).

 These groups sponsor specific education program e.g feeding program in the arid areas e.g
UNICEF.
 Sponsor curriculum review activities e.g UNESCO.
 Sponsor in service training program for teachers.
Role of teachers
 Implement curriculum through teaching.
 Participates in needs assessment.
 They have membership on the subject and course panel and therefore;
1. Develop curriculum
2. Prepare syllabus in their respective subject
3. Develop materials on support subject
4. Participates in curriculum piloting.
5. Involved in educational research
6. Ensure discipline in school in adequate for effective curriculum implementation.
Curriculum changes
 Change is the process of altering the behavior, structures, procedures within an organization.
 In curriculum development change involves adjusting, correcting or improving an existing
curriculum in order to respond to changing needs and expectations of the learner and the
society.
 These kind of change, may occur in terms of
a) Revision of curriculum aims and objectives.

b) Improvement of the teaching strategies.
c) Adjustment of evaluation procedure.
Curriculum changes occur in two main ways

1. Re writing
2. Talking a complete overhaul.
Factors that leads to curriculum changes

Political factors
The leadership of the country can dictate or influence a curriculum changes. E.g a head of state
can give a directive on curriculum changes. Politicians can also influence the kind of content to be
included or removed from the curriculum.
Emerging issues
Curriculum changes will occur to incorporate emerging issues in the society in order to sensitize
the child and enable him to cope with such changes in the society.
Economic factors
Economic status of the nation dictate the kind of curriculum to be used. It should support and
sustain curriculum implementation activities effectively.
Advanced or new technology

The curriculum in use must respond to the country technological advancement and the demands
from the international market. The child must be therefore assisted to acquire relevant knowledge
and skills to be able to contribute to this technological advancement.
Social factors
Curriculum in use must respond to the changing nature , needs and expectations of the society. E.g
some cultural aspects and believe must still be passed on the next generation despite the effect of
the modern society.
Government policy

Chapter
Educational Measurement and Evaluation

Basic terminologies
Test
It is a systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behavior and answer questions how well
does the individual performs. It is also a set of questions in which in which an examinee has to
perform.
Examination
It is a set of test in various areas to which an examinee has to perform.
Measurement
It is the process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree in which an individual possess
a particular characteristics.
Evaluation
Systematic determination of merit, worth and significant of something. It answers the question,
how well.
Internal Evaluation
Carried out by teachers in school for day today basis.
Importance
 Aims at assessing students attainment at the end of the term.
 It evaluate diagnostically students performance.
 It estimate students attitude with an aim of assigning them to different courses.
 It evaluate the effectiveness of education programme of curriculum.
 It can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of education strategies or resources.
 It aims at motivating the learner.
 Encourage competition among the learners.
External evaluation
Conducted by the professionally recognized bodies.
Importance
 Exam results are used as instrument for selecting to higher educational institutions.
 They are used by employers to recruit employees and admissions into certain professions.
 Used as a mean of defining the curriculum and orientation of the curriculum.
 Used to maintain education standard
 Used to award certificates.
Types of evaluations

Formative evaluation
 Provide feedback regarding the students’ performance in attaining instructional objectives.
 It identifies learning errors that need to be corrected and provide information to make
institution more effective.
Placement evaluation
 Defines students’ entry behaviours.
 Determine knowledge and skills that the learner posses which are necessary at the beginning
of instructions.
Diagnostic Evaluations
Detects students learning difficulties which somehow cannot be revealed by formative tests.
Summative Evaluations
Determine the extend to which objectives of instruction have been achieved and it is used for
assigning grade or marks and to provide feedback to students. It is usually carried out at the end
of the course.
Assessment
Process of documenting usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitude and belief.
Education Instructional Objectives

These are statement of the goal towards which instructions are directed to.
Categories of education objectives (Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives)

 Knowledge objectives
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluations
Knowledge objectives
Emphasis remembering previous learning materials. Terms used are: Define, Name, List State etc.
Comprehension
Ability to grasp meaning of concept. Terms used: convert, describe, desriminate, estimate etc.
Application
Ability to use learnt knowledge in new and concrete situation. Terms used apply, computer, employ
differentiate etc.
Analysis

This is the ability to break down materials into its components parts so that its organization may
be understood. E.g. analyze, classify, compare, determine etc.
Synthesis
Ability to put part together to form a new whole.E.gcategorize, combine, summarize.
Evaluations
Importance of measurement and evaluation in education

 To discover problems the learners may be facing while learning.
 Evaluate learner’s capacity to learn.
 To appraise the effectiveness of teaching methods.
 To select students for various curriculum/admission to colleges.
 Provide information for effective educational and vocational counseling.
 Provide information for grading students, promoting and making meaning report to the
parents.
 To evaluate the effectiveness of teaching a single subject by a single teacher.
 To appraise the effectiveness of entire educational institution and point out how it can be
improved.
Test planning
Reliability
Refers to the extent to which a test consistently measures what it is suppose to measure.
Factors influencing Reliability of a text

 Length of the test. The longer the test the higher the reliability.
 Difficulty of the test. If a test is too easy/difficult it will produce low reliability.
 Objectivity. Low reliability can result from basis in scoring especially of the essay marking
and scoring should be as objective as possible.
 Temporary fluctuation in memory.
 Attention
 Fatigue
 Emotional strain
 Intervening experiences
 Changes in health.
 Testing condition.
Validity
The extent to which a test accurately measure what it is purport to measure.
Factors that affect Validity of a test

 Factors in the test result
 Unclear instructions.

 Very difficult vocabulary and sentence structure.
 Poorly constructed test item
 Too easy/difficult test
 Ambiguity therefore confusion.
 Very short test will give low validity.
 Improper arrangement of test item. Item should be arranged in order of difficulty beginning
with the easiest.
Factors in test administration and scoring

 Insufficient time to complete the test.
 Unfair assistance.
 Examination cheating.
 Unreliable scoring of essays
 Adverse physical and psychological condition at exam time.
Types of Validity
Content validity
Important for achievement test.E.g mathematics and English test. There is no numerical way to
express it.
Face Validity
Refers to the appearance of the test, the wording, phrases.
Construct validity
The extent to which a test measure a personal trait. Used when the purpose of a test is to measure
a psychological characteristics traits.
Predictive validity.
Extent to which a test predict future behavior of a person e.g if a person scores highly on
engineering, then he finally join engineering
Basic statistics and their Application

Statistics is a method of analyzing data.
Population is entire group of people, things that a researcher desire to investigate.

Sample it is a subset of the population.
Raw scores score that have not been organized in any way.
Types of statistics
Descriptive statistics

 Involves tabulating, depicting and describing collection of data under consideration.
 They include:
 Measure of Central tendency(mean, mode and median)
 Measure of variations (range, variation, standard deviation)
 Measure of relationship
 Measure of relative position.
2. Inferential statistics
Deals with inference about population based on the behavior of samples I.e it goes beyond a given
set of data and make general statement about the whole population. They include:
 T test
 Analysis of variancy
 Chi squared
How to organise Data

1. Frequency Distributions
Types
(a) Frequency distribution table for ungrouped data.
(b) Frequency distribution table for grouped data.
Representing Data on a Graph

 A graph is technique of representing numerical data in visual form.
 It shows relationship between two variables. I.e independent variables and dependent variable.
Types of Graphs
Bar Graph
 Uses a vertical/horizontal bar to represent the number of observations within a given category.
 The height or length of each bar represent the quantity in question.
Histogram
 It is similar to the bar graph except that the bar in a histogram are attached together to indicate
that the data is continuous.
 It is obtained by potting frequencies against class limits.
Pie chart
 Information is displayed using sector of a circle.
 The angle of each sector represent the quantity in question.
Frequency polygon
It is obtained by joining the mid point of the top of the bar of a histogram by a line segment.

Grouped data
Calculate the mean of the following data
Marks 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49
Frequency 2 4 3 7 3
Solution
Marks M.d(x) f fx
25–29 27 2 54
30–34 32 4 128
35–39 37 3 111
40–44 42 7 294
44–49 47 3 141
∑f=23 ∑fx=728
∑𝑓𝑥
Mean = ∑𝑓
728
= 23
= 38.32
Properties of mean/advantage
 It is more stable measure of Central tendency since it is determined by every observation
in a frequency.
 It is easily understood and mostly used as an average.
 It is relatively simple to calculate.
 It is a desired measure of Central tendency because it is not affected by fluctuation in
sampling.
 It is used in many statistical analysis.
Measure of variations/Spread
Range
It is calculated by subtracting the slowest score from the highest score in a distribution.
Example
2, 8,10,50
Range = 50–2
= 48
Quartile deviation
1. Median divides a set of score into two equal halves
2. Quartile divides a set of score into four equal parts.
3. Decile divides a set of score into ten equal parts.
4. Percentile divides a set of. scores into hundred equal parts.

5. Interquartile range it is the difference between upper quartile and lower quartile.
6. Semi interquartile range it is half interquartile range.
Example
30,32,32,28,37,33,33,34,35 Compute the quartile deviation
Solution
Rearrange
28,30,32,32,33,33,34,35,37
Median (Q2) = 33
30+32
Lower interquartile(Q1) = 2
= 31
34+35
Upper interquartile(Q3) = 2
= 34.5
Interquartile range 34.5–31
Interquartile deviation= 1/2*3.5
=1.75
Grouped data
A grouped frequency distribution table the lower quartile and the upper quartile can be computed
using the modified formula for the median.
𝑁
−𝑓𝑏
Q2= L + ( 2𝑓𝑤 )i
𝑁
−𝑓𝑏
Q1= L + ( 4
)i
𝑓𝑤
3𝑁
−𝑓𝑏
Q3= L + ( 4𝑓𝑤 )i
Where
L is the lower class limit of the Q1
N total frequency
Fb cumulative frequency above the Q1 class
Fw frequency of the q1 class
I class interval

Example
Marks x f c.f
25–29 27 2 2
30–34 32 4 6
35–39 37 3 9
40–44 42 7 16
45–49 47 3 19
19
4
−2
Q1 = 29.5 + ( )5
4
= 29.5 + 2.29167
= 32.94
3
∗19
4 −2
Q3 = 39.5 +
4
( )5
7
= 43.25
Interquartile range = 43.25- 32.94

= 10.31
10.31
Semi interquartile range = 2
= 5.155
Variance and standard deviation

Variance is a measure of variability defined as the average of the sum of the squared deviation of
the score about the mean
∑(𝑋−𝜇)²
S2 = 𝑁
Where
s2 is the variance
∑(𝑋 − 𝜇)2 The sum of the squared deviation from the mean
N total frequency
Standard deviation (s)

It is an average of the degree to which a set of score deviates from the mean.
It is the square root of variance and its therefore computed using the formula.
∑(𝑋− µ)²
S=√ 𝑁

Example
Compute the variance and the standard deviation of the following set of scores.
1, 2, 3, 7, 8,9
1+2+3+7+8+9
Mean(𝜇) = 6
=5
x X-𝜇 (X – 𝜇)2
1 -4 16
2 -3 9
3 -2 4
7 2 4
8 3 9
9 4 16
∑=58
58
S2 = 6
= 9.67
S.D = √9.67
= 3.109
Grouped data
For the grouped data , the formula can be modified as follows;
∑𝑓𝑥² ∑𝑓𝑥
S2 = - ( ∑𝑓 ) ²
∑𝑓
S.D = √ − ( ∑𝑓 ) ²
∑𝑓
Example
Compute the variance and the standard deviation for the following distribution
Scores 0–4 5–9 10 – 14 15 – 19 20 – 24 24 – 29
frequency 1 0 1 4 2 2
Solution
Scores f x fx Fx2
0–4 1 2 2
5–9 0 7 0
10 – 14 1 12 12
15 – 19 4 17 68
20 – 24 2 22 44
24 – 29 2 27 54
∑f=10 ∑fx=180 ∑=3730

S2 = -( )²
∑𝑓 ∑𝑓
3730 180
= - ( 10 ) ²
10
= 373 – 324
= 49
S.D = √49
=7
Uses of standard deviation

 It is used to indicate the spread, scatter that may exist in a distribution of scores.
 Standard deviation is small if scores are clustered around the mean I.e the smaller the SD, the
more homogeneous the class is in that particular subject
 The SD is the most reliable measure of variability because it takes into account the numerical
value of each scores.
Derived and standard scores (z scores)

 These are standard scores that indicate how many standard deviation above or below the
mean of certain scores.
 A score above the mean will yield a positive z scores while one below the mean will yield
negative score.
𝑟𝑎𝑤 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Z = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example
Convert the following raw scores to z scores given that the mean is 15 and SD is 3
20, 19, 18
20−15
Z= 3
= 1.67
19−15
Z= 3
= 1.33
18−15
Z= 3
= 1.0
Characteristics of z scores
 They have a universal meaning
 Have a mean of zero and standard deviation of one.

 Transformation of raw scores into z scores does not change the shape of original
distribution.
 Difference in z scores reflect difference in original raw scores.
Advantage
Allow as to compare the performance of one pupil with that of another within the same class but
in two or more subject.
Disadvantages
 Usually expressed in decimals points
 There are almost always negative answer.
T scores
 These are standard scores whose mean and standard deviation are different from those of z
scores.
 T scores can be obtained by changing the mean from 0 to 50 and standard deviation from 1 to
0.
 To convert z scores to T scores we multiply z scores by 10 and add 50.
Convert the following z scores into T scores.

1.70, 1.30, 1.00
Solution
1.70*10 + 50
=
1.30*10 + 50
=
1.00*10 + 50
=
Stanine Scores
Standard scores whose mean is 5 and standard deviation is 2.
In standard normal curve, the equivalent stanine can be calculated and they range from 1 to 9
Stanine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
% 4 7 12 17 20 17 12 7 4
4% = stanine 1 or 9
7% = stanine 2 or 8
12% = stanine 3 or 7
17% = stanine 4 or 6
20% = stanine 5
Measures of relationship

 This is a group of statistical techniques that are used to measure the presence or absence of a
relationship between variables.
 The variable used as predictor is called the independent variable while the one that is
predicted is called dependent variable.
 They are two ways of detecting the presence or absence of a relationship between two
variables.
a) Logical examination
b) By plotting a scatter diagram.
Scatter diagram
Positive relationship
This is where when there is an increase in one variable there is also an increase in the second
variable.
y
X
Negative relationship
This is where when there is an increase in one variable there is a decrease in the second variable
and vice versa.
By means of scatter diagram state the kind of relationship between x and y in the following data
x 3 4 7 9 11 15 20
y 5 4 6 4 10 5 9

Y-Values
12
10
6
Y-Values
4
0
0 5 10 15
Determining the degree of relationship

The degree of a relationship between any two variables maybe determined by the coefficient of
correlations. This is done using the following method
Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (Pearson's r)
a) Computation formula
𝑁∑𝑋𝑌− ∑𝑋∑𝑌
rxy =
√[𝑁∑𝑋 2 −(∑𝑋)2 ][𝑁∑𝑌 2 −(∑𝑌)²
b) Definition formula.
∑𝑥𝑦
rxy =
√∑𝑥²∑𝑦²
where
x=x-µ
y=y-µ
Interpreting rxy
Rho is always between +1 and -1
If rho = +1 this is a case of perfect positive correlation relationship.
If rho = -1 this is a case of perfect negative correlation relationship.
If rho = 0 the two variable have no relationship.
If rho = 0.12 this is a case of weak positive relationship
If rho = -0.12 this is a case of weak negative relationship
If rho = 0.5 this is a case of moderate positive relationship
If rho = -0.5 this is a case of moderate negative relationship

Example
Compute Pearson's r for the following set of data
x 4 7 3 6 10
y 5 12 4 8 11
Using computation formula and confirm the same using the definition formula and interpret the
results
Solution
Computation formula
x y x² y² xy
4 5 16 25 20
7 12 49 144 84
3 4 9 16 12
6 8 36 64 48
10 11 100 121 110
∑x = 30 ∑y= 40 ∑ = 210 ∑ = 370 ∑=274
𝑁∑𝑋𝑌− ∑𝑋∑𝑌
rxy =
√[𝑁∑𝑋 2 −(∑𝑋)2 ][𝑁∑𝑌 2 −(∑𝑌)²
5 ×274−30×40
=
√[5×210−(30)2 ][5×370−(40)²
1370−1200
=
√(1050−900)(1850−1600)
= 0.878
Definition formula.
x y x = (x-µ) y=(y-µ) x² y² xy
4 5 -2 -3 4 9 6
7 12 1 4 1 16 4
3 4 -3 -4 9 16 12
6 8 0 0 0 0 0
10 11 4 3 16 9 12
∑x= 30 ∑y= 40 ∑ x²=30 ∑ y²=50 ∑xy=34
∑𝑥𝑦
rxy =
√∑𝑥²∑𝑦²
34
=
√30×50
= 0.878

Chapter
Psychology of Learning
What is learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour which comes as a result of practice of an
activity.
Learning is also defined as a process by which we acquire knowledge, form attitudes and develop
skills that cannot be attributed to inherited behaviour patterns or physical growth.
What does a formal learning process consist of?

A formal learning process comprises:
 A teacher
 A set of behavioural objectives.
 Elements of instruction and interaction between the teacher and the learner
 Responses and reinforcement
 Means of testing and evaluating outcome.
What factors contribute to an efficient learning process?

For efficient learning to occur the following conditions are necessary:
 A clear objective of what is to be learnt. This helps the learners to attend to the right
stimulus without delay.
 Readiness on the part of the learners in terms of intellectual ability and physical, emotional
or social maturation.
 Use of communication methods that are appropriate to the age and language code of the
learner.
 Careful guidance throughout the learning process.
 Preliminary recall of the previously acquired knowledge that is relevant to the material
being learnt so as to form association links.
 Application of full attention to what is being learnt and maintenance of concentration
throughout the learning process.
 Strong motivation to learn. .
 Active involvement of the learner in the learning process.
 Feedback to the learner to indicate the success he/she is making in learning.
Learning is often categorized in three major domains according to Bloom's taxonomy:

 Cognitive domain
 Psychomotor domain
 Affective domain.
Explain what each domain of learning involves (cognitive learning, psychomotor learning
and effective learning):

Cognitive learning
- involves mental operations or thinking. It can take place at the following levels: _
 Knowledge recall
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluation
Psychomotor learning
Refers to a form of learning which requires the coordination of muscles and the brain, for example,
writing skills, balancing most of the physical activities. It occurs at the levels of:
 Observing
 Imitating
 Practising
 Adapting.
Affective learning
Refers to a form of learning whereby an individual’s feelings, attitudes and values are changed.
This in turn influences the individual’s personality. It is at the level of:
 Receiving
 Responding
 Valuing
 Organisation
 Characterisation.
Ways through which pupils learn

Imitation
Learning through imitation refers to the process of following the example provided, to act the same
way as the model, to copy another personsbehaviour.
What conditions must be met for imitation to occur?

