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S T U D Y O F H A R B O R D E S IG N
C O M P I L E D BY

CHAO HWA, CHU TENG-KAO

AND

HSU ZAN-ZIANG

VOLUM E I

fa *
o fl / p // ^ c s

REPRODUCED BY

TA U. S . W A T E R W A Y S E X P E R I M E N T S T A T IO N

7 V IC K S B U R G , M IS S IS S IP P I
.W 34
H95
1945
Vol. 1 JU LY 1945
 □BRACT

MAY 22 1968
Bureau of Reclamation
Denver, Colorado
 BUREAU OF RECLAMATION DENVER LIBRARY
92098412
^ A

^ ^ .X
 WAR DEPARTMENT
CORPS OF ENGINEERS
M IS S IS S IP P I R IV E R C O M M ISSIO N
U. S. WATERWAYS EXPERIMENT STATION
V IC K S B U R G , M IS S IS S IP P I

FOREWORD

The principles of harbor design are an important, yet often not clearly understood
part of the present accumulation of engineering knowledge. This general lack of under­
standing is due in part to the extreme complexity of the natural phenomena involved
in the design of harbors and harbor p ro tectiv e works, and in part to inadequate
dissemination of technical literature pertaining to the effects of various harbor designs
on wave and surge action. This report was prepared with the hope that it might assist
in alleviating to some extent the latter deficiency.
Contained herein is a digest of the material compiled over a period of years for use
as reference by engineers of the U. S. Waterways Experiment Station working on designs
for harbor improvement structures. The report was prepared by Messrs. Chao Hwa,
Chu Teng-Kao, and Hsu Zan Ziang, three Chinese harbor engineers, while on a visit
to the Lower Mississippi Valley Division office of the U. S. Engineer Department. Mr.
Robert Y. Hudson, Engineer in charge of the Wave Action Section of the U. S. Water­
ways Experiment Station, supervised the compilation and furnished the list of references
used.
The Office, Chief of Engineers, authorized reproduction of the report in its exact
form as a publication of general interest and value to the Department-at-Large. Per­
mission to reproduce the report was granted by the International Training Administra­
tion, Washington, D. C., and the Chinese Supply Commission.
Data and opinions set forth, and methods described in the report do not necessarily
carry the official sanction of the War Department.
 STUDY OF HARBOR DESIGN
Compiled By

Messrs. Chao Hwa, Chu Teng-Kao and Hsu Zan-Ziang

From Reference Material

in the

Engineer Department Research Center Library

U. S. Waterways Experiment Station

Vicksburg, Mississippi

United States of America

Volume I

July 1945
 STUDY OF HARBOUR DESIGN

CONTENTS

Foreward i 2£2.
Preface ^
Chapter I
General Harbour Design
1 . Introduction i
2 • D efin itio n and T yp es.. . . . . . ....................... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2
3 * General P rin cip le s of Harbour D e s i g n . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • . . . . 3
4 * Harbour C a p a c i t y # # # # 0 # # #
5 * S ite S e le c t io n .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^
6. General Remarks on Harbour Design D a t a 10
Wind - Waves - L it to r a l Currents and D r ifts -
Tides - Seiches - River Flow
7 . Arrangement of Harbour W o r k s . . 21
8. Breakwater A l i g n m e n t #0### 25
9 # General Features of Breakwater with Respect to
Their P o s itio n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
10. Harbours a t Lagoons • • • • • • • • • ................ 32
11 . Harbour Exposure .................................. 33
12 . General Remarks on Entrance ...................................................... 3*7
13 . Entrance Width and Channel Depth Ifi
H4.. General Harbour Layout and Other F a c i l i t i e s ......... ............ 50
15. Conclusion .................................................................................................53
Bibliography ................................... ........................ 55

Chapter I I
Study on Wave A ction
1. Introduction .............••••♦ ............. 1
2. H istory o f Wave Study 2
3. Wave Formation and i t s R elation with Fetch and
Wind V e lo c ity ................................................................ • • • • • • • • • • •
4 > T h eoretical Considerations of Wave M otion .................. j
5 . R elationship between Wave C h a ra cte ristic s a t Various
..................................... ................................... ..................................
6. Wave Action in R elation to Harbour P rotection Works . . . . . 19
7 . C alcu lation of Wave Pressure A gainst Maritime
S tructures 30
8. Measurement o f Wave C h a r a c t e r is t ic s ............. 36
Nomenclature .................................................................................................... ¡g

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^5
 Chapter III
Breakwaters* Design and Construction
!• General D escription,.......................... 1
2, Vertical-W all Breakwater .........,,••» ,,» •• 3
Construction - Design - Example
3* Underwater F o u n d a t i o n s ........................... .. 16
Wave Pressure on a Vertical-W all Breakwater,,••••* ,,•» • 18
5. Rubble-Mound Breakwater,....................................................................21
Core of Nucleus - Principle Covering - Secondary
Covering - Ridge or Parapet - Example
6. Experience in Breakwater Construction (with Experimental
Study ) 36

Chapter IV
Design* Construction and Operation of Harbour Mbdels
1, General D e s i g n . • 1
2, Sim ilitude of Harbour Models,• I4.
3* Construction of Harbour Mode Is ................................ 11
Ij., Model Appurtenances, llj.
3» Operation of M o d e l s , • 18
6» S olution o f Hiavw lo tio n P r o b l e m s , 23
 PREFACE

It is needless to say th^t this special branch of knowledge^

harbour engineering, is still in its cradle stage. Due to the most

complexity of the natural phenomena, no one at present can design a

harbour in such a manner -wholly based on theoretical way.

i«e 'write this report 'with the only purpose to try through this

branch of knowledge to make a reference for our own. We, of course, are

far from a position to present any new ideas, either practical or theo­

retical, on this particular subject.

The report consists of four parts. The first part gives a general

idea about harbour design, such as selection of harbour site and arrange­

ment of harbour works. Many existed harbours of various types are discussed

here for illustration. The second part deals with the theoretical considera­

tions of wave action; recognized theories and formulas are introduced.

The third part gives the methods of design and construction of breakwaters

which play a very important part in the whole construction works of a

harbour. The fourth part gives a brief discussion of harbour model studies.

The sourcesfrom which the subject matter has been collected dre listed in

the bibliography.

Here we wish to express our hearty thanks to Brig. General M. C.

Tyler, President of the Mississippi River Commission, and Mr. G. H.

Matthes, Director of. the U. S, Yfeterways Experiment Station, for their

kind arrangement for us to keep study in the Experiment Station on this

subject, m especially thank Mr. B. Y. Hudson, Chief of Wave Section, for

his kind instruction during the period when we studied in his section.

i
His valuable suggestions and directions make possible for us to write this

report. Also, we appreciate the kindness of M s s R. F. Heisey, Miss S. E.

Biggers, librarians, and Miss. J. 0. Cook, typist, for their help extended
to us.

Chao, Hwa

Chu, Teng-Kao

Hsu, Zan-Ziang

Vicksburg, Mississippi, U.S.A.

July I9J4.5

ii
 STUDY OP HARBOUR DESIGN

CHAPTER I

GENERAL HARBOUR DESIGN

Introduction

1, As vessels gradually increased in number, size, and importance,

so the need for more spacious accommodation became the more pressing and

the demand for larger and better harbours the more imperative. So the

primitive landing spots for canoes gradually changed into modern, well-

equipped ports. This is just natural response to the growth of our

human economic life, the progress of which indicates the evidence of our

struggling for a better world*

2# Dating back between two and three thousand years prior to the

commencement of the Christian era, an artificial harbour was built up

at Tyre by Phoenicians under the stimulation of business. Once Europeans

diverted their interest to overseas for colonies after the Dark Ages, the

shipping rapidly expanded with a boom of seaports. The governments of

nations, or cities, or even private concerns had to invest in the facilitie

of a harbour in order to expedite the dispatch of the vessels for their

competitive profits# At. the same time, the keen competition in trades

between nations and safe-guarding against piracy naturally brought up

the naval forces which in turn increased the burden upon the harbours#

In other respects, the small fishery harbours manifested their importance

by numbers so that we can not neglect them at all.

3# The Great World Wars caused the extravagant demand upon harbours#

The harbour authorities faced new problems that they never had experienced
before, as camouflage against air raids, accommodations for big convoy

fleets, immense space for the anchorage of vessels loaded -with explo­

sives, and of the seaplanes. Bottleneck has become the headache of

our ports, -which still requires to be solved today.

1±. However important the harbours may be, and however long they

may have been developed since thousands of years ago, the science of

harbour engineering still is at its young age. Although we expect so

much of them, yet the factor involved due to natural forces to our

economic demands is so intricate that exact analyses and methods of

control sometimes become impossible. What this treatise tries to explain

is just the first step in the harbour study.

Definition and Types

5* A harbour is a tract of water within which vessels have their

shelter from onset of heavy seas, operate cargo or passenger transfer,

and receive supplies or undergo repairs. Harbours are different from

ports, which latter include land facilities and all installations in

addition to the harbour.

6. The classification of harbours varies according to what point

is emphasized. In fact, many designations are just arbitrary and incom­

plete. For instance, a harbour named a naval harbour does not mean it

will deny entry to commercial or fishery vessels. Likewise, a m o d e m

harbour is never completely natural or artificial as its designation

implies, but is just a combination of a certain extent of nature’s works

and human efforts.

J. If we have to classify harbours, probably the local site

condition is the best standard. By this we have three types, namely,

2
lagoon, jetty, and breakwater harbours.

8. A lagoon harbour looks like a large shallow lake separated

from the sea by a narrow belt of coast. The tides and the fluvial

discharge of any river »flowing into the lagoon would maintain one or

more fairly deep navigable outlets through the coastal fringe. Never­

theless, the lagoons are liable to be gradually silted up if rivers

flowing into them have high quantities of alluvium and heaping action of

the wave is predominant (fig. 1).

9* The jetty harbours are those sites where flat marshy ground,

lying below the level of high water on the sea coast and shut off from

the sandy beach by dikes or sand dimes, are connected with the sea by a

small creek or river, like Calais and Dunkirk along the English Channel.

