Literature Review

Review of related literature in any field of investigation has become an inevitable part of

research work. “Familiarity with the literature in any problem area helps the student to discover

what is already known, what others have attempted to find out, what method of approach has

been promising or disappointing and what problems remain to be solved”. The investigator has

made an earnest effort to find out and study the research related to the topic under investigation

concluded by the various researchers and scholars.

English has become a global language and teaching English as a foreign language (EFL)

has increasingly become a universal demand. As reported by Macaro, Curle, Pun, An, and

Dearden (2018), English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has become a growing global

phenomenon, particularly in higher education. More and more higher education institutions are

now keen to offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs through the medium of English

(Earls, 2016). The reasons for this are various and context dependent. They include a perceived

need to internalize the higher education institution (Knight, 2013) so that it is prestigious enough

to attract foreign students due to falling enrollment numbers of local students through changing

demographics, national cuts in higher education investment, the need of the public sector to

compete with the private sector, and the status of English as an international language (EIL),

especially in the domain of research publications (Macaro et al., 2018). Notwithstanding the

above-mentioned, English has been formally adopted as an official language and the medium of

communication among the participating countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nation

(ASEAN) to foster collaborative activities towards accomplishing quality education in the region

(Luanganggoon, Phantharakphong, Sae-Joo, & Huntula, 2018). Therefore, using EMI in Thai

higher education institutions is a key mechanism to equip graduates with professional skills and
English language proficiency (Phantharakphong, Sudathip, & Tang, 2019). This enables the Thai

higher education to produce more competent graduates who are competitive in the ASEAN

Economic Community and wider international market (Bunwirat, 2017). However, the Thailand

Nation website indicates that Thailand is ranked 55th from a list of 60 countries on their English

proficiency skills (https://www.ajarn.com/ajarn-guests/why-is-english-so-poor-in-thailand). This

shows that Thailand is so far down the ladder of English proficiency even though Thai

educational policy has emphasized the importance of the English language by employing native

speakers to teach English throughout Thailand (Luanganggoon, 2020). Moreover, teaching

English as a foreign language or second language (L2) has become an important issue and is very

challenging (Jufri, Yusri, & Mantasiah, 2019). The development of English as EMI is of great

interest to language policy researchers in an era of globalization and internationalization. Despite

the recognition of some implementation problems and constraints, EMI has been widely

introduced into various non-native English-speaking countries including Thailand

(Luanganggoon, 2020). English has evolved from being foreign language or L2 to the language

of academic disciplines in tertiary education (Wanphet & Tantawy, 2018). A major outcome of

international colleges particularly in Thailand in terms of internationalization is the adaptation of

English as the EMI for all the study programs. Furthemore, English-medium domination is

deeply rooted in social, economic, and technological development as well as in international

communication due to the results of globalization noticed in more Englishmedium programs in

higher education institutions (Doiz, Lasagabaster, & Sierra, 2013). This is further supported by

Chapple (2015) who investigated the relationship between teaching quality of the EMI program

and the learning barriers. Chapple found that understanding the lecturers’ perspectives would

contribute to the enhancement of the teaching practices and effectiveness of EMI. Using EMI in
a university study program is a method to prepare an English-proficient labor force to help it

compete in the global market as emphasized by Troudi (2009).

In the global debates on English as international lingua franca or as ‘killer language’, the

adoption of English as medium of instruction in Higher Education is raising increasing concern.

Plurilingualism and multilingualism are embedded in the official policies of the European Union

and Council of Europe, and the Bologna Process for harmonizing Higher Education promises

‘proper provision for linguistic diversity’. But even enthusiasts acknowledge the problems of

implementing such policies in the face of an inexorable increase in the use of English. This

survey draws on the most recent and sometimes disparate sources in an attempt to paint a

comprehensive and up-to-date picture of the spread of English-medium teaching in Europe's

universities. The article sets the changes in the context of accelerating globalization and

marketization and analyses the forces which are driving the adoption of English, and some of the

problems which accelerating ‘Englishization’ of European Higher Education might create.

The term English medium instruction itself is relatively new and no universally accepted

definition exists. The term EMI is used in some countries (for example Hong Kong) and not in

others. It is sometimes used as synonymous with CLIL (Content and Language Integrated

Learning). However CLIL has a dual educational objective built into its title (the enhancement of

both content and language) whereas EMI does not. Taken at ‘face value’ EMI simply describes

the practice of teaching an academic subject through English which is not the first language of

the majority population. EMI is sometimes confused with teaching English as a Foreign

Language (EFL) through English, meaning that the interaction and texts used for instruction in

EFL should avoid any recourse to the students’ first language. EMI is also confused with ESP

(English for Specific Purposes) in which courses involve English for journalism or business
studies for example, specifically designed to enable a student to undertake that profession in an

English-speaking context. It may also be confused with EAP (English for Academic Purposes)

which is designed to provide students with the type of academic vocabulary and (usually written)

discourse enabling them to operate successfully at a university which delivers its academic

subjects through the medium of English.