For imitation to occur the following conditions must be met:
 The model should be a person whom the learners respect and identify with.
 The learners should observe the model behaving in the way they are supposed to copy or
learn.
 The learner should be reinforced for imitating the behaviour expected correctly.
What should a teacher do to get the best out of pupils learning through imitation?
 A teacher should expect pupils to copy him/her. Therefore what he/she says am does and
how he/she says and does things is very important.
 A teacher should ensure that facts in his lessons are accurate.
 The answers to the questions asked should be right and if the teacher does not know the
answer he/she would rather say so, or postpone the answer to the question until he/she has

checked the facts. '
 Demonstration lessons should be well planned and carried out.
 The teacher should reinforce children for correct imitation of the behaviour to be learned
from the model.
 A teacher should not punish pupils for imitating him, he should be a good model.
Learning through play
What is play?
Play refers to a form of recreation that has great educational value. It involves activity and pleasure
combined. It is the spontaneous play of children and not the organised games or theatre plays.
What is the value of play in learning?

 Play develops social skills such as communication, cooperation, competition, etc.
 Children practise some of the roles they will later be called upon to play as adults.
 Children are free to choose the activity they like and derive enjoyment from.
 Play gives children opportunity to experiment with the knowledge and skills they have
acquired, thus giving them competence.
 Play stimulates imagination.
 Children exercise their bodies and minds and generally improve and maintain their physical
and mental health.
 Through play, children develop language proficiency.
How should a school promote learning through play?

The school should:
 Ensure that playgrounds are provided and some time set aside for play.
 Remove dangerous things from the compound and especially on the grounds. Provide play-
things such as slides, swings, old tyres, balls and nets.
 Reinforce children’s play through timely participation, e.g. in a PE. lesson.
Drama
What are the characteristic features of educational drama?

 Drama is a development from children’s play (games).
 Drama uses the same imaginative ability and self-control required in play, though the
imagined experience is controlled.
 Like children’s play, drama implies working in an “as if ” fictional way; you behave
as if you were another person or as if you were in another (not the real) situation, etc.
 The situation and roles offered by drama are fictional.
 The participants are always conscious that they are exploring a fiction.
 Educational drama seeks to use something of children’s existing experience, combined

with their existing capacity for imagination to explore new experiences. Drama should feel
“real” to the participant despite its fictional nature.
 Drama involves emotions.
Why is dramatisation considered to be a good method of teaching and learning?

 Dramatisation improves the pupils level of understanding.
 It develops language skills in the learners.
 It develops a child’s imagination and encourages creativity.
 It fosters cooperation and good teacher-pupil relationships.
 It develops self-control, greater poise and self-confidence in children. Children learn by
doing.
 It affords the participants an opportunity for emotional expression.
Trial and error learning

What are the major limitations of this form of learning
 Waste a lot of time.
Insight learning
What is insightful learning?
In problem-solving, insight is the name given to the process involving the perception of
relationships leading to a solution. The learner surveys each element of a problem and calls up
previous knowledge and rules from his/her memory store.
Describe one of Kohler’s experiments with a chimpanzee that illustrates insightful

problem-solving.
A chimpanzee was confined in a cage and was hungry. Inside the cage there were some two sticks.
Kohler placed a banana outside the cage. The chimpanzee tried unsuccessfully to reach the banana
with its hands and feet. It tried to use one of the sticks but it was once again unsuccessful. After a
pause probably to survey the situation, it suddenly joined the sticks together, and on using the
resulting single long stick, was able to reach the banana. It then proceeded to rake the banana
towards the cage. .
Kohler attributed the solution to insight. The chimpanzee must have surveyed the whole problem
after its unsuccessful attempt; In a flash of ‘insight’ it had ‘seen’ the connection between
the two sticks and the banana after perceiving the relationships essential to the solution.
What is the value of insight in learning?

 Insightful learning brings with it a feeling of satisfaction and acts as an encouragement to
further efforts.
 It enables one to apply what he/ she has learnt in solving similar or related problems.
 It is accompanied by deep understanding and thus helps one to remember what he/ she has
learned.

 It enables learners to act more effectively.
Conditioning and association

What is conditioning?
Conditioning is a psychological progress that causes an organism (or person) to respond in a
particular way to a stimulus selected by some other person.
Identify other examples of signal learning.

 The reaction of a pedestrian to the sound of a car horn
 The reaction of pupils when the bell for break time or lunch goes.
 The reaction of a motorist on seeing a road sign or road light signals, e. g. red for stop.
 The reaction of noisy pupils on seeing a teacher stare at them.
What conditions must be met for signal learning (or classical conditioning) to occur?
 A learning process must be set in such a way that it is possible to associate unconditioned
stimulus with a conditioned response.
 The process must be repeated several times until the association is formed fully.
 The association process must be reinforced by the use of reward or punishment.
In his experiment with dogs, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist and psychologist, paired food
(unconditioned stimulus) to which a dog salivates with ringing of a bell (stimulus to which the dog
could not have salivated to). The pairing was repeated several days until the dog learned to salivate
(conditioned response) to the sound of the bell alone (conditioned stimulus) because it associated
the ringing of the hell with presence of food.
Instrumental (operant) conditioning
What is instrumental conditioning?

Instrumental conditioning is a form of stimulus response learning which an active response
(operation) in the form of desired behaviour is rewarded. The response is instrumental in producing
the reinforcement, hence the name instrumental conditioning. If the required response does not
occur then there is no reinforcement. The subject must therefore learn to identify an activity that
is rewarding and leave out those that do not pay off for themselves in problem-solving.
B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist, observed a hungry rat moving at random in a box. The
rat pressed on a lever, an action that led to release of a food pellet in a food tray for it to eat. With
time it learned to associate the activity of lever pressing with appearance of food (reward). The
motivation to operate in the cage was the hunger drive. The rat learned to select the activity that
was paying off in satisfying hunger and gradually reduced other activities in the cage which were
not rewarding. Through trial and error the rat learned to respond to the appropriate stimulus.
In which areas of learning can instrumental conditioning be most effective?

 The practising teacher can use Skinner’s results to elicit and reinforce the learner's

responses.
 Instrumental conditioning can be used in shaping behaviours of pupils particularly those
who are in rehabilitation centres and whose behaviours need to be reshaped.
 It is a suitable method for programmed teaching.
 The method can also be used to train animals in the zoos.
Principles of classical Conditioning

1. Principle of reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is necessary.
2. Principle of extinction. Refer to the disappearance of a learned response and these occurs
when reinforcement is draw.
3. Principle of spontaneous. Refer to reappearance of a learned without reinforcement. E.g if
the bell is rang the dog salvate without even food.
4. Principle of stimulus of generalization. It involves the dog responding to another similar
stimulus in the same way it responded to condition stimulus. This occur when the stimulus
is presented at the same time with condition stimulus. E.gwhen the dog salivate at the side
of a man even if he does not ring the bell.
5. Principle of discrimination. This is the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and
only respond to a stimuli.
Application of these Principles

 Children learn better in a friendly environment.
 Teachers should avoid beating and abusing children because they will develop a fear.
 Principle of generalization can be used to help students transfer, knowledge, skills and
skills from one topic or subject to another.
 Principle of discrimination can be used to assist students in differentiating between the
concept.
 Principle of extinction can be used to ensure that children do not complete forget what they
have learned. They must be continuously reinforced.
Memorization
It is a process of committing to memory what one has learned.
How can pupils be aided to learn by memorise?

Memorization be aided by ensuring that:
 Whatever is to be learned is seen as a meaningful.
 The material to be learned is arranged in an orderly way.
 What is to be learned is made meaningful.
 The material to be learned is associated with what one already knows,
 Mnemonic or memory aid devices are used, e.g. acronyms.
 There is frequent revision interspersed in the learning session.

Repetition and practice
What should be considered in giving practice to the traumas?
 The learners should be guided on how to go about the practice so that they do not practise
the wrong things.
 The learners should be provided with the results so as to determine whether they are making
progress or not.
 Practice period should be of a suitable length.
 The activity must be practised as a whole and not in parts.
 Practice must be distributed over time and not all at once.
 Practice should aim at elimination of unnecessary body movement or thoughts-economy
of energy and more precision.
Process of Memory
Memory is the process by which information is acquired, stored and retrieved.
Types of Memory
Sensory memory
 Stage of memory that stores information briefly.
 The exact replicas of sensation are kept in the sensory register for a few seconds.
 The sensory organs include eyes, ears, tongue.
Short Term memory

 Also called working memory.
 Stage of memory in which individual retains information for about 15–30 second.
Characteristics of short term memory

 It has small storage capacity.
 Rehearsal helps to retain information longer.
 It fades rapidly
 Its capacity can be expanded through chunking I.e grouping items into small units.
 Retrieval of information is very quick
 It easily distracted.
Long Term Memory

Relatively permanent type of memory.
Characteristics of Long Term Memory

 Has unlimited capacity
 Store information permanently.
 Store information that is not for immediate use.
 A person can learn to improve it
 Some of it can be lost.
 It composes of several memory systems.

These include:
Declarative memory
Memory of factual information, names, dates, faces.
Procedural memory
Memory for skills and habbits
Semantic memory
Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world.
Episode memory
Memory for information related to biographic details of our individual life.
Transfer of learning
 It refers to the application of skills, knowledge and attitudes that were learned in one situation
to another situation.
 It involves application of previous learned knowledge in solving problems.
Types of Transfer
Positive transfer of learning
This when learning in one context enhances a related in another context.
Examples
Spelling skills enhance your composition or report writing.
Negative Transfer of Learning

This is when Learning in one context undermines a related performance in another context.
Examples
 Knowledge of French confusing students with regard to Spanish.
 Skills at tennis forcing you to make mistakes at racquet ball.
What are the necessary factors for effective transfer to occur?

For effective transfer to occur:
 There must be something in common between the two activities such as facts, skills,
methods or principles.
 The learner must be able to perceive the similarities between the two subjects or activities.
 There must be a thorough learning practice of the first task.
 The learner must be made aware of the possibility of transfer.
 The learner must have a higher ability to gain insight into the principle underlying the
subject he/ she is learning.
What is the value of transfer?

 Transfer helps in solving new problems.
 The learners’ reactions to later situations are influenced by their previous experience.
 It gives encouragement to solve a new problem.

 Almost all educational and training programmes are based on assumptions that what is
taught in the classroom will be transfered to new situations.
How can a teacher train his/her pupils in the skill of transfer?.

 A teacher should make sure that pupils have thoroughly mastered the the first subject or
activity before moving to another.
 The teacher could help the students to develop the right mental set.
 The teacher should help pupils to gain insights into the rule underlying the subject they are
learning.
 Pupils should be allowed to have an opportunity of experimenting with a variety of
problems.
 The teacher should give pupils plenty of practice in transfer.
 Project method should be used in teaching so that pupils can see for themselves the
connections between different subjects.
Reinforcement
It is whatever increases the probability of response occurring. Following an action or response
with something pleasant is positive reinforcement. Equally, following a response by removing
something unpleasant is negative reinforcement.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
 A primary reinforcer is rewarding in and of itself without any association with other
reinforcers. All the things that satisfy the basic needs are primary reinforcers, such as food,
water and air, which satisfy the hunger need, thirst need and breathing need. Primary
reinforcers are innate.
 A secondary reinforcer is one whose value has to be learned through association with other
reinforcers. It is referred to as secondary, not because it is less important, but because it is
learned
PUNISHMENT
Punishment is an aversive (unpleasant) consequence that tends to decrease the recurrence of
behaviours that precede it.
Effects of Punishment
 Children continue to misbehave even after they have been repeatedly punished.
 Punishment does not illustrate desirable behaviour. Rather it draws attention to that which is
undesirable.
 Therefore, this means that punishment contributes little if anything to learning socially
acceptable behaviour.
 Thus sometimes it has effects opposite to those intended.

 It can often disrupt the learning process; for example, when children are learning to read and
the teacher scolds them or beats them every time they mispronounce a word, they may be too
frightened to learn.
Using Punishment Usefully

Timing
Punishment should, thus, always be administered while the thoughts of the offence are still very
fresh in the offender’s mind.
Intensity
Very intense physical punishment is considered more effective than mild punishment (e.g. warning
or scolding). Effectiveness is determined in terms of reoccurrences of the punished behaviour. The
more effective the punishment the less likely that the punished behaviour will reoccur.
Consistency
Inconsistent punishment for a particular behaviour is ineffective such that if punishment is not
applied consistently misbehaviour will persist.
Rewards that follow right after punishment (e. g. hugging, telling the child sorry, etc.) should
be avoided because this will confuse the child since both the punishment and the reward are being
received consecutively. The child will fail to understand whether he is being punished and then
rewarded for the same behaviour.
Issues on Punishment
Punishment is of great concern in the learning institutions and in the society at large. Below are
some of the situations:
 Children are punished at home for committing offences.
 People are punished for telling the truth if the truth is noxious (e.g. teenagers who believe in
telling the truth will be punished for telling the truth regarding their whereabouts),
 Teachers punish their students for not doing school work and for breaking school rules.
 Employers frustrate their employees justifiably or unjustifiably through punishment when the
latter do not meet the farmer’s directives.
 People take their anger and frustrations on others by punishing them; for example in the family,
the father takes his anger on his wife and the children or vice-versa.
 Thieves, rapists and other" law-breakers are punished by being jailed, caned and sacked from
their jobs.
Factors affecting learning

Individual differences
 They show sex differences. Some will be boys while others will be girls.

 They may show age differences so that some are older or younger than others. Some are
mature and ready for a learning task while others are not.
 The intellectual ability of children is different. Some will be of high or low intelligence so
that the ability to engage in learning tasks differ.
 The children may show differences in terms of their previous experiences. Some children
will have learnt pre-reading skills, pre-number work, etc. either at home or in a pre-school.
A child from an elitist home background is likely to be advantaged in this respect.
 A difference may appear in terms of religious beliefs and practices which may influence
the attitudes and disposition of some children.
 Individual differences may also be seen in terms of health. Some children will be healthy
while others may be suffering from disturbing health problems which may affect the class
attendance and future performance.
 Differences among children may also be seen in the way they deal with emotional
problems. Some are easily angered and resort to crying, while others are often joyful and
playful.
 Some pupils will appear physically fit while others are physically handicapped. .
 The attention span is high for some pupils while it is very short for others.
 Some pupils have special needs in education; each child should be seen as an individual.
Why should a teacher have the knowledge of the individual deference of his/her pupils?
 Individual differences affect learning, and it is therefore important to identify such
differences amongst the pupils so that the teacher can provide for them to promote effective
learning. For example, a child who experiences difficulties in hearing may be seated at the
front of the classroom. The sick ones may need to be referred to hospital for medical
attention.
 The teacher may have to group the pupils according to their abilities to learn, so that each
group of pupils progresses at their own pace. '
 The learning activities must be Varied and inter%ced with short breaks to sustain the
learner’s attention' span and interest.
 The classroom environment might have to be enriched to provide learning. experiences
that may be lacking in children from poor background.
 The teacher should base his/her teaching on the pupils’ previous experiences so that
he/she builds on what they know.
 Differences in age may imply differences in maturation and in readiness to learn. The
teacher does not have to wait until a child is mature or ready to perform a learning task.
He/she has to stimulate maturation and readiness by assigning the pupils tasks that are
within their abilities.
Maturation
What is maturation?
Maturation refers to the process of gradually bringing the various parts of an individual’s features
in an ordered sequence of events to full development (growth)

How does maturation affect learning?
 Maturation merely makes certain behaviour possible but that behaviour must be learned
and practised before it can be used.
 Children of the same age may be at different levels of maturation. Thus, one child will be
able to learn a given task while another child of similar age will not do so.
 Learning takes place with little or no wastage of effort after the child has reached the level
of maturation desired.
 On the other hand if we try to teach a child a given skill before he/she is mature enough to
learn it, the results are likely to be harmful. The child might make so little progress that
he/she may begin to hate the subjects. ,
What implication has the knowledge of maturation on a teacher?

 It is necessary to identify the maturation level of the pupils for effective instruction.
 It would be uneconomically and psychologically unsound to deliberately delay learning
until well after the maturation necessary for a certain learning has occurred. Therefore, it
is desirable to introduce stimulating materials in advance of normal maturation period for
the easy mastery of such materials
 Teachers should work ahead of maturation. The tasks must, however, not be so demanding
that they only result in frustration.
Readiness
What is meant by readiness in learning?
Readiness implies preparedness. It is that stage when an individual has the required conditions
available to learn a specific skill or task. '
How would a teacher tell when a pupil is ready to lean a new task?
 A teacher is supposed to test for readiness based on the prerequisites for performing a
particular task. For example, in learning to read, the teacher should measure their
knowledge of language, have the pupils identify pictures and objects and measure their
auditory-visual discrimination.
 The teacher should make a careful observation of the pupil’s home environment. and
his/her past learning experiences. He/she should know the child’s activities that
encourage interest and develop understanding in the child.
 He/she should give exercises for practice on those skills that are lacking.
 He/she should adapt the materials meant for that particular age level to fit the needs and
interests of the pupil.
Motivation and incentives

What is motivation?
Motivation is that condition which causes or encourages us to act in a certain way.
Why motivation is considered an important factor in learning?

Motivation is considered an important factor in learning because:
 A motivated pupil learns more easily than one who is not motivated.
 It directs and regulates the pupils’behaviour towards certain goals.
 It energises and sustains behaviour.
 It reinforces behaviour that is effective in the attainment of desired goals.
What are the basic principles of motivation?

 Intrinsic motivation produces more successful learning than extrinsic motivation.
 Children work harder at a task when they feel that the results are important to them.
 Motivation by reward is more successful than punishment.
 Unearned rewards or praise discourage motivation for learning. Children who like their
teacher tend to work for him/her.
 Competition can increase motivation but too much competition discourages the learners.
 Undesired behaviour can be extinguished through lack of reinforcement.
 A pupil’s environment can have a good or a bad influence on motivation.
Remembering and forgetting

What factors influence the ability of one to remember what he/she has learnt?
The ability to remember depends on:
 Intelligence-the higher the intelligence level the better the ability to remember.
 The nature of what is learnt-meaningful things are easily remembered. ' The significance
attached to what is learned.
 Method of learning-the more one uses a variety of senses and the more the practice and
repetition used the better the chance to remember.
 Environmental factors that give the clues of what was learned.
Why do we forget what we have learned?

 Forgetting may occur due to fading of the nerve pattern or trace set-up in one’s brain
when it is not used through practice. The less we use or revise our previous learning the
quicker it fades.
 Forgetting may also occur as a result of interference. We tend to forget what we learned a
few hours ago because of the new things we learn later (retroactive inhibition). We also are
likely to forget what we are learning now because of what we learned a few hours ago
(proactive inhibition). Interference is more if what we learned a few hours ago is very
similar to what we are learning now.
 We tend to forget as a result of change of environment at the time of recall from where
learning took place.
 We also tend to forget new knowledge if we did not have sufficient time for recall; e.g. we
easily forget the name of a person soon after introduction has been done.
 Forgetting may occur because we want to forget (motivated forgetting). If what we lean) is
associated with unpleasant feelings we tend to push it out of our conscious mind.
 Forgetting occurs if what we have learned is not meaningful or is not associated With
something we already know.

