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(Asce) 0733-947X (2009) 135 10
(Asce) 0733-947X (2009) 135 10
in Pavement Engineering
Wynand JvdM Steyn1
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Abstract: Nanotechnology is the term used to cover the design, construction, and utilization of structures with at least one dimension
measured in nanometers. Compared with typical civil engineering structures, the two fields operate on hugely divergent dimensional
scales. Nanotechnology initially developed in the fields of physics and chemistry, and most fundamental developments still occur in these
fields. However, for the technology to affect society at large, it needs to be applied in areas such as the engineering field. This paper
focuses specifically on current and potential developments in pavement engineering where the unique properties of nanomaterials may be
used to deliver a better environment to society, based on identified needs and challenges in the pavement engineering field. It is
demonstrated that there are essentially two areas where nanotechnology can complement pavement engineering. These are in the devel-
opment of improved materials and the use of characterization methods to improve the understanding of materials. Examples of current and
planned research in these areas are cited and discussed. Finally, current challenges in exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials in
pavement engineering are indicated and discussed. The paper demonstrates that although the majority of the fundamental developments
in nanoscale science and technology are occurring in the fundamental physics, chemistry, and typically electronic engineering fields, the
potential for this technology to impact on the quality of life of society at large is huge.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-947X共2009兲135:10共764兲
CE Database subject headings: Pavements; Material properties; Imaging techniques; Innovation; Nanotechnology.
Introduction fields, a lot of this may be deemed speculation and still requiring
a quantum leap to bridge the 共mainly兲 dimensional divide be-
Nanotechnology Definitions tween nano and macrostructures.
Nanotechnology is the term used to cover the design, construction Science and Engineering Definitions
and utilization of functional structures with at least one character-
istic dimension measured in nanometers 共Kelsall et al. 2004兲. The Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, struc-
field of nanotechnology has developed in major leaps during the ture, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes
past ten years. These developments were mainly driven by factors during chemical reactions. Physics is the science that deals with
such as dedicated initiatives into the field 共e.g., the National concepts such as force, energy, and mass with the goal of under-
Nanotechnology Initiative兲 共Goddard et al. 2007兲, improvements standing the natural world. Engineering is the creative application
in the characterization equipment and a new understanding into of scientific principles to design, develop, manufacture and oper-
the chemistry and physics of matter on the nanoscale. ate structures, machines, manufacturing processes, or works while
Although the major nanotechnology developments were ini- acknowledging issues around economics of operation and safety
tially 共and still remain兲 in the fields of electronics, physics, and to life and property. Pavement engineering is an engineering dis-
chemistry, more recent applications emerged in fields such as en- cipline that deals with the design and construction of infrastruc-
gineering. This can mainly be attributed to the improved under- ture such as roads and bridges.
standing of the physics and chemistry of materials at nanolevel, Based on these four definitions, it is clear that the objectives of
and the consequent development of specific applications for typi- science 共chemistry and physics兲 and engineering differ in that the
cal engineering level challenges. Although much is being written sciences are more concerned with the composition, structure and
regarding the potential application of nanotechnology in these interrelationships of matter, while engineering is more concerned
with applying these principles in support of humanity. As such,
1 engineering is thus dependent to a large degree on the principles
Associate Professor, Professional Engineer of the Engineering Coun-
cil of South Africa MSAICE, Member of the South African Institute for developed in the sciences, but focused on the application of these
Civil Engineering, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Pretoria, Pretoria, in support of humanity. It is important to realize that while chem-
South Africa Lynnwood Road, Hatfield 0002, South Africa. E-mail: istry and physics generally focus on the smaller scales to enable a
wynand.steyn@up.ac.za more detailed understanding of matter, engineering typically fo-
Note. This manuscript was submitted on December 27, 2007; ap- cuses on the scale where the matter works together to perform
proved on June 4, 2009; published online on September 15, 2009. Dis-
certain function 共e.g., cement particles that combine with aggre-
cussion period open until March 1, 2010; separate discussions must be
submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of gate particles to form a concrete road pavement or building兲. The
Transportation Engineering, Vol. 135, No. 10, October 1, 2009. scale dimensions thus differ from the nanoscale understanding for
©ASCE, ISSN 0733-947X/2009/10-764–772/$25.00. the sciences to the macroscale understanding for engineering.