The following comments are from respondents in various countries summarizing the

reasons found in official policies and statements for introducing EMI in their country.

Hungary: The new Public Education Act [4/2013. (I.11.)] contains aims for bilingual

education in primary and secondary schools:

■ developing Hungarian and foreign communication skills

■ developing language learning skills

■ developing knowledge of target culture

■ maximizing subject integration opportunities

■ enabling students to study or work in a foreign language environment. Higher

education EMI is encouraged to: – raise foreign language skills to prepare students for

compulsory language exams – attract international students.

Malaysia: Malaysia’s multicultural society makes it a natural environment for producing

students who are proficient in more than one language.

Japan: [they are] Resolutely proceeding with internationalization and making educational

environments at universities that can compete with the best in the world. [they are] Providing

opportunities for all students with the desire and capability to study abroad. Enhancing education
from the primary and secondary school levels to respond to globalization. Cultivating identity as

a Japanese and spreading Japanese culture to the world

Indonesia: The policy states: ‘A school/madrasah which fulfils all the National Standards

for Education and which is further enriched by taking into consideration the education standards

of one member nation of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) and/or another advanced nation which has particular strengths in education such that it

achieves competitive advantage in the international forum’.

Teaching the English Language in the Philippines

According to a portable format file entitled “Exploring the Filipinization of the English

Language in a Digital Age: An Identity Apart from Other World English”, Present-day English is

a part of the lives of millions of people and the multiple crucial roles it now fulfils. According to

Morrison (2002), with an estimated 350 million native speakers and 1.9 billion competent

speakers, the spread of the English language around the world over the last few decades has been

swift and steady. English has become the lingua franca of our time. It is the international

language of airlines, sea and shipping, computer technology, science, and general

communication. Over its spread, English has diversified by adapting to local circumstances and

cultures, resulting in different varieties of English in every country. English speakers are divided

into three groups: native speakers, speakers of English as a second language, and speakers of

English as a foreign language. Kachru (1994) provided a model to categorize the three concentric

circles of World Englishers: "Inner circle", "Outer circle", and "Expanding circle" (Bauer, 59

2002). In the Inner circle, English is the language of identity for its native speakers. However,

when transferred to countries in the Outer and Expanding rings, English becomes an alien form

of expression with different structural properties and vocabulary to organize experience (Doms,
2003). Hence, the Philippines is one of the largest English-speaking nations in the Outer circle.

Since the colonization of the Americans, Filipinos have been using English as their second

language and are accustomed to using it alongside local languages.

Throughout the time of Filipinos' utilization, the English language's phonological,

morphological, semantic, and syntactic features underwent a process that executed a series of

changes. These "changes" generated by the process of Filipinization gave birth to Philippine

English (P.E.), the variety of English native to the Filipinos. According to Florendo (2012), P.E.

is recognizably English but infused with creative vocabulary, syntax, and intonation that only

Filipinos can decipher correctly. Kachru (1992), in his book entitled The Other Tongue: English

Across Cultures, mentioned that Philippine English has distinct characteristics, functions, and

forms different from other World Englishers like Singaporean English, Malaysian English, and

Thai English. Moreover, its acceptance and legitimacy lie in that English has penetrated the

historical, functional, sociocultural, and creative processes or contexts 60 of the Filipinos

(Kachru, 2004). English is used in official documents of business, government, the legal system,

medicine, and the sciences and as a medium of instruction. Textbooks for calculus, physics,

chemistry, and biology are written in English rather than Filipino.

Thus, Filipinos assert English with a sort of "worldly" and "cultured" standing compared

to the local languages. The use of English attempts to give an air of formality in the Philippines,

recognizing its importance as the international language. The presence of English towards

Filipino discourse is also felt in social media. With over 80 per cent of Filipinos engaged in

social networking sites (Camus, 2017), social media usage in the Philippines is high. According

to Flores (2014), the influence of social media contributes to the acculturation of English into the

Filipinos' psyche and culture. Language does influence social status. For the linguist Edward
Sapir (1929), language is not only a vehicle for expressing thoughts, perceptions, sentiments, and

values characteristic of a community; it also represents a fundamental expression of social

identity. Speaking English fluently is usually a sign of good education, resulting in most

Filipinos interacting on social media using the language. In modern-day culture, different social

networking sites have been popularized by Filipinos. As of 2018, Twitter has generated an

estimated 9.5 million users in the Philippines (Mateo, 2018). With the act of "tweeting",

Filipinos can express their thoughts, ideas, and sentiments. As the findings of Mateo (2018)

imply that Twitter is generating massive use in the Philippines, the researcher chose it as the

initial ground for the study.