How can a teacher help his/her pupils to lessen forgetting?
 The teacher should stimulate the pupil’s curiosity by associating what is to be learned
with the pupil's special interests. Pupils will remember best those things that increase their
knowledge of the things they are interested in.
 Beginning from the known to the unknown-we learn and remember when new knowledge
is firmly connected to what we already know.
 Helping pupils to form association by presenting facts together, showing similarity or by
contrasting facts, i.e. striking a difference between them.
 Spacing out the learning tasks; for example, when learning by ‘heart’ a given poem, etc.
Remembering is improved by spacing out learning.
 Using the principle of learning by doing. Encourage learners to participate actively in the
learning process. We tend to remember more what we have done than what we have seen
other people do.
 Encouraging pupils to practise what they have learned.
 Making the subject matter meaningful.
 Making use of relevant teaching aids.
Social and physical environment

Identify the factors within the child’s social and physical environment that are likely to
influence learning.
 The peer factor their interests, needs, goals and engagement. A bad peer may result to poor
performance.
 The official language that is used in interacting with the peer members, teachers and
visitors. If the language in common use is the one used as a medium of instruction, then
classroom learning is supported.
 The seating plan in the classroom. If a pupil is grouped together with the dull pupils it may
even become more dull while the bright pupils become brighter.
 When pupils are seated in neat rows facing the teacher they have little to learn from each
other.
 A classroom that is poorly ventilated, poorly lighted and subject to influence by changing
weather conditions may have negative influence on learning.
 The physical arrangement of school buildings also determine to some extent the social
patterns of interaction that are likely to develop.
 Availability or lack of books, writing materials and learning areas in the classroom all have
influence on learning.
 The socio-cultural beliefs and myths influence our understanding of what we learn.
What role should a teacher play towards improvement of social and physical classroom
environment?
The teacher should improve the physical environment in the classroom by:
 Establishing learning areas such as ‘our shop’, ‘our post office’, wall charts, a farm
model, a project, etc. to stimulate pupils’ curiosity and encourage participation in
learning.

 Allowing for flexibility in grouping of pupils to suit the learning needs and group
participation.
 Encouraging pupils to ask questions and participate freely in the learning activities.
 Developing and encouraging various forms of interaction; e.g. teacher to class, teacher to
group, teacher to pupil, pupil to pupil, pupil to group, etc.
 Discouraging bad peer formation which is not supportive of the school values.
 Encouraging pupils to share their experiences in relevant areas of learning and by ' having
small group discussions and pair interaction.
The Teacher
Which aspects of a teacher can influence the teaching and learning process?
 The teacher’s personality. This refers to whether one is likeable or not, warm or cold,
sympathetic or unsympathetic, etc. The personality of the teacher determines the
relationship and modes of interaction that develop in the class which motivate or fail to
motivate learners.
 The academic competence of the teacher. A teacher who is knowledgeable and of high
academic competence is usually conlident and is able to enrich the learning environment
unlike a less competent teacher.
 The teacher's qualifications or training; For a teacher to be thorough and effective in
preparation and teaching, he/she should be well equipped with teaching skills that are
known to promote effective learning. The trained teachers are better equipped to promote
effective learning.
 The experience a teacher has influence his/her techniques and ability to develop insights
among learners. The richer the experiences the better.
 The social and economic status of the teacher. A teacher will have high morale to work
if he/she is respected by the parents and the community and when he/ she is, seen to enjoy
a few privileges in addition to fulfilment of his/her basic needs.
LEARNING THEORIES
The Behaviourist Theory
Theorists who subscribe to this theory are called “learning” theorists. Their laws of behaviour
are based on stimulus and response theory; basically there is always a relationship between one
event (stimulus) and another (response). While some responses are reflex (winking, yawning, knee
jerking, sneezing, etc.), others are learned. The learning process is what the behaviourists call
conditioning. New responses are learned and old ones become internalised as behaviour (either
positive or negative).
As we saw earlier in the chapter, there are two basic ways of conditioning: classical conditioning

and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is based on Ivan Pavlov’s (1849-1939) stimulus response experiment on

dogs and is also called respondent conditioning! In this type 0f conditioning a person or animal
learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one. The animal or person responds to thi
former as if it were the latter. This conditioning process is called learnt by association. Examples
of learning by association are:
 Reading an exam schedule and having sweaty palms.

 Hearing the thunder and shivering.
 Seeing a sexy photograph and heart beating fast.
 Seeing a snake and screaming with fright.
Note that in each instance, the stimulus is connected or associated with another stimulus that
produced the physiological response in the past. An advocate of human classical conditioning, as
we saw earlier, is J.B. Watson.
Operant conditioning is based on the extensive work of B.F. Skinner who argued that much of
human behaviour can be explained classically, but the more complex learning needs another type
of conditioning which he called operant conditioning while other people call it instrumental
conditioning. (Operant comes from the Latin word meaning “work” with opus meaning
“operate”
The emphasis here is on the work done to get a particular response. Operant learning is a process
that makes a person or animal likely to perform the behaviour again. Reinforcement is a process
whereby a particular behaviour is strengthened, making it possible for the behaviour to occur more
frequently. This stimulus that strengthens behaviour is called a reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is
pleasant (e.g. piece of candy, praise, pat on the shoulder, etc.). A negative reinforcer is an
unpleasant stimulus that is removed when a particular behaviour is performed (e.g. finishing
homework to avoid scolding, cleaning the room to avoid nagging from mother, dressing smartly
to avoid peer ridicule, etc.).
Law of reinforcement
The effect of a reinforcer is judged by how well it strengthens or changes behaviour and not by
how rewarding one would think it is.
Examples include:
 One child might be reinforced by money while another may not.
 One child may be reinforced by being allowed to read a desired book after completing
homework, another might not care about this. .
 Not all children will be reinforced to finish dinner so as to eat dessert.
 A child might enjoy being sent outside the classroom while the teacher thinks that this is a
goodnegarm reinforcement.
 A manager may be baffled when an employee declines a job promotion with a large salary
increase.

Such examples should be kept in mind because there may be the tendency to assume that people
could react to a particular promise or threat in the same way.
“Learning” theorists have shown that basic reinforcers (e.g. food and physical comfort) are more
effective with children, while complex and symbolic reinforcers (e.g. a college degree, an antique
car, etc.) are very effective for adults. Nevertheless, all the ages appreciate social reinforcers (e.g.
praise, recognition or even time spent with a favourite person).
Social Learning/Modelling Theorists

Advocates of the social learning theory are Bandura, Miller and Dollard among others. Their view
is that not every little behaviour can be rein: forced and that we are more likely to imitate the
behaviour of others if we see them reinforced for what they do (Miller and Dollard, 1941) of if we
particularly admire and identify with them (Bandura, 1977).
Learning from parents

Parents are crucial to a child’s learning partly because they reinforce and punish the child for its
behaviour, and partly because they are the most im/ portant people in the child’s life. The child
identifies with them and tnet to imitate their behaviour. Many adults find themselves thinking and
acting as their parents did even to the point of repeating their parents' mistakes. Abused children
are likely to become abusing parents.
Modelling
Social learning is sometimes called modelling because people model their behaviour after that of
others. Children follow models for undesirable as well as desirable behaviour. Aggression is
greatly modelled. Sports heroes and movie stars are also greatly modelled by the young.
Grownups, however, become realistic and do not model distant idols but may model close friends
and successful career people.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theorists do not see people as controlled by external forces, but emphasise that
individuals think and choose. They assert that people’s thoughts and intepretations are a powerful
influence on their future actions and ideas. Cognitive theorists are fanscinated by such instances
in which clever thinking produces new behaviour. They are not so involved in analysing motives
or consequences but what absorbs their interest is the active thought process whereby
peOpleorganise their perceptions of the world. One of the most famous of the cognitive theorists
was Jean Piaget. As
Piaget dealt with children in considering them for Standard 1ntelligence test, he wanted to find out
the age at which most children could answer certain questions, correctly. He became interested in
the similarity of mistakes children who were the same age made. Subsequently, he began to believe
that how children think is more revealing of their mental abili~ ty than what they know (Flavel,

1963). In Piaget’s view, intelligence consists of two interrelated processes, organisation and
adaptation.
In his view, people organise their thoughts to make sense, they adapt their thinking to include new
ideas and new experiences and provide additional information. Adaptation occurs in two ways:
through assimilation and accommodation. In assimilation, new information is simply added to the
cognitive organisation already there. In accommodation, the in. lellectualorganisation has to
change somewhat to adjust to the new idea.
The cognitive process starts at birth with the sucking reflex whereby children automatically suck
everything that touches their lips. At 3 months they have organised their world into:
 Objects to be sucked for nourishment.

 Objects to be sucked for pleasure, e.g. fingers or pacifiers,
 Objects not to be sucked at all, e.g. blankets and large balls
Therefore, they will have adapted to their environment, first by assimila. tion (sucking everything)
and then by accommodation (sucking differem things differently).
Piaget went on to describe the major stages of cognitive development. He said that there are four
major stages through which a person passes in cognitive growth:
a) Birth 2 years -sensori-motor stage.

b) 2-6 years -pre-operational stage.
c) 7-11 years concrete operational stage.
d) 12 + years formal operational stage.
The children progress from one phase of cognitive development to another. Before a child proceeds
to the next stage, he seeks mental equilibrium (i.e. a balance of opposing forces has to be struck).
People need a mental concept which Piaget calls a scheme that will strike a harmony between their
ideas and their experiences; for example, an adult might have a mental scheme that human life is
more valuable than any material thing. If the mental concept (scheme) does not harmonise with an
idea or an experience, then there is disequilibrium which initially produces confusion until the
person constructs a new scheme to fit the new condition. For example, almost every child younger
than 6 years will say that a taller narrower glass will contain more liquid than a shorter wider glass,
when actually the amount in both is the same. This is because they have the scheme (mental
concept) that taller things are also bigger. They are at a mental equilibrium because they are
unshakable in this con! viction. A child older than 7 years has the scheme of conservation. To this
child it is known that water from a short glass poured into a thin tall glass will remain the same in
amount though it may appear more. Thii is another state of equilibrium.
When an existing scheme (mental concept) fails to satisfy the Child" new ability to perceive and
to remember, then there is disequilibrium anti learning gets disturbed at such a point. However,
these periods of disequilibrium are exciting periods of mental growth. It is because of
disequilibrium that:

 Babies will poke, pull and taste everything that they come across.
 Pre-school children will ask a thousand and one questions.
 School-age children will read everything from comics to classics.
 Adolescents will try out roles and experiences that their parents would not condone.
 Adults will seek to increase their understanding and competence.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION AND IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING
Learning in humans is quite complex. The parent, the classroom teacher and any other person
entrusted with the responsibility of making children learn should know that children learn through
many avenues. It is important, thus to know that a lot of learning is latent and we only know that
some learning has been taking place when a child exhibits a response that he/she has not been
taught. This is because, learning can take place through one or more ways. It may be through
conditioning, through observation/imitation or through cognition, among other ways.
As far as conditioning is concerned, parents and teachers as well as other interested persons have
to realise that this process is largely an unconscious process. For example, a child’s fear of some
types of sports or even fear of bigger children and strangers may often be the result of associations
whose origins we may not know. When we cannot immediately explain a certain behavidur, we
can speculate that at least some of the fneanings that events and situations have for us derive from
conditioning. Conditioning, therefore, may be centrally involved in our emotional lives as well as
in many other habits and responses that we exhibit daily. .
Reinforcement is one aspect in learning through conditioning which is Very central in human
learning. There are very many daily applications 0f reinforcement of behaviour, and we find that
people may be controlled and even manipulated by other people. This control may be conscious
oreven unconscious. Think about these examples:
A child controls the mother’s behaviour through crying.

An actor on stage may have his behaviour controlled by the audience’s laughter, silence,
murmuring and booing.
The behaviour of teachers is largely shaped by the responses of the students.

Chapter
Health Education
Mental health
Refer to the mental wellness of an individual.
Importance of mental health

 Allows individual to realize their full potential.
 Allows individual cope with stress of life.
 Allows individual work productively.
 Allows individual make meaningful contributions in their community.
How to promote mental health

 By developing coping skills.
 Getting physically active
 Staying positive/optimistic.
 Connecting with others.
 Helping others
 Getting professional assistance if needed.
What factors affect mental health?

 Biological factors ; genes genetic makeup.
 Environmental factors; physical, economic, social.
 Life experiences; trauma
 Family problems (death of parents).
Symptoms of mental health problem

 Eating too much or too little.
 Pulling away from people and usual activities.
 Feeling like nothing matters
 Having unexplainable pain.
 Feeling helpless and hopeless
 Smocking
 Drinking alcohol or using drugs more than usual.
 Feeling confusion.
 Severe mood swings
Frustration
It is a product of blocking behavior directed towards the fulfillment of certain goal.
What obstructs fulfillment of Goals?

Barriers
It is anything that stands between and individual and his goal.

Types of Barriers
 Environmental
 Personal inadequacies
 Conflict
Environmental Barriers
 Physical or social environment
 Physical environment e.g weather, war, flood, strike.
 Social e.g parents,
Personal adequacies
Physical handicapped e.g blindness, lame etc
Conflict
Emergency of two or more goals that cannot be solved at the same time.
Types of conflicts
 Approach-approach conflict
 Approach–avoidance conflict
 Avoidance – avoidance
Approach–Approach
The individual is faced with two pleasant goals that can't be solved at the same time.
Approach–avoidance
Individual is faced with one goal that has both attract him and repels.
Avoidance – avoidance
Individual is faced with two unpleasant goals or situation but has to go through at least one of
them.
Defence mechanism
It is the unconscious processes that defend a person against frustrations by distorting the reality.
Denial
Conscious refusal to accept that pain reality exist.
Depression
Withdrawal from consciousness of painful facts or reality by pushing it down into the unconscious
mind.
Regression
Winding back to an earlier development stage e.g bed wetting.
Rationalization
Justifying beliefs or actions by giving reasons

Compensation
A tendency to make up for a deficiency by excelling in other areas.
Sublimation
Deflection of instinctual drives into non instinctual channels.
Withdrawal
Developing feelings of helpless and inferiority
Identification
In cooperating quality of another person into one's personality.
Reaction formation
Concealing unpleasant reality by doing the exact opposite.E.g a very aggressive individual
behaving so humble.
Projection
Displacing unwanted feelings onto other people.
Displacement
This is where a goal or motive cannot be fulfilled in one form is re directed into a new channel.
E.g a hostile person re-directing his hostility in a sports like boxing.
Mal adjustment
It is a condition in which individual feels his needs or goal are not fulfilled and so he is not able to
establish harmony/ balance between oneself and environment.
Causes of mal adjustment

 Genetic factor
 Inheriting defective
 Physiological factors Poor health, diseases
 Personal causes e.g cognitive and physical causes, setting unrealistic goals.
 Environmental factors e.g improper behavior of parents, defective home environment.
Causes of mal adjustment among learners

 Family
 Personal causes
 School related causes
 Teacher related causes
 Peer group related causes
Types of mal adjustment

Neurosis
Minor mental illness where personality is partially affected e.g anxiety, fear , withdrawal,
depression, obsession etc.

Psychosis
Mental disorders where personality is greatly disorganized. Accompanied with withdrawal from
reality.
Psychosomatic disorder
A condition in which emotional disturbance is assumed to be a cost to a bodily disorder. E.g stress
resulting into ulcers.
Conduct disorder
Persistent, repetitive and excessive antisocial or deviant behavior e.g angry, temper.
Habits disorder
E.g speech disorder, stammering, movement such as twitching, head banging.
Adjustment
 Ability of a person to adapt to changing circumstances or environment.
 It is the behavioral process by which we maintain a balance btn our needs and goals and the
barriers that makes them unattainable
Adjustment of Frustrations
It is the ability to resist incoming frustration when facing difficulties in our life.
Ways of Adjusting Frustrations

 One can either have low tolerance or high frustrations tolerance.
 Direct approach in dealing with frustration. One tries to develop new and necessary skills, put
more effort or change the approach to attain his goal.
 Reducing the level of the goal. If a person fails to attain a goal after repeated attempts he may
try to reduce the level of the goal to avoid further disappointment.
 Compromise. In some cases where individual do not want to accept humiliation due to failure,
they compromise to safe their self-esteem.
Adjustment Process
1. The need or goal
2. The blocking of fulfilment to the need.
3. Exploratory behavior accompanied by problem solving (examine and compare with previous
experiences) asses the degree of danger, decide on the cause of actions and contemplate on the
outcome.
4. Act to satisfy or solve your needs or problems.
Teachers Roles in the Adjustment of learners

 To identify children with personal inadequacies in order to understand them and solve their
problems.
 To reinforce the isolated by giving attention to students who isolate themselves.
 To reform the inferior in specific subject.

 To transform hostility to things like athletics, drama
 To train willpower e.g making student to be make rational judgement.
 To offer guidance and counselling services.
 Enhance balance growth and development.
 Develop students frustrations torelance
 Encourage participation in physical activities such as sports.
 Through mentalization.
How can mental health promoted in teachers

 Provision of good, conducive working environment.
 Provision of materials, resources or tools for work.
 Enhancing good working relationship with stake holders.
 Participation in co-curricular activities.
 Setting realistic goals.
 Provision of opportunities for career growth.
 Guidance and counseling services.
 Encouraging team work.
Intervention and Management of mal adjustment

Interventions are actions or measures taken whose intention is to modify or change behavior.
There are measures such as
a) Guidance services,
b) provision of recreation facilities,
c) teaching of life skills,
d) Punishment or reinforcement
Management of mal adjustment

There are actions whose intends is to make one cope with situation or have a situation under
control. Management measures include:
 Counseling services
 Referrals(to religious organizations, or special school)
 By understanding and accepting the situation.

Chapter
Guidance and Counseling

Introduction
Meaning of guidance
 Its assistant given by more experienced person to a less experienced person.
 It is offering of advice to an individual to show them the right direction.
Meaning of counseling
It is offering, advicing and cautioning individuals who may have gone astray or out of control.
Differences Between Guidance and Counseling

Guidance Counseling
Is more public involving more Is very private and confidential
individuals
Focus on future issues Focus on immediate issues
Less structured More structured
Often initiated by guidance specialist Often initiated the client
Deals with transmission of information More effective dealing with feelings,
emoticons and attitudes.
Objectives of guidance and counseling

 To assist the individual achieve as much as possible independent.
 To assist the individual be able to understand oneself in terms of ability and behavior.
 To enhance personal development and psychological growth towards maturity.
 To support socially and academically disadvantage people.
 To create a sense of dignity in safe worth among mentally and physically impaired.
 To carry out research and education for the purpose of improving services in schools and
the societies.
Importance Guiding and Counseling

 It contributes to self understanding by identifying abilities, potential and developing them
to the full.
 It helps individuals to make the best possible adjustment to situations.
 It gives leaners a sense of direction, purpose and fulfilment thereby minimize
indiscipline.
 It helps learner to identify and avoid dangerous situations.
 It helps to identify and motivate learners from disadvantaged homes.

