Fermentation 09 00817

fermentation
Review
Modulation of Cereal Biochemistry via Solid-State
Fermentation: A Fruitful Way for Nutritional Improvement
Avneet Kaur 1, * and Sukhvinder Singh Purewal 2, *
1 Department of Chemistry, University Institute of Sciences, Chandigarh University, Gharuan,

Mohali 140413, Punjab, India
2 University Centre for Research & Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University, Gharuan,
Mohali 140413, Punjab, India
* Correspondence: kauravneet695@gmail.com (A.K.); purewal.0029@gmail.com (S.S.P.)
Abstract: Cereal grains play a vital role in a dietary chart by providing a required number of
macronutrients and micronutrients along with health-benefiting bioactive components. Cereal grains,
despite being a good source of bioactive compounds, are not able to provide the full dose of bioactive
components to consumers. The biochemistry of cereal grains restricts the release of certain dietary
components; therefore, a method like solid-state fermentation could be utilized to modulate the
chemistry of bioactive components present in cereals. Once modulated, these components can easily
be recovered using an optimized extraction medium and other conditions. Fermented grains are
better than unfermented ones as they possess a higher amount of certain dietary and bioactive
components along with better quality attributes and shelflife. Fermented-cereal-based products can
be promoted because of their health-benefiting nature and hidden industrial potential.
Keywords: bioactive components; cereals; extraction; fermentation
1. Introduction
Citation: Kaur, A.; Purewal, S.S.
Modulation of Cereal Biochemistry Cereal grains have played an important role in improving the sustainability of various
via Solid-State Fermentation: A sectors such as food, pharmacy and biotech industries. A major portion of the world’s
Fruitful Way for Nutritional population relies on cereal grains to meet their nutritional requirements. Due to their
Improvement. Fermentation 2023, 9, easy cultivation, availability, cost-effective nature and health benefits, people prefer to add
817. https://doi.org/10.3390/ them into their routine dietary chart [1,2]. From a nutritional point of view, cereal grains
fermentation9090817 are naturally enriched with health-benefiting macro- as well as micronutrients [3–5]. In
Academic Editor: Carlos A.
recent years, different processing methods such as soaking, germination, roasting, drying,
Conte-Junior and Anna Paula steam-cooking and fermentation have been widely used for the purposes of improving or
Azevedo De Carvalho modulating specific nutrients/bioactive metabolites and decreasing anti-nutrients [6–10].
Among these processing methods, fermentation is most often used for these purposes as the
Received: 4 June 2023 process helps to modulate the nutritional profile of substrate and achieve desirable results
Revised: 26 June 2023
within a short span of time. Various scientific reports on fungal fermentation demonstrate
Accepted: 29 June 2023
a positive effect on the bioactive metabolites of cereal grains [11–15].
Published: 7 September 2023
Bioactive metabolites are mixtures of complex derivatives with a broad spectrum of bi-
ological activities ranging from anti-aging, antioxidation and anti-cancerous effects to DNA
damage protection [16–18]. These metabolites are present in natural resources, such as veg-
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
etables, fruits [19], cereal grains and agro-industrial waste material, in complex conjunction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. with macromolecules. Metabolites assisted with macromolecules need to be present in free
This article is an open access article forms so as to achieve maximum benefits from them [20]. Therefore, for the conversion of
distributed under the terms and bioactive metabolites from their bound complex forms to free forms, solid-state fermen-
conditions of the Creative Commons tation (SSF) could be used as a fruitful method of processing, as during the SSF, activity
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of enzymes such as xylanase, pectinase, β-glucosidase and amylase help in boosting the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ rate of phenolic enhancement [21–24]. The increment rate in phenolic compounds depends
4.0/). on both the nutritional composition of the raw material (substrate) used for fermentation
Fermentation 2023, 9, 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090817 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fermentation

Fermentation 2023, 9, 817 2 of 17
purposes and the type of microbial strain being used on the substrate [25–27]. Furthermore,
the enhancement of bioactive metabolites also depends on the type of extraction solvent
and concentration of the extraction medium, the extraction time and the temperature. The
efficacy of the extraction medium for the maximum leaching of bioactive compounds from
fermented substrates could be optimized using response surface methodology [28–30]. This
review paper describes in detail the effect of fermentation on the nutritional composition of
different grains along with the fermented products.
2. The Effect of Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) on the Nutritional Profile of Cereals

The concentration of phenolic compounds and their derivatives in cereal grains is
controlled through a complex mechanism. Research in different sectors has focused keenly
on converting phenolic compounds from their bound form to a free form [31]. These
bioactive phenolic compounds can be leached out, preferably via food-grade fungus and
bacteria, from cereal grains [20]. In the SSF process, different hydrolytic enzymes could
be produced directly from a solid substrate and be simultaneously utilized to release the
phenolics. Previously, it was reported that fungal β-glucosidase and α-amylase are involved
in phenolic mobilization during solid-state growth [7,9,14,15]. Several strategies were
adapted to enrich the cereal grains, fruit peels and agro-industrial waste with antioxidant
potential under controlled conditions [30,32–36]. The most important factor for the success
of the fermentation process is the selection of suitable substrates for microorganisms
to be incorporated into as starter culture. A detailed list of starter strains along with
suitable substrates is presented in Table 1. The effect of SSF on the TPC value of different
substrates is reported in Table 2. Furthermore, the growth of specific microbial consortia on
steam-sterilized substrates is solely dependent on the type of nutrients that any particular
substrate may possess. This also determines the market value and quality attributes of
the final products prepared after the fermentation process. Nowadays, a variety of cereal
grains, pseudo-cereals, pulses and legumes are used as substrates during fermentation, and
different strains of M.Os (microorganisms) are employed as starter cultures on them [37,38].
Filamentous fungi are the best candidate for the improvement of bioactive compounds from
cereal grains and agro-industrial waste [20]. The thermo-stable enzymes produced during
the fermentation process help in leaching out the bound phenolic compounds into their free
form [15]. A number of optimization techniques are currently being adopted by researchers
for better extraction of bioactive compounds from different natural resources. Optimization
is the major concern in order to manage the extraction process for the large-scale production
of these bioactive compounds [39]. Each microorganism shows the maximum activity at
the optimum temperature required to produce enzymes, which plays a significant role in
leaching out these bioactive compounds [20]. Statistical software is in greater demand for
designing optimization strategies for extraction procedures. Software like RSM (response
surface methodology) is commercially used to optimize certain factors like fermentation
time, solvent concentration, extraction temperature and extraction time.
Table 1. List of microbial strains used during the solid-state fermentation of cereals and their fractions.
Substrate Microbial Strain Used for Fermentation Purpose References