Road/vehicle interaction
Paper Focus–Nanotechnology to Infrastructure realistic at this stage. The dimensional jump from nanoscale to
macroscale thus influences the potential usage of nanomaterials.
The focus of this paper is to evaluate how knowledge and under-
standing of matter on a nanotechnology scale 共based on chemistry
and physics principles兲 can serve humankind through application Current Needs
of these knowledge and principles in engineering structures. It is
thus important that scientific knowledge needs to be converted Meyyapan et al. 共2007兲 presented a summary of the expectations
into technologies that can benefit society. In this paper, the focus from emerging alternative technologies for CNT electronic de-
is specifically on current and potential developments in pavement vices. It was indicated that a clear understanding of the expecta-
engineering where the unique properties of nanomaterials are tions of a novel technology is required in order to evaluate the
used to improve the built environment. technology and ensure that the technology can deliver optimally.
The paper has started with definitions for engineering and the Only once the current needs are well defined, can applications be
sciences to illustrate how the objectives of the two disciplines explored. In this regard, the need to develop the expectation list of
differ, and how they can support each other. Current needs in the nanotechnology for pavement engineering is required. It is also
pavement engineering field are summarized as a basis for discuss- important to realize that pavement engineering projects that spe-
ing the research context and potential applications and benefits of cifically focus on the delivery of sustainable road pavements to
nanotechnology to pavement engineering. The paper then demon- the traveling public are typically funded through public money,
strates that nanotechnology should not be implemented in the and therefore the responsibility of how this funding is applied in
pavement engineering arena merely because it is a new technol- road pavement projects has to be such that the public can trust
ogy, but to address these specific challenges that cannot readily be that this funding is not wasted. Ultimately, tax dollars are used to
solved using existing macroscale technologies. Two areas where supply and maintain a safe and reliable pavement network.
nanotechnology and pavement engineering can complement each In order to summarize the current major needs of pavement
other are identified and specific examples of current and potential engineering, proceedings from recent conferences in the pave-
nanotechnology-based applications discussed. Finally, challenges ment and transport arena were scanned. Based on the proceedings
in exploiting the unique properties of nanomaterials in pavement of the recent International Conference on Asphalt Pavements
engineering are highlighted and discussed. Overall, the paper 共ICAP—www.icap.com兲, World Road Association 共PIARC兲
demonstrates that although the majority of the fundamental devel- meeting 共www.PIARC.com兲, Transportation Research Board an-
opments in nanoscale science and technology are occurring in the nual meeting 共TRB—www.trb.org兲, Conference on Asphalt Pave-
fundamental physics and chemistry fields, the potential for this ments in Southern Africa 共CAPSA—www.capsa.co.za兲 and South
technology to impact on the quality of life of society at large is African Transportation Conference 共Steyn 2008a兲, the major cur-
huge.
rent needs for pavement engineering can be summarized in terms
of the technical committee structure adopted by PIARC 共Table 1兲.
For the purpose of this paper, the Technical committees on road
Pavement Engineering Context pavements, road bridges, and related structures and Earthworks,
drainage and subgrade are the most relevant. Selected identified
Scale Factors issues and strategies for these are also summarized in Table 1.