 It helps leaners to become aware of the needs of others and enhance establish positive
relationships with others.
 It facilitate cooperation between teachers, parents, students and administrators.
Areas/Types of guidance and counseling

Educational
It helps students to make correct choices and proper adjustment to school program and
environment.
1. Vocational
Careers choices based on abilities and limitations.
2. Avocations
Guides students on how best to utilise their leisure time.
3. Health
It has to do with the physical well being of the students. E.g sanitation
4. Social
It helps students on relating with each other and making friends.
5. Moral
It assists students to be morally upright.
6. Personal
It helps students with problems such as lack of friends, loneliness, feelings of inferiority.
7. Marital
Students need guidance on heterosexuality relationship which may lead to the right choice of life
partners.
Theories of Counselling
 Psychoanalytical/psychosexual theory
 Behavioral theory
 Cognitive theory
 Humanistic /client centred theory
Psychoanalytical Theory
 Its proponent is Sigmund Freud
 It is also called historical perspective
 It has its roots with Sigmund Freud(an Austria
 He believed that unconscious forces drive our behaviours.

Sigmund views on human being
 He believed that people are born evil and are driven by two unconscious principles (pleasure)
 The goal of human beings is gain pleasure and avoid pain
 The aggression instinct is associated with death and manifested through wishes to die, hurt
oneself or others and it's is challenge to human race.
 The drives forces evolved through key psychosexual stages in the first six years of life with
tremendous psychological impacts.
Oral stage(0-1 years)

The child become focused on oral behavior
Difficulties
It leads to Unoral personality in adult hood e.g drinking alcohol, smoking, over depending on
others.
Anal stage
 Forcus of eliminating fieces and learning to control this as per the societal means
 Difficulties leads to:
 Perfectionism , a need to control or the opposite.
 Being disorganized and mess
Phallic stage
Pleasures moves to the genitals
Oedipus complex boys and Electra to the girls
Fixation
Leads to confusion over sexual identity or engaging in sexual deviances.
Latency stage 6-12

 Sexual urges remain largelyre-press.
 Sexual interest is replaced by test in school, sports.
Genital stage puberty onwards

 It is the final stage
 It leads to the individual switching their interest to members of opposite sex.
Sigmund views on human nature

He argue that human personality is made up of 3
Idi
 It is completely unconscious, impulsive and commanding.
 It works on pleasure principles which is about getting our needs without consideration of
reality.

 If seeks immediate gratification.
 It cannot tolerate tention
 It never matures.
 At birth a person is all idi.
The ego
 It's the psychological component of the personality structure.
 It control the idi
 It has conduct with the external world of realism.
 It mediates between idi and the environment.
 It exercises censorship.
 It is ruled by the reality principle.
Super ego
 It is a social component.
 It includes the moral code e.g whether an action is right or wrong.
 It represent the ideal rather than the real.
 It strives not for pleasure but for perfection.
Assumption
 Psychoanalysis assumed that the problems are rooted in unconscious.
 Causes of psychological problems include unresolved issues or repressed painful experience.
 Treatment of this problem is by bringing out this experience so that healing can occur.
The role of counselor

 To make unconscious conscious.
 To strengthen the ego so that behavior is based on the reality rather instinctual drives of
the idi.
 To analyse past relationship or experience in relation to an individual's current life.
Techniques used by psychoanalyst during Counselling.

1. Free association. It is freely talking to the counsellor about whatever comes without
censoring.
2. Transference. Redirecting feelings about certain people in your life onto the counselor.
3. Interpretation/dream analysis. It is examining dreams for important information about the
conscious.
Behavioral theory
As a development on classical condition BF Skinner developed another approach called operant
condition (He believed in the power of rewards of behaviour and punishment to decrease the
occurrence of the behaviour).

Note
Behavioral counsellors work on correcting unwanted behaviours through behaviour modification
techniques.
How does maladjusted behaviour occur?

 It is acquired through wrong learning e.g conditioning as one interacts with the environment
one learns to respond in a particular way.
 If this respond is reinforced then the individual adapts that pattern of response.
 If the environment is not conducive to learning then wrong learning takes place.
Role of counsellor
To break the wrong behaviour through modification that brings about the extinction of unwanted
behaviours and relearning of appropriate behaviour through positive reinforcement.

Part Three
Methodology
(Paper Three)

Chapter
Educational Research
Definitions
Research
It is scientific investigation carried out to discover facts, solve problems or add knowledge to the
existing one.
Characteristics of a good research

 Objectivity i.e research is guided by specific research objectives, questions or hypothesis
 Logical and rational/systematic research should have specific plans of action or procedure.
 Exactness research involves collection and interpretation of data, where by all details should
be accurately provided.
 Empirically verifiable if a research is carried out again under the same condition, the findings
obtained should be the same.
Importance of Research
 Generation of new knowledge
 Expansion and conquest of the new horizon.
 Answer to man's curiosity and interest.
 Solution to the daily emerging issues and challenges.
 Basis of funding
 Demonstration of expertise and competency
 Authentication of set practice and theories.
 Advancement of knowledge.
Educational Research
This is a scientific investigation carried out to solve educational problems or add knowledge to
education.
Importance of Research in Education

1. It helps in assessing the implementation of education programmes.
2. It establishes the needs of educational institution.
3. It identity the needs of society so as to develop relevant curriculum.
4. It generates new knowledge to enrich the existing one.
5. It helps in tracing education development in the country.
6. Solve educational problems.
Types of Research
They include:
1. Purpose/ Function
a) Basis
b) Applied research

c) Action research
2. Type of Data being Collected

a) Quantitative research
b) Qualitative research
3. According to Method
a) Distributive
b) Evaluative research
c) Co relational research
d) Guess study
e) Historical research
f) Experimental research
g) Ethnographic research
h) Comparative research
Purpose/Function
1. Basic Research
 It aims at adding new knowledge.
 Mostly base on tasting or applied theory.
 Theory consists of systematic organized idea and observable data which are used to predict
or explain behavior.
2. Applied Research
 It undertaken to solve an immediate practical problems.
 In applied research knowledge which has been gain through theory can be applied to solve
problems.
3. Action Research
 It is research that is used to solve specific problem.
 It supposed to improve practices. e.g providing ideas on teaching young children.
 It can be carried by individual, team.
Characteristics of Action Research

 It focuses on specific problem within a specific context.
 Involves learned on going activities and intervention which are constantly review to
increase understanding of the process and fact involved.
 It is usually participatory in nature involving teacher and target group(learners) in taking
decision and monitoring intervention.
 The practioners and target group engaging in continues reflections so that they can learn
and creative contribute in improving programme of projects.
Strength of Action Research

1. Provide practical solution to problems.
2. Focuses on the situation that practitioners is engaged in.
3. Participants are happy. They are not threatened by it because it deals with problems that

affect daily life.
4. The practitioners and target group acquire new knowledge and skills they can be used to
improve their work.
Limitations of Action Research

1. The research can be subjecting while interpreting the result.
2. It is difficult to balance the practice and research aspects
3. The researcher may lack some necessary skills to ensure that relevant findings are reliable.
4. It may not be possible to generalize the result to other situation.
Types of Data
1. Quantitative Research
 It is a method of carrying out research, they emphases on measurements.
 Data collected can be analysed in numerical form.
 Statistical analysis can be in quantitative data to give précised described in terms of
average, range and percentage.
Characteristics of Quantitative Research

 Used to collect data that is counted or measured.
 Data is analysed using statistics.
 Closed ended questions are used to collect data.
 Design and method are more systematic and standardized throughout the research.
 The set designed usually hold for all aspects of a particular research such as data collection
and analysis.
 It places emphasis on methodology procedure and statistical measures to taste hypothesis
and make predictions.
Advantages of Quantitative research

 Interpretations are not influenced by the researcher.
 Useful for study of large sample
 Numerical data obtained is easier to compare and analyze.
Disadvantages of quantitative research

 Collects narrower and sometimes superficial data.
 Not flexible i.e does not allow researcher to explore issue further.
Types of Quantitative Research

1. Survey
2. Experimental
3. Correlational Research
Survey Research
This is type of research where data collection from a largest population so as to determine the
current status of a problem or justify the current situation.
Tools
 Questionnaire

 Interview
 Observation
Experimental Research
Is a type of research where one factor is manipulated (variable) to see its effects on another
variable.
Variables
A variable is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to
person, or even within one person over time.
Independent variables
It is a variable that is manipulated to see the effects on the other variable.
Dependent Variables
This is a variable that is affected by manipulation of independent variable.
Correlational Research
 It examines the degree of relationship that exist between two or more variables.
Example
 We can compare the spelling ability of children from illiterate parents with those of literate
parents.
Qualitative Approach
Data collected is described in words
Characteristics
 Uses natural setting e.g class room
 It involves physical visiting of the site of study.
 Data collected is through direct observation.
 It produces rich and in depth data.
 It is subjective i.e the investigator opinion may influence his interpretation of data.
 Researcher interacts with the subject being studied.
 The sample study is small.
Advantages of qualitative research

 Provide rich and in depth data.
 It is flexible
 It reduces ambiguity since the investigator can clarify issues.
Disadvantages of qualitative research

 Investigator's opinion my influence his/her interpretation of data.
 It is time consuming.
 It is not easy to conduct with large samples.

Types of Qualitative Research
1. Case study
2. Historical Research
3. Observational research
4. Documentation research.
Case Study
This is a type of research where detailed examination of individual, group or community carried
out.
It is narrower in score, but elaborate and more qualitative in nature.
Sources of Data
 In-depth interview
 Observation
 Focus group discussion.
Historical Research
This is a research where data is collected by browsing through historical records or interviewing
people with information on past events
Observational Research
Data is collected by observing the behavior of an individual
Documentation Research
It is a type of research where the researcher examines existing current record of documents.
They include: judicial, committee, minutes.
Evaluational Research
This is the process of collecting and analysing data in order to determine whether the intended
results were achieved.
Methods/Procedures
1. Descriptive research
It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon or provide information
about living conditions of a community or describes attitudes towards an issue.
2. Evaluative research
Is systematic application of research methodology on assessing programme/project performance.
3. Correlational research
It attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship between variables. The degree
of correlation is expressed using statistics called correlation coefficient variables.
4. Experiment research
This is the research used to establish cause effect relationship among variables. It involve
manipulation of variables

5. Ethnographic research
It is method of collecting data about real situation in different disciplines, beliefs, social system,
culture and domestic environment. It analysis behavior by observing events in their natural
environment and context.
6. Ex-post facto research (causal comparative research)

This is a research method used to investigate events retroactively. I.e when they have already
occurred. 'Ex post' is the Latin expression for 'after the fact'. If traces the preceding fact from
natural occurring groups; hence the respondents are studied after the event has occurred.
7. Exploratory research
It attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspect of a situation
or phenomenon. It is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study.
Ethical issues in educational research

Research ethical codes define the different areas of responsibilities and expectations for the various
groups involved such as professional associations, Subjects, clients, sponsors, public and society.
Ethical considerations protect the subjects against unprofessional conduct and uphold the
following values:
 Respondents’ right to privacy
 Respondents’ protection from manipulation by researcher
 Desire for confidentiality by the respondents
 Future welfare for the respondents
Major ethical considerations in research include the following:

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is appropriation of other people's intellectual works for self benefit, or taking ideas or
words from a source without acknowledging the author. Copyright Laws all over the world protect
authors of intellectual work from such deceit &,misuse.
Use of Human Beings

Human subjects can be misused without their knowledge. It’s pertinent to explain to the subjects,
the importance of the research, purpose of the evaluation and the methods to be used. Human
beings in research should be treated with respect and modesty. The researcher must safeguard
against misuse, deceit, mistreatment and exposure of respondents to risks.
Confidentiality and anonymity

Confidentiality refers to knowing certain information without revealing it to other people because
they are not supposed to have it. Anonymity means that the researcher does not know the people
who gave Information. This is because, revealing certain information could cause unnecessary
embarrassment to the subjects. This should be avoided at all costs

Voluntary Participation & Need for Informed Consent
This deals complete disclosure of all information regarding a research project. The participants in
any research should participate voluntarily with no coercion or persuasion.
Permission to interview Children

Legally, children (persons below 18 years) are considered as part of the population below age
Therefore, any researcher who declare to include children below the accepted consent age is
expected to seek permission from the government, parents, teachers, doctors, nurses, guardians
etc. All the procedures and risks must be disclosed to the authorities.
Risk to Human Participants

Researchers are bound by law to consider the risks involved in their research and to disclose them
to the people that are potentially to be studied. This disclosure enables the participants to make
informed decisions concerning whether to be involved or not e.g. research that may have long-
term health risks on the participants such as new drugs being tested on human beings.
The Objectives of the Study their Qualities

Objectives are specific statements which state what the researcher intents to achieve at the end of
the study. Objectives must be clearly stated, testable measurable and stated in be behavioral terms.
Importance of Objectives of the study

 They determine the nature and form of the proposed study hence help to bring out clearly
what the problem is all about and what the researcher wants to find out
 They determine the hypotheses and research questions to be formulated
 They determine the data to be collected and how it will be analyzed
 They determine how data will be presented in the final research report
Hypotheses of the Study

Hypotheses are statements which consist of predications that the researcher makes at the beginning
of the study. They are based on theory, prior research or actual problems on the ground. The
findings of the study are expected to confirm or reject these predictions or' hypothesis made at the
start of the study.
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences. It is focused statement which predicts an answer to your research question. It
provides a focal point for the research.
Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis (Ho)
A null hypothesis is statement which presumes that “No” significant relationship or “No”
significant difference between independent and dependent variables. The null hypothesis always
predicts that these will be no differences between the groups being studied.
Alternate Hypothesis (HI)

This presumes that there is a significant relationship differences between the independent and

dependent variables. It is a contrast to the null hypothesis since it predicts that there will be a
difference between the groups. It is the hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some
non-random cause.
Importance of Hypothesis
 It helps delimit the scope of the study
 Keeps the researcher on track while carrying out the research
 Helps the researcher to sharpen his/her focus on the study
 Guides the researcher on the type of data to be collected & how it will be analyzed
Guidelines for Good Hypothesis Development

 Read and critique relevant literature
 Discuss with colleagues and other experts about the chosen problem of study
 Understand the problem clearly in order to establish what has been done the gaps that exist
& data to be collected to fill the gaps
 Examine the available data literature and other records to establish concerns identified,
possible trends gaps and data to be collected to fill the gaps.
Planning Research Topic

Identify research problem.
Research problem
This is any issue that a person find unsatisfactory and settling a difficult status of affair that need
to be changed.
Characteristics of a good Research Problems.

 The topic should be clear.
 The problem should be investigated using available resource.
 It should be ethical/ should not involve any harm. Contribute to knowledge to the problem
area.
 Must have variables.
Sources of Research Problem

 Observation
 Personal experience.
 Theory
 Relevant literature.
Selecting a Research Topic

A topic is a subject area under discussion.
Steps in Selecting research title

1. Identify the key words in the title.
2. Review the key issues identified in the research.
3. Formulate the title.
What makes little Selection Difficult.

a) The problem is not clearly thought
b) If the study objective are not clear.
c) Not reviewed enough relevant literature.
Title
 It should be clear and precise.
 It describes what the study is about.
Characteristics of Good Title

 Brief, specific and easy to identify.
 Must be clear.
 Words should have one meaning.
 Must be researchable.
 Not more than 20 words.
Literature review
It is the analysis of text book or manuscript that a researcher read to understand research problem.
Importance of Literature review

1. It helps to know what has been done in a particular area.
2. It defines the limit of research study.
3. It helps recommendations of previous research for further research.
4. It helps to identify the gaps to avoid duplication.
5. To understand research methodology.
6. It provides the background for interpreting results of the research.
Steps Involved in Literature review and Research

1. Identify the key issues in your research problems.
2. Identify little of potential relevant report.
3. Locates the copies of the report to be reviewed.
4. Separate reports into categories of relevant.
5. Delete non relevant report and books.
6. Write the review of the literature.
7. Prepare a complete reference.
Sources of Literature
1. Primary sources
It involves direct observation.
It gives accurate information because it is first hand information.

2. Secondary sources
It is the information we get from books, journal, newspaper, internet etc.
Reference (Acknowledge)
 Recognize the author by the name.
 The year the book is written.
 The title of the book.
 Publisher
 The place publication
Citation
A citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source). It
is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an: intellectual work that
denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of
acknowledging the relevance of works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the
citation appears
The importance of citation

 To uphold intellectual honesty
 To attribute prior or unoriginal work and ideas to the correct sources.
 To allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material supports
the author’s argument the claimed way.
 To help the reader gauge the strength and validity of the material the author has used.
Actual Research Process

1. Proposal Writing
It is the suggestion of how research study will be carried out.
It is done in three chapters:
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research methodology
Importance of a Proposal
 It guides the research on how to carry out study.
 It saves time.
 It enables the researcher to prepare and acquire materials.
 It enables the researcher to prepare financial plan required.
 It enables the researcher to know sources of information.
 It enables research to know the participant.
 To know the limitation.
 It helps the researcher to know the significance.

Research methodology
a) Research design
A research design is a strategy, a plan or a roadmap for planning and conducting any study.
Functions of research design

 The design operationalizes the research problem, objectives, questions and hypothesis.
 It ensures collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
 It makes it easy for the researcher to undertake the study and to ensure that the study is
completed in time and generate and quality data for solving the problem.
 Design tells the researcher exactly what to do to generate valid data.
 Provide answers to the research and empirical evidence to test hypothesis.
 It ensures that the research serve the purpose for which it was planned.
 It enables the researcher to be able to detect flow and inadequacies in the study.
 It is the basis on which research results are reported.
Content of a research design

The following are some suggestions of what a research design is made up of:
 A plan outlining all bits of information associated with a research problem.
 A plan which spells out details of all the operations to be carried out in an investigation.
 A plan for collection of data.
 An outline for collection and analysis of the research information.
 The stage when decisions are taken about what data is to be collected, processed and
reported.
Factors to consider in selecting a design

 Means of obtaining the information
 Skills of the research personnel.
 Time available for the research
 Resources available to the researcher
 Size of the sample
 Purpose and objectives of the study.
 Nature of the problem.
 The education, qualifications and experience of the researcher.
Types of research designs

a) Survey research design
The survey method is use to describe people and their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. Survey
researcher often describes characteristics of respondents for the purpose of building theory or
generalization about the population they represent.

Types of survey
 Longitudinal survey design
Involves collection of data from the sample at the several points in time.
 Cross sectional survey

The researcher identifies the essential components of the prop and randomly samples the research
subjects from which the required data is collected.
Types of cross sectional survey design

 Single cross sectional design
 Multiple cross sectional design.
 Cohort analysis
b) Ex post facto study

This design is used when the researcher wants to identify cause effect relationship among the
variable that cannot be manipulated experimentally
c) Correlational study
This design is used when one wants to describe in quantitative terms the degree to which two or
more variables are related. Correlational study involve the collection of data on two or more
variables on the same group of subject and computing a correlational coefficient.
d) Experiential design
 It helps the researcher to plan how to manipulate the treatment and observe the effects.
 It involves the use of experimental group and control group.
Types of experimental design

 True experimental design
 Quasi experimental design
 Naturalistic design
e) Mixed method research design

This is a combined use of qualitative and quantitative methods. It brings synergy between the
different forms of data.
Reasons for using mixed methods research design

 Triangulation i.e enhances validity
 Complementarities I.e holistic portrait. It gives fuller and richer understanding possible with
multiple methods.
 Development i.e one method informs the other e.g interview responses are used to create
better survey.
 Initiation i.e first method leads to new questions. Finding in initial study raise questions
needing clarification.