Jetties are constructed to concentrate the scouring effect of current in

provision for a deep channel (fig. 2).

10. The third class called breakwater harbours is one provided

with expensive marine works which exclude the onset of rolling seas.

Most modern harbours fall into this class and are found at open sea coasts

natural bays, gulfs, or estuaries. Because of their grand scale in nature

against natural inimical forces, this type of harbours is the most diffi­

cult in design and construction and accordingly calls for much more

attention than the other two types (fig. 3)*

General Principles of Harbour Design

11. The principal purpose of a harbour is to furnish a necessary

shelter for the refuge of the vessels driven by storm and for the transfer

of freight and passengers between water carriers and the hinterland of the

port. Therefore, an ideal harbour should fulfill the following four

requirements:
3
3-A
 Provide$ a tract of tranquil water*

b# Grive^ quick dispatch of vessels in all conditions#

_c# Handle^ cargoes at minimum cost with expedient methods#

&e
d_. Xe- adaptable to the development of the port utilities

and demands#

12* A successful harbour design will attract the greatest patronage

and make one port gain advantage over the other -which may have a better

natural harbour without any modern installations#

13# However ideal conditions in a harbour^we »an tfnrdly expeet-

at any given location,foeeaw e every place has its peculiar problems#— -'-''

which are complicated and require solution. This is why the design of

harbours becomes one of the most difficult branches of civil engineering#

The engineer may avail himself of the past experience of other harbours,

but perfect similarity in the physical peculiarities of different locali­

ties seldom, if ever, exists. More, particularly the difference in the

force of the sea to be reckoned with in different places and depths is

probably far greater than is generally imagined* .■

Harbour Capacity

U*. The harbour capacity is fixed by the hinterland of the port,

which means the area of the back country of the port from and to which

the commerce of a port moves. Of course, it is more or less elastic and

abstract, but the designing engineer can visualize it by an analysis of

the amount of exports and imports of that port or in turn by an investi­

gation of vessels that frequent the port. The investigation of the

vessels has one more advantage, since the study of hinterland only concerns

commerce while the latter also indicates the capacity required by the Navy

or fisheries#
1+
 15* The study of the v is itin g vesse ls is not so simple as i t

looks. Such a study at le a s t includes the follow ing items:

Jju The maximum number of vessels v is itin g simultaneously in

a day.

b. The flu ctu atio n of that number during a round year which

may be important to decide whether the harbour should be

b u ilt fo r the absolute maximum or rather fo r the smaller

number of v e sse ls during the larger part of the year.

£• The length of sta y of each vessel in the harbour.

<1. The character and amount of each kind of v e sse l, including

th e ir d r a ft, tonnage, length, width, and sp ecial fe a tu re s.

e. The future tendency of marine architecture and demand of

the port eith er fo r commerce or m ilita r y emergency. The

harbour once constructed would stimulate the development

of the port and enlarge the f i e ld of transhipment. The

ra p id ity in the progress of the shipbuilding enterprise

has immensely affected the harbours of the world. Inade­

quate cap acity of the harbour to the deep d raft of large

ships tends to choke the pro sperity of the port to death.

16. Mr. Thomas Stevenson remarked on the cap acity of the harbours

in h is book, 11Construction of Harbours,” which says th a t:

Table 1

Kind of Harbour Capacity Required

Refuge 0 .5 - 0 .3 3 vessels/acre

Commercial 6 - 1 1 1 vesse ls/a cre

Fishing J4Û - 1 1 5 v essels/acre

5
"What is listed above is merely the averaged capacities of some harbours

in his time (1886) • Much change has occurred since then. Nevertheless,

we may draw some conclusions from his and others 1 remarks, as the

following!

The principle in determining the capacity of a harbour is

that the accommodation of a harbour varies with the swing

area of each vessel.

b. The swing of a vessel results from:

(1) Wind blow.

(2) Waves, swells, or seiches.

(3) Making berth o^ maneuvering for something else.

(lj.) Adjusting the compass if no Gyro compass is used.

c. The swing area can be roughly calculated by the area

swept by a certain amount of radius. Usually, the radius

equals the length of the vessel plus length of cable paid

out.

jd. The length of vessel varies with the character of the ship.

The usual commercial lines have about 550 ft in their length

on average, while the fishery crafts ordinarily have only

50 to 60 ft. The "Normandie" has a length of 981 ft and

b in. and probably is the longest ship in the world today.

je. The cable varies with the method of mooring and the depth

of water. As a rule, for single mooring the length of cable

equals three times the depth of water, and assumes that

the vessel swings around the anchor. The object in having

6
 a lo n g.lea d i s to render the p u ll on the anchor as n e a r ly

h o rizo n ta l as p o ssib le , in order th at the maximum re sis-*

tance may be opposed to dragging and the most e f f i c i e n t

hold o f the ground obtained# I f the v e s s e l is moored by

two anchors, one ahead o f th e bow and the other back o f

the s t e m , the swing i s but l i t t l e more than th at due to

length o f the v e s s e l w ith n ecessary amount o f clearance#

There i s no d e f in it e p r a c tic e fo r the c a lc u la tio n o f swing

area fo r double mooring# Just u su a lly assume 10 f t a t each

end o f the v e s s e l fo r clearance and on e-th ird o f the swing

c ir c l e fo r the area required# In other words, the v e s s e l

is assumed to sweep about 120 degrees. For example,

Given: V essel length * 500 f t

Depth of water where anchored « 100 f t

For s in g le mooring,
o
swing area = (500 + 3 x 100) # /I+8Í4D x 9

■ I46 acres, or say 50 acres

For double mooring,

swing area = 1/3 (500 + 2 x 10)2 /: /LMiO x 9

=» 6 ,5 acres, or say 7 acres

1(3¿|0 x 9 sq f t = 1 acre.

Therefore the swing area i s much sm aller in the second

case than in the f i r s t . This i s a very u sefu l reference

fo r the design o f a harbour ■ where the dense t r a f f i c has

to be accommodated in a lim ited space.

7
 f# The c a p a c ity o f a harbour eq u a ls the summation o f swing

a re a s o f the v e s s e l s th a t are tak in g in to the harbour

a t the same time p lu s n e c e ssa ry allow ance.

The n e c e ssa ry allow ance i s given f o r :

(1) The swing o f one v e s s e l w ithout fo u lin g the other#

(2) The outgoing and incoming of oth er v e s s e ls between

beWoeai moored#

(3) The anchorage of the v e s s e l s which w ait f o r quaran­

tin e or custom, or m ilit a r y in spection #

(I4.) The b e rth s o f v e s s e ls which are loaded with ex p lo ­

s iv e s or something e ls e «flam m able#

( 5) The r e l i e f f o r the sudden con gestio n o f v e s s e ls in

the harbour, e s p e c ia lly during the storm#

(6) The sp aces f o r load in g and unloading con ten ts o f

v e s s e l s along wharves, p ie r s , or j e t t i e s ,

(7 ) A g r e a te r margin f o r the v e s s e l s of heavy b u ild and

th a t are more d i f f i c u l t to handle, lik e b a ttle s h ip s#

A d ista n c e a p a rt o f two c a b le s (1200 f t ) may be q u ite

adequate f o r t h i s purpose, and in most c a se s a cab le

and a h a lf would s t iff ice#

(8) The g r e a t exposure to the weather because the ra d iu s

o f swing would in c re a se by wind blow or the anchor

would be broken by heavy gales#

h# The c a p a c ity o f the harbour should not be so g r e a t th a t the

harbour i t s e l f becomes the wave g en eratin g area#

8
 Sit© Selection

17* There are many opinions regarding this subject. Taking the

harbour site freely at our disposal, it should fulfill the following

items as far as possible*

^a. At conveniently accessible stations upon coasts which

are inhospitable and dangerous,

bo On the route of trade.

On the mouth of river, if any, which would be favorable*

do At the place where maximum natural protection from storms

and waves and largest deep water area can be obtained.

Usually bays, gulfs landlocked by headlands, promonotories,

islands, or outlying reefs are the best choice.

At the place where the least natural adverse effects exist,

as fog, ice, littoral drift, heavy storms, big gales, high

tidal range, tidal bore, alluvial river flow, or marine

insects; especially for the fishery harbours, as a shoal

of fish may be missed as easily from sheer inability to

proceed to sea as from the deterrent effect of impending

foul weather.

f. At the locality which has large hinterland and efficient

inland communications*

However, never before was there a harbour site perfectly ideal and subject

to our free choice. The -locality at any rate will already have been

determined and the preliminary dispositions established before engineers1

services are requisitioned. Many harbours of present days have resulted

from needs due to the growth of population or some geological advantages

9
 nearby, even though there may be better natural facilities not far away.

It falls the engineers1 lot to utilize existing conditions and prepos­

sesions, and to devise a modus vivendi out of circumstances beyond his

control.