The scale chasm between typical nanotechnology and pavement The major current needs in pavement engineering where nano-
engineering has been illustrated by various researchers 共Buehler technology can potentially play a role is most probably the im-
and Ackbarow 2007; Larsen-Basse and Chong 2005兲. It can also proved use of existing and available materials and the processing
be illustrated when the potential application of carbon nanotubes of these materials to enable them to fulfill the required specifica-
共CNTs兲 as fibers in fiber-reinforced concrete is evaluated. Typi- tions of perpetual pavement structures. In terms of the need for
cally, the volume of steel or polypropylene fibers used for such an sustainable pavements 共which is probably the primary current
application may be in the region of 2%. If it is assumed that the need兲, Maher et al. 共2006兲 defined the main criteria for a sustain-
application rate of the CNTs in the concrete will be similar to that able pavement as follows:
of the steel fibers, this translates to approximately 270 kg of steel • Minimizing the use of natural resources;
fibers 共for a typical steel fiber-reinforced pavement of 1 km–7.4 m • Reducing energy consumption;
wide and 100-mm-thick concrete兲 being replaced by 52 kg of • Reducing greenhouse gas emissions;
CNTs. A typical pavement rehabilitation project 共10 to 100 km • Limiting pollution 共air, water, earth, and noise兲;
length兲 may thus require in the order of 520 to 5,200 kg of CNTs. • Improving health, safety, and risk prevention; and
The economical production of such volumes of CNTs may not be • Ensuring a high level of user comfort and safety.
the innovator
Pessimism
structure interaction with a discussion on the understand- c. Robertson 共2004兲 stated that the potential benefits of
ing of initiation of cracks in metals. CNT reinforced materials have been rather disappointing
c. The concepts discussed in these two references can simi- as the moduli measured for CNT reinforced materials are
larly be adapted to improve the nanoscale understanding typically much lower than would be expected based on
of crack development in the bituminous binder/aggregate theoretical calculations. Possible reasons for this may in-
interface as well as cracking of concrete on pavements. clude dispersion problems through the host matrix and
• Self healing materials 共materials with the potential to partially the small surface area available for bonding between in-
repair damage in the structure of the material兲 dividual CNTs and the matrix.
a. Balazs 共2007兲 investigated the modeling of self-healing d. One of the potential benefits of CNT reinforcement of
materials, starting with biological examples which may concrete that was not found in literature is the fact that
potentially be expanded to infrastructure where cracks CNTs will not corrode in corrosive environments as hap-
that develop in the pavement layers may self-heal based pens in steel FRC. This benefit may specifically be evalu-
on the introduction of microcapsules in the cement ma- ated for application in marine environments.
trix 共Kessler et al. 2003兲. The scale requirements and the • Bituminous materials
potential benefit to determine whether the development a. The RILEM Technical Committee for Nanotechnology-
of such cracks is life-threatening or whether this may be based Bituminous Materials 共NBM兲 focuses on the iden-
more of a nice-to-have than essentiality is still required. tification of material characterization and modeling
b. The self-healing of fly-ash in the pavement materials has issues and challenges at the nano- and microstructural
been observed before 共Barstis and Crawley 2000兲 and level 共Rilem 2009兲. Issues around temperature and hu-
can be seen as a nanoscale effect that is used already. midity control during sample preparation and character-
• Concrete enhancements ization also receives attention to ensure that
a. Sobolev and Gutiérrez 共2005兲 described a range of pos- measurements and observations are not affected by ad-
sible effects of nanotechnology developments on con- verse material reactions. The expected outcome of this
crete in general. The understanding of the bottoms-up effort is improved bituminous materials with superior en-
manufacturing process that occurs naturally in nature is vironmental and traffic loading resistance.
seen as potentially powerful, as it provides opportunity to One of the potential benefits of CNT reinforcement of concrete
possibly obtain cost effective nanomaterials for use in that was not found in literature is the fact that CNTs will not
concretes. CNTs are typically viewed as one of the most corrode in corrosive environments as happens in steel FRC. This
promising developments impacting on concrete perfor- benefit may specifically be evaluated for application in marine
mance, while the exploitation of the changing properties environments. Examples of the potential application of nanotech-
共i.e., electrical, magnetic, and reactivity兲 of materials at nology techniques to enhance material properties that are cur-
nanoscale also provide novel potential applications in rently under investigation are as follows:
concrete. The requirement for sustainability and cost- • Thin films or self assembled monolayers 共SAM兲
and energy-efficiency is again emphasized. a. Thin films of nanosized material can be deposited on the
b. The incorporation of TiO2 in concrete to render the con- surface of a host material through various techniques.