 Expansion i.e increased breadth in follow up study e.g pilot study leads to subsequent
investigations.
The Target Population

The target population or study population refers to the group from which a sample is drawn.
Types of Population
1. Finite population-Consists of a fixed number of elements or members.
2. Infinite population-one in which it is theoretically impossible to establish the number of
items. E.g number of fish in the ocean.
Note
Study of a whole population is called census.
When to study the whole population

 When the entire population is small.
 When there is adequate time and resources to carry out the study.
 When it is essential to collect data from every member of the population e.g every candidate
must be examined.
Sampling
A sample is a small group of persons or items selected from the population. This sample is the one
that subjected to the study.
The sampling procedure

 Determine the total population
 Decide on data to be collected in order to determine the number of cases to include in the
sample.
 Study your target population very well in order to establish difference, inequalities and
similarities that exist.
 Decide on the number to be sampled that you know is manageable and will allow the
findings to be generalized.
Qualities of a good sample

 It is representative of the whole target population, catering for differences in the target
population.
 It is large enough to allow generalization. Often this should be above 30%.
 Should be one selected without any bias.
Sampling frame and sample size

Sampling frame is the listing of units such that a sample may be picked from such a listing. E.g
class list /register may form a sampling frame.
Sample size refers to how large or small the size of the sample is. Sample size should not be too

large or too small.
Factors to consider in sample size determination

 Nature of the population.
 Number of groups to be formed
 Size of the population
 Number of investigators.
 Time available for study.
 Nature of the study e.g if it involves intensive examination, the sample should be small
and vice versa.
 Availability of resources.
Sampling methods (probability and non probability methods)

This refers to the strategy or technique used by the researcher to select members or items for the
sample. They include:
 Probability method
 Non probability methods
Probability methods
These are sampling methods that give each person or item in the population known chaces of
being selected for inclusion in the sample. They include:
 Simple random sampling- each member of the population has equal chance of be selected.
 Systematic sampling-every nth member of the population on a list is selected from a
randomly selected point.
 Stratified sampling- a stratified sample is obtained by dividing a population into subgroup
(or strata)based on some known characteristics of the population. Items are then randomly
selected separately from each of these subgroup.
 Cluster sampling-this involves dividing the population into groups. A number of clusters are
selected randomly to represent the population.
 Multi stage sampling–It is similar to cluster sampling but involves selecting a sample within
each selected cluster. The sample is selected in stages.
Non probability method
These do not provide members of the population, known chances of being selected for study.
They include:
 Purposive sampling -Used when the population being studied is small & when a known
characteristic is to be studied intensively.
 Convenience Sampling the researcher questions anyone who is available or is easily
available e.g. study of buyers & sellers in a market place. The method is quick & cheap.

 Voluntary Sampling-The researcher forms the sample by having members of the population
volunteer to be studied i.e subjects are identified basing on their willingness to take part in
the study.
 Snowball Sampling -Sample is selected using networks. A few subjects are selected and the
required information obtained from them. These subjects are then asked to identify other
subjects, who will also provide information & 1n turn identify other subjects. The process
continues until the required subjects and information is obtained. This method 13 useful
whereli‘lgil researcher knows little about the FOUp thatil itsbeing studied.
Importance of sampling in research

 Sampling saves costs, time and human resources.
 Information required is gathered quickly.
 It ensures collection of more data that is detailed and accurate.
 Results obtained from the sample can be generalized to the population.
Limitations of Sampling
 Samples cannot be used when it is essential to study every member of the population.
 Poor sampling may make generalization of findings difficult
Data Collection
Method of data collection is determined by the problem, the objectives & hypothesis of the study.
Only the data which is related to the problem and objectives of the study should be collected. Two
main sources include primary and secondary.
Primary Data
Collected directly by the researcher or assistants through questionnaires, interview schedules,
Observation schedules and tests.
Secondary Data
Collected from documents such as journals, other research reports,internet, films, video, pictures,
photographs, newspapers & books.
Data Collection Methods/Tools

Data collection tools differ depending on objectives of the study. Some researches may require use
of only one tool/method while others use various different tools (Multi-technique approach).
Factors Influencing Selection of Data Collection Tools

 The type of the study
 Characteristics of the sample
 Type of data to be collected

Some data collection tools include:
Questionnaires and Schedules
Consists of a list of questions the respondent is expected to answer. They are presented to the
respondent in a written form. They are either mailed or delivered by hand to the respondents.
When to use questionnaires;

 When the respondents are very many and scattered in different locations.
 When collecting a lot of data. which does not involve details
 When collecting data from respondents who would want anonymity kept
 When collecting highly sensitive and confidential data.
 When carrying out survey in order to collect lot of data Within a short time
Advantages of Questionnaires
 They are a quick method of collecting data
 Plenty of data can be collected if mailed questionnaires are returned.
 Use of questionnaires is cheaper than interviews
Disadvantages of Questionnaires
 It’s not possible to clarify ambiguous questions in mailed questionnaire
 Researcher may not know who .actually responded to the questionnaire
 Respondents may give incorrect data if they do not understand some questions
 Many questions may not be respondent to arising in gaps in data
 Many questionnaires might not be returned
 Questionnaires are mainly useful with literate people
 Information received may not be correct because the person who responded to the
questionnaire may not be the one who is expected to respond to it.
Observation
Type of observation
 Naturalistic
 Structured
Naturalistic
Involves recording behavior of interest in the natural setting. Helps researcher observe things as
they are or as they really happen in real life.
Strengths
 The investigator observes directly behavior one wishes to explain
 The investigator is able to collect other data related to the study as he/she carries out the
observations
 It is possible to get accurate data
 Real natural behavior can be observed and recorded.

Limitations
 One cannot control conditions under which participants are observed
 Observer’s bias may affect accuracy e.g. people’s attitude & training
 Presence of observer may influence the way participants behave during observation
 Observation does not tell show cause-and-effect
 It can be a slow & expensive method
Structured/Systematic observation
Involves observation of behavior in a laboratory setting where conditions are the same for all
participants.
Strengths
 Each participant is granted opportunity to show the behaviour of interest without
interference.
 It is possible to get accurate data.
Limitations
 May not yield observation of typical everyday behavior
 Observer's bias may limit accuracy.
In-depth Interview
Useful for getting information from people who are knowledgeable about given areas, but who
would not be accessible for other forms of research approach.
Conducting an In-depth Interview

 Introduce yourself firmly and win confidence & rapport with the respondent
 Observe clarity of questions you ask the respondent
 Avoid making leading remarks that might bias the answer/response
 Listen to respondent & when not clear, probe further
 Do not give respondent an impression that there are right or wrong answers for this would
introduce bias.
 Do not attempt make promises to respondents that you know will never be met
Advantage
 Ability to yield very rich data and insight
 The face to face contact is a crucial interactive process
 The topics under study are expired in depth
 It exposes the researcher to affective and cognitive behavioral aspect of study.
 Issues that are not understood are clarified on the spot
Disadvantages
 It’s expensive & time consuming

 Require well-trained researchers to be able to capture the 'nformation needed
 The informants may suffer from recall error and give selective information
 It involves large volume‘of information which is difficult to transcribe and analyse .
Document Analysis
This is a form of qualitative research in which documents are interpreted by the researcher to give
voice and meaning to a research topic.
It incorporates coding content into themes that emerge, then analyzing them.
Data Analysis
Data analysis refers to the computation measures and searching for patterns relationships that exist
among the data for various variables are being studied. It involves transforming data with the goal
of highlighting useful information & suggesting conclusions
The information is presented in a visual form using graphs charts and tables. This is necessary in
order to make the information clear and more understandable.
A. Tables
Benefits of tabulation include
 One is able to identify error and any data omission.
 It is easy to make comparisons
 Reduces the amount of necessary descriptions if data is well tabulated.
Points to consider when tabulating

 It should have a clear and specific title.
 Each table should be given a distinct number for each reference.
 If considering data on two or more columns, highlight it or keep them side by side to make it
easier to make comparisons.
 Each row and column should have a brief & clear title.
B. Graph
 A graph is a way of presenting information visually in order to show the relationship between
variables
 The types include bar graphs (Bar Charts) Pie Charts and Line graphs
General Points to Remember when Presenting Information in Graphical Form

 Place independent variable on the X-axis and dependent variable on Y-axis
 Label the axes of the graphs
 If you have more than one set of data, show each series in different colour
 Each graph should have a title reflecting the variables being presented

Statistical Analysis
It is the, process of organizing, summarizing and describing information that as been collected by
a research instrument, by use of statistical approaches so that appropriate inferences can be made.
c) Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

This is usually the last section of a research report.
Summary of Findings
Should be presented according to the research Objectives & should involve a logical flow of
unfolding of information. Factual information should be backed up by facts in figures & contrasted
with findings of published search in the review of literature.
Conclusion
Must follow logically from the results of the investigation. It must be specific and to the point.
Recommendations
Here the researcher provides practical and achievable policy recommendations to mix of the
stakeholders identified in chapter one, under significance of the study eg, policy makers,
practitioners administrators, managers, stakeholders etc.
Areas of Further Research

Good research often creates more new questions than it answers ,Opening doors and facilitating
further research efforts on the part of others & the researcher eg research using new methodology
what could be done on generalizability of results, using, a different sample size or replicating a
similar study in other areas of the country
d) Research Report Writing

A research report is defined as the account of an issue or issues that have been investigated. It
conveys information recommendations emanating from an investigated problem area of study.
Once a research is compete, the outcomes of the research must be documented according to the
requirements of the report agency.
Importance of a Research Report

 It highlights current trends in research e.g as reported in scientific, education, psychological,
medical, Women or social science journals, magazines and newspaper.
 It enhances report-writing skills especially among students on Internship/attachment.
 It serves as a way of documenting and achieving findings from research.
 Reference purpose i.e for future discussions, policy formulation and studies.
 Problem identification I.e used to identify and explain underlying problem in an organization.
 Provides recommendations for various stakeholders that can lead to improvement implied by
the research findings.

Types of reports
a) Academic reports
These are the types written by students as part of requirement by different institutions for
assessment of their academic work.
b) Technical report
These are associated with community project and are dictated by the uses an audience to be
presented to.
Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the results are valid.
Types of validity
a) Internal validity
It is the extent to which the conclusion regarding cause and effect are warranted.
b) Population validity
It is the extent to which conclusions can be generalized to other people or other organizations.
c) Ecological validity
It is the extent to which conclusion might be generalized to social context other than those in which
data has been collected.
Reliability
This refers to the consistency of the research method. For example would you get the same answer
if you repeat the research with different sample at different time.
Objectivity
This term refers to the extend to which research reflects the reality of the object (including people)
under stud as opposed to the subjective experience of the researchers or observers! In practice, the
method for checking whether an observation or assessment is objective is to see if different
observers agree: if they do it is objective, if they do not it is subjective in the sense that it depends
on the subjectivity of particular people. Physical measurements like weight or time are objective
because different observers will agree readily, whereas assessments of the quality 0 ' meal are more
likely to be subjective.
Research Proposal
Research Proposal and Repot Formats
Research Proposal
Meaning of a Research proposal
A research preposal refers to a written document detailing what one intents study.
NB it is usually written in future tense.

Components of research Proposal
Preliminary Pages
 Title Page Should be clear concise, descriptive and preferably informative. It must capture
the essential aspect of the study. It is found on the cover the document.
 Declaration Page That the research is a student's own work. Also has supervisor name and
institution of affiliation.
 Dedication Page The researcher can dedicate the report as he wishes.
 Acknowledgement Page The researcher can acknowledge few people as he/she wishes.
 The Abstract/Executive Summary Is a brief summary of all the specific components of the
study, all described in one paragraph. It gives the reader a glimpse of what the study entails.
 Table of Contents This is list or guide-to show where specific information can be found in
the research proposal.
 List of tables
 List of figure
 List of abbreviations and acronym.
NB The pagination for the preliminary pages above is done in Roman numerals.
Main Research Body Section
Chapter One: Introduction

This provides the necessary background and context for the research problem, giving the basis and
educational implications. Subsections in chapter one include:
i. Background to the Study
ii. Statement of the Problem defines the problem by putting it in a current contextual form
to ease readers understanding and comprehension.
iii. Purpose of the Study Explain specially what the research intents to investigate or
explore.
iv. Objectives of the Study These are specific aim of the study
v. Research Questions .These are derived from the objectives. They capture specific aims
of research and guide the researcher’s thinking.
vi. Significance of the Study This consists of statements im-o ance of the data collecte e.g.
who will make use of the data? How the data will benefit the beneficiaries, how the
collected data will be used to solve some of the problems faced by beneficiaries etc.
vii. Hypothesis of the study These are predictive statements that guide the study
viii. Scope of the Study This is the geographical extem, Social and Conceptual coverage that
sets the boundaries ofthe study.
ix. Limitations & Delimitation: of the Study Limitations are the hindrances of anticipated
eonstraims that. determine the actual coverage or extent of investigations. They are

problems or challenges that may adverser affect data collection, reliability &
generalization of results
x. Operational Definition of significant Terms-This depends on the sponsor or context of
the institution of the research. This part manipulates the Conventional terms to fit the
study objectives.
Chapter Two: Literature Review

 It is a review of existing literature related to the topic/problem under study.
 The literature should be logically organised with a clear written heading, sub headings.
 It should be related to the study problem.
 It should establish a link to the study.
Qualities of a good research review

 Coherent flow of literature, not disjointed.
 Reviewed literature be synthesised to suit the study.
 Selected literature should identify existing gaps in research and potential study variables.
 Show related study studies I.e recent studies in the area.
 Pin point clearly the current state of the research problem.
 Acknowledge literature borrowed from other researcher.
Chapter Three Research Methodology

This refers to the methods to be employed in the study of the data analysis tools. It defines the
basic methodological details to be used in the study.
a) The research design
b) The target population
c) Sample
d) Sampling techniques
e) Data collection method and procedures.
f) Test of validity and reliability of research instruments.
g) Data analysis and interpretation.
References
These are sources of materials that the researcher has cited in the research proposal. Others can
have bibliography. Bibliography is a guide to the reader of other similar work that may have
informed the work.
Appendices
Appendices include copies of:
 The actual research instruments as will be administered in the field eg.‘ Questionnaires,
detailed interview guides. detailed observation guides, detailed focus group study guides
etc.
 The expected frameworks of the study/research time plan

 Geographical map of the area under study»
 The expected budget for the research
REPORT WRITING
Research Report Format
Whereas a 'Research Proposal is written in ‘future tense‘. a greater part of the research report is
written in past tense, because this is now report about a study that has already been carried out.
The parts of the report

i. Preliminaries
ii. Chapter One: introduction to the Study
iii. Chapter two: literature review
iv. Chapter three Research methodology
v. Chapter four Data Analysis,
vi. Chapter Five: Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
vii. References/Bibliography
viii. Appendices
Dissemination of Research Finding

Avenues for dissemination of research findings include:
 Presentation of bound and electronic copies to the sponsor and funding agency.
 Putting the findings in a book form for general reading.
 Newspaper serialization
 Presentation in journals, articles and magazines.
 Electronic publishing on internet.
 Attendance to peer conferences an presentation.
 Contacting other researcher personally with the hope of exposing the findings to them.
 Sending finding to online library catalogue.
 Presentation of copies to policy and decision makers.
Problem Experienced When Carrying Out Educational Research.

 Time
 Financial cost
 Attitude
 Language
 Culture
 Inadequate skills.
Chapter introduction
Background information
Statement

Purpose of study
Objective
Reference questions
Significance of the study
Limitation and delimitation
Operational definition of terms

Chapter
GENERAL TEACHING METHODS

Definition
Teaching it is the social process which is aimed at influencing changing the behaviour of another
person positively.
Teaching methods
Types of Teaching
1. Formal: is systematic deliberate direct and consciously imparted by a specialist.
2. Informal: Is the teaching one gets outside the classroom. Here success occurs when
opportunity and preparation meet.
Principles teaching
1. Active involvement of the learner
2. Motivation to enhance learning
3. Concreteness to enhance understanding of concepts and ideas
4. Focusing attention on individual learner’s needs
5. Cooperation in the teaching learning process in the classroom
6. Acquiring relevant knowledge about the learners and using it to inform on cause design and
classroom teaching
7. Aligning the 3 major components of instruction i.e. the learning objectives, assessments and
instructional activities
8. Articulating explicit explanations regarding leaning objectives and policies
9. Prioritizing the knowledge and skills one chooses to focus on
10. Progressively refining the course/subject based on reflection and feeding
Qualities of an Effective Teacher

 Has good knowledge of the subject matter
 Has patience with students of different categories e.g. backgrounds discipline, maturity
 Intellectually curios i.e. naturally driven by the interest in keeping abreast of changes in
his/her field
 Confident in his/her abilities
 Achievement oriented i.e has clear thoughts on the objectives to be achieved and what has to
be done to realize them.
 Plans and sticks to the plans. This goes deeper than just rigidly following a course syllabus
 Awareness of what happens in the dawn and in adjacent hallways e.g. being able to stop
nonsense before it starts and keeps students on track
 Mentorship i.e. teachers often serve as mentors to their learners. The desire to influence
learners positively is a core motivation of many teachers

 Maturity i.e. insightful teachers are able to sense emotional changes in learners and respond
to them appropriately
 Community Involvement i.e. through contact with parents, administrators, and community
leaders
 Organization i.e. able to manage learners' multiple personalities and organize his/her subject
matter for maximum benefit of the learners
 Visionary i.e. should be their learners illuminators to provide them not only with interesting
and useful materiel, useful materials, but also with visions of where they might end up if they
learn well
Approaches to Teaching
1. Teacher Centered Approach e.g. Lecture, Demonstration, Story telling, Educational
Broadcast and Practical.
2. Learner centered Approach e.g. Discussion, Field Trip, Question & Answer, Role play,
Problem-solving.
Choice of Teaching Methodology

The choice of given teaching methodology is guided by:
1. Set instructional objective
2. Size of the Class
3. Level of the learners
4. Available teaching & learning resources
5. Nature of subject content
6. Time available
7. Ability of the learner
8. Readiness and maturity of the leaner
The teaching methodology adopted should be able to:

 Arouse develop and sustain leaners interest
 Develop a positive attitude in the leaner towards the subject
 Enhance creativity and active leaner participation
 Stimulate learner's curiosity for further learning
 Promote comprehension and retention of content
COMMON METHODS OF TEACHING

Lecture Method
This involves a teacher delivering verbally the lesson’s content to the learners. It involves
explaining, developing and evaluating idea and concepts and then summarizing the main points. It
is largely teacher-centred
appropriate when used to:

 Introduce a topic

 Focus attention
 Give instructions
 Help learners to synthesize important information
 Summarize a discussion lesson
 Explain activity
 Develop listening skills in the learner
Effective use of the Lecture Method