To study synergetic effects of Lactobacillus plantarum and
Rhizopus oryzae on physicochemical, nutritional and
Oats Rhizopus oryzae [12]
antioxidant properties of whole-grain oats
(Avena sativa L.) during solid-state fermentation.
To screen edible fungi with laccase activity and determine
Corn Ganoderma sinense [40]
their effects on the degradation of Aflatoxin B1 .
To study the assembly and co-occurrence patterns for
abundant and non-abundant bacterial sub-communities
Cereal vinegar Komagataeibacter europaeus [41]
using Zhenjiang aromatic vinegar fermentation as a
model system.
Study aimed at evaluating the effect of SSF on flavor and
Wheat bran Rhizopus oryzae [42]
sensory properties of wheat bran containing cake.
Table 1. Cont.
Substrate Microbial Strain Used for Fermentation Purpose References

To study the effect of SSF on bioactive compounds of
Brown rice Aspergillus oryzae [43]
brown rice.
In this study, regulation of phenolic release and
Corn kernel Monascusanka antioxidant activity in corn kernels by co-microbiological [44]
fermentation was investigated.
To study the optimization of pullulanase production by
Wheat bran Aspergillus flavus [45]
Aspergillus flavus under solid-state fermentation.
Solid-state fermentation of rice straw using Penicillium
Rice straw Penicillium citrinum citrinum for chitosan production and application [46]
as nanobiosorbent.
Fungal pretreatment of non-sterile maize silage and 581
solid digestate with a Cephalotrichum stemonitis strain
Maize silage Cephalotrichum stemonitis [47]
selected from agricultural biogas plants to enhance
anaerobic digestion.
Rice husk as a source for fungal biopesticide production
Rice husk Trichoderma harzianum by solid-state fermentation using B. bassiana and [48]
T. harzianum.
Using response surface methodology to improve the
Wheat bran Aspergillus niger L-asparaginase production by Aspergillus niger under [49]
solid-state fermentation.
To study the effects of solid-state fungi fermentation on
Lime-cooked maize P. ostreatus Perla and Hericium erinaceus phenolic content, antioxidant properties and fiber [50]
composition of lime-cooked maize by-product (nejayote).
Uniform culture in solid-state fermentation with fungi
Wheat bran Aspergillus oryzae [51]
and its efficient enzyme production.
To study enzymatic action mechanism of phenolic
Oats Monascus anka mobilization in oats (Avena sativa L.) during solid-state [52]
fermentation with Monascus anka.
Enhanced antioxidant and antitumor activities of
Oats Antrodia cinnamomea Antrodia cinnamomea cultured with cereal substrates in [53]
To study the effect of solid-state fermentation on
Oats Cordyceps militaris antioxidant capacity and DNA damage protective effect [54]
of oats (Avena sativa L.).
Production of lignocellulolytic enzymes and
Wheat straw Phlebia floridensis enhancement of in vitro digestibility during solid-state [55]
fermentation of wheat straw by Phlebiafloridensis.
To detect and reduce citrinin during the fermentation of
Red rice Monascus spp. [56]
red fermented rice.
Enhancement of bioactivity of rice bran by
Rice bran Aspergillus sojae [57]
Efficient ethanol production from rice straw through
Rice straw Mucor indicus cellulose restructuring and high-solids-loading [58]
fermentation by Mucor indicus.
Xylanase production from solid-state fermentation
Rice husk Aspergillus niger [59]
of rice husk.
Production and extraction of red pigment by solid-state
Broken rice Monascus sanguineus [60]
fermentation of broken rice.
Changes in rice bran bioactives, their bioactivity,
Rice bran Rhizopus oryzae bioaccessibility and bioavailability with [61]
Effects of SSF on phenolic acid composition and
Black rice bran Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae [62]
antioxidant activity.
Sorghum xylans as substrates for the production of
Sorghum Aspergillus fumigatus [63]
xylanase enzyme.
Table 2. Effect of SSF on TPC value of different substrates.
Microbial Strain Used for

Substrate Purpose Modulation in TPC after SSF References
Fermentation
To enhance phenolic content and
Pearl millet Aspergillus sojae 6.4–34.1 mg GAE/g [9]
antioxidant properties.
Finger millet Yeast 122–155 mg GAE/100g [11]
Pearl millet Rhizopus azygosporus 6.58 to 21.78mg GAE/g [14]
Table 2. Cont.
Microbial Strain Used for

Substrate Purpose Modulation in TPC after SSF References
Fermentation
Wheat Aspergillus oryzae 7.23–158.9 µmol GAE/g [15]
Wheat Aspergillus awamori 7.23–124.2 µmol GAE/g [15]
Maize Thamnidium elegans 327–409 GAE µmol/g [20]
Pearl millet Aspergillus oryzae 6.1–18.7 mg GAE/g [27]
Oats Cordyceps militaris 5.8–14.1 mg/g [54]
Rice bran Aspergillus sojae 10.6–36.5 mg GAE/g extract [57]
Rice bran Rhizopus oryzae 5.33–8.81 mg GAE/g [61]
Black rice bran Aspergillus oryzae 1028.2 to 1660.6 µg/g [62]
Wheat Aspergillus awamori 974–2056 µg GAE/g [64]
Barley Aspergillus awamori 3.25–4.59 mg GAE/g [65]
2.1. The Effect of SSF on Wheat Grain