crete a material that can perform certain photocatalytic This includes SAM and sol-gel methods. The objective
activities has been well developed and applied 共Cassar of such a treatment is to change the properties of the
2005兲. Typically, the photocatalytic reaction is applied surface of the host material. Typical reasons requiring
for the provision of self-cleaning surfaces and also the such a change include incompatibility between the aggre-
removal of NOx, SOx, NH3, and CO pollution from urban gate 共host material兲 and the binder used 共e.g., cement or
areas through a chemical reaction triggered by naturally bitumen兲 and the need to improve the bonds between the
occurring ultraviolet light. International pilot projects host and the binder. In some cases the need may also
have already proven the benefits of this development exist to prevent bonding between two materials, and in
共PICADA 2006; CAMDEN 2007兲. such cases changes in the surface morphology/chemistry
• Carbon nanotubes 共CNTs兲 of the two materials may be required.
a. Fiber-reinforced concrete 共FRC兲 is produced when fibers b. In pavement engineering, the adhesion between aggre-
共typically steel or polypropylene fibers兲 are added to a gate and bitumen receives ongoing research attention. A
concrete mix to control plastic shrinkage cracking and relatively good understanding exist regarding the funda-
drying shrinkage cracking. The fibers also lower the mental forces acting on these materials, and it is known
permeability of the FRC and produce greater impact, that different levels of adhesion exist between different
abrasion, and shatter resistance in the FRC. The vital types of aggregate and bitumens 共Hefer et al. 2005兲. In
typical properties required for the fibers in FRC include reality, stripping of bitumen from aggregate occurs under
diameter, specific gravity, Young’s modulus, and tensile certain environmental and loading conditions. The poten-
period of many years 共Addis 2001兲. This reaction has b. There are various international efforts at development of
two forms—alkali-silica reaction 共ASR兲 and alkali- alternative and sustainable binders 共Paige-Green and
carbonate reaction 共ACR兲. In ASR, aggregates containing Steyn 2005兲. In this regard, the application of manufac-
certain forms of silica 共amorphous microcrystalline兲 react turing techniques developed in the nanotechnology field,
with alkali hydroxide in cement to form a gel that swells as well as the characterization techniques may assist in
as it adsorbs water from the surrounding cement paste or the development of new sustainable alternatives that can
the environment. These gels can swell and induce expan- provide the required properties to ensure that cost effec-
sive pressures large enough to damage concrete. Precoat- tive construction and maintenance of pavements.
ing of these aggregates can prevent the type of reaction, • Other materials
rendering currently unsuitable aggregate economically a. One of the changes that a material undergoes when used
suitable for concrete applications. at the nanoscale is that the surface area to volume ratio
• Nanophosphor typically increase drastically. One of the materials often
a. A major road safety need in rural Africa is the illumina- encountered in pavement engineering is naturally occur-
tion of road pavements to improve visibility and road ring clays. These clays pose very specific problems to the
safety. The potential use of nanophosphors combined pavement engineering field as their response to changes
with road surfacing materials or paints for this purpose in moisture content and the platelet structure of the ma-
was evaluated at CSIR 共Steyn et al. 2007; Steyn 2008b兲. terial cause most clays to have low friction angles and
Nanophosphors are nanoscale crystalline structures with some to be expansive. Various traditional treatments of
a size dependent bandgap that can be altered to change the problem include the stabilization of the clay using
the color of light 共Kelsall et al. 2004兲. If the road can act materials such as lime, treatment with sulphonated petro-
as the source of the light 共be made luminescent兲 it can leum products that affects the ion surface properties 共ex-
play a role in improving road safety as the source of the changeable ions兲 of the material or the removal of the
light will not be dependent on external power and the use material from the pavement structural layers.