Like other countries, the Philippine government has paid extreme attention to its

educational development aiming to make every citizen prosperous and humanistic. This attempt

is clearly stated in the state laws. Article 14 of the constitution stipulates that the school shall

inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster a love for humanity, respect for human rights,

appreciation of the rule of national heroes in the historical development of the country, teach the

rights and duties of citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character

and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden science and

technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency. As deeply entrenched in the central

goal of the Philippine education for all 2015 National Action Plan prepared in 2006, the

education structure in the Philippines covers essential competencies that promote functional

literacy for all. The vision of every Filipino family is to ensure that each son or daughter has the

opportunity for high-quality education that will make him or her a whole person leading him or

her to become productive or successful. English is generally taught in all levels of schools, from

elementary to tertiary. This stage is segmented into several phases and episodes, along with the
country's development, after gathering complete independence on July 4, 1946. Although Emilio

Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine independence from the Spanish regime on June 12, 1898,

Filipinos had never been freed by Americans until the U.S. signed the Treaty of Manila on July

4, 1946, granting that the Philippines gained "full independence" from the United States of

America. Consequently, Spanish was not widely used in the education system but the English

language (S.E., n.d.). The Philippines, however, celebrates Independence Day (or Araw ng

Kalayaan) every June 12 to commemorate their freedom from Spain. In the other essay, how

English is taught will be explained in some sub-topic seen from history and types of English

instruction at schools in this country. Martin (2014) summarized critical points on how English

is taught among Filipinos.

English was introduced in the Filipino classroom by American soldiers who first taught

in Corregidor in 1898. Since then, English w has been a medium of instruction (MOI) at all

levels. Along with the colonization (1898-1946) for fifty years, English was promoted in the

classrooms as if it were a native language for Filipino speakers (p.475). The form of how this

model was massively implemented at Philippine schools was found to be written by one of the

American principals in 2011, as seen in his diary expressed below. "We must insist that every

day in his first three years of school life, the Filipino child has a dialogue lesson, and we must

make him commit that lesson to memory. For instance, suppose his first lesson is as brief as this:

"Good morning, Pedro."

"Good morning, Jose."

"How are you this morning, Pedro?"

"Thank you. I am very well."

 It would not be cruelty to animals to insist on any second-grade pupil's committing that

lesson to memory" (Martin, 2002, as cited in Martin, 2014, p. 476). This indicates how and to

what extent English during the colonization. In more comprehensive outlines, English was

instructed as in the following description. First, the students are asked to memorize dialogue

(Audio Lingual Method). Further, they are also trained to do activities in the classroom, such as

stressing eye movements in reading, asking students to read aloud, making them perform

grammar drills, and expecting them to recite memorized passages. All these activities are

identified as techniques in the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) invented by Fries and developed

by B.F. Skinner (Encyclopedia, n.d.). Simultaneously, the government supports how English is

learnt and spoken through a systematic program called Mother-Tongue-Based Multilingual

Education (MTB-MLE) law. The Philippines recently passed the MTB-MLE law, requiring

earlier grades to be taught in students' mother tongues (Wa-Mbaleka, 2014). This is seen in the

statements below. "Under the MTB-MLE law, the number of English instruction periods is

minimal. From the Input Hypothesis perspective, it can be expected that the English learning

process will be slower due to MTB-MLE. This law is good for learning in general. Its

application, however, is causing some challenges because it is still new, and it looks like limited

training has been provided to teachers in this Outer Circle country" (p.71). Research shows that

the Philippines is prosperous in teaching and learning English. The evidence of this success is

seen through the promotion of English through the media, home, school, tourism, business, and

even the sending of English teachers abroad. Some surveys even proved that the Philippines was

the best non-native English-speaking country in industry English. A significantly higher

percentage of people in the Philippines speak English than in neighbouring countries (Wa-

Mbaleka, 2014).
 The integration of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015 and the United

Nation’s call for Education for All (EFA) 2015 has pushed the Philippine government to revamp

the country’s educational system. Such revamp of a review of the effectiveness of English

language education (ELE) in the country, which may be described as currently at a crossroads, as

stakeholders strive to address issues of developing the English language competencies of Filipino

students on the one hand, and the strengthening of academic achievement on the other. ELE in

the Philippines, which began during the American colonial period in the nineteenth century, has

been found wanting in significantly contributing to increased learning outcomes among Filipino

students. ELE policies have been beset with issues of alignment and coherence in curriculum and

assessment, as well as challenges in implementing genuine reform. In addition, ELE has been

implemented at the expense of literacy in the mother tongues.