Different fungal strains such as Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus sojae, Aspergillus flavus,
Rhizopus oryzae, Mucor racemosus and Aspergillus awamori nakazawa have been used as
starter culture on wheat as well as wheat bran. Sandhu et al. [64] used Aspergillus awamori
nakazawa on six different cultivars of wheat. Changes in the value of phenolic compounds
during fermentation were 974–2056 µg GAE/g (gallic acid equivalent/g) (wheat cultivar
PBW-343), 1155–2389 µg GAE/g (wheat cultivar PBW-590), 1290–3491 µg GAE/g (wheat
cultivar WH-283), 1116–2497 µg GAE/g (wheat cultivar WH-1080), 1069–2289 µg GAE/g
(wheat cultivar WH-896) and 1399–3598 µg GAE/g (wheat cultivar WHD-943), respectively.
Demir and Tari [66] used Aspergillus sojae on wheat bran for the purpose of determining
the effect on polygalacturonase production. The outcome of their investigation was a
3.9-fold enhancement in production and a 7.3-fold increment in the activity of polygalactur-
onase. Bhanja et al. [15] studied the effect of fermentation assisted by Aspergillus strains
(Aspergillus awamori and Aspergillus oryzae) on wheat phenolics. They observed that starter
culture leads to changes in the phenolic profile of wheat in different ways. As in the case
of Aspergillus oryzae-fermented wheat, the increment in phenolics lasted till the 4th day
(7.23–158.9 µmol GAE/g); however, the similar trend of an increase in phenolics lasted till
the 5th day of the experiment (wheat fermentation with Aspergillus awamori nakazawa)
and increased from 7.23 to 124.2 µmol GAE/g. These changes confirm that every fungal
strain actsin a different manner on similar substrates. Dey and Kuhad [67] observed the
effect of Aspergillus oryzae-assisted fermentation on the bioactive profile of wheat. They
found a positive effect of fermentation on the phenolic compounds of wheat, which in-
creased from 0.81 to 11.61 mg GAE/g. As per their results, there were some changes
observed for both the quality and quantity of phenolic acids. There was no gallic acid
and 4-hydroxy benzoic acid observed in Aspergillus oryzae-fermented wheat. In a similar
manner, there was no protocatechuic acid in Rhizopus oryzae-fermented wheat. However,
the concerned phenolic acids were present in the unfermented wheat. On the one hand,
a significant improvement in the concentration of phenolic acids was observed, whereas
on the other hand, some phenolic acids which were present in the unfermented wheat
disappeared after the fermentation. Zhao et al. [68] studied the effect of lactic acid bacteria
and yeast-assisted fermentation on the nutritional composition of wheat bran. During
their study, they observed significant changes in the bioactive and dietary components of
wheat bran. As compared to non-fermented bran, the changes in fermented bran during
the fermentation process were 7.7–37.4 (water extractable arabinoxylan), 5.9–8.5 mg/g
(alkylresorcinol), 52.36–55.5 g/100g (total dietary fiber), 44–45.5 g/100g (insoluble dietary
fiber) and 4.4–8.36 g/100g (soluble dietary fiber), respectively.
2.2. The Effect of SSF on Barley Grain

Barley comes under one of the industrially important cereals which are being widely
used by food processing industries for a variety of purposes. Industries process the grains
to achieve desirable features in the final product. Processing methods affect the structural,
functional and bioactive profile of the substrate (raw material). To meet consumer demands,
industrial sectors choose the appropriate processing methods. Food-processing techniques,
especially SSF, contribute towards 1/3rd of total consumption of food worldwide. The
efficiency of SSF has attracted attention for its use in the processing of food materials.
Sandhu and Punia [65] used Aspergillus awamori Nakazawa-assisted SSF for the pur-
pose of achieving enhancement of the total phenolic content (TPC) of barley. During the
study, six different barley cultivars, namely BH 393, BH 932, BH 902, BH 885, DWR 52
and PL 172, were used as substrates for SSF. The rate of change in the TPC value of
the barley varies with the nutritional composition of the barley cultivars used in the
study. The variation in TPC value was 3.25–4.59 mg GAE/g for BH 393, followed by
3.05–4.27 mg GAE/g for BH 932, 3.76–5.17 mg GAE/g for BH 902, 3.92–5.40 mg GAE/g
for BH 885, 2.92–4.08 mg GAE/g for DWR 52 and 2.89–5.15 mg GAE/g for PL 172, re-
spectively. Nelofer et al. [69] used Rhizopus oligosporus on barley for the modulation of its
bioactive profile. A significant increase in protein content (10.2–16.8%) and decrease in fat
content (2.1–1.6%) were observed. Bartkiene et al. [70] utilized the potential of a Pediococcus
acidilactici strain for the improvement in the nutritional composition of barley industry
by-products. Due to the effect of fermentation, the protein content changed from 16.7 to
13.1%, 4.2 to 2.5% (crude fat) and 12.3 to 16.85% (crude fiber), respectively. Changes in
specific bioactive metabolites during the SSF were as follows: 7.85–9.43 µg/g (vanillic acid),
followed by p-coumaric acid (83.1–32.02 µg/g), ferulic acid (547.4–339.1 µg/g), sinapic
acid (12.7–7.68 µg/g) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (4.26–27.03 µg/g), respectively. Lee and
Ra [71] studied the effect of SSF on the production of enzymes and β-glucan using hulled
barley as a substrate. Optimal pretreatment conditions of hulled barley by SSF were stud-
ied in terms of maximum production of fungal biomass, amylase, protease and β-glucan,
which were 1.26 mg/g (96 h), 31,310.34 U/g (24 h), 2614.95 U/g (144 h) and 14.6% (w/w)
(72 h), respectively, at pretreatment condition. Zhai et al. [72] studied the effect of SSF on
water-soluble dietary fibers, protein and β-glucan content. They observed that after SSF,
the proteins, water-soluble dietary fibers, and β-glucan contents of both black barley and
yellow barley samples were about, respectively, 1.3 times, 4.6 times and 1.2 times higher
than those in raw materials.
2.3. The Effect of SSF on Oat Grain