General Remarks on Harbour Design Data

18. It is very important to have necessary and reliable data of

the place where the harbour will be built. By natural order of procedure,

the first point would be to make a survey of the neighborhood, and to

prepare a chart indicating the depths of water in the vicinity. Not only

should a complete set of soundings be taken, but borings should also be

made to ascertain the nature of the ground, its fitness for anchorage,

and the extent to which it lends itself to an economical increase of

depth should this be or become necessary. The depths obviously must be

sufficient to meet the requirements of the deepest draughted vessels which

are likely to frequent the place, and it should not be overlooked that

some allowance is necessary for the pitch or surge, or "send11, of a vessel

in rough weather, whereby its keel descends below the normal level. The

depth chart helps in sketching out the limit of breakwater so as, without

disregarding other conditions, to keep the works as much as possible an

the shoal ground, while at the same time they inclose the greatest

possible area of deep water#

19 * After the preparation of the s urvey and the plotting of the

contour lines, the engineer will search local records for data, and also

make observations himself for confirmation, in reference to various

natural and meteorological phenomena, and the following will specially

claim his attentioni

10
 a.* The direction and intensity of the winds and the frequency

of stoms«

b> The height and force of the waves«

£• The range of the tides*

&. The direction and velocity of the currents*

e. Evidence of silting, littoral drift, or coast erosion*

f* The extent of exposure and the maximum "fetch"•

20* It is quite as bad engineering to adopt the unjustifiable

policy of erecting, in sheltered seas, works that are heavy enough for

the open ocean; as, through an underestimated notion of the exposure,

to fall into the opposite error of designing structures that are deficient

in strength and efficiency* For example, the signs of crumbling cliffs

which may lead us to overestimate exposure in some cases are destroyed

much more by gradual attrition of land springs than by effects of heavy

waves# On the other hand, we may underestimate the limit of high surfs

by the existence of vegetation which sometimes may be on a level much

below the high surfs#

21# We shall not dwell in detail on every item listed above, but

just mention some important points that are worth noting#

Winds

22. Wind at high velocity, so called gales, stoms, or hurricanes,

may cause more havoc and destruction than a whole 12-months of the

prevailing wind* However, the importance of the latter lies in the

effect it has upon the coastal contour in its relationship to tides,

waves, and currents, the effects of which, though momentarily insignificant,

are continuous and cumulative. It is a matter of judgement as to whether

the structure should be designed for storms which are exceptional, though

11
 on© may have occurred r e c e n tly . To some ex te n t a d esig n can not take

care o f v ery ra re c a se s a t th e expense o f unnecessary fu n d s.

23# Winds n ot only d i r e c t l y put p ressu re on the s t r u c t u r e s , but

a ls o gen erate the waves, in c re a se the t i d a l range, propogate c u rre n ts,

or accen tu ate the l i t t o r a l d r i f t s . Those agen cies are so c lo s e ly

r e la t e d th a t an ex a ct a n a ly s is can h ard ly be achieved#

2 l|* Three examples and a B eau fo rt S c a le are shown below to i l l u s t r a t e

some common methods o f re co rd in g wind frequen cy and in te n s ity (fig # Ip-6 ) •

Table 2

B eau fo rt S c a le f o r Wind

0 denotes Calm V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour » 0

1 denotes L igh t A ir V elo city in m ile s per hour » 7

2 denotes Ligh t Breeze V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour » II4.

3 denotes Gentle Breeze V e lo city in m ile s per hour = 21

4 denotes Moderate Breeze V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour « 28

5 denotes Fresh Breeze V e lo c ity in m iles per hour « 35

6 den otes Strong Breeze V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour « 1|2

7 den otes Moderate Gale V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour = 49

8 denotes Fresh Gale V e lo c ity in m ile s per hour = 56

9 denotes Strong Gale V e lo c ity in m iles per horn* * 63

10 denotes Tftiole Gale V elo city in m iles per hour = 70

11 denotes Storm V e lo c ity in m iles per hour « 77

12 denotes H urricane V e lo c ity in m iles per hour = 84

Wave s

25* The m ysterious product o f wind and w ater with tremendous

d isr u p tiv e power i s the se a wave. I t i s the m ig h tie st of the fo r c e s

12
 WI ND DI AGRAM

S S

frequencj/ set o f ' f frequency s e t o f f

from center. from center
in te n s ity from in te nsity fro m
frequency curve, radial lines.

FIG. 4 FIG. 5

frequency se t o f f
from cen ter.
Maximum Intensity
from circumstance,
FIG. 6

1 2-A
 arrayed against the harbour works, upon which i t acts w ith a ll the
magnipotent impulse of a huge b a tte rin g ram, while a t the same time
i t is equipped w ith the point of a pick and the edge of a wedge.
Because i t is of the most complex, the most v o la tile , the most p e r ti-
n'acious and the most incom prehensible, but the most im portant n a tu ra l
forces in our harbour design, a whole chapter w ill be devoted to i t
la te r . So fa r as harbour 7/orks are concerned, there are two kinds of
waves to deal with of such d iffe re n t, i f not opposite* natures th a t
what is b e n e fic ia l in one case is u seless in the o th er. They are the
waves of o s c illa tio n and the waves of tra n s la tio n ; the la tte r of which
has more e ffe c t on the s ta b ility of marine works. The wave actio n is
most severe between 15 f t below lw, and ms.l; above th is the action is
somewhat dim inished as the forward tra n s la tin g e ffe c t of waves counter­
balance the re c o il or baclcward drag of the undertow»
L itto ra l currents and d r if ts
26. The e ffe c ts of l it t o r a l currents which are prominent in some
locatio ns on harbours are tw ofold. F ir s t, i t confuses the lo c a l regular
flow . A re iv e r which empties into the sea may be checked by the l it t o r a l
current on the way and caused to discharge i t s sediments and deviate i ts
n a tu ra l course. At -the same time the deposits re s u lt in b ars, d eltas^
or shoals, which se rio u sly impede the navigation to and out the harbour.
The second influence of the l i t t o r a l currents is th a t they, driven by
the wind, carry sand and gravel along the shore, which may s i l t up th e
whole harbour area. This is called l i t t o r a l d r i f t .
27 . However, the l i t t o r a l cu rren t is only one of the causes th a t

produce l i t t o r a l d r if t. The other is the action of waves which a tta c k

15
 the shore and stir up the sand and shingles on the beach. The line of

crest of wave is generally perpendicular to the direction of wind, but

on approaching coast the tendency is to wheel and to become more or

less parallel to shore line, owing to the drag or friction of bottom at

one extremity. The lighter materials are carried by both the wave force

along the shore and littoral currents, while the heavier particles are

rolled along the bottom and partake of a zig-zag movement which varies

with the directions of wind and shore (fig. 7 ). Accretion will take

place -where the water is rather stagnant or the flow is obstructed by

natural or artificial structures. The relocation of entrance at Madras

Harbour, the construction of open viaduct at Ziebrugge and island harbours

at Denmark are very instructive examples in this connection.

28. The Madras Harbour breakwaters extend outward about 3,000 ft

from the original lowr -water line, as it was at the conunencement of the

work of construction in I876 . Up to the year 1913 a large triangular

area of sand, about 260 acres in extent, had accumulated on the southern

side of the projection, with a base of 9,000 ft along the coast line and

a side of 2,000 ft along the breakwater. Moreover, as shown in fig. 8 ,

this was not the whole of the accretion, for a narrow strip parallel

the shore had also been formed, extending from the end of the triangle

for a distance of nearly I4.miles to the mouth of the River Adyar, and

inclosing an area of 111), acres. On the other hand, northward of the

harbour there had been a corresponding erosion for a length of 3 miles

along the shore, and it had been found necessary to check this by means

of stone revetments. The old entrance to the harbour was centrally

situated between the breakwaters, facing east and the sand drifting
-re
 northward found slack water between the pier heads wherein to settle,

with t; result that before it was closed the entrance was shallowing

up at the rate of just one ft per annum over a period of 12 years.

i/Yith the closing of the old entrance and the extension of the eastern

arm, the deposit continued along the whole eastern face until it has been

more or less checked by the extension of the south arm of the breakwater«,

29« Apparently the practical means of remedying the evil due to

solid structures is that of substituting open work for the portion of the

jetty which immediately joins the land. As exemplified at Zubrugge,

columnar structures were constructed as a viaduct to link the solid break«

water to the shore (fig. 9)* Based on the same idea in Denmark island

harbours were built across the littoral drift area at Amager, Snojebuck,

and Hindested (fig. 10-12).

Tides

30. It is quite essential to understand the nature of tides in all

harbour work. A large range of tide causing bad currents and the elevation

or lowering of the vessel at a berth are not only inconvenient but

dangerous, and may require expensive harbour construction to accommodate

vessels safely.

31* A tide is the daily rising and falling of the waters of the

sea, produced by the attraction of the sun and moon. (A rise and fall

of the sea produced by the alternation of day and night breezes, by

(
regular rainfall and evaporation, or by any influence which the moon

may have on the weather cannot strictly be called a tide.) There are

marked diurnal and semi-diurnal inequalities of the barometer, due to

15
 x / _ .y
N V ('

AMAGER I S L A N D HARBOUR
F I G . 10

15-A
5N O G E B O E K IS L A N D H ARBO UR
F IG . II

H U N D E S TE D IS L A N D HARBOUR
FIG. 12

15-B
 the sun’s heat they may be described as atmospheric-meteorological tides

These are not astronomical tides.

32« The average or usual intervals between diurnal tides are

12 hours and 25 minutes from high water to high water, a retardation

from day to day of 50 minutes. The tide is 50 minutes later each day.

There are daily, semi-daily, and mixed tides in different localities.

33* Spring tide is when the range of tide is at its maximum on

the days after the new and full moon. It is often nearly three times

the range of neap tides. Neap tide is the minimum range of tide on the

day after the first and third quarters.

3h* The needs of the engineer have resulted in studies that

covered the following fieIds:

a. Prediction of tides and the preparation of annual tidal

tables in advance.

b. Determination of datum planes.

£• A study of mean sea level and its relation to crustal

movements.

jd. Development of instruments for observing and predicting

tides, and the study of tidal phenomena in general.

A knowledge of the tide is of great direct importance whenever the depth

at low water is approximate to, or less than, the draft of the vessel

and whenever docks are constructed to be entered and left at high water.