In a report called Business English Index (BEI), the Philippines has been tagged as the

world’s best country in business English proficiency in not just one but two consecutive years.

Based on the BEI Report in 2012, only the Philippines attained a score above 7.0, putting the

country within range of a high proficiency that indicates an ability to lead business discussions

and perform complex tasks. Moreover, in the 2013 BEI report, the Philippines earned 7.95

scores, an improved BEI score over the prior year. This may be why the Philippines has taken

over India as a hub for call centres in Asia. However, various studies reveal that the quality of

education in the Philippines is continuously declining. This notion is based on the results of

achievement tests and board examinations. Therefore, not only elementary and secondary

graduates are affected but also college graduates.

The Professional Regulatory Commission (PRC) reports that passers of board

examinations in all fields of endeavour continue to go down. One of the fundamental causes of
this phenomenon is the low academic performance at the elementary and secondary levels. This

academic performance of the students can be attributed to their proficiency in the English

language. Educators agree that proficiency in the English language is the basis for success in

academic pursuits. Reading, writing, and working with numbers are tasks based on language

skills [1], [2] describes this as the interplay between conversational language skills and more

advanced communication skills. As [4] claims, language proficiency in English is significantly

related to academic performance. Academic subjects like Science, Mathematics and English

often require language functions. Language functions play a significant role in critical and

analytical thinking required in science and mathematics subjects. The more language functions

with which students are adept, the more effective their thinking can be. Thus, the more the

students are proficient in English, the more likely they will perform well in their academic

subjects.

the first language interference in learning the English language among three cultural

groups – the Ilocano, the Ibanag, and the Itawes. Wherein the subject of the study was sixty

sophomore students from the College of Education and the College of Business Entrepreneurship

and Accountancy who officially enrolled at Cagayan State University, Andrews Campus,

Tuguegarao City, for the school year 2010-2011. This research ascertained that the students,

regardless of ethnic affiliation, had similar proficiency levels in the written proficiency test.

However, the students did not do well in the oral exam, specifically on intonation and

pronunciation. They had several errors in their performance, and their first language significantly

interfered with their English language learning. However, the students’ L1 facilitated the

completion of a given task on speaking. The students had to turn to their L1 now and then. Their

first language served as a mechanism or strategy to realize an objective in language learning. On

the other hand, while the researcher believed that the L1 helps to facilitate learning the L2 and

that the students should be allowed to use their L1 in the English language classroom, she

stressed that teachers could strategize to provide students with opportunities to practice their

speaking skills in the target language. The researcher also emphasized that this study becomes a

basis for constructing a prototype remedial instructional module for speaking, particularly on

intonation and pronunciation, focusing on contrast analysis of intonation patterns and sound

production between L1 and L2.

In a country where English is a second language (L2), as in the Philippines case, first-

language (L1) speakers find difficulties in mastering the grammatical rules as applied to

phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax.

Speaking English as a second language (ESL) effectively can be challenging. Thus, if

people are experiencing difficulties remembering pronunciation, grammar rules, and the like,

there are excellent reasons. Lauridsen (n.d.) points out: While it is no secret that learning a new

language takes time, practice, and dedication, many are increasingly surprised to learn that no

amount of private practice, no stack of flashcards, and no amount of immersed reading in a

second language can prepare someone to communicate like a native speaker. Languages are our

portals to the thoughts, ideas, and objects that make up our world and simultaneously produce

and reinforce cultural knowledge. Even with a perfect accent or a nuanced regional vocabulary,

second language learners often face common obstacles to language acquisition (para. 1). In the

21st century, linguistic minorities exist through immigration and the adoption of languages not

previously used by local speakers. Ever since they developed the ability to speak, children

adopted another, their mother tongue or L1. As children grow up, they learn different languages,

but sometimes, they mispronounce words, mix their L1 with their L2, or worse, they must
express themselves adequately. Their L1 is what they are used to in speaking; t speaking;

therefore, they are tongue-tied when encountering Second Language Acquisition (SLA), which

refers to the ability to learn a language other than the L1. L1 is assimilated at a young age, while

L2 is acquired later. The L2 learning environment includes the learning environment the learner

hears and sees in the target language. One example is when a person is in an environment where

present with people using this language.