 Have an introduction that captures the learner’s attention and interest
 Take into account the instructional objectives to be achieved
 Use the appropriate language
 Avoid lecturing directly from text books
 Use appropriate voice projection, modulation and pace
 Ensure adequate grasp of the lesson content
Advantages/Merit of Lecture
1. Efficient, cheap way of conveying a topic to a large audience/group
2. Factual material is conveyed in a direct logical manner
Disadvantages/Limitation of Lecture
1. One-way communication with no active learner participation (passive)
2. Difficult to maintain leaners’ interest
3. Does not appear to be effective in changing the teacher's performance
4. Requires proficient oral skills
5. Learning is difficult to gauge
6. Not appropriate for very young children e.g those in primary school
7. Its effectiveness is highly related to time and scope of content
Discussion Method
This is a verbal interaction among learner with the teacher as the facilitator. It involves exchange
and sharing of ideas, experiences, facts and opinion on given topics. Discussions may be:
 Whole class or Small group
 Formal or informal
Discussion method is suitable for:

 Clarifying concepts and ideas
 Building consensus
 Gathering opinion and ideas from other
 Clarifying attitudes and values
Principles of Effective Discussion

An effective discussion requires sufficient preparation by both the teacher and the learner
Before the Discussion

The Teacher should:
 Identify the topic of discussion
 Form the desired Groups
 Provide adequate information on the topic and assign specific tasks
During the discussion

The Teacher should:
 Guide the discussion by asking leading questions
 Direct the discussion, clarify any Misconceptions and verify facts
 Encourage active learner participation
 Maintain order among the leaners
 Take a facilitative role in the discussion
The Learner Should:

 Observe the rules of the discussion
 Keep to the topic of discussion
 Participate in the discussion without monopolizing it
 Support or object arguments and opinions with facts
 Listen actively and reflectively
 Take notes from the discussion
Before the Discussion

 The group leaders should report findings to the whole class
 The teacher and learner to correct misconceptions
 The teacher to summarize the views from the learners to arrive at a logical conclusion
Advantages/Merits of Discussion
1. Emphasis is on learning/leaner activity thus more effective than lecture
2. All learners participate hence a sure way of learning
3. Leads to development of democratic way of thinking i.e. everybody cooperates in the
discussion and the ideas & opinions of other:
4. Trains leaners in reflective thinking hence leads to deeper understanding of the problem
under discussion
5. Trains learners in self-expression
6. Inculcate spirit of tolerance in the learners. i.e. they learn to discuss and differ and tolerate
the views of others even if they are unpleasant or contradictory to each other
7. Discussion makes learning interesting

Disadvantages/Limitations of Discussion
1. All types of topics cannot be taught by discussion method
2. The method cannot be used for teaching small children
3. Some learners may not take part while other may try to dominate
4. Some learners may not follow the discussion rules
5. The teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership in the discussion
Question & Answer Method (Questioning Technique or Socratic Method)

 The teacher asks questions to elicit answers from the learners on a specific topic to determine
what needs to be taught
 It aims at determining the knowledge and perception of a learner on a given topic at the
beginning during and at the end of a lesson
 It enables teachers to assess the leaning process
 It is used to reinforce other methods and techniques of teaching. and should therefore not be
used in isolation
 It enables the learner to develop skills in questioning, answering questions, taking and
making notes, synthesizing ideas from the teacher end thinking critically and creatively
Principles of Effective Questioning

1. Questions should be well prepared prior to the lesson
2. Ask clear and relevant question
3. Distribute the questions evenly among the learners
4. Ask the question first pause and name the respondent
5. Provide appropriate reinforcement to the respondent i.e. acknowledge the learners attempts to
answer the questions, whether the response is correct or incorrect
6. Encourage learners to ask questions
7. Avoid asking leading questions e.g. “Nairobi is the capital city of Kenya. Isn’t it?”
8. Focus on open-ended question where possible
Characteristics of Good Questions

 Clear precise, brief and direct
 Formulated to challenge and stimulate the learner's thoughts
 Suitable for the age, abilities and interests of the learners
 Within the learners' experiences and language they can understand
Points to Consider When Formulating Questions

 Start questions with interrogative words e.g. “Who, Why,What, When and How. Avoid the
interrogative words being at the end
 Avoid asking leading questions e.g. “Nairobi is the capital city of Kenya Isn't it?"
 Avoid double-bowled questions e.g. “How big is Webuye and how far is it from Bungoma?”

 Avoid questions that encourage guessing e.g. "Is mercury a solid or a fluid?”
 Avoid YES or NO questions
Points to Consider When Asking Questions

 Call the respondent's name
 Listen to the answer comment and give the learner a feedback
 Distribute the questions as widely as possible among the learners giving chance to all.
 Prepare key questions in advance
 Ask questions in a natural, friendly and conversational manner
 Allow learners to complete their answers without interruptions
 Encourage learners to ask questions and respond to them with logical reasons, tact and
patience.
Advantages/Merits of the Question & Answer Method

1. Helps the teacher to find out if the learners had prepared for the lesson or not
2. It drills or gives practice in what has been learned
3. Guides, leads and motives the learner
4. Helps the teacher to evaluate the level of understanding of learners
5. Develops learners' ability to think or explain causes, effects and purposes of thing
6. Helps learner to organize material learnt
7. Emphasizes important points
8. Helps learners to discover their interests or talent
9. Improves appreciation of the topic
10. Promotes self-expression in the learners
11. Reveals the mental processes of the learners
12. Shows agreement or disagreement with concepts, opinions or views
13. Establish rapport with the learners
14. Helps diagnose learners with difficulties in and out of the classroom
15. Maintains the attention of the wondering minds
16. Increase the amount and quality of participation of learners
17. Promotes further knowledge and deeper understanding
18. Motivate learners especially when they give correct answers that are acknowledged
Disadvantages/Limitations of the Question & Answer Method

1. Encourages the teacher to focus on a few learners who are able to quickly answer questions
2. Discourages slow learners from participating in the lesson for fear of making mistakes
3. May cause some learners to lose self esteem and self-confidence
4. Some teachers may not be skillful at probing questions to get desired responses
5. Increases the possibility of poor class control due to chorus answers
6. Teachers with poor communication skills any out use it effectively

Project Method
 A project is an activity carried out by an individual learner or group of learners in a more
natural-like manner and in an environment that is freer than that of am everyday classroom
 A project is usually under the guidance and supervision of a teacher who ensures that the
project accomplishes a definite and attainable goal. Learners are given freedom to investigate
and gather information for their project.
 A project is based on objectives which require some time to be achieved. It requires skills,
effort and careful planning. It permits learners to identify a problem, gather information,
analyze it and draw conclusion. It supplements the normal classroom interactions and offers
an Opportunity for individual learning and self-fulfillment
Qualities of a Good Project

 Relevant and focused on instructional objectives or topic
 Challenging, interesting and appealing to learners
 Enhances application of knowledge and skills learned theoretically in class
 Provides an opportunity to demonstrate originality, creativity and critical thinking
Preparation of a Project
 Organize learners into non-ability or mixed groups
 Assist learners to identify and define the project to be studied
 Organize and plan the study project in a manner that will enable learners to collect relevant
information
 Encourage the use of a variety of research methods such as interview, questionnaires and
library study
 Provide reference books and other materials for learners to work with where necessary
 Seek authority of resource person to be interviewed and book the necessary appointment
 Lay emphasis on the form of presentation of the information gathered or solution developed
 Check the progress of each group to provide guidance, particularly to non starters
Advantages/Merits of the Project Method

1. Leaners develop skills on how to organize and any out individual or group work without the
teacher's constant supervision
2. Promote cooperation and team spirit among learners
3. Provides a natural approach to learning as it relates the curriculum to real life situations
4. Gives the teacher an opportunity to show the learner the interrelationships between subjects
5. It captures the leaners’ enthusiasm by stimulating their initiative end spirit of inquiry
6. Fosters good teacher-learner and learner-teacher relationships
7. Enhances the development of leadership politics in learner's
8. Encourages creativity and sustains motivation
9. Encourages freedom of expression
10. Applies the philosophy of ‘Learning by Doing’, thus making learning learner-centred

11. Give learners experience in planning and organizing and a sense of achievement.
Disadvantages of the Project Method

1. It is time-consuming as it takes long to complete and interfere with other lessons
2. Not all leaners in a group participate and contribute to the attainment of the project objectives
3. It is difficult to evaluate the learners' individual performance
4. It is not easy to maintain order and discipline among learners while they are carrying out
their project
5. Requires material and other rem which may be costly to acquire
6. Scheduling a project can present problems if a teacher has only a few lessons per week e.g. 2
or 3
7. Not suitable for lower primary.
8. Fails to transmit knowledge to the learners in a systematic way. Instead it is gotten through
sheer coincidence.
Demonstration Method
This involves the teacher showing and explaining a concept or a skill (how something is done) in
a given topic. It may be used for the whole class or part of the class depending on size of the class,
available resources and space. It is a more effective way of teaching than mere describing. The
emphasis is on learning by observation followed by doing; hence drills and practice exercises are
required. It enable the learners eventually be able to perform the activities on their own.
Demonstration may be used to:

 Show techniques-skills that are too difficult/complex for the learner to carry out.
 When resource: (materials a equipment) are inadequate, expensive or difficult to produce for
individual use e.g. skills on administering first aid, baking bread or wine knot
 Introduce the use of various teaching and learning resources
 When time for content coverage is limited
 Amuse interest for further learning
 When it is dangerous for the learners carry out the activity
 Introduce a topic or lesson
Guidelines for effective demonstration

The teacher should ensure that:
 Determine and analyze the lesson objectives
 All the required learning resource available, in writing and within reach
 He/she tries out/rehearse the demonstration before the lesson to determine the amount of time
required and ensure familiarity with all the aspects of the demonstration
 Arrange the learners appropriately to ensure a clear view

 An appropriate pace is adopted depending on the level and ability of the learner and
complexity of the content
 Learners with special needs such as the visually, the hearing and the physically challenged
are well catered for during the demonstration.
 Prepare hand-outs or chalkboard summary which learners can refer to during and after the
demonstration
 Subdivide the demonstration into logical steps or stages
 Keep the demonstration simple and easy to understand
 Check learners understanding by being sensitive to their reactions
Advantages of Demonstration
1. Trains learners to be good observers
2. Enhances the formation of concepts and generalizations
3. Has a high interest value when it involves the use of equipment a materials which may be
new to the learners
4. Economical in terms of time and money
5. Effective fro introducing skills and concepts in learning
6. Appropriate when learners need to learn how to use a piece of equipment
Disadvantage of demonstration
1. Provides less opportunities for learners to discover concepts on their own
2. Reduces active participation of learners
3. Poses a problem of audibility and Visibility when large groups are involved
4. It's difficult to evaluate the learners' understanding during a demonstration
Case Study Method

This is a true or imaginary/fictional excerpt that a teacher uses to describe a problem, a situation
or character to a learner on a given lesson or topic. A case study may present a Dilemma/puzzle
that a learner is expected to resolve. If the case study is based on a true story, then it should be
disclosed in the course of the study or at some point in the lesson. It should be relevant to the
subject or topic being taught.
Guidelines for the teacher in developing a case study

 Focus on the instructional objectives
 Provoke the learners’ ability to solve questions
 Appeal to the learners’ emotions
 Help learners to identify and internalize the concepts raised
 Help learners to apply the skills learnt to solve similar problems they may encounter
Advantages/merits of case study

1. It develops the learners’ skills, communication and critical drinking. It makes the subject
relevant to real life situations
2. Allows for the exploration of solutions to complex issues
3. Encourages or simulates discussions
4. Creates an existing atmosphere in the class which motivates the lumen to participate actively
5. It facilitates development of analytical and problem solving skills.
6. Promotes higher mention of what has been learned
Disadvantages/limitations of case study

1. Learners may not see the relevance of the case study to their own situation
2. Insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results
3. It is not appropriate for young learners
4. Sometimes it is not easy to identify a suitable one study.
5. Time consuming especially during preparation and execution
6. Expensive as it demands a lot of sources in addition to other related costs
7. Learners may collect irrelevant information of various facts thus making valid generalization
be rather limited.
Other Methods include:

 Dramatization
 Story Telling
 Experimentation
 Field/Educational Trips
 Role Play
 Simulation
 Debates
PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTIONS (REQUIREMENTS)
SYLLABUS
Is a broad outline of work/summary of topics to be covered in a course for a given subject and
class.
Purpose
 Defines what is to be taught in a given topic to o specified level of learners for a main period
of time
 Facilitates interpretation of the national goals of education
 Helps fulfill the general objectives of each specific level from which specific instructional
objective are formulated
 Enables a teacher prepare a scheme of work
 Guides teacher on choice of suitable learning activities

 Enables a teacher to choose and prepare learning attaching materials in advance for every
lesson for every subject
 Suggests beat modes of evaluating learner‘s achievement in specific topics
 Unifies studies in schools by limiting the scope of content taught a examinations
 Enables the government to control the type of education provided in schools
Reasons why teachers must be involve in syllabus preparation

 Enables the teacher to familiarize him/herself with the syllabus before implementation
 Teacher is more conversant with learners' needs and abilities
 Enables the teacher to gain more knowledge about the subject content
 Enables the teacher to set appropriate objectives for learners
 Facilitates evaluation of learners & consequently improves effectiveness of curriculum
implementation
 Enhances teacher’s ability to prepare curriculum support material
 Teacher develops ownership of the syllabus, thus improves the implementation process
Parts/Elements of a Syllabus
1. National goals of education
2. Objectives of a given level of education
3. General subject objectives
4. Outline of main topics to be taught in each subject per class & their specific objectives
5. Modes of assessment and evaluation
6. Teaching & learning resources
7. Time recommended for each subject per class
8. Instructions for the teacher on how to interpret the syllabus
9. Teaching & learning methods or activities
SCHEME OF WORK
It‘s a breakdown of the syllabus of the given subject into teachable unit/subtopics to be covered
within a given time.
Purpose
 Enables the teacher to make teaching systematic and learning integrated by sequencing the
topics & subtopics in the order that they will be now during each lesson.
 Enables the teacher to design different methods of teaching & varying mounts of work to suit
the abilities of the learners
 Enables the teacher to allocate time for teaching each section of the syllabus to ensue that the
most important and relevant information is covered
 Enables the teacher to coordinate with other subject when to avoid duplication of work

 Enables the teacher to give topics to learners in advance hence gives learners opportunity to
develop the necessary Prerequisite knowledge & skills
 Enables the teacher to have a preview of the term's or the year‘s work
 Enables the teacher to adequately prepare T/L resources
 Enables teacher to determine the scope of assessment
Factor to consider when preparing Scheme of work

 Number of period/lessons per subject per week in every class
 Planned & unplanned for interruption
 Previous experiences with the learners
 Level a ability of the learners while teaching the subject
 The difficulty level of different topics i.e. teacher can organize the teaching logically from
simple to complex
Component/ Element of a Scheme of Work

1. Title- identifies the document
2. Specific Objectives- Defines the reasons for teaching the topic or expected learner
achievement
3. Topic & Sub-topic- Indicates what is to be taught/covered in the specified period/time for
which the S.O.W is planned
4. Lesson/Period- Can be single or double per week as provided for in syllabus
5. Teaching/learning Activities- Indicates what learners & teachers will be engaged in.
6. Teaching/Resources- Includes T/L Aida, Text Books. Reference Books Atlases etc
7. Assessment methods
8. Remarks -Statement/Comrnents showing achievement in the T/L process. Meant for
remedial purposes
Week Lesson Topic Sub- Objective T/L T/L References Remarks

topic Activities Activities
LESSON PLAN (L.P)

Is a teacher’s document that describes in detail, the course of instruction to be taken during single
or double lessons. It is derived from the S.OW.
Purpose of a L.P
 Enables a teacher to familiarize himself with content of the lesson.
 Enables the teacher to choose the methods & approaches to use during the T/L process
 Specifies the time/duration a teacher has to cover the specified content in a given class

 Enables teacher to select objectives that are SMART
 Enable teacher to link the lesson with learner's previous knowledge and experiences
 Enable teacher plan other activities such as home-work & assignments to reinforce content
taught.
 Enable the teacher to present the lesson in a logical a systematic manner
 Enables teacher to select, prepare and use appropriate T/L resource
 Enable the teacher to design and select the most appropriate T/L activities
 Enable the teacher to choose appropriate methods of evaluating the lesson
 Gives teacher confidence
Factors to Consider when preparing L.P

 The topic from which the lesson content is derived
 Time allocated for teaching the lesson
 Ability of the learners
 Best method, approach or technique of teaching that can be used to achieve the lesson
objectives
 The specific objectives which indicate what the learners are supposed to achieve by end of
the lesson
 Available T/L resources
 Most suitable assessment procedures that would determine whether the objective have been
achieved or not
 The T/L activities that would beast achieve the objectives
Factors that my interfere with successful implementation of a L.P

 Poor LP preparation
 Poor mastery of content to be taught
 Use of irrelevant T/L aids
 Failure to vary the teaching methods
 Poor time management
 Poor communication skills
 Teacher‘s distracting mannerisms
 Teacher being emotionally and psychologically unprepared.
 Poor teacher learner relationship
 Teacher's inability to control the class
Parts of a L.P
1) Administration Information i.e. school name, class, roll/number of modems, subject,
amount of time allocated, date & time It.
2) Topic/Sub-topic

3) Specific Objective- usually derived from the S.O.W
Purpose of objectives in the L.P

a) Sets limits of content to be covered for teacher to remain focused
b) Enables the teacher to evaluate the lesson & himself
c) Enable the teacher select appropriate teaching method
d) Enables a teacher to identify appropriate T/L resources
e) Enables the teacher to organize the lesson logically
f) Enables the teacher to devise means of arousing sustaining the learners
g) Enables the teacher to determine assessment methods
h) Facilitates proper use of time
4) T/L Resource- Include materiel that help the teacher to teach effectively or the learner to
understand the content better
5) The introduction- Lesson introduction determines how the lesson flows and to what degree
the objectives can he achieved.
Some lesson introduction techniques

 Performing a demonstration
 Asking leading questions
 Using relevant T/L aids
 Reviewing s previously taught lesson and linking it to the topic to be taught
 Stating the purpose of the lesson or providing a preview of the lesson’s objectives
 Telling story or singing a song related to the lesson content
Factors to consider when selecting mode of lesson introduction

 Leaners' interests
 Level of the learners
 Relevance of the introduction to the topic
 Skills knowledge and content to be taught
 Objective of the lesson
6) Lesson Development- This refers to the main body/structure of the lesson. lesson
development shows:
a) Sequence to be followed during presentation
b) T/L activities
c) Organization of the content
d) Relevance sources
e) Time to be taken each Stage/step

7) T/L activities
 This refers to what the teacher/learner will be doing as the lesson progresses e.g.
demonstrating explaining
 They make learning to be learner-centered & create learners’ interest in the lesson as it
progresses
 They concretize abstract content
8) Conclusion
Serves as a basis for evaluating a lesson. Teacher may use conclusion to tie together the main
points of the lesson
9) Chalkboard Layout
Shows how the teacher intents to utilize the chalkboard
The following chalk board use structure is preferred:
Date Subject Class

New words Topic Illustrations,
assignment
10) Evaluation/self-evaluation/assessment
 This refers to the critical reflection by the teacher on the totality of the lesson.
 Used to determine whether learners have gained the taught skill, knowledge and/or
attitude a whether the objective(s) have been achieved.
 One must always make meaningful remarks in evaluation the lesson
MOTIVATION DURING INSTRUCTION

 Always reinforce the learner’s answers and questions appropriately
 Refer to learners by their names
 Use appropriate humor
 Make the lesson interesting
 Be innovative enough in the choice end use of T/L resources for the lesson
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
 Maintain discipline of learners
 Motivate & reinforce good responses & behavior
 Encourage self-control in the learner
 Develop and maintain positive teacher learner necessary.