35« There are two other points in connection with tides that

influence the tidal harbour design. One is .tidal prism and the other

the tidal bore. The former is the total amount of water that flows into

the harbour and out again with the movement of the tide. The Corps of

16
 E ngineers of the U. S. A. re q u ire s c e rta in types of c o n stru c tio n a t
c e rta in p o rts w ith regard to the e f f e c t on the t i d a l prism . For
i
in sta n c e , a t riv e r p o rts and confined ch an n els, such as Hew York
(Hudson and H ast F iv e rs) s o lid p ie r s tru c tu re s are n o t p erm itted be­
cause th ey would undoubtedly in c re a se the h e ig h t of the w ater and th e
speed of th e c u rre n t when th e tid e is running. For t h i s reason open-
p ile p ie rs are re q u ire d . I t would seem from th ese requirem ents th e re
has been an undue s tr e s s la id upon th e d iffe re n c e in th e e f f e c t upon
the t i d a l prism as betw een s o lid p ie rs and open- p ile p ie r s , and th a t
the d iffe re n c e in th e e f f e c t on the t i d a l flow is n o t s u f f ic ie n t unduly
to in flu e n c e a choice of s tr u c tu r e . M oreover, th e t i d a l prism has a
d ir e c t e f f e c t upon th e channel depth and the d ire c tio n due to changes in
th e q u a n tity and v e lo c ity of the. w ater of th e ebb and flo o d tid e by reason
of th e r e s u ltin g tid& lrscour. This is a f ie ld fo r hydrographic o b serv atio n
th a t has n o t been given a g re a t d e a l of stu d y to date and is w orthy of
more a tte n tio n .
36. A t i d a l bore is the beginning of a flo o d tid e marked w ith
suddeness and d is tin c tio n . I t is u su a lly caused by th e im p act.o f a
r iv e r flow ing to th e sea en co u n terin g an incoming tid e . One of th e b e s t
examples of t i d a l b o res is th a t of the E stu ary of Hangchow, Checkiang,
China, where a d iffe re n c e o f w ater le v e l betw een high and low tid e reaches
as much as I40 f t , th e w ater ru sh in g in to th e e stu a ry v/ith g re a t fo rc e .
However, in most p o rts th ey are a n e g lig ib le fa c to r in harbour d esig n ;
th e su b je c t b ein g in tro d u ced here fo r th e sake of com pleteness and* an
item n o t to be overlooked.
37« B efore we leave th is p a rt of th e to p ic a tte n tio n m ust again
be p aid to th e f a c t th a t th e tid e s brought about by the fo rc e s of the
17
 sun and moon not only change in rising and falling but also involve a

horizontal movement •whi.ch is called tidal currents and is more notice­

able in constricted waters than in open seas. Really the tide is

nothing but the mighty and slow waves which stir the sea to its very

depth. These waves, just as mentioned before, are of two kinds,

progressive and stationary, vihen tide enters into the bay or rivers

from open sea, at some places it sustains the progressive while at the

other places it sustains the stationary, according to the length and

*

depth of the body of water. The methods of dealing with these two kinds'

of waves are quite different in nature.

38. Moreover, the tidal current in some cases acts as a breakwater

to the shore. >.nen the rapid—tideway, called ^race** or ^roosts", runs

in such a direction as to be entirely outside of the harbour and at some

distance off, it will, vixile it lasts, have a decided tendency to shelter

the works. But no sooner does the roost disappear towards high water

than a heavy sea assumes its original mighty force against the coast.

If a harbour work is constructed in a race, the masonry would sometimes

be exposed to the action of a very trying and dangerous high-cresting sea.

From careful inquiries, it appears that the true cause of these dangerous

breaking water is the encountering of the swell of the ocean and an

I ‘ '

opposing tidal current. Two rapid tides may meet each other without any

dangerous effect if there be no ground swell, yet, if they join together

in a rough sea during ground swells, the effect of their union is to

increase the current, highly dangerous waves being produced. The meeting

of the currents, therefore, though not the cause of the waves, is never­

theless sure to increase their height and to make them break. The races

18
 T»hich occur in open seas— as, for instance, off headlands and turning

points of the coast— are certain portions of those seas in -which with
j

a ground swells the waves break to a greater or less extent, although

the water may be very deep and there may be no wind at the time. At

all such places it will be found that there are rapid tides, and that

the breaking waves are produced when the tide runs against a ground

swell. Therefore, the location of breakwaters relative to the position

of rapid-tideway is a very interesting problem in design. The roosts

might be utilized to check some action of non-tidal waves but it may

also increase the current that -the amount of breakwater.

irrci cauea #oo.

Seiches

39» Ihis is a wave of very great length, an apparent lateral

movement of water in the inclosed harbour areas which causes vessels to

develop a backward and forward motion. This movement is more noticeable

upon lakes as the Great Lakes of North America, Lake of Geneva, etc.

Wien the wind blows with considerable velocity in a direction parallel

to the longer axis of the lake, or of the water partially constricted,

its effect is to lower the level at one end of the confined water and

to raise it at the opposite end, thus disturbing the normal condition of

hydrost&tis equilibrium. l/®ien the velocity of the wind begins to decrease

the water tends to regain a condition of stable equilibrium by a series

of oscillations about a line at right angles to the longer axis of the

water body and about midway between the extreme ends, the oscillations

sometimes continuing for three or four days. The greatest simultaneous

difference of level between the two ends of the .water body reaches as

19
 high as 13 ft and the period of the oscillation varies from L\D seconds

to. 8 minutes./*» ^ •

ijDr Though this kind of evil does harm to certain harbours,

especially those on lakes, the investigation of this subject still as

yet has not been satisfactory* So far as is known the cause of seiches

is the sudden local changes in atmospheric pressure and they would be

more serious by the reflection of wave energy from beaches toward

artificial harbour works. In many naval bases the collision of ships

against piers or some damages to wharves by pulling out the ballards

are due to this cause.

River flow

i+l. Land water entering the sea at any point is deflected by tidal

currents, where they exist, to each side alternatively, with the result

that with the coastal sediment there is a tendency to shoal at some short

distance outwards, forming a bar of various contours. With a strong wind

and littoral current in one predominant direction, there will most likely

be produced, in addition to a bar, a spit or horn (fig. 13 ) through which

the river may break in times of flood, but which generally reforms. In

any case the shoaling is detrimental and various means have been tried to

remove it.. The most generally accepted methods are by means of project­

ing jetties, or training walls, and dredging.

ij2. The difference in densities of river and sea also gives rise

to another trouble. In some cases the salinity of sea wrater stimulates

the coagulation of matters loaded in the fluvial flow and speeds up the

accretion along the channel as well as at the mouth of the river. While

in the other case the salt water encroaches into the upper reaches of

20
20-A
the river and becomes a menace to the local water supply system*

i+3# Although the river flow may prosper the growth of fish, an

advantage to the fishery harbour, and decrease the probability of

marine borers1 existence, a rescue to the timber works, «the* early freeze

of ^fehe £*'esli WKTui* at its mouth seriously curtails the usefulness of the

harbour and certainly deprives the port of a part of business received

by the other non-frozen harbours during the same season# This is why

some engineers try to deviate the river flow outside the harbour at a

distance# As to the planning of Great Northern Harbour in China, it

appears that redirecting of the Ching River outside the s ite will be the

first necessity in the construction in order that it be an ice-free harbour

competitive against Tien-Tsien.

i^# The influence of salt water upon the river harbours^by its

importance to both engineering works and sanitary problems.calls much

more attention of harbour engineers at present than before. -Many model

tests have been conducted ;o be very

suggestive and expedient in solving problems of such complexity.

Arrangement of Harbour Works

h5* Local conditions principally affect the general arrangement

within the harbour area, and each type of harbour has its particular

requirement to be furnished.

i|6# Let us first deal with jetty harbours. These harbours generally

are located at the mouth of rivers and are of small capacity. The construc­

tion of jetties provides the channel available to ships entering into the

port. These jetties usually have been built with solid substructures up

to a little above low water level of neap tides and open timber work as a

21
 guide for the vessels in high water stage.

14-7• The low solid structure, however, checks the current and

causes the undesirable accretion which will result in the continuing

advance^of low water line and necessitate the extension of jetties, as

the case in Dunkirk Harbour, or other remedies as sluicing basin at

Ostend (fig.2) and dredging at Calais*

IjB. The number, position and height of jetties in connection

with channels are major factors to engineers. These problems should be

traced back to the original local conditions* There is no rule ,of thumb

to decide their general features.

il-9. For one single channel the jetties are either single or double.

Single jetties are necessary only when the nature of flow is such that

erosion is confined to one side of a river, as is the case at bends. In

intermediate positions and straight reaches, and also in places where it

is desirable to direct a stream across from one bank to that opposite, two
/
parallel walls are requisite; otherwise, the stream will exhibit a tendency

to spread and the channel to shoal.

50. At the mouth of rivers double retaining jetties may be either

parallel or splayed, and the splay may be inwards or outwards, so that the

jetties either converge or diverge as the*/approach the sea. Parallel

retaining jetties serve to maintain the downstream current unimpaired in

strength and velocity; but if they are carried up to any height in tidal

estuaries, they lead to' an accretion which obstructs the flood stream and

excludes a considerable portion of the water which would otherwise enter

the estuary. Another danger attaching to such jetties is the likelihood

of shoaling in the neighborhood of the entrance due to the arrest of

22
 littoral drift by the jetties. This drawback has manifested itself in

a numoer of cases, and at Dunkirk, as was cited before, the jetties have

been extended outwards from time to time in order to reach deep water and

to scour away the intermediate deposit which threatened to destroy the

accessibility of the port. Moreover, parallel jetties do little or

nothing towards the dissipation of storm waves passing in from the sea.

It is from this point of view that converging jetties have been designed,

the inclosed area being of the nature of a basin containing a relatively

larger mass of water, upon which external agitation has less effect.

These jetties, in fact, are sometimes adopted so as to form compartments

called wave traps (fig. 10— 15) • The drawback of the system is the same

as that mentioned in connection with parallel jetties, viz, the reduction

in volume and consequently in scouring efficacy of the influent waters.

This objection, of course, only applies to tidal seas.