of a motorized vehicle any more. Current research out- b. However, research into the behavior of clay minerals in
puts have shown that nanophosphors can be added to the nanotechnology field 共Larsen-Basse and Chong 2005兲
traditional pavement materials such as concrete, bitumen, is providing new insights into the fundamental properties
and road paint to enable these materials to become lumi- of clays. Application of this new knowledge may lead to
nescent after exposure to light, while research is ongoing alternative methods for the stabilization of the clays
to further investigate issues such as the increase in lumi- found in road reserves, and may thus lead to less expen-
nescence duration, the type of bonds that form between sive methods for using these materials in the pavement
the nanophosphors and the substrate materials and the structure. This is also an area where the characterization
upscaling of manufacturing techniques to enable practi- of materials using high resolution equipment such as the
cal amounts of nanophosphor to be manufactured. scanning electron microscope 共SEM兲 and atomic force
• Sensors microscope 共AFM兲 has led to potential new insights into
a. One of the well-publicized possibilities of nanomaterials the submicroscopic properties of the materials, identify-
is the development of sensors that act as part of the sub- ing potentially better methods for the treatment of these
strate that is being observed, thereby allowing very fine materials.
measurements on a small scale and obviating the need to
add external sensors to a system 共Goddard et al. 2007兲. Characterization of Existing and Novel Materials
While external sensors tend to interfere with the mechan-
ics of the system being monitored, the incorporation of The developments around characterization techniques that have
sensors as part of the matrix of the system provides the occurred during the past decade in nanotechnology have opened
potential that the matrix actually provides feedback and the door to observations of pavement engineering materials on a
issues around bonding between sensors and the matrix scale not available before. As for other fields of study, this
are canceled. The application of CNTs in traffic monitor- brought about a major change in the way that materials are being
ing 共Shi and Chung 1999兲 is an example of such appli- observed and also the understanding of the behavior of these ma-
cation. In this type of applications, the transfer of data terials. Some examples of such benefits include the following:
from the sensor to a data acquisition device and the • Observational techniques
analysis of data still require further work, especially if a. Observational techniques are used to observe phenomena
the sensors are being distributed inside a pavement of in engineering and to support the explanation of such
several kilometers length. phenomena. For pavement engineering, this ranges from
• Development of alternative materials the macroscale where satellite images are used to observe
a. Bitumen is a by-product of the production of fuel from macroscale phenomena 共mainly in terms of geographical,
Microscope images
Mm resolution mm resolution
NCI
SEM images NCI
⌴m resolution
NCI AFM images
nm resolution
Note: NCI-No current images used typically in pavement engineering.
geological and developmental issues兲 down to the nano- b. The AFM was used to investigate the structural morphol-
scale where matter is studied in its smallest observable ogy of crumb rubber bitumen at the interfacial regions,
form. Steyn et al. 共2007兲 has shown the hierarchy of especially during aging 共Huang et al. 2006兲. Masson et
possible observations 共Table 2兲 including the smaller al. 共2006兲 used phase-detection AFM to evaluate bitumen
scales obtained from the SEM and AFM techniques. morphology and found that bitumen can be classified into
These are starting to yield useful results in the under- three groups, based on the different domains or phases
standing of the behavior of engineering materials 共Mgan- visible.
gira 2007a兲. c. Work at Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
• Characterization of materials—AFM 共CSIR兲 is focusing on the correlation between the aging
a. Pauli et al. 共2001兲 used AFM in characterizing bitumi- of bituminous binders on the road 共a property that se-
nous binders and their respective properties. They corre- verely affects the deterioration of the pavement surface兲
lated the surface morphology with the constituents in the and the elastic stiffness of the binders as measured using
bitumen and concluded that the AFM data may be used the AFM 共Steyn 2007兲. Initial data focused on the surface
to improve the understanding of the precipitation of the morphology and a clear difference could be observed be-
asphaltenes in the bitumen and that this information may tween the surface morphology of a bituminous binder
lead to an improved understanding of the interaction be- that was aged at different temperatures. In Fig. 2, the
tween the surface of the aggregate and the bitumen in overall difference in the surface morphology for four
asphalt. binder types aged at three temperatures can be observed.