Oats (Avena sativa) are considered a minor cereal crop, which is initially utilized as a
fodder crop. Scientific reports have explored the hidden potential of oat grains in terms
of health benefits [1]. Storage proteins of oats might have health-benefiting bioactive
metabolites which may help to eradicate the symptoms of diseases like cancer, diabetes and
other issues related to ageing [73]. Several reports demonstrate that oat grains could be used
as a raw material for solid-state fermentation. The nutritional profile of oats demonstrates
that the grains have sufficient supporting nutrients for the growth of a fermentation
starter culture.
Bei et al. [52] used Monascus anka as a fermentation starter culture on oats with the aim
to modulate their bioactive profile. The fermentation was performed for a period of 14 days.
SSF significantly modulates the concentration of specific metabolites present in oat grains.
The modulation in specific compounds were gallic acid (2.63–8.45 mg/kg), chlorogenic
acid (0–186.59 mg/kg), caffeic acid (2.46–42.41 mg/kg), vanillic acid (2.21–97.5 mg/kg),
rutin (3.21–103.6 mg/kg), p-coumaric acid (2.21–32 mg/kg), sinapic acid (17–136.3 mg/kg)
and ferulic acid (0-49.3 mg/kg), respectively. The choice of starter culture for SSF is
crucial, as sometimes a starter culture may modulate the bioactive profile of the substrate
in a different way. For instance, Calinoiu et al. [74] observed the effect of yeast-assisted
fermentation on oat phenolics. They observed a significant change in oat phenolic profile
as di-OH benzoic acid showed an incremental increase in concentration only up to 4th day
of fermentation (38.7–52.1µg/g); thereafter, a significant decrease in concentration was
observed. Similarly, changes in the concentration of other compounds were observed,
such as protocatechuic acid (2.79–3.98 µg/g, 1st day); caffeic acid (3.3–4.14 µg/g, 1st day),
vanillic acid (2–2.32 µg/g, 1st day), p-coumaric acid (2.1–3.68 µg/g, 4th day), sinapic acid
(4.6–7.35 µg/g, 2nd day) and ferulic acid (7.8–9.68 µg/g, 1st day), respectively.
Chen et al. [44] studied the effect of SSF on the bioactive profile of oats and ob-
served that the bioactive profile of fermented oats improved, with increased contents
of compounds such as gallic acid (3.8–50.1 mg/kg), chlorogenic acid (6.9–326.4 mg/kg),
p-hydroxybenzoic acid (6.1–13.7 mg/kg), vanillic acid (3.5–65.2 mg/kg), rutin (0–102.7 mg/kg),
p-coumaric acid (2.6–41.7 mg/kg), sinapic acid (3.9–123.2 mg/kg) and ferulic acid
(1.7–49 mg/kg). Wu et al. [12] demonstrated that Lactobacillus plantarum- and Rhizopus
oryzae-mediated fermentation have a synergetic effect on the antioxidant and nutritional pro-
file of oats. During the fermentation period, the proximate composition of oats changed as
follows: crude protein 89.1–118.5 mg/g, potassium 2.4–2.8 mg/g, calcium 0.39–0.67 mg/g,
magnesium 0.4–1.02 mg/g, leucine 5.10–5.16 g/100g, isoleucine 2.76–2.82 g/100g, lysine
3.44–3.98 g/100g, methionine 1.29–1.24 g/100g, phenylalanine 3–2.93 g/100g, threonine
3.34–3.51 g/100g and valine 4.56–4.34 g/100g, respectively. Xiao et al. [54] observed that
Cordyceps militaris-mediated fermentation of oats resulted in significant modulation in spe-
cific metabolites such as gallic acid (134.5–165.4 µg/g), vanillin (51.2–109.8 µg/g), ferulic
acid (51.2–86.1 µg/g), luteolin (6.4–36.2 µg/g), apigenin (1.5–2.3 µg/g) and total phenolic
content (5.8–14.1 mg/g).
2.4. The Effect of SSF on Millet Grain

Millets include foxtail millet, pearl millet, barnyard millet, proso millet, little mil-
let, finger millet, kodo millet, etc. Millets could be an industrially important raw ma-
terial/substrate, as their grains have various industrially important micro- and macro-
molecules [5,9,14]. At the industrial level, the substrate might be processed via different
processing methods including roasting, soaking, germination and fermentation (especially
SSF). Fermentation is usually preferred over other processing types, as leaching of bioactive
metabolites occurs at a faster rate during this process. The output of fungal fermentation
demonstrates that during the fermentation time, a significant change in the bioactive profile
of pearl millet was observed. The bioactive profiles of pearl millet cultivars PUSA 415
and HHB 197 were significantly modulated using Aspergillus awamori, Aspergillus oryzae,
Aspergillus sojae and Rhizopus azygosporus, respectively. Salar et al. [29] used Aspergillus
awamori as a starter culture during SSF, and they observed significant increases in phenolic
compounds within a short span of fermentation time (8 days). Further, Aspergillus oryzae
was used as a fermentation starting culture on a pearl millet cultivar (PUSA 415) [27]. Dur-
ing the process of SSF, the enhancement observed in the TPC value was 6.1–18.7 mg GAE/g.
During the fermentation process, starter cultures not only increase or improve nu-
trients and bioactive compounds, but additionally, they may incorporate some of their
own addition metabolites which may have positive effects on health [9,27,75]. Further,
the amount and type of metabolites depend on the type of fermenting microorganisms
and media composition. The modulation rate of phenolic content in the substrate to be
fermented depends on the starter culture and its efficacy for enzyme production. Other
factors, such as media composition, incubation temperature and fermentation time, also
affect the bioactive profile (both qualitative and quantitative) of a substrate. In another
study, Aspergillus sojae was employed to modulate the phenolic profile of pearl millet,
where the maximum increase in bioactive metabolites was observed only up to 6 days (of
fermentation time). The TPC value increased after SSF from 6.4 to 34.1 mg GAE/g [9].
Rhizopus azygosporus-assisted fermentation of pearl millet modulates the TPC value of
pearl millet from 6.58 to 21.78 mg GAE/g within 10 days [14]. Pampangouda et al. [76]
reported significant changes after fermentation in different nutrient components of little
millet flour. Changes in different components were as follows: 9.8–10.9% (protein), 3.2–2.6%
(fat), 39.2–41.4 mg/100g (calcium), 137.6–141 mg/100g (magnesium), 221.4–234.4 mg/100g
(phosphorus), 6.6–7.9 mg/100g (iron), 3.8–4.6 mg/100g (zinc) and 188.9–114.7 mg/100g
(phytic acid).Omotoke-Azeez et al. [11] promulgated the fermentation effect on in vitro
digestibility, antioxidant properties and mineral composition of finger millet flour. Changes
in different properties of finger millet flour after fermentation were: protein 9–10.7 g/100g,
fat 1.8–1.1 g/100g, crude fiber 3.8–3.4 g/100g, amylose 22.8–20.3 g/100g, resistant starch
7.54–9.1 g/100gand digestible starch 45.1–39.8 g/100g, respectively. Further changes in
the mineral profile of finger millet flour were as follows: calcium 124–135 g/100g, iron
181–394 g/100g, magnesium 1095–1120 g/100g, potassium 2120–2165 g/100g, phosphorus
2278–2403 g/100g and zinc 16.1–17.4 g/100g. Fermentation significantly affects the antioxi-
dant properties of finger millet flour, as confirmed by changes in TPC from 122 to 155 mg
GAE/100g, followed by an increase in TFC (total flavonoids content) of 119–143 mg RE
(rutin equivalent)/100g. Antioxidant properties were modulated from 131 to 154 µmol
TE/100g (DPPH: 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil radical scavenging assay), 36.8 to 72.1%
(ABTS: 2, 20 -Azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid assay) and 120 to 147 µmol TE
(trolox equivalent)/100g (FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power), respectively.
2.5. The Effect of SSF on Rice Grain