51* From this last standpoint divergent jetties are preferable,

for with their splayed arms they admit the flood tide freely and the

outward flow of the ebb maintains the channel in the gradually widening

form which is the ideal regime of an estuary. The construction of the

sides must not be too rapid or there will be a tendency to throttle the

inward flow and pile up the tidal wave until it forms something of the

nature of a nboretf* This is dangerous both to navigation and to the

stability of the banks. It must be admitted that no great uniformity

is exhibited in the expansive ratios of natural estuaries. They fluctuate

exceedingly and range in parts from seomthing like 2,550 ft to the mile

in the Humber, British, to little more than 100 ft to the mile in the

Severn, British* On the whole, however, it may be said that a ratio of

23
W HITBY HARBOUR, FRONT VIEW
OF WAVE TRAP
F I G . 15

PETERHEAD HARBOUR OF REFUGE

F I G . 16

23-A
 2,000 ft to the mile constitutes a suitable standard for adoption*

52 . The height to which training walls should be raised is also

a question* If nothing more than the mere rectification of a channel

is in view, the jetties will only be of the nature of a low revetment,

confirming and protecting the edge of a newly-formed bank and need not

be raised above low-water level. It has been urged against this, that in

a sandy estuary a channel so formed would soon be silted up with sediment

washed in from adjacent banks over the top of the jetties* There is,

however, no more reason why silting should take place under the new conditions

than there is under the old, and it may be safely assumed that the stream

is powerful enough t o maintain its own bed.

53* .If it be desired to form an entirely fresh channel or to divert

radically an existing one, something more definite than a mere revetment

becomes necessary; scarcely anything less than a half-tide wall will suffice

to confine a stream within arbitrary limits and guide it through a novel

environment* The tendency to resume a long—established course must always

remain a powerful influence if ever the compelling forces be modified or

removed.

Wien land reclamation is definitely aimed at,jetties will be

first built up to mean tide levels and then gradually raised until the

level of highest and high water is reached. It should be noticed that

the deposit will chase away water from parts of the estuary where silting

takes place; and unless some other receptacle is provided, the water which

has been so displaced will cease altogether from coming into the river from

the sea. Then the low-water sectional area at the mouth of the river w i l l
 &lso be reduced« If* the amount of* water displaced is sufficiently great,

the channel will shut up altogether and the navigation ¡¡Ruined*

55» Therefore, on one hand the action of jetties tends to exclude

water from the sea by causing accretion behind them and causes, on the

other hand, precisely the opposite effect by enlarging and deepening the

main channel of the river between the jetties# The ultimate result of

their employment must be determined in each case by comparing the relative

amount of those two plus (+) and (-) minus quantities#

56# In view of the fact that jetties are essentially of permanent

character as opposed to the general merely transitory results obtained

from dredging and sluicing operations, it is Important to gather the most

complete and trustworthy forecasts available as to the liklihood of their

success, since a mistaken program may entail unfortunate and even disastrous

results, which may be irremediable# This is one more reason why the small

model tests of essential works win the favor of hydraulic engineers# (Jetties

discussed above are sometimes called training walls. A jetty that is pro­

vided only for ships berthing alongside is the same as a wharf, which, of

course, does not deserve very much emphasis in this treatise#)

Breakwater* Alignment

57* As the name implies, the function of breakwater is to break

A
up and disperse heavy seas, preventing them from exerting their destructive

influence upon the area inclosed for the reception of shipping# Therefore

breakwaters are the recourse to complete the natural shelter that may not

serve our purpose and the bold-type of marine works that could completely

create our required harbours against the heavy sea#

25
 58# The discussion on the design and construction of the break­

water shall be treated in the third chapter* TOiat we are interested in

now is their alignment*

59» Again there is no general standard for this subject* The

success or failure in the alignment decides the fate of the structure

and, in turn, the availability of the harbour* The following are seven

typical examples regarding the outstanding features of the breakwater,

and though particular to the locality they probably might represent the

general practice adopted in many breakwater harbours today*

a* Single breakwater extended out from one shore— Peterhead

Harbour* (fig. 16). The harbour has a breakwater of 3^50 ft

across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single entrance

between its extremity and the opposite shore and inclosing

an area of about 250 acres at low tide, half of which has a

depth of over five fathoms. This type may he adopted at

places other than the bays where some degree of shelter can

be obtained or the exposure comes from one direction only*

The breakwater may be straight as the case cited, or curved

and it extends out from shore perpendicularly or obliquely,

according to the local conditions*

Tu Single breakwater attached to the shore by open viaduct—

Zeebrugge Harbour (fig. 9). It was carried out with the

purpose of affording berths for vessels beyond the influence

of accretion due to littoral drift. The breakwater, provided

with a wide quay with sidings and sheds, and curving round

so as to overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and

26
 s h e lte r a c e rta in w ater a re a , is approached by an open
m etal v iad u ct extending out 100 f t from th e low w ater
in to a depth of 20 f t . The l i t t o r a l d r i f t i s “coming
m ainly from the w est. By th is measure th e accum ulation
of s i l t to the w est of th e harbour and a lso in th e harbour
i t s e l f would be p rev en ted .
Twin b reak w aters— Sunderland Harbour ( f ig . 17) • "Where no
n a tu ra l s h e lte r e x is ts , or where th e re i s on open sandy
shore w ith co n sid erab le l i t t o r a l , d r i f t , or where th e j e t t y
c o n stru c tio n i s n o t enough to provide th e accommodation fo r
congested t r a f f i c , double breakw aters extend out from shore
re s p e c tiv e ly a t a d ista n c e a p a rt and converge to a c e n tra l
en tran ce of s u ita b le w idth.
In c lo sin g harbour by more th an two b reak w aters— Co.lumbo
Harbour ( f ig . 3)* Some p a r t i a l embayment or ab ru p t p ro je c tio n
from th e c o a st is u tiliz e d in p ro v id in g s h e lte r from one
q u a rte r w hile b reakw aters are b u ilt to com plete the in c lc su re
of th e s i t e . Note th e fe a tu re s of detached b reak w ater.
S in g le is o la te d b reak w ater—Sandy Bay, M assachusetts, U.S.A.
(f ig . 18). A sin g le is o la te d breakw ater is b u i l t in such
a p o s itio n th a t w ill make i t most e ffe c tiv e a g a in s t th e
exposure to th e waves. This type is ad ap tab le to th e p lace
th a t is in p o ssessio n of some n a tu r a l in d e n ta tio n on th e
c o a st o A exposure is n o t so g re a t and changing in d irec*
tio n s as u n d e sira b le f o r th e s h e lte r re q u ire d .

27
 N

SU N D ER LAN D H ARBO U R GENOA HARBOUR

F IG . 17 FIG . 19

SANDY BAY H A R B O U R , M ASS.

F I G . 18

2 7 -A
 f. O verlapping breakw aters— Columbo and Genoa Harbours

( f i g 3 and 19)# To some ex ten t the breakwalrers extended

from the shore o verlap each oth er with re sp e c t to the

entrance so as to get more p ro te c tio n from waves in sid e

the harbour. The ou ter breakw ater o f Genoa Harbour i s

made much longer and curved somewhat fu r th e r out o verlap pin g

the in n er. At Columbo the southw estern breakw ater s p l i t s

in to two a t end, o f which the longer branch ju s t s h e lt e r s

the sh o rte r from the southwest monsoon blowing in to the

en tran ce.

.£ • Islan d breakw ater—Danish f is h e r y harbours ( f i g . 10-12).

The s o lid breakw aters are lo cated beyond the zone o f l i t t o r a l

d r i f t a t some d ista n c e outward from the sh ore. The b a s in s

cover a re a s o f 0 .2 7 , 0 .2 0 , 1.62 a c re s r e s p e c tiv e ly . From the

breakw ater open v ia d u c ts, wooden or com posite, from 330 f t to

660 f t long, lead to the shore and are d iv id ed in to 13 to

20 bays having spam openings from 20 f t to 30 f t .

60. On th e c o a s t o f Denmark t id e s are i n s i g n i f i c a n t , are h ard ly

p e rc e p tib le in the B a l t i c , and do not exceed Ij. f t 6 in . in the North S ea.

Hence, the movement o f m a te r ia l which tak es p la c e cannot be due to t i d a l a c tio n ,

v

but to the a c tio n of the waves, combined with t h a t o f load c u r re n ts, and

are th e re fo re a t t r ib u t a b le to the e f f e c t o f wind. The o b je c t aimed a t by

th ese three f is h in g harbours seems to have been accom plished f a i r l y w e ll.

61. As mentioned more than once, the harbour d esig n i s noth in g

a b lin d copy. The p a r t ic u l a r l o c a l i t y has i t s p e c u lia r f e a tu r e s which

determine the b e s t alignm ent of break w aters. In g e n e ra l, the item s th a t

28
 should be in v e stig a te d f o r the p o s itio n s o f breakw aters a r e :

ja.. C o n figu ratio n of the ad ja c e n t c o a st lin e ,

b/ E xtent and d ir e c tio n o f the exposure.

Amount o f sh e lte re d a re a requ ired and the depth o b ta in a b le .

d. P ro sp ect o f the accum ulation of d r i f t .

e. Occurrence o f scour from the proposed works.

.f. The b e st p o s itio n f o r an entrance in re sp e c t o f s h e lte r

and depth of approach.

General F e a tu res o f Breakw aters with Respect to t h e ir P o sitio n s

62. Breakw aters have two g en eral c l a s s e s . The v e r t i c a l w all type

i s one design ed to r e f l e c t the waves w ithout b reak in g , while the mound

breakw aters are designed to d is s ip a t e the d e s tr u c tiv e fo r c e s o f waves by

a ttr itio n . T h erefore, th ere i s an im portant ru le on p o s itio n which i s

c lo s e ly re la te d to the ty p es o f break w aters. The g en e ral a x is o f th e break­

w ater o f the f i r s t type must be kept a t an .angle la r g e r than k5° in the

d ir e c tio n from which the storm may be expected . Otherwise the wave would

be broken and the mound type would become much more fa v o ra b le *

63* I t i s c le a r th a t the amount o f p ro te c tio n which i s produced by

a breakw ater must be measured by the length o f the p o rtio n o f the wave

which i s e ith e r d estro y ed or r e f le c t e d by i t . The amount o f work done by

i t d e c re a se s from the maximum which i s a t normal in ciden ce to the minimum

when the waves come upon i t end on, in which l a s t case no work i s done,

and i t c e a se s to a c t as a breakw ater f o r waves coming in th a t d ir e c tio n ,

ex cep tin g to the sm all ex ten t due to l a t e r a l e ro sio n .