15x15 µm sample
Z – 115 nm to No aging 1h aging @ 40°C 1h aging @ 80°C 1h aging @ 140°C
1 600 nm
40/50 Pen
60/70 Pen
100/120 Pen
150/200 Pen
Fig. 2. Surface morphologies of four bituminous binders as aged at three different temperatures and observed using the AFM
Costs
Conclusions
The costs of most nanotechnology equipment and materials are Based on the information and discussions in this paper, the fol-
currently relatively high. This is partly due to the novelty of the lowing conclusions are drawn:
technology, but also due to the complexity of the equipment. • The application of nanotechnology developments in the field
However, in the case of the nanomaterials, costs have been shown of pavement engineering can potentially lead to advances in
to decrease over time and the expectations are that, as manufac- solving general engineering problems;
turing technologies improve, the costs of the materials will de- • Most of these applications, however, first need to be scaled to
crease. Whether such decreases will render the materials as run- the dimensional applications that are typical for the pavement
of-the-mill pavement engineering materials will have to be seen. engineering environment;
Current opinion is that in special cases, the materials will enable • The technical and cost effectiveness of available technologies
unique solutions to complicated problems that cause them to be should both be evaluated as part of the evaluation of nanotech-
cost effective, which will lead to large scale application of these nology solutions in engineering;
specific technologies. In other cases, the traditional methods for • Fundamental research into the properties of engineering mate-
treating the problem may still remain the most cost effective. As rials to improve the understanding regarding their performance
indicated earlier, the job of the engineer is to solve real-world is an important output of nanotechnology characterization of
problems and provide a facility to the general public at a reason- pavement materials; and
able cost. • The development of novel materials and the improvement of
ists兲 and engineers should be narrowed to enable the potential National Science Foundation.” Proc., 2nd Int. Symp. on Nanotechnol-
of nanotechnology innovations to be applied in appropriate ogy in Construction, NANOC 共Center for Nanomaterials Applications
areas of engineering to support the general public good; in Construction兲, Bilbao, Spain, 17–19.
• Scientists should continue with their focus on basic and ori- Maclurcan, D. C. 共2005兲. “Nanotechnology and developing countries Part
ented basic research, providing the required building blocks 1: What possibilities.” Int. J. Nanotechnol. 共具www.azonano.com/
for engineers to construct a better environment; Details.asp?ArticleID⫽1428典兲.
• Engineers should actively and regularly evaluate the available Maher, M., Uzarowski, L., Moore, G., and Aurilio, V. 共2006兲. “Sustain-
technologies 共specifically in the field of nanotechnology, as it able pavements—Making the case for longer design lives for flexible
evolves rapidly兲 to identify potential solutions to problems that pavements.” Proc., 51st Annual Conf. of the Canadian Technical As-
they are required to address in society; and phalt Association, CTAA, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island,
• Challenges such as the potential impact of nanomaterials on Canada, 44–56.
the natural environment around pavements should receive the Makar, J., Margeson, J., and Luh, J. 共2005兲. “Carbon nanotube/cement
required attention to ensure that solutions to pavement engi- composites—Early results and potential applications.” Proc., 3rd Int.
neering questions do not cause new hazards to the public using Conf. on Construction Materials: Performance, Innovations and
the natural and built environment. Structural Implications, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
B.C. Canada, 1–10.
Masson, J.-F., Leblond, V., and Margeson, J. 共2006兲. “Bitumen morpholo-
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Acknowledgments 221共1兲, 17–29.
Meyyapan, M., Iyuke, S. E., and Falcon, R. 共2007兲. “Carbon engineering
The writer acknowledges the generous support of CSIR Built En- and nanotechnology course.” Proc., Short Course Presented at the
vironment and the University of Pretoria in the work conducted in University of the Witwatersrand. University of the Witwatersrand, Jo-
the area of nanotechnology for engineering on which this paper hannesburg, South Africa, 2–4.
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