Bioprocessing such as bioleaching/solid-state fermentation has proved its potential
to be applicable in the food, feed, chemical and pharma industry for the production
of nutrient-rich products with the help of microorganisms [76–78]. SSF technology is
part of the current trend of research and is widely used by researchers to improve the
quality of cereal grains [79]. Purwar et al. [77] studied the effect of SSF (for 10–11 days,
at 30 ◦ C temperature and 15% moisture) on the nutritional quality of rice using a fungal
strain Monascuspurpureus (6 × 105 spores/mL). Their study reported that SSF significantly
increases the moisture (13.32%) and protein content (29.62%); however, reductions in the
fat, fiber and carbohydrate content by 27%, 0.28% and 11.32% were observed at the end
of the fermentation period. A study investigated the effect of SSF at different intervals
of time (4, 6 and 10 days) on the nutritional composition of rice bran by using Pleurotus
sapidus species [80]. The study reported that the maximum increase in the carbohydrate
content of rice bran (36.6–50.2%) was observed on the 4th day of fermentation. However,
the protein, ash and moisture content of fermented rice bran samples increased with the
increase in fermentation time, as the maximum increment in the protein (7.4–12.8%), ash
(7.6–11.5%) and moisture content (20.7–37.9%) of rice bran was observed in the 10-day-
fermented samples. As observed in their study, the lipid content of rice bran was decreased
(48.5–27.8%) after SSF processing. Previous findings of Ribeiro et al. [81] also state that
solid-state fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae significantly increases the protein, fiber, ash
and lipid content; however, the process decreases the carbohydrates of rice bran.
The above studies on solid-state fermentation of rice and rice bran suggest that SSF is a
promising technique for achieving an increase in nutrients, meaning that it could be used for
the production of high-quality food and feed products. Some previous findings [57,62,82]
on the solid-state fermentation which uses rice/rice bran as substrate reported that it
could also be used to improve the phenolic profile using different fungal strains. Ritthibut
and co-workers [57] studied the effect of two fungal strains of Aspergillus (A. brasiliensis,
A. sojae) on the phenolic content of rice bran, using solid-state fermentation. They reported
that among the studied fungal strains, Aspergillus sojae effectively increased the phenolic
content (10.6–36.5 mg GAE/g extract) on the 14th day of SSF. However, the maximum
phenolic content in Aspergillus brasiliensis-fermented samples (20 mg GAE/g extract) was
observed on the 8th day of fermentation. SSF (for 5 days at 30 ◦ C) with Aspergillus awamori
and Aspergillus oryzae also increases the total phenolic content of the black rice bran, as
reported by Shin et al. [62]. Results from their study indicate that contents of bioactive
compounds such as protocatechuic acid and ferulic acid were increased from 1028.2 to
1660.6 µg/g (1.61-fold increase) and 46.4–566.5 µg/g (12.18-fold increase) in the A. awamori-
fermented black rice bran extracts. Different fungal stains have their own effect on the
recovery of phenolics. Janarny and Gunathilake [61] reported the effect of SSF with Rhizopus
oryzae on the bioactive profile of rice bran. Fermentation of rice bran with Rhizopus oryzae
significantly increases the total phenolic content (5.33–8.81 mg GAE/g), total flavonoid
content (5.20–14.75 mg RE/g), total antioxidant capacity (0.10–1.65 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside
equivalents/g) and total carotenoids (62.49–71.82 mg/g). Fermentation with suitable fungal
strains for a controlled period of time could increase the phenolic profile of the selected
substrate, which could then further serve as an antioxidant-rich raw material for designing
functional foods and nutraceuticals. Other than the improvement in nutritional composition
and phenolic profile, SSF could also be used for enzyme production such as xylanase [59],
laccase [83] and alpha-glucosidase [84] from rice husk.
2.6. The Effect of SSF on Maize Grain