RECORDS KEPT BY THE TEACHER
The records include:
1. Scheme of Work
2. Record of Work Covered
Important of R.O.W
 Facilitates smooth handing & taking over process
 Define area from which continuous assessment test can be set
 Enables the teacher know the mount of work covered hence makes it possible for another
teacher to step in temporarily should need arise
 Guides the head teacher in supervision of academic programmes
3. Learners’ Progress Record (L.P.R)

LRR shows each learner’s achievement in every piece of work that is assessed
Learner’s personality records should also be kept to show development in non-academic areas.
This is valuable in writing report form/transcripts & leaving certificate
Importance of L.P.R
 Enables a teacher to give remedial help to learners
 Enables the teacher to choose appropriate methods a resources, or make necessary
adjustments in the T/L process
 Used to give parents information about their children‘s performance
 Used to diagnose/identify problems that may not be due to ability
 Facilitate G/C of learners
 Enables the teacher to make predictions of learner’s performance in final exams
 Provides necessary information about a learner in case of transfer or admission to other
education levels
 Enables learners to gauge their own performance in the subject and class
 Facilitates preparation of report forms/transcripts
4. Class Attendance Register

Importance of CAR
 Helps to ensure punctuality a enhances general discipline of learners
 Used to motivate learners to attend school regularly
 Provides important information such as the number of learners in a class, gender
distribution & pattern of attendance
 Used for administrative purposes of the school a it contains useful individual information
that is used to compile statistical returns to M.O.E to facilitate future planning
 Enables a teacher get information on the whereabouts of learners who may be absent
Syrnbols used in marking CAR

/ -Morning presence

\ -Afternoon present
X -Full day present
0 -Absence
/0 -Present in the morning, absent afternoon
0\ - absent in the morning Present in the afternoon
00 –Absentte whole day
5. Class Timetable
Is a table of events arranged according to time when events take place
Function of a T.T
 Is a means allocating sufficient time to each subject in the curriculum
 Facilitate the process of division of labour i.e teacher is aware of what to teach & when to
do so
 Helps in coordinating teachers' effort towards Achieving school goals without collision,
friction & duplication
 Facilitates supervision of teachers’ work
 Promotes better use of school communal facilities
 Provides information on whereabouts & activities of learner & teachers at any given time
Principles of Time Tabling

 Set length of period/lesson in accordance with age & development of learners
 Distribute time for each subject in a way that suits its needs
 Give appropriate & adequate number of breaks
 Alternate practical-oriented subjects with those that are non-practical
 Programme P.E. towards break to allow adequate recovery time for the next lesson
 Avoid plotting more than two double lessons in a day
 Ensure flexibility of the T.T
6. Lesson Notes
 This refers to brief, written explanation that reinforce key concepts/main leaning points
 They complement the teacher‘s teaching, and the learner's learning
 Help the teacher to focus on the content of the lesson

Educational Communication and Technology
Learning Resources
Definition:
These are materials or media that aid learning directly or indirectly. They support the teacher in
delivering the subject matter.
Importance:
1. Make learning interesting/real.
2. Provides learners with a practical experience.
3. Improve leaner’s ability to remember facts.
4. Give meaning to words.
5. Appeal to all senses thus improving learners’ ability to remember facts.
6. Enhance teaching of sensitive topics.
7. Bring remote scenarios closer.
8. Enhances leaner’s creativity.
Factors to Consider when Selecting Learning Resources

 Relevance to the lesson/instructional objectives.
 Good quality, interesting and attractive.
 Availability of support equipment/facilities e. g. electricity, special rooms and equipment.
 Cost of the material and support equipment.
 Durability.
 Portability.
 Technical knowledge level of the teacher/ability to use the equipment.
 Age of learners.
 Number of learners/size of class
 Availability and accessibility of the materials.
 The complexity of understanding the teacher is aiming for.
 Safety.
 Effectiveness of the resource in the achievement of instructional Objectives
DISPLAYING LEARNING RESOURCES

This is important because;
1. Makes classroom look interesting and cared for,
2. Makes learners understand a topic better and link it to other subjects
3. Can stimulate questions and a desire to find out more about the topic
4. Enhances its effective use.
How to display

 Make a background for it using reed mats, fishnets, cardboard Sheets etc
 Vary the level to enable both short and tall learner access them
 Display in a suitable area e.g. the wall, shelves, ceiling using the mobile system or the
veranda outside the classroom
STORAGE AND SECURITY OF LEARNING RESOURCES

 Label and store in cartons, cupboards or shelves in a secure room when not in use
 Put up notices warning that items are fragile to be handled with care
 Appoint a student to be in charge of various resources
 Create a spirit of ownership in all stakeholders including parents who can be given an
opportunity to see the displays regularly.
CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING RESOURCES

Learning resources are broadly classified as:
1. Visuals
a. Display boards
i. Flannel boards
ii. Magnetic boards
iii. Peg boards
iv. Flip chart
v. Bulletin board
vi. Display table etc.
b. Graphical materials
i. Charts
ii. Diagrams
iii. Maps
iv. Cartoons etc.
c. Chalkboards
i. Fixed chalkboards
ii. Portable boards
iii. Sliding chalkboard
iv. Opening and closing
d. Whiteboard
e. Posters
f. Pictures/photographs
g. Three dimensional resources
i. Realia
ii. Models

h. Projectors
i. Braille materials
2. Audios
a. The radio
b. Audio tapes
c. Whistles
d. Drums
e. Human voice
3. Audio Visual
a. Television
b. Video recorder
c. Film
d. Computer
e. Camera recorders etc.
4. Others
 Resource Person
Characteristics/Functions of Various Teaching and Learning Resources
I. Visuals
Display Boards
Types -flannel board, felt board, peg boards, magnetic board, bulletin board, flip chart, display
table.
Flannel Board
This is a board that consists of two parts i.e. a cardboard on which either a piece of cloth or a
blanket is placed. Visual material to be displayed in form 0 pictures of symbols backed with a
rough surface material e.g. sand paper.
Magnetic Board
Serve the same purpose as the flannel board except that the Visual display are made to stick on the
board due to magnetism. Visuals are backed with magnets and are then placed on the metal surface
of the board. This provides more adhesive quality and allows easier and quicker maneuvering.
They’re also easier to prepare.
Chalkboard
This is a traditional teaching aid and is the most common and useful. It comes in a variety of colour.
Various aids can be displayed on it. It is adaptable in any teaching Situation.
Qualities-smooth, well darkened to make writings visible, centrally positioned, used with chalk

of good quality
Types
Fixed, portable, sliding, opening and closing chalkboard
Uses
1. Deve1op lesson notes.
2. Record answers form learners.
3. Hand drawn charts, maps, graphs etc.
4. Writing on discussion questions
5. To draw simple but meaningful sketches that make a story time alive.
6. Learners can use it to work out problems or illustrate their ideas
7. To display other aids e.g. Charts
8. Writing down key words or phrases.
Advantages
1. Does not require special skill/equipment to use
2. Adaptable to many uses,
3. cheap to install and use/maintain,
4. Durable,
5. easy to attract learners attention
Disadvantages:
1. Dusty,
2. Information written on it is not durable,
3. Lighting may cause glare,
4. Insufficient lighting causes poor Visibility;
5. Class control lost when too much time is spent writing on them
Effective usage:
 Writings should be straight/horizontal and uniform in size/style
 Uniform spacing between words/ sentences
 teachers should stand to one side when writing/not obstruct
 walk as you write to keep it straight
 move away after writing to allow learners to see
 don’t crowd C/B with information
 avoid talking when writing
 be systematic and neat by dividing the CB into three sections as below
Graphical Materials

Charts
These are a combination of pictorial graphic numerical material that present a clear visual summary
of an important process or set of relationships
Types -outline, tabular, flow, organizational, process
Characteristics:
 Should have a clear and well defined purpose.
 Big enough to be seen/adequate size.
 Have good layout and printing techniques.
 Attractive enough to capture learners’ attention.
 Colour used correctly/with discretion and intentionally to create realism.
 Accurate, authentic and precise.
 Clearly/horizontally labeled using few words.
 Large and bold lettering with equal spacing in-between/uniform letters.
 Have margins.
 Suitable for age and level of learners.
 Simple/vital information only/summary of key points learnt.
 Headings should be in capital letters
Functions of charts
1. Provides information on a topic inform of visual descriptions.
2. Stimulates conversation in language teaching.
3. Illustrates key stages in the performance of a skill.
4. Organizes information such that understanding is deepened.
5. Summarize knowledge on a topic that has been taught.
6. Show relationships between different aspects of a subject, process or concept.
7. Encourage skills of analysis.
8. Present alternative solutions to a problem so as to encourage judgment.
9. Modify behaviour and attitudes
10. Arouse interest
11. Stimulate discussion and further study.
Advantages:
1. Add meaning to descriptive material.
2. Easily understood at a glance.
3. Simplify complex information.
4. Can be a source of ideas for discussion.
5. Involves learners
Disadvantages:

1. Depict area as symbols which have little resemblance to reality; not durable,
2. Can confuse and give wrong information.
3. Time consuming to construct
Effective usage:
 Display neatly/centrally so all learners can see it.
 Use a pointer to explain;
 Display at appropriate time.
 Should not cover important information on c/b,
 Face class while explaining the information on the chart/ do not block it.
Sources:
 Travel agencies, public relations departments of industries and businesses
 Educational publishers.
 Newspapers and magazmes,
 Own constructions
Pictorials
These summarize significant information and ideas through combination of drawings words,
symbols and pictures. They focus attention on key Information through their brevity.
Criteria for Selection:

1. Should be clear, precise and accurate;
2. simple, bold/legible, interesting
Types: maps, graphs, diagrams, charts, cartoons and comics
These are a representation of some or the earth’s entire surface to a seal
Types:
 Relief.
 Political.
 Special purpose.
It should be of:
a) Adequate size.
b) Legible, suitable for learner’s level.
c) Colour used appropriately.
GRAPHS
These are visual representation of numerical data. It represent information quickly and effectively.
Types: line, bar, pie, and pictorial

Written Visuals
Books
These are written, printed or blank sheet of paper bound together.
Types:
Textbooks- used to teach part or whole course of study
Workbooks-for Pupils application
Reference books- search for Particular information
Functions:
1. Engage pupils during the lesson
2. Engage pupils in the evening
3. Helps the teacher in lesson Preparation
4. For their illustrations/pictures/maps;
5. Help children develop the skill of reading,
6. Helps the tr. m the preparation of the lesson plan or notes as reference material.
Sourcing: purchasing, donations; borrowing from libraries etc
Factors to consider when buying:

 Content relevance; content suitability;
 Content arrangement with table of contents and index for ease of use;
 Accurate and up-to-date;
 Illustrations be artistic;
 Durability;
 Well bound to last long;
 Type font and print be easy to read;
 Number of students;
 Affordable cost
Use, care and storage:

 Cover/jacket to protect from dust;
 Use a bookmark to indicate page reached;
 Avoid marking them;
 Repair as need arises;
 Use a strong bag to carry;
 Arrange in an orderly way when storing;
 Store in a cupboard, shelves, carton or bookcase;
 Dust regularly;
 Bind the edges;

 Avoid laying open and face down on a table as this damages the centre binding and pages
eventually come out.
Advantages:
1. Individualized instruction can be given whereby learners proceed at own pace and in what
they are interested in;
2. Economical as they can be reused;
3. Helps to organize and unify instruction;
4. Portable;
5. Flexible in use;
6. Information remains unchanged;
7. Future reference can be made;
8. Learners can work alone in the absence of the teacher; suitable for every age;
9. Easily portable.
10. Permanent record/not easily changed;
11. Can be used in the absence of a teacher; . . . .
12. Helps to organize and unify instruction by providing common reading experiences suggested
activities and revision questions.
Disadvantages:
1. Does not allow independent thinking;
2. May not always be up to date; costly to purchase; can be out of print/stock;
3. Not durable;
4. may give biased information;
5. May have sketchy information, encourages rote learning
6. Represents view of author or government which may indoctrinate learners,
7. Are preplanned therefore may not meet learners needs
How to improve usage:

1. Adapt them to own purpose and capability of learners;
2. Make contents come alive by using with other resources,
3. Pupils to read supplementary/ref. Materials;
4. Make use of the book’s visual contents
PROJECTOR
This is a mechanical device capable of projecting enlarged written or pictorial material onto a
screen or wall from a transparency placed horizontally below the projector and lit from underneath.
It can also be used with a computer.
Types: slide, overhead, opaque, liquid crystal (LCD) projector

Advantages:
1. The teacher prepares teaching materials before the lesson saving class time.
2. Transparencies can be reused by washing off previous material after use (computers are now
preferred).
3. The presenter and audience see the image at the same time making
discussion/communication easier.
4. It is easier for the audience to read the enlarged pictures and words.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive to buy.
2. Uses electric power, which is expensive and not available universally.
3. Requires technical knowledge to operate.
3-DIMENSIONAL RESOURCES REALIA

Refers to real things/three dimensional objects, which include:
a) Objects real things occurring naturally like stones,
b) Specimen living or preserved e. g. animals and plan
c) Artifacts man-made articles like tools, clothes, earthenware which enable learners
identify the people who make or use them for deeper experience
Characteristics: tangible, real
Advantages:
1. Learning is real, interesting and enjoyable
2. Provide learners with direct experience e.g. In the farm , ponds etc.,
3. Give accurate information
4. Enhance creativity;
5. Learners made responsible
6. Break classroom monotony
7. Enhance development of various skills.
8. Engage all the learners’ senses enhancing memory
Disadvantages: can be distractive can be dangerous or harmful; negative impact on the

environment when exposed living objects need a lot of care;
Sourcing:
 Pupils collect objects of interest;
 Collect samples when on field trips/nature walks;
 Exchanging with other institutions; samples from manufacturers
 Making the items e.g. mats, pots etc. ’

SPECIMEN
This is a thing or part of a thing taken as a representation of its group or class. They can be living
or preserved for use when need arises. Examples include: a collection of plants, soil samples of
clay, sand, loam etc.
MODELS
These are three-dimensional representation of a real thing or a true copy of the actual object.
They may be smaller or larger than the real object 6. g. a globe, an eye model, an ear model etc.
they are mainly used when the inside details of an object need to be observed/when the real object
is too dangerous/impossible to bring to class e.g. a snake, a mountain etc.
Types:
a) scale model looks like the real thing;
b) diagrammatic model demonstrate a process or a concept;
c) working models -constructed to actually work
Characteristics:
 have depth/thickness/height and width;
 reduce or enlarge objects to observable size;
 provide interior view;
 simplify complex objects;
 can be disassembled and reassembled
Materials used to make models:

 plasticines,
 clay,
 manila paper and
 cardboards.
Advantages:
1. Gives a feeling of depth and substance like real thing;
2. Can show the interior of the object without damage to the real thing;
3. Can represent a highly complex Situation or process;
4. Enhance learner participation
Limitations:
1. May give the wrong impression.
2. May misrepresent
3. Time consuming
When to use models:

 When object is too big/small/dangerous to bring to class

 When concept is complicated;
 When discussing unfamiliar situations help learners develop skill of modeling in art
AUDIOS
THE RADIO
Programs can provide:
a) Direct teaching aimed at teaching lessons for a specific syllabus
b) Core material aimed at stimulating further study on a theme.
c) Enrichment broadcasts aimed at supplying additional learning material not necessarily linked
to any syllabus.
How to make the most of the broadcast lesson

1. Get advance details of the programmes to be broadcast.
2. Select programmes that have positive value for learners
3. Make administrative preparations to obtain equipment and room for he lesson.
4. Prepare learners before the broadcast in accordance with any suggestions contained in the
teachers” notes or guidelines.
5. Plan timing and physical arrangements so that the pupils receive the programme clearly.
6. Carry out follow-up activities to derive full benefits from the programme.
TAPE RECORDERS/AUDIO TAPES

These are electronic devices used to record sounds/information on strips of plastic tape, which are
then replayed. The plastic strips may be wound on reels or cassettes for storage.
Types
1. Tape recorder with inbuilt speakers.
2. Tape player has no record functionality.
3. Tape deck requires external amplification for playback.
Advantages
1. Used to replay recorded items at convenient time,
2. Are portable.
3. Can use dry cells where there is no electricity.
4. Are fairly affordable.
5. Easy to handle and maintain.
6. Obsolete items can be deleted and new ones recorded,
7. Can be reuse
Limitations:
1. Use only the listening skill therefore limiting to learners.

2. Poor recording leads to poor output.
3. Easily destroyed if poor stored/handled.
4. Recorded information can be erased if wrong button is pressed/if not used for long.
AUDIO-VISUALS
FILMS
These are moving motion pictures. They screen recorded information, events, activity, project or
a story that can be used in a lesson.
Characteristics of a good film

1. Relevant to instructional objectives.
2. Short and precise
3. Appropriate for level of learners
4. Interesting, enjoyable and easy t understand
5. Sound and pictures should be clear
6. Contain accurate information.
7. Vocabulary used be to the level of learners.
8. Should not contain offensive language and scenes.
Preparing and showing educational films

1. Teacher should watch the film in advance so as to guide the learners as they watch and also
to plan follow-up activities after the film.
2. Explain the purpose of the film to the learners. .
3. Discourage note taking while learners are watching the film as this is likely to divides their
attention.
4. Discuss the film with the learners to obtain their feedback.
5. Show it a second time if possible to improve learners’ understanding\give learners follow-up
activities.
Advantages
1. Gives the impression of the real things since they show three dimensional images.
2. They can be used to illustrate slow processes such as seed germination, and plant growth
through time-lapse photography.
3. Can recreate the pas and bring distant places Such as Space and ocean depths to the
classroom.
4. Arouse the learners’ interest as the learners regar t em as a form of entertainment,
5. Enable learners to study animals and situations that may be dangerous to encounter in real
life.
Disadvantages
1. Can give incorrect notions/ideas or inaccurate information

2. Learners may treat films as entertainment rather than learning.
3. Not very adaptable as it is difficult to excerpt what is wanted or skip the irrelevant
4. Requires special provision for projection.
5. Projectors and films are costly
6. Need electric power which may not be available in school
7. The may be power outages during viewing thus disrupting and reducing the effectiveness of
the film.
8. Take a fair amount to time, thought and money.
9. The language used may not be to the level of learners.
Selection of Films
Consider:
 Visibility
 Clarity
 Accuracy of information
 Ease of presentation
 Availability
Sources
British council library, national museums, American cultural centre, KICD, KNLS, Kenya national
archives (watched from there), universities etc.
COMPUTERS
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates and processes data and information in response
to instructions.
How to Use Computers in Teaching

1. Use of computer programmes to produce more accurate maps, graphs and other documents
and printing them.
2. Research from the internet which makes access to a wealth of accurate and current
information.
3. Teachers can interact with learners even when away from class through email.
4. When used in combination with DVDs and CDs pre-recorded information can be availed for
use when needed.
5. When used in conjunction with satellite communication, radio programmes and broadcasts
can be received in schools.
6. Use of computer aided instruction for individualized learning so learners can work at their
own pace and get feedback; hence they can be able to evaluate themselves.
Advantages
1. Better and more accurate information can be accessed at will.
2. They break the monotony of routine teaching.