614.. The curvature o f the breakw ater v a r ie s with the con d itio n o f

wind, c u rren t, c o a s t a l c o n fig u ra tio n , se a bottom, e t c . U su ally p referen ce

29
 is given to them of horizontal convex outline, or of a poljjnal form,

rather than to one long straig h t breakwater running at right angles

to ihe worst waves# The principal objection to a straigh t breakwater ]

does not, however, extend to cases where the heaviest waves strike upon

i t obliquely and r o ll landwards along the seawall.

65* MoreQver, the curved part is the vulnerable point to the

erosion by current and the resu lt w ill be the collapse of the whole

structure* Mien a breakwater presents to the sea a concave outline or

cants inclined at an angle to each other the waves w ill act with an almost

explosive violence. This concentration in the scouring action may be very

s a tis fa c t o r ily seen at low water, where an isolated rock or a boulder of

pyramidal form projects above the surface of a sandy sea beach. Pools of

greater or less depth w ill always be found at the angles of the boulder,

while at intermediate parts the le v e l of the sand is much higher. In such

cases the foundations at the convex parts and at the sa lie n t angles must

be carried lower than other places; and i f i t is possible concave or abrupt

re-entrant angles should be avoided.

66. With regard to the length of breakwaters, i t , o f course depends

upon the outline of the s ite where i t is to be located and the extent to

which the breakwater intends to protect. However, i t must be noticed that

i f a breakwater be so placed in relation to the coast line that waves can

strik e upon i t s inner or landward side, an extension of i t s length in the

same d irectio n w ill increase the amount of sea intercepted by i t . In this

case the extension must be made in an altered direction or a separate

breakwater must be b u ilt so as to shelter the inner side, or else an

additional sheltered space of -water or of the shore must be provided in

30
3 0 -A

DOVER HARBOUR
!000 O 10QO 2000 FT.
t— ----- ;----------- 1---------------------J ______________ I

FIG. 2 0
 which the waves can spread or be expended.
67» The case of Dover Harbour illu s tr a te s a good example (fig . 20 )
of a long breakw ater obstru ctin g the fre e flow of th e tid a l wave and Keeping
pend i t up so as to increase the v e lo c ity of the current round the head
to a considerable ex ten t. At Dover the normal speed of the cu rren t along
the coast was two knots p rio r to the con stru ctio n of the breakw ater, but
as the la tte r was nearing com pletion, i t was found th a t the speed of the
current was increased a t the head to 3*9 knots a t flood spring tid e s .
Apart from n av ig atio n al disadvantages th is increase of current speed is
not favorable to the stru c tu re and tends to wash out the foundations of
the head, which is the p art of the stru c tu re most vulnerable and most
su bject to b u ffe tin g . Another undesirable e ffe c t is th at the scour caused
round the head may be deposited in the harbour on the lee side of the break­
w ater. There are instances of breakw aters in te rfe rin g so much w ith t he‘ normal
flow th a t s iltin g of the harbours re s u lt, the consequence being th a t new
breakw aters located and proportioned to meet the conditions have to be
constructed and the o rig in a ls dem olished. During construction i t is im­
p erativ e to take care fu l observations of any changes in the se t of cu rren ts,
e tc ., caused, by the new stru c tu re and of the e ffe c ts of storm waves. Such
observations serve to guide the experienced engineer regarding the advisa­
b i l i t y or otherw ise of modifying the cross s e c t i o n s i t t i n g the length of
w all, the d isp o sitio n of heads, or the width of entrame© and the amount of
foundation p ro te c tio n . Attached hereto are 12 fig u res (fig . 21-32) th a t
in d icate the tid a l currents in and out of Dover Harbour p rio r and subsequent
to the com pletion of the islan d breakw ater. Beforetim e, the se t of the
tid e was almost p a ra lle l to th e shore lin e , running from N ortheast to

31
31-A
 Notes on fig 21-26

1. H.W.F. & € XI*1 12m j Springtides rise 18’9" Neap rise 15 feet*

2* At about 2i| hrs. before H.W. the water comes in with a rush,

changing from slack water to a 2^ kn stream in less than 10 minutes,

and eddying and whirling as it enters* The time of insets appears

to vary between 2 3/4 hrs and 2 hrs before H.W. but is never later

than 2 hrs before nor earlier than 3 hrs,

3. The first of the Eastern going stream set sharply into the

Tiestern Entrance and close along the Breakwater slowly setting more

off from the Breakwater until an hr after H.W. when there is an eddy

stretching outside and running to the W.S.W. about 2 kn an hr.

4. At the East side of Eastern Arm and Eastern Entrance the

stream sets to the N.E. from 2 hrs before to about 1 hr before H.W.

At all other times it apparently sets to the S.TS. being the true

Western Stream and the eddy from the Eastern Stream.

31-B
 FI G. 2 7

2 Hours ArterH.W.

FIG. 3 0

■5 H o u rs A f t e r H. IV.

F I G . 31

TIDAL CURRENTS IN AND OUT OF DOVER HARBOUR SUBSEQUENT

TO THE COMPLETION OF THE ISLAND BREAKWATER

31-C
 Southwest from Í+-1/2 hours a fte r 1-3/1+ hours before high water, and

from Southwest to Northeast from 2 hours before to I*, hours afte r high

water* At high water of spring tides the rate of the east-going

stream was about I4. knots, and at low water the west-going stream had

a v e lo c ity of 2 -1 /2 knots. Both direction and rate of flow were com­

p le te ly altered afte r the work was fin ished. These indicate the

d if f ic u l t y of forecasting with any degree of accuracy the e ffe c t of

structural works on coastal and t id a l currents.

Harbours at Lagoons ( f ig , l)

68. Harbours at lagoons u t il iz e the b e lt of reefs flanking the

coast with a l i t t l e additional work to make the shelter complete. There­

fore, the design of lagoon harbours is restricted much to the natural

configuration. The req u isition on the engineers1 geniuses is to take the

maximum advantage of the natural features so as to save both the construc­

tion and maintenance work*

69* The l i a b i l i t y to s ilt in g is the greatest disadvantage of th is

type. Moreover, the approach from the sea to these channels through the

fringe of coast is generally impeded by a bar, owing to the scour of the

issuing current through those o u tlet channels becoming gradually too

enfeebled, on entering the open sea, to overcome the heaping-up action of

the waves to form a continuous beach across these openings. 1Accordingly,

rivers are very valuable in maintaining a lagoon i f they are free from

sediment; i f they bring down large amounts of s i l t they must, i f possible,

be diverted from the lagoon, while the narrow b e lt of land in front of the

lagoon must be protected from erosion by the waves on it s sea face by

groins or revetments. The depth over the bar in front of an o u tlet can

be improved by concentrating the current through the o u tlet by j e t t i e s on

32
 each side and dredging, i f necessary,
70, In designing a breakw ater fo r p ro tectin g a lagoon harbour
i t may be found b e tte r to ca rry the bulwark s tra ig h t across ledges of
reefs or rock, as a lagoon often possesses such fe a tu re s, than to follow
the n a tu ra l current con d ition s. However, the bulwark may be severely
scoured by the confined waves, since the breaking of a fre e wave is a very
d iffe re n t thing from the breaking of a wave confined by a b a rrie r of
masonry, Yifoile th e f i r s t may be compared to the harm less ig n itio n of a
loose heap of gunpowder, the other resembles the dangerous explosion
produced by the discharge of a cannon. The design engineer must not take
any chance fo r economy or convenience a t expense of sa fe ty ,
t Harbour Exposure
71• The required accommodation, the a d a p ta b ility of n atu ra l
featu re s and the d ic ta te s of convenience to navigation, in fa c t, have
forem ost place in the determ ination of harbour areas. Tie have d ea lt
w ith the f i r s t two poin ts in connection w ith the harbour capacity and the
se le c tio n of s ite , now we w ill discuss the th ird , although these three
m utually a ffe c t each other w ith resp ect to the harbour area.
72. Exposure is c e rta in ly the prim ary consideration fo r the con­
venience of nav igatio n . Study of subject w ith resp ect to wind and wave
s t i l l is a t i t s budding stage and has not yet achieved any s a tis fa c tio n .
F ortunately, by years of experience and research by harbour a u th o ritie s
we n ev erth eless have something fo r our guidance in estim ation . -Among
these Mr. Thomas Stevenson fs em pirical form ulas are the most fundamental
we have.
73* The f i r s t of h is form ulas is fo r the determ ination of wave

33
 height by r’fetchn, and the second is applied for the study of reductive

power in terms of wave height within the shelter. Because no matter

which harbour it is the tranquility is the primary requisite and the

A/

height of wave naturally is the convenient measure of the extent of

exposure.

7U* The first formula is written as follows:

H - 1.5 / F when F > 30 miles

H -1.5 J T + (2.5 -k f F ) when F 30 miles

1*5 is the coefficient for heavy gales.

Different spots of a place have different values of fetch. By this

formula we can get a set of data for comparison so as to decide to what

extent the designed harbour runs with minimum exposure and construction

work at reasonable cost.

75* The measurement of effective fetch is not an easy job which

is quite intricated with the direction and strength of wind, the inter­

vening depth of water, configuration of coast and effects of artificial

structures. The theoretical side of this point we had better drop

to the next chapter. %atave*r we should notice now are:

ja. The maximum limit of fetch is about 500 to 600 miles. In

other words the wave height will not be proportional in every case to.

the line of maximum exposure or fetch. There seems to be no exact limit

to the minimum value of fetch. In short fetches in narrow locks or arms

of the sea, waves are raised higher during every violent gale than the

first expression of the formula indicates* though such waves do not go

on progressing in height in the same high ratio for any considerable

distance. This is why the formula has a second expression with a

(2.5 - h ) correction.
 J*« The maximum fe tch a t the s ite i s by no means an in f a llib le

c rite rio n of wave height because t

(1) The several gales do not always blow in the d ire ctio n

of greatest fe tc h .

(2 ) Waves or heavy r o lle r s are sometimes deflected so as

to reach a point on the shore which does not lie upon

th e ir path»

(3 ) The convergency of in le ts accentuate the e c c e n tric itie s

of wave development.