Maize is one of the most widely cultivated cereal crops (about 40% of total cereal
grain production) and it serves as a major part of calorie intake for most of the global
population [85,86]. Cereal grains are a cost-effective and easily available staple food which
fulfill nutritional requirements of the body and help to protect from diseases. The protective
effect of cereals is mainly due to their proteins, fibers, phenolics, lipids and micronutrient
content [20,87,88]. However, compared to other cereal grains, the nutritional composition
of maize grains is inferior. Populations depending mainly on maize for their nutrition have
mostly suffered from protein malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency. SSF is a biological
method that can improve the quality of grains and is currently being used in research.
Terefe et al. [89] studied the effect of SSF (for 48 h) on protein digestibility, nutritional
composition and antinutrients of maize grains. They reported an increase in the protein
content of the maize flour from 38 to 55%, 49% and 48% after fermentation with Lactobacillus
plantarum, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and their cocultures. Lactobacillus plantarum-fermented
samples showed higher in vitro protein digestibility (31–40%) compared to Saccharomyces
cerevisiae (31–36%) and their coculture (31–34%). However, the co-culture of the two strains
effectively reduce the tannin (75%), phytate (66%) and trypsin inhibitors (64%) from the
maize flour after fermentation for a period of 48h. This is an interesting practical aspect
of the use of fermentation in improving the nutritional value of maize-based products.
The results from the above study indicate that every fungal strain has its own potential to
modulate the quality of the substrate. Other than nutritional composition, SSF has also
been used by researchers to improve the phenolic profile of maize grain. Salar et al. [20]
promulgated the effect of SSF (with 2–6 days of incubation) on the phenolic profile of
maize using Thamnidium elegans CCF 1456. Their results reported that SSF with Thamnidium
elegans CCF 1456 can increase the total phenolic content from 327 to 409 GAE µmol/g.
They observed higher phenolic content in the 5-day-fermented sample. Chen et al. [44]
demonstrated that SSF of corn kernels with Monascus anka, Bacillus subtilis and Saccha-
romyces cerevisiae has the potential to increase the phenolics by 18.08 times compared to
unfermented samples.
A mixed culture of more than two fungal strains (Monascus anka, Saccharomyces cere-
visiae and Bacillus subtilis) could also be used for SSF, as reported by Luo et al. [90]. They
studied the effect of a mixed culture (0, 6, 12 days) on the release of phenolic compounds
from corn seeds, and their study demonstrated that SSF with mixed culture results in a
22.56-fold increase in total phenolics compared to unfermented samples. Higher phenolic
content was observed in the 12-day-fermented sample.
The effects of SSF on corn waste, such as corn stalk and corn cob, for production
of enzymes, pigments and to upgrade the nutritional quality are also reported in the
literature [91–94]. A study by Darwish et al. [91] stated that fermentation of maize stalk
with a coculture of Pleurotus ostreatus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (7-day incubation period,
45 mL inoculums size) significantly improves the protein content (3.60–11.80%) compared to
, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

a single fungal strain (Pleurotus ostreatus) which improved the protein content by 3.60–6.30%.
In terms of crude fiber, their study reports a decrease in lignin and cellulose content with
an increase in fermentation time. Aliyah et al. [93] analyzed the potential of SSF using
results showed the potential
Aspergillus oftoM.
niger purpureus-fermented
produce hydrolysis enzymescorn fromcob
cornfor
cobindustrial applica-
and reported the activity
tions. unit as 81.86 U/mL and 95.02 U/mL for α-amylase and β-glucosidase. Grain waste can also
be utilized with the help of solid-state fermentation. Corn cob could be used for production
of natural pigment using SSF, and these are good alternatives to synthetic dye. SSF of corn
3. Extraction Medium for Cereal Phenolics
cob with Monascus purpureus KACC 42430 yields a 25.42 OD (optical density) U/g pigment
Scientists andproduction,
researchers are continuously
as reported by Velmurugan exploring theTheir
et al. [94]. effect of the
results solvent
showed the system
potential of
M. purpureus-fermented corn cob for industrial applications.
and extraction conditions on cereal phenolics. The phenolic profiles of cereal and other
natural resources 3.vary from free
Extraction Medium to complex
for Cerealbound
Phenolicsforms. Based on the availability, cost
and simplicity, the extraction medium may be designed and optimized
Scientists and researchers are continuously exploring the effect (Figure 1). Re-
of the solvent system
sponse surface methodology is fruitful software, and its applications are being
and extraction conditions on cereal phenolics. The phenolic profiles of cereal and otherwidely
natural resources
utilized in optimization vary from free
of experimental to complex[95–100].
parameters bound forms.TheBased on the availability,
suitability of an ex-cost
traction medium helps to raise the level of interaction among phenolics and other1).bioac-
and simplicity, the extraction medium may be designed and optimized (Figure Response
surface methodology is fruitful software, and its applications are being widely utilized in
tive metabolites or complex nutrients (starch, protein, etc.) of cereals. Therefore, an op-
optimization of experimental parameters [95–100]. The suitability of an extraction medium
timized extractionhelps
condition
to raiseisthe
very useful
level to recover
of interaction amonga heap of bioactive
phenolics and other metabolites from
bioactive metabolites
the samples. or complex nutrients (starch, protein, etc.) of cereals. Therefore, an optimized extraction
condition is very useful to recover a heap of bioactive metabolites from the samples.
Figure 1. Different type of extraction methods.