3. They heighten leaners’ interest in learning.
4. Teachers and learners can present their work in a more organized manner
5. Teaching and learning can be made more interactive.
6. They can store retrieve manipulate process transmit and receive information.
Disadvantages
1. lmproper information can be accessed
2. Learners may waste time playing computer games which will distract their attention.
3. Learns may access other peoples work (plagiarism) hence cheating on assignment
4. Both teacher and learners should be computer literate.
5. Computers are expensive to buy and maintain.
6. Schools may not have access to electricity on which computers run.
7. There may be no access to the intemet.
8. Only one learner can use a computer at any given time therefore many computers are needed.
Selection of computer programmes

 The software should run with the type of computer available in the school.
 It should meet the specific instructional objectives.
 Should have meaningful and worthwhile content.
 Should be interactive with learners
 Should use sound and graphics appropriately to heighten leamers’ interest.
 Should take an appropriate amount of time to expose learners to the content.
 Should have adequate support materials with clear and detailed instructions.
 Should be appropriate in terms of reading level.
 Should not enforce stereotypes of socially undesirable behavior.
Improvisation of Teaching/Learning
This refers to making T/L resources from locally available materials to represent the real thing.
It is the act of using local resources in the immediate environment to build, construct, mold or
make instructional T/L materials that can assist in a smooth T/L process.
It can also be defined as the act of designing a replica of standard equipment to play the role it is
designated for.
An act of using alternative resources to facilitate instructions for teaching wherever there is lack
of specific first hand teaching aids.
Characteristics Of Improvised Resources

 Simple
 Cheap
 Safe for use by learners e. g. not made from materials that are toxic.
 Suitable for the content under consideration
 Conform as much as possible to the real equipment or resources in terms of weight, shape
and size.
 Functional

 Merit social and scientific recognition, operation and function
Reasons for Improvisation

 Insufficiency of facilities and equipment.
 High cost of facilities and equipment
 Problems of storage, repair and replacement.
 Helps to minimize loss of equipment and materials.
Importance
 It’s a meaningful attempt towards finding suitable or alternative conventional science
materials.
 It will develop in students and teachers adequate skill thus generating interest and motivation
for indigenous technology.
 Learner participation in improvisation exposes them to creativity, innovation and curiosity.
 Eliminates the menace of inadequate instructional material.
 Is a link between theory and practice.
 Science students will realize that science has to do with ordinary things and this may
motivate them to carry out experiments and learning activities by themselves using such
improvised materials.
Factors to Consider
 Availability of required materials
 Skill of the teacher
 Degree of accuracy and precision that is possible with the improvised equipment
 Quality of the materials used they should not be toxic or inflict injury on the user
 Should meet the specific teaching learning YCQUirsments/situation,
PROCESS OF IMPROVISATION
1. School administration should offer financial assistance
2. Solicit support 0f parents to procure materials for improvisation
3. Solicit support 0f experts Within the community to assist in the improvisation exercise
WEAKNESSES OF IMPROVISED MATERIALS

 May not achieve the level of accuracy and precision required
 May not be attractive to look at.
 If not well made can cause harm or injury to users.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain 5 reasons why teachers should be encouraged to improvise teaching and learning
resources in their schools. 10mks

2. Explain 4 design principles that a teacher should consider when improvising a teaching
learning display. 8 mks
3. Explain 6 ways a teacher would adapt teaching and learning resources for learners with
visual impairment. 12 mks
4. Analyze 5 factors that a teacher should consider when improvising a teaching and learning
resource. 10 mks
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Verbal
2. Non-verbal
3. Written
4. Using Electronic devices
All types of communication can be formal or informal
Formal
 Is structured and prescribed e.g. minutes written in a meeting for future use.
 Its main function is to maintain the formal structure of the organization.
 It mainly consists of written.
Informal
 Occurs outside the established order and is mostly conveyed thru face-to-face meetings or by
telephone conversations.
 Informal communication results in messages travelling faster than formal.
 Its primary function is to maintain the social relationship and distribution of personal
information.
VERBAL/ORAL COMMUNICATION
This refers to expressing one’s thoughts and feelings through words. It is the oldest and most
common type of communication. Formal verbal communication includes:
a) Announcements during assemblies
b) Interaction between a teacher and learners
Advantages of verbal
 Fast
 Immediate feedback
 Firsthand information
 Rich source of information
Disadvantages

 Message easily gets distorted in the process due to Forgetting, Misunderstanding, Re-
wording the message, distractions
 Nobody can be held responsible for the message.
 Cannot be retrieved in future.
Features of verbal communication

1. Audibility
2. Clarity words used should be simple and suitable to the level of understanding of the
learners.
3. Precise enunciation-words pronounced distinctly and run-ons like wanna, gonnashd be
avoided.
4. Variety and emphasis speaker must vary rate of speaking and tone of voice; put emphasis on
pertinent points.
5. Correct language use language and sentence structure suitable to the level of learners.
6. Consistency of verbal and non~verba1 cues to avoid confusing learners
7. It should be Timely
8. Listening-interpreting and understanding the significance of what someone is saying.
Non-Verbal Communication
These are messages that are transmitted by means other than linguistics. These means include
posture, facial expressions, colours, gestures, body movements, touching etc
Characteristics
 It may occur in clusters or packages e.g. in expressing anger, the heart beat rises, eyes dilate
and hands are thrown apart.
 It always communicates one’s actions or displays behaviour signals e.g. sitting reading
quietly in a corner means one does not want disturbance.
 It is influenced by the socio-cultural context e.g. nodding/ shaking the head
 It is simultaneous and ambiguous and one may not have control over them.
 It may be discrepant from verbal behaviour
Types of non-verbal cues

1. Eye contact helps to monitor feedback, signal conversation and compensate for. physical
distance. The teachers should look at pupils directly/make eye contact.
2. Facial expressions should support verbal messages.
3. Motion-walking around the classroom shows interest or lack of it as you move to and from
students
4. Gestures useful to emphasis a point.
5. Physical contact-useful to gain attention or promote learning. Used with discretion when age
and gender appropriate.

6. Silence -useful to gain attention, emphasis a point, allow thinking time or deal with a
disruption.
Advantages
1. Makes communication Warm and lively.
2. Gives emphasis to important points
3. Increases attentiveness of the receiver.
4. Increases retention.
5. Clarifies points.
Disadvantages
1. Can be misunderstood
2. Limited to use in verbal communication.
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
This is communication through written or printed materials. It is also common and examples
include: letters, books, newspapers, memos, etc. these convey information from person-to person,
place-to-place and generation-to-generation.
Advantages
1. Convey a lot of information
2. Are more binding than verbal
3. Provide future reference.
4. Not easily distorted.
Disadvantages
1. A letter can be easily trapped by an agent.
2. More expensive
3. Information in books can be outdated/wrong/immoral
4. Not appealing to the illiterate
COMMUNICATION THROUGH ELECTRONIC DEVICES

These include: telephones (fixed line and mobiles), radio, TV, internet, email, etc. these have
greatly improved communication. Some of them can be used for both verbal and written
communication.
Advantages
 Reduces distance and cost/time
 Learning is made more accessible and affordable: e-learning/E-elimu by KICD
 Reaches a large audience.
 Information is accessible to all through Google and other search machines.
 Information is stored for future(internet does not forget)

Disadvantages
 Not available in rural areas/where there’s no electric power.
 Requires computer literacy
 Availability and cost of device.
 Wrong/immoral information. '
 Loss of information due to viruses/device breakdown.
 Limited privacy-hacking
Directions of Communication
Downward/Top-Down
This is concerned with the flow of information from the top to the bottom of an organization. In a
School a message can be sent form the Principal thru the deputy Principal to the heads of
department and to the rest of the teachers.
Purpose
 To give orders/instructions
 Indoctrinate
 Inspire
 Evaluate
 Give feedback to subordinates on their performance.
 Delegate duties
 Guide
 Inform.
Advantages
 Motivates the receivers.
 Helps to evaluate receivers.
 Receivers can communicate their needs.
 It provides feedback to the sender.
Disadvantages
 May fail to meet the needs of the receiver.
 May isolate the sender/leader.
 Misinterpretation may occur.
 May encourage authoritarianism.
Lateral/Horizontal Communication
This occurs among people who work together as a team or between members of separate functional
departments such as the departments in a school or between students in a discussion group.

Channels include face-to-face meetings, written memos, requisition forms etc.
Purpose
 Co-ordination of activities.
 Problem-solving.
Advantages
1. Promotes unity among the members of the team.
2. Enhances the generation of ideas.
3. Corporate responsibility is developed among the members
Disadvantages
1. Time consuming if not well executed
2. Dominance of some members
3. Decision making is slowed down
METHOD OF COMMUNICATION
Direct
In this method the message is given directly by sender to the receiver and reply is given on the
spot. Examples include announcements during assemblies or in meetings and classroom teaching
and learning process. It can be improved through the use of electronic devices.
Advantages
 It is efficient and reliable as the results are immediate
 Less possibility of distortion.
 Has personal appeal
 Clarification can be made
Disadvantages
 Not effective for scattered audience.
 Audience prejudging the message.
 Audience arguing with the sender and derailing the process.
INDIRECT/RELAY METHOD
In this method the messages do not travel from sender to receiver directly. There is an intermediate
agent or agents thru whom the message must pass before reaching the recipient. It is referred to as
the relay method because the message is handed from one agent to another for onward transmission
to the recipient.
Advantages
 Suitable for a scattered audience.
 Suitable in a large/complex organization with many departments.

Disadvantages
 The message may be delayed.
 Message may be distorted esp. verbal messages.
 Message may be diluted by the agent through a process of filtering. This is useful in reducing
the work of the recipient esp. in upward messages.
 The message may be trapped esp. if the agent does not want a certain message to reach one
or all the receivers.
COMMUNICATION MODELS
A communication model is a mathematical or verbal representation of the key elements in the
communication process. The models include:
1. Shannon-Weaver model
2. The Shannon-Schramm model
3. The Transactional model
SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL
Information
Transmitter Signal Receiver Destination
source
Message Noise
Received signal source
This model was modified from the first model developed by Shannon in 1949, which mainly dealt
with the technical aspects of communication. Shannon later collaborated with Weaver to develop
a broader application of this model to other communication problems including instructional
situations. In it, a message is selected by an information source. That message is then incorporated
by the transmitter into a signal. The signal could be spoken words, a drawing on the chalkboard or
printed materials. The signal is then received by the receiver’s ears and/or eyes and transformed
into message reaching the destination e.g. the student’s mind. As the signal is being transmitted, it
is acted upon by various distorting factors, which Shannon refers to as noise. Noise could be
background sounds or glare on the chalkboard.
THE SHANNON SCHRAMM MODEL
SENDER SIGNAL RECEIVER
Noise source
FEEDBACK
This model emphasis that only when the sender’s and receiver’s fields of experience overlap is
there communication. Ideally, material presented to a student should be sufficiently within his/her
experience to enable them learn, but enough outside the field of experience to challenge and extend
that field. When instruction extends too far beyond the student’ 5 field of experience, confusion
sets in. This will depend on the ability of the students able students can extend their field of
experience more than less able ones. At times, the learning task may not be within the field of
experience of the instructor as well. When this occurs, both the instructor and the learner should
seek to extend their respective fields of experience.
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
SENDER RECEIVE
INTERPR INTERPR
ETER ETER
RECEIVE SENDER
RRRRR
This model shows the changing roles of the individuals within the communication process. In this
process the sender of the message encodes according to his/her skill and knowledge and the
receiver decodes it according to his/her field of experience, in the feedback process. However,
receiver must also encode his/her interpretation of the signal for relay back to the sender who must
decode it. In effect, the receiver becomes the sender, the sender becomes the receiver and both
interpret the message according to their field of experience. A teacher must decode the student’s
feedback Signals according to their interpretation of instructional content, which may or may not
be the same as the teachers and will vary from student to Student depending on their race or
ethnicity, sensory abilities, country of origin etc.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Physical barriers
Refers to all stimuli in the environment that keep one from focusing on the speaker and message
such as:
 Distance or extraneous noise e g. loud music loud talk,
 Smells e g strong perfume,

 flickering lights,
 too hot/cold environment,
 annoying habits of the presenter,
 Poor quality of visuals etc.
 Use of inefficient electronic devices or a breakdown of the devices e.g. static interference
in radio, unclear telephone lines, power blackout etc.
Mental barrier
This is interference that is caused by:
 The receiver not knowing the code used.
 The receiver being distracted from attending to the message.
 Factual distractions
Emotional barrier
This is interference that' is caused by:
 A bad relationship between the sender and the receiver.
 Age difference or rank difference that may cause fear.
 Misinterpretation of non-verbal cues.
 Teacher/Student Attitudes
 Value Judgment i.e. preferences, biases or prejudices that confer a benefit or higher status
to some people over others
 Lack of interest in the information being communicated by the audience/receivers
Language barrier
This is interference that is caused by:
 Semantic distractions
 Teacher-Student age gap
 Use of Jargon
 Use of technical language
 Mother-tongue interference
 Poor intonation
Insufficient or incomplete communication

This is communication that does not meet the needs of the receivers e.g. where the sender appears
not to value the experiences, values and beliefs of the receiver, information is given merely as a
token or a formality.
Caused by:
 Omission
 Filtering
 Poor timing

Others
1. Poor choice of media of communication eg. using the written word when the receiver is not
able to read/use of a foreign language/advanced vocabulary etc .
2. Overloading i.e. the reception of too much information whereby the receiver is unable to
process all of it.
3. Lack of opportunity for the receiver to respond e.g. in one way communication such a
memos
4. Communication of a faulty or distorted message. This may cause the receiver to take the
wrong action or to misunderstand the sender’s attitude. This can be corrected by effective
feedback where the receiver can ask for clarification.
5. Inability of the receiver to decode the information due to:
a) Written copies may be illegible
b) Words used may not be understood by the receiver
c) Wrong spelling and punctuation
d) Slurred speech or an unusual accent
6. Coding and decoding distortion when:
a) The sender codes information for transmission in a particular medium e.g. words that do
not fully express what one wants to say.
b) The receiver decodes and does not give the same meaning to the words as the sender did.
7. Chain distortion which occurs when the information passes along a chain. It is caused by
people changing roles from receiver to sender.
ENHANCING EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. This is best done by reducing barriers to effective communication.
2. The language used must bear the same meaning for both the sender and the
receiver/recipient. The sender should avoid ambiguous words and colloquial phrases. The
sender should be simple and precise.
3. Give the receiver sufficient time to respond to the message. Avoid last minute
communication which may cause inconvenience.
4. Choose a medium that is most suited to the conditions under which the message is to be
sent.
5. It should also be appropriate for the receiver. It should not be unpleasant to them.
6. Avoid using a Code that is ambiguous or that might be misunderstood.
7. Shape the message to suit the receiver’s point of view i.e. make it easier for them to
understand the message.
8. Have sufficient information about the message you are sending. You should be able to
answer any questions from the receiver. Teacher must have a mastery of the subject
matter

9. Keep message clear and precise. Ensure that spellings, punctuation and pronunciations
are correct. Avoid ambiguity.
10. Get the tone right as a wrong tone may produce unfavourable response in other people.
Use a warm friendly tone, one that is confident, calm and helpful.
11. Keep it brief as long messages increase chances of distortion.
12. Delegation of responsibilities to individuals at the lower levels of authority. Use
instructional media to sustain student interest and attention
13. Set good relationship with students 13. Treat students equally without labeling according
to academic excellence
14. Plan the communication
15. Be a good listener and respectful
COMMUNICATION USING VISUAL AIDS .

This type of communication depends on the sense of sight. Visuals are relevant pictures used to
bring out the meaning of an abstract idea. Visuals include real objects, charts, films, television,
models and chalkboard.
Advantages
1. They help to develop an interest in something.
2. Helps learners pay attention and show interest in the subject.
3. They give an accurate impression.
4. They define facts and information easily and precisely.
5. They define ideas in concrete terms.
6. They give meaning to words.
7. They speed up the learning process.
8. Aid in long term memory.
9. Create opportunities for active learning.
Disadvantages
1. The gadgets are expensive to acquire
2. Using them requires technical know how.
3. Affected by network/airwaves interference.
4. Can be used to mislead leamers/ audience

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EDUCATION

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 1 of 253

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 2 of 253

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 3 of 253

What were the major characteristics of traditional African education?

What was emphasized in traditional African education as a way of preparing an individual

In what instances was the traditional African education formal?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 4 of 253

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 5 of 253

Establishment of Western education before 1963

Why did the missionaries want to educate the Africans?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 6 of 253

How was the early missionary education managed?

How did Africans respond to the early missionary education?

Government participation in education

What was the starting point for government participation?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 7 of 253

Outline the recommendations made by Frazer.

How did Frazer’s report influence the development of education?

What was the outcome of the Commission?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 8 of 253

Outline the objectives of Phelps Stoke commission of 1924

How did the Phelps-Stoke Report influence the development of education?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 9 of 253

What guidance did the 1925 Memorandum give on education?

What problems related to development of education was the memorandum attempting to

Why was there emphasis on technical and vocational education?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 10 of 253

Why did technical and vocational education policy fail?

Management and control of education

What was the purpose of such councils?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 11 of 253

Why were the missionaries opposed to Local Native Council schools?

Why was the Education Ordinance of 1931 passed?

What effects did the 1931 Ordinance have on development of education?

African participation in the development of education

Independent schools movement

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 12 of 253

What led to the closure of the independent schools in 1952?

A change in government policy

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 13 of 253

The Beecher Report 1949

Outline the major recommendations made by the Beecher Committee.

Why was the Beecher Report unpopular among the Africans?

The Binns Group (1950)

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 14 of 253

In which ways was education for Africans financed before independence?

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 15 of 253

Importance of Studying Comparative Education

The Scopes of Comparative Education

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 16 of 253

Methods and approaches

In the social science method we have:

In the conventional method we have:

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 17 of 253

The selective education borrowing approach

Descriptive and explanatory approach

The historical approach

The systematic area studies approach

It follows the following basic steps:

The major proponent of this approach is George Beredy.

© S. K OTUNGAH Page 18 of 253