76. To t e s t i f y the reductive power of a harbour the second formula

w il l be u se fu l. The reductive power of the harbour is expressed in a ratio -

in ternal area over the width of entrance, while Stevenson’ s second formula

in d icates the relation sh ip between the width of entrance and the exposures

b
a ' - 2h [/! . i (1 ♦ / | ) ' » / i j ^ ( 1 7 5 0 fe e t)

By th is formula we can compare the wave height inside and outside the

harbour and determine i f the width within with respect to that of entrance

is su ita b le . The method of applying th is formula is to describe a c ir c le on

the ground plan of the harbour from the point of union of the lin es of the

breakwaters produced seawards, or (what is s u ffic ie n t ly near) from the

middle point of the entrance. The radius adopted must be equal to the

distance (D) between the center of divergence and the place on the break­

water where the reductive power is wanted. The arc of a c ir c le thus

described must extend so f a r as to in te rse ct the two side w alls of the

harbour, or in cases where one of the breakwaters meets the shore at a

shorter distance the arc must be extended to the lin e of d irectio n of the

35
 shorter breakwater produced landward of the highwater line. It is

necessary to observe, however, that in such cases as the last mentioned,

where the shore intervenes, the formula is not applicable unless the

beach slopes sufficiently to allow the waves to spend themselves freely.

The distance B is then measured as a chord between the two points of

intersection; or where the versed sine is large, B should be taken

equal to the length of the arc. It is believed that this formula will

be f o u n d to be of general application in all close harbours where the

entrance is of direct and simple nature and in *vfoich there is no recoil

action produced by walls or obstructions to the shoreward motion of the

waves. This is why, in some particulars, the difficulties of design are

inversely proportional to the extent of the works* Questions regarding

reductive power, want of spend and recoil of waves are so troublesome in

small basins that much attention should be given to them.

77* Mr* Stevenson found another expression for -the reduced wave

height by lateral deflection. He said the amount of reduction in the ^

height of a broken wave which passes onwards through the opening and

spreads laterally under lee of the barrier was found to increase directly

as the distance traversed, and as the square root of the number of degrees

in the angle of deflection. The formula given below he said is unconfirmed

and simply as a possible approximation for our reference.

x - 1 - K [i°
Where x represents the ratio of the reduced to the unreduced wave and

fit the angle of deflection, K the coefficient variable with the kind of

wave. For certain cases K equals 0.06. Care should be taken,again

this formula only applies to the waves in uninclosed areas,as roadsteads; .

for the waves in close harbours the Stevenson’s second formula must be used.

36
 78« la connection w ith th is subject i t is worth while to mention
one thing more in judging of the exposure of a coast* By many observa­
tio n s in exposed situ a tio n s mud cannot repose near the surface# No one
would expect to fin d a muddy shore confronting an open sea where the
deep w ater approaches clo sely to the shore, though he would not express
su rp rise a t fin din g such a beach on the borders of a land-locked bay or
of a sh eltered estuary# Although the absence of mud in any lo c a lity
proves nothing, because the tid e currents may sweep i t away, or the
g eological form ation may not produce i t , i ts presence seems both a
d e lic a te and c e rta in te s t of the lowest lim it to which the disturbance
o rig in atin g a t the surface has reached# In sh o rt, except fo r some unique
in stan ces, the lev el below the Surface of low water a t which mud reposes
on the bottom of the sea is valuable in d icatio n of the extent to which
the exposure covers*
General Remarks on Entrance
79 F irs t of a l l the p o sitio n of th e entrance deems our care fu l
*

consideration# I t is the opening of a harbour which must be convenient

to th e ingress and egress of vessels and a t the same tim e not expose the
in te rio r to the e ffe c ts of ro llin g seas* These two o b jects, in fa c t, more
or less c o n flic t w ith each other*
80# A general p ra ctic e adopted today th a t the entrance be fixed
seaward of every other p a rt of th e works on the d ire c tio n of h eav iest
waves so th a t they may run along w ith and guide v essels into the harbour.
This is taking the point of navigation in view* The vessels severely
driven by the storm then w ill not miss the entrance or c o llid e with piers#
However, on the other hand, the onset o f ro llin g sea w ill march on into

37
 the in te rio r and give serious a g ita tio n because of the wide opening to
the sea w ithout any. impedence.
81* The old harbour of Fultency town fu rn ishes a notable
example with & view on the other end* I t placed the entrance a t rig h t
angles to the lin e of movement of the sw ell so th a t i t seemed to be a
very simple and efficacio u s mode of increasing the reductive power of
a harbour. On the contrary, i t was la te r proved a disadvantageous
arrangement since a number of vessels were stru ck by waves on th e ir
broadside or q uarter a t the moment of turnin g in p ort (fig* .
82* Therefore some degree of compromise should be made to f i t
both purposes* The case lik e the one above c ite d was to extend the outer
p ie r s u ffic ie n tly fa r seaward of the end of the other p ie r head so as to
allow a ship p lenty of sea room to shape an easy course* Even i f the ship,
w hile rounding in , should be stru ck by a wave in making a leeway, there
is s t i l l su ffic ie n t time fo r i t to recover i t s e l f under s h e lte r of the
outer breakw ater before reaching the narrow entrance between the piers*
In many other harbours the outer breakw ater overlapping the inner severs
the sim ilar purpose*
83* In a very exposed positions, making entrance d eflected to affo rd
some cover to the in te rio r of the harbour is also commonly adopted* The
follow ing ta b le on the d irectio n s of the entrances of some notable harbours
illu s tr a te s th is idea of giving safe sh e lte r from gales in the prdominant
quarter*

38
38-A
 Table 3

H arbours Gal© From E n tran ce 0p<

D unkirk NW HE

Dover SW E

F o lk esto n e SW E

Tyne HE SE

Wear HE SE

B ly th HE SE

81+, We now have a n o th e r n o ta b le d e p a rtu re from th e u s u a l p r a c t ic e

t h a t was recommended by P ro fe s s o r V. E. L ia k h n itsk y . A b reak w ater

(fig . 3k) i s c o n s tru c te d b e fo re th e e n tra n o e in to th e h a rb o u r. I t p ro ­

v id e s a way to c o n c i lia te th e two c o n tr a d ic to r y p r in c i p le s of which one

r e q u ire s th e a x is o f th e h a rb o u r e n tra n c e n e a r ly to c o in c id e w ith th e

s e c to r of th e p r e v a ilin g and s tr o n g e s t winds and to l i e a t a c o n s id e ra b le

d is ta n c e from th e sh o re, w h ile th e o th e r demands t h a t th e w a te r a r e a

w ith in th e h arb o u r sh ould be s h e lte r e d from th e a c tio n of th e vraves.

The tim e-honoured r u le to so d e s ig n th e e n tra n c e in to a h arb o u r t h a t i t

l i e betw een two p r o je c tin g o u te r p r o te c tiv e w orks, and to avoid in t h e i r

la y o u t any r e e n t r a n t a n g le s , seems to be d is re g a rd e d by t h i s in n o v a tio n .

S im ila r c o r r e c tio n s and improvements w i l l no doubt c o n tin u e to be i n t r o ­

duced in accordance w ith th e e x p e rie n c e accum ulated and th e p ro g re s s of th e

t h e o r e t i c a l th o u g h t in t h i s b ran ch o f e n g in e e rin g .

85. There i s one more p o in t to be observed w ith re g a rd to th e

d i r e c t i o n o f e n tra n c e . I f th e h arb o u rs on a r i v e r have a c o n tin u o u s

ten d en cy to s i l t up, a re s u b je c t to th e ad v erse in flu e n c e s of s tro n g

c u r r e n t s , f r e s h e t s , and f lo o d s ; and even invaded a t tim es by f l o a t i n g

39
39-A
masses of weeds and mud, the entrance should point downstream making

an angle from I4.5 to 60 degrees with the bank and should not open wid^r
than necessary for the admission of the vessels,

86. Some harbours have more than one entrance. The advantage of

this provision is to enable vessels to select their entrance according

to the state of the wind and weather. In addition, it may reduce the

current through entrances where there is a large tidal rise and it may,

under favorable conditions, create a circulation of the water in the

harbour, tending to check the deposit of silt. However, the advantage

is not certain for every case. Somewhere the second opening causes

eddy currents which make the condition much more worse than when only

single entrance is provided, like scouring at reentrant angles, speeding

deposition and m dangerous to the vessels.

87* Therefore the problem of entrance is by no means so simple

as we first imagined, but a function of exposure, local configuration,

currents, and vessels that frequent the port.

Entrance Width, and Channel Depth

88. As regards entrance width the engineer faces again the same

dilemna mentioned several times in the preceding paragraphs. On one hand

the narrower the entrance the more effectually is the interior secured

from -frie ingress of disturbing elements. On the other hand, an entrance

must have adequate room for vessels entering not singly and in calm water

but also when driven in groups under the stress of heavy sea.

89* Under the heading Harbour Exposure we have discussed the

relation between the entrance width and the wave height. With respect

to the accommodation^the entrance width varies with the maximum width

of each vessel and the possible maximum number of vessels entering the
harbour a t the same tim e. U su a lly the minimum w idth o f p r a c t i c a l

en tran ce f o r sh ip s o f modern dim ensions i s from 230 f t to 1+90 f t , but

f o r la r g e commercial p o rts i t should be p r e fe r a b ly from 650 f t to

1000 f t w ide, w hile f o r f i s h e r y harbours i t i s enough from 100 f t to

300 f t w id e. Sometimes the en tran ce channels c o n s titu te the anchorage

space t r ib u t a r y to the sh ip s and docks* In such case the width a c c o rd in g ly

should be in c re a se d .