Figure 1. Different type of extraction methods.
3.1. Conventional Extraction
3.1. Conventional Extraction
Solvent-assisted effects on the recovery of bioactive metabolites from different plants
parts such as seed, leaves, stem and roots have been explored in different scientific reports.
Solvent-assisted effects on the recovery of bioactive metabolites from different
The salient features that determine the extraction medium used at a commercial scale
plants parts such as
are solventleaves,
seed, stem
polarity, and
safety, roots have
temperature andbeen explored in different scientific
time requirement.Liquid–liquid extraction of
reports. The salient features
secondary that determine
metabolites could be the extraction
achieved medium
using the followingused at aSoxhlet
ways:(1) commercial
extraction,
scale are solvent polarity, safety, temperature and time requirement.Liquid–liquidThe
which is an effective and simple method for recovery of secondary metabolites. ex-time
required for the maximum recovery of phenolics may vary with the type of sample and the
traction of secondary metabolites could be achieved using the following ways:(1) Soxhlet
complexity of bioactive compounds present in them. (2) Maceration is a type of extraction
extraction, which method
is an effective
in which theand simple
sample usedmethod for recovery
for extraction is kept in aof secondary
container metabo-
in powdered form.
lites. The time required
Periodicfor the maximum
stirring and shaking recovery ofto
is required phenolics
achieve goodmayresults.
vary with the type of
(3) Hydro-distillation
sample and the complexity of bioactive
extraction is one compounds
of the traditional methods present in them.
used for recovery (2) Maceration
of bioactive is from
metabolites a
natural resources. The method involves the use of a sample in
type of extraction method in which the sample used for extraction is kept in a container in a container (compartment),
followed by the addition of water and boiling.
powdered form. Periodic stirring and shaking is required to achieve good results. (3)
Hydro-distillation extraction is one of the traditional methods used for recovery of bio-
active metabolites from natural resources. The method involvesthe use of a sample in a
container (compartment), followed by the addition of water and boiling.
3.2. Non-Conventional Extraction Methods

3.2.1. Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is the key process which could be used to achieve
a targeted amount of bioactive metabolites from natural resources. The demand for UAE is
significant in the food as well as the chemical industry [101]. With low solvent consumption,
product purity and high reproducibility, UAE is dominant over other extraction types.
Several different components from botanical resources such as pigments, minerals, aroma,
bioactive compounds and other metabolites could be extracted with high efficiency.
3.2.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction

Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is being widely adapted for the extraction of
bioactive metabolites from natural resources. During this process, heating of a molecule
occurs through ions-mediated conduction and dipole rotation. The water molecules which
are present in the inner parts/space of the cells may create pressure on the cellular wall,
which may result in cellular breakdown. The success rate of microwave-based extraction
methods depends on both the extraction medium and target metabolites. The polarity of
the extraction medium plays an important role, as the recovery rate depends on the amount
of microwave energy absorbed during the extraction process. A mixture of ethanol and
water proved to be an efficient solvent system for the recovery of secondary metabolites
from specific materials.
3.2.3. Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)

PLE is a fruitful technique which is performed under pressure and heat. Tempera-
ture changes significantly affect the mass transfer rate, solubility and extractability. The
temperature fluctuation modulates the efficiency and speed of extraction. The process is
convenient from a commercial point of view compared to other processes, as the extraction
process could be completed within a shorter span of time. To initiate the PLE process,
samples with supporting mediums are kept in a pressurized cell to avoid excess solvent
flow and agglomeration.
3.2.4. Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Supercritical fluid extraction is a popular technique used to separate out extractant
from a matrix using a suitable extraction medium. To achieve the desired properties in a
product or remove an undesired impurity, this process could be employed. Despite a broad
spectrum of applications, the process is limited due to the high pressure requirements.
4. Cereal-Based Food Products

4.1. Fermented Drinks and Products
Fermented drinks are widely consumed, have good nutritional properties and lead
to many health benefits [102,103]. These drinks and other fermented products are pre-
pared by utilizing the hidden potential of microbial consortia and natural substrates (raw
material) [14,27,104]. The most common examples of fermented drinks are shalgam juice,
followed by boza, kefir, hardaliye, ayran, etc. [101,105,106]. Boza is one of the traditional
beverages (non-alcoholic) which could be prepared using a variety of cereal substrates like
millets, barley, oats, rice, corn, etc. [101,107,108]. Microbial strains, especially LAB (lactic
acid bacteria), yeast and those which are actively involved in the bacteriocins productions,
are being utilized for the preparation of boza. Depending on the substrate and microbial
strain type employed for boza production, the quality attributes and stability of the bev-
erage may vary accordingly [109–111]. LAB-assisted fermentation significantly alters the
pH of boza and alcoholic fermentation, which results in the production of carbon dioxide
and results in modulated (enhanced) volume [110]. Earlier documented reports [112,113]
claimed that boza could be considered a good source of protein and ACE-inhibitory pep-
tides. Kancabas and Karakaya [112] studied the protein content and ACE-inhibitory activity
of boza. They reported the protein content in boza as 1.08 ± 0.079% and ACE-inhibitory
activity as 76.7 ± 14.9. Despite being a famous Turkish beverage, studies on boza are
limited. Yegin and Uren [111] reported that boza contained 0.50–0.99% protein.
4.2. Tarhana
Tarhana is a famous fermented soup recipe which is prepared domestically as well
as commercially for consumers in Turkey. The major ingredients used in the preparation
of tarhana are yoghurt, cereal-based flour, baker’s yeast and seasonal vegetables. Tarhana
is a good source of minerals and vitamins which could be used by consumers of any age
group (children/elders and even patients). Studies demonstrated that tarhana possesses
crude protein (12–20%) and amino acids in significant amounts [114–120]. Further, the
soup’s mineral and vitamin profile indicates the presence of calcium (59–191mg/100g), iron
(2.1–5.9 mg/100g), sodium (296–1130 mg/100g), potassium (60–182 mg/100g), magnesium
(30–134 mg/100g), zinc (0.8–3.2 mg/100g), copper (147–807 mg/100g) and manganese
(211–1182 mg/100g).The protein-, vitamin- and mineral-rich nature of tarhana helps sustain
metabolic reactions in the body. Further, due to its proteinaceous nature, this fermented
food product could be recommended to individuals suffering from protein deficiency.
4.3. Shalgam Juice and Hardaliye

Ulucan et al. [121] promulgated the effect of processing with regard to improving
the shelf life of shalgum juice. The major findings from their work indicate that shalgam
juice usually only has a shelf life of 3 months, which could be improved up to 2 years
using their pasteurization method and suitable preservatives. In addition to this shelf
life improvement, processing also mediates dramatic changes in the quality parameters
and sensorial attributes. Shalgam is considered an important substrate as it possesses a
broad spectrum of appetizing, antioxidant and other health-benefiting properties [122,123].
One of the other fermented beverages, hardaliye (non-alcoholic), is prepared using the
traditional method in Turkey (European part). As far as its nutritional composition is
concerned, being derived from grapes and processed through fermentation, its components
are unique and beneficial to health. A unique blend of nutrients in hardaliye comes from
the mixture of cherry leaves, grapes and mustard seeds [122]. Arici and Coskun [124]
studied the quality parameters (pH, color, total bacterial count and ethanol content) of
different hardaliye samples. The values of different parameters they observed during their
study were 3.21–3.97 (pH) and 3.5 × 102 –8 × 105 cfu/mL (bacterial count), followed by
an ethanol content of 595.5 mg/dL. Aksoy et al. [125] promulgated the effect of hardaliye
on malondialdehyde formation during the digestion (in vitro gastrointestinal) of meat
products. Among the studied samples, the lowest values were meat doner 1 treated with
Shiraz hardaliye (10.27%); burger patties 2 treated with Shiraz hardaliye (22.40%); and
meatball 2 treated with Cabernet Sauvignon hardaliye (7.12%). The conclusion of their
study supports the fact that hardaliye could be used as a potentially health-benefiting
beverage because of its involvement in the reduction in lipid oxidation. Ilıkkan et al. [126]
studied hardaliye in terms of its proliferative effect and anticancerous potential in CF-1 and
HT-29 cell lines. Two different kinds of dilutions, viz., five- (H5) and ten-fold (H10), were
used during the experimental work. Modulated gene expression and apoptosis levels were
analyzed using TAA (tali apoptosis assay) and qRT-PCR, respectively. After an interval
of 24 and 48h, samples were screened to detect percentage levels of viable, death and
apoptotic cells. The observed data from their study suggest that Hardaliye was sufficiently
effective to trigger apoptosis and cancer cells via enhanced Bax (6.49 ± 0.1-fold for H10
and 22.45 ± 3.1-fold for H5), as well as CAT and SOD activity.
4.4. Sordough Bread

In a human dietary chart, bread is considered an important staple food which provides
both nutrients and energy. The bakery process started with the homemade and artisanal
way to produce bread leavened with sourdoughs, prepared from a flour and water mixture.
However, with the technical advancements during the last 10 years, the microbiological,
morphological, nutritional, technological, textural and sensorial aspects of bread were

studied to understand the health-benefiting and hidden potential of bread. The behavior
of the starter culture on a specific substrate may vary according to their nutritional type.
The quality attributes of bread being prepared using the starter culture depend on the
grain types being utilized as a source of experimental material [127–132]. The tempera-
ture during the sourdough fermentation favors the growth of microbiota and ultimately
affects the autochthonous community’s enzymatic activity [133,134]. The fermentation
process involved in sourdough bread results in the breakdown of complex proteins and
carbohydrates, which ultimately makes it an easily digestible product. With a low glycemic
index, sourdough bread may be preferred over normal bread prepared using commercial
yeast. The fermentation process slows down the rate of glucose release, and therefore,
sourdough bread could be good product for people suffering from diabetes [135]. Nutrients
in sourdough bread, such as magnesium, iron, and zinc, remain more readily available for
absorption inside the digestive tract. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) involved during sourdough
bread fermentation act as prebiotics in the gut, and thus help to maintain diversity in the gut
microbiome which ultimately affects health. LAB are reported to have positive effects on
nutritional attributes, flavor, texture and overall acceptability of sourdough bread [135,136].
5. Conclusions
Fermentation of natural resources, especially cereal grains, has emerged as a promising
and efficient method for various applications in different sectors such as the food, feed,
pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries. A significant improvement in the nutritional
profile of fermented products helps to develop specific health-benefiting products. Through
SSF, a diverse range of metabolites, enzymes, bioactive compounds and probiotics can be
produced using cereal grains. This technology has the potential to enhance the nutritional
quality of cereal grains by improving the bioavailability of essential nutrients and enhancing
their functional properties. By selecting suitable microorganisms and optimizing substrate
composition, moisture content and process parameters, the SSF process can be fine-tuned to
maximize product yield and quality. Despite the numerous benefits and applications of SSF
of cereal grains, there are still challenges to overcome. These include optimizing process
parameters, scaling up production, ensuring consistent product quality and addressing
regulatory considerations. Future research should focus on addressing these challenges
and exploring new avenues for the application of SSF of cereal grains.
Author Contributions: A.K.: Conceptualization; project administration; original draft preparation;

data curation; writing—review and editing; visualization; supervision; project administration. S.S.P.:
original draft preparation; data curation; writing—review and editing; visualization; supervision;
project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This review paper received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data are presented in this manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Chandigarh University, Mohali, for providing
a peaceful working environment, without which the authors would not be able to prepare the
present manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Department of Chemistry, University Institute of Sciences, Chandigarh University, Gharuan,

Keywords: bioactive components; cereals; extraction; fermentation

Fermentation 2023, 9, 817. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090817 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fermentation

2. The Effect of Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) on the Nutritional Profile of Cereals

Substrate Microbial Strain Used for Fermentation Purpose References

Substrate Microbial Strain Used for Fermentation Purpose References

Table 2. Effect of SSF on TPC value of different substrates.

Microbial Strain Used for

Microbial Strain Used for

2.1. The Effect of SSF on Wheat Grain

2.2. The Effect of SSF on Barley Grain

2.3. The Effect of SSF on Oat Grain

2.4. The Effect of SSF on Millet Grain

2.5. The Effect of SSF on Rice Grain

2.6. The Effect of SSF on Maize Grain

, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Figure 1. Different type of extraction methods.

3.2. Non-Conventional Extraction Methods

3.2.2. Microwave-Assisted Extraction

3.2.3. Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)

3.2.4. Supercritical Fluid Extraction

4. Cereal-Based Food Products

4.3. Shalgam Juice and Hardaliye

4.4. Sordough Bread

morphological, nutritional, technological, textural and sensorial aspects of bread were

Author Contributions: A.K.: Conceptualization; project administration; original draft preparation;

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