90. There are a ls o many oth er c o n sid e ra tio n s to which the entrance

width i s s u b je c t . In t i d a l harbours th ere i s the outrun o f the ebb t id e

w ith the cum ulative e f f e c t o f the d isc h a rg e o f any upland w a te rs, a l l

ten d in g to produce a rap id c u rre n t in a narrow waterw ay. And w h ile the

scou r induced b y t h is means i s b e n e f i c i a l w ith in c e r t a in lim it s in m ain tain ­

in g a deep ch a n n e l, y e t , c a r r ie d to e x c e ss i t i s l i k e l y to prove p r e ju d ic ia l

to t h e s t a b i l i t y o f w a lls and p ie r s b y undermining t h e ir fo u n d a tio n s, and

m oreover, the r a te o f flo w may be such as to in t e r f e r e w ith and probab ly

p rev e n t s a fe n a v ig a tio n . A v e l o c i t y o f from 3- 1/2 to I4. knots should be

looked upon as the maximum cu rre n t p e rm is s ib le .

91. A q u estio n of channel depth, or in g e n e ra l o f harbour depth,

i s one f o r s e r io u s c o n s id e ra tio n . A sh a llo w channel can s u ffo c a t e the

p r o s p e r it y o f the p ort enough to d iv e r t th e sh ipp in g to other n eigh b orin g

p o r ts .

92. From an exam ination o f the p ro p o rtio n s of a co n sid e ra b le number

of v e s s e l s , i t tu rn s out th a t th ere appears on th e average to be a t o le r a b le

amount o f u n ifo rm ity among o rd in a ry v e s s e ls co n stru cted of tim b e r. Mr.

Stevenson deduced a simple form u la.w hich g iv e s a f a i r l y g e n e ra l approxima­

tio n to th e tonnage. Yftiere d re p re se n ts the draught in f e e t t re p re se n ts

th e b u rd e n in t o n s , and a c o n s ta n t d ep en d in g on b u i l d ,

t = - and d = 0 /a t ■
a r
The r a t i o o f d r a u g h ts t o to n n ag e h as b e e n g r a d u a l ly d e c r e a s i n g / Por-

i!b r tim b e r v e s s e l s a t p r e s e n t i t may b e 't a k e n a b o u t 7- 1/ 2 . Anyway

th e fo rm u la t e l l s us th e f a c t t h a t th e v a lu e o f h a rb o u rs i n term s o f

to n n ag e in c -rsa s s as th e cube o f d e p th o f w a te r i n c r e a s e s .

93* Even th o u g h no u n if o r m ity h as b e e n fo u n d b etw een th e to n n ag e

and d r a u g h t among stre a m v e s s e l s w hich a r e m ost p re d o m in a tin g i n p r e s e n t

h a r b o u r s , th e v a lu e o f h a r b o u r s , w h e th e r com m ercial o r n a v a l, s u r e l y

in c r e a s e s more th a n th e d e p th i n c r e a s e s . The f a c t c o u ld be e x p la in e d b y

th e d ev elopm ent o f p ro m in e n t h a rb o u rs th e m s e lv e s and t h i s i s why a l l

m odem h a rb o u r s have in v e s te d a la r g e sum y e a r l y t o d eep en t h e i r c h a n n e ls

9U* G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , a n a v a i l a b l e d e p th o f a h a rb o u r sh o u ld

e q u a l to t h e maximum d ra u g h t o f th e v e s s e l s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t th e

h a rb o u r p lu s 3 f t f o r e a s y n a v i g a t i o n , w ith an a d d i t i o n a l a llo w a n c e f o r

th e v e r t i c a l movement ( o r send) o f th e s h i p s . The scend i s g e n e r a l l y

ta k e n a t 2 /3 o f th e g r e a t e s t l i f t o f t h e wave f o r o r d in a r y c o l l i e r s and

1/2 o f th e l i f t o f th e wave f o r la r g e sc re w ste a m e rs — ta k in g i n b o th

c a s e s th e l i f t o r h e ig h t o f th e wave to be from th e lo w e st f a l l t o th e

c re s t. A gain we s h o u ld o b s e rv e t h a t s h ip s underw ay draw more w a te r th a n

when a t r e s t , e s p e c i a l l y i n f a i r l y s h o a l w a te r s .

95* The r i s i n g o f t i d e s a t some p la c e s can be u t i l i z e d t o e n a b le

s h ip s e n t e r i n g th e h a rb o u r e n tr a n c e t h a t h a s n o t s u f f i c i e n t d e p th f o r

v e s s e l s o f deep d r a u g h t a t low w a te r . Of c o u rs e accom panying t h i s

a d v a n ta g e t h e r e i s a r i s k i n g ro u n d in g v e s s e l s a t ebbs and a n e c e s s i t y

o f w a itin g o u ts id e th e h a rb o u r f o r f lo o d t i d e s .
 96. A large port or one of complex topography, such as New York,

may have many channels, some of them adopted only to light-draught

vessels. The depth of the main project channel is, however, the govern­

ing factor. The following are characteristic channel depths, and the

corresponding types of traffic -which they serve.

Channels in Excess of 30 Feet

97* These are provided for deep draft lines of the North Atlantic

and Transatlantic and for few freight vessels. There were in 1920 only

I4.8 ports of importance in the world which could be entered by ships draw­

ing 1(0 ft and over; of these there were only 23 which had depths alongside

their wharves sufficient to accommodate such large vessels, and of these

five could be entered only at high water (Table k - 5 )•

98. The number in addition, usable for vessels drawing 35 ft, was

59 of these 59 eighteen were harbours which could be entered only at

high tide, and only 214. of the 59 had wharf accommodations, of which 11
were tidal.

Channel Depth of 2 l± to 26 Feet

99» Such channels are characteristic of ports having little foreign

trade, or foreign trade of a class using only medium draft ships, such

as the lumber trade of central and South. America, but having a large

coastwise or intracoastal business. They may be called the major coast­

wise channels.

Channel Depth of 18 to 20 Feet

100. These may be called minor coastwise channels, and are particular

ly adapted to the moderate sized steamers and other vessels■which pay an

important part in the coastwise movement of lumber.

 L e sse r Depths

101 . These are u su a lly found in fis h e r y harbours or in p o rts

lik e the sm all ones on Chesapeake Bay, America, the commerce o f -which

i s handled by sh ip s tr a v e r sin g com paratively sh e ltered w aters.

102 . The fo llo w in g are ta b le s o f the depths a t some im portant

p o rts in the worlds

Table Authorized Depths of Main

Channels a t United S ta t e s P o rts, 1920

Port Channel Depth, IMean Low lfifeter,Ft.

P o rtlan d , Maine Entrance and lower harbour 35

Anchorage and in n er harbour 30
Boston, Mass. P uter entrance bo
Sea to Navy Yard 1 35
New York, N. Y. Entrance bo
Inner channels 30 and Lfi
P h ila d e lp h ia , Pa. Delaware R iver to the se a 35
B altim o re, Md. Baltim ore to se a 35
N o rfo ld , Va. Entrance and southern branch bP
Other channels 22 and 25
C h arlesto n , S . C. Sea to Navy Yard
(Authorized I|0 f t ) 31
Savannah, Ga. Sea to quaran tin e 25
Harbour 21 and 26
J a c k s o n v ilie , F la . To ocean 28
Key West, F la . Main channe1 30
Opposite wharves 26
Tampa, F la . Gulf of Mexico to Tampa 27
M obile, A la. Entrance channel 30
In harbour 27
New O rleans, La. Southwest P ass 35
South P ass 30
G alveston , Texas Entrance channel 35
G alveston channel 30
Houston, Texas G alveston Bay to Houston 30
Texas C ity , Texas G alveston Harbour to Texas C ity 30
Sabin© P a ss, Texas Over b ar 28
In sid e 26
Beaumont, Texas P ort Arthur to Beaumont 25
San D iego, C a l i f . Entrance 35
Channel to M unicipal p ie r 32
Los A n gelse, C a l i f . Entrance 35
Inner harbour 30
P o rtlan d , Oregon Mouth to P ortlan d 30
 Table 5» Depths of Principal British und Other Countries * Ports

Port uepth at High Water Ft Depth at Low Water Ft

British Ports:
Aberdeen basins 25 18 to 22
ChanneIs 27 15
Belfast, channel 31 23
Dock -------- 15 to 25
Bristol, city docks - - 22
Cardiff, entrance MW 2Ì+ (in docks)
Cork 22
Falmouth —
23
Glasgow ~
23
Hartlepool 33 17
Leith 26 11
Liverpool 55 30
London li; to 30
Manchester, canal — 28
Plymouth — 30
Southampton —
35
Chinese Ports:
Shanghai 28 20
Hong Kong — 35 to I4O
Other Ports:
Aden, Arabia - -
30
Alexandria, Egypt —
35
Amsterdam, Holland 33 (canal)
Antwerp, Belgium 30
Archangel, Russia — 23
Auckland, N. Z# mmtm 31
Bangkok, Siam — 14
Barcelona, Spain — 2 k to 32
a 22 at berths
Bordeaux, France M« 20 to 25
Breman, Germany, entrance 22 18
Bremerhaven, Germany 30 22
Brest, France 36 23
Bruges, Belgium —
26 ft 3 in*
Buenos Aires, Argentina,
entrance 2 k to 30
Cadiz, Spain 35 or more
Calais,! France IÌ4 ft 11 in. ‘
Calcutta, India —
2 k to 30
Cherbourg, France 17
Callos, Peru, entrance 25 21
Constantinople, Turkey 22.3 at •wharves
Copenhagen, Denmark mmrnrn 29.8 (in free p
Danzig 23
Dunkirk, France 29 23
 Table $ (Contd)

Port Depth at High Water Ft Depth at Low Water Ft

Etaden 32 23
Fiume, entrance 100 to 120
Quays — 2l+ to 26
Genoa, Italy, entrance 52 to 69
Hamburg, Germany -- 1+0 at new basins
Hamburg-Ame r ic an
Havana, Cuba, entrance ... 35
Havre, France iii; 15 to 23 - 1/2
Leghorn, Italy (one of the
chief Mediterranean ports) — 35 to l+o
Kiel 23 22 to 28
Liban, Russia — 2]+ (in conanercial
-harbour)
Me lb o u m e , Australia —■ 2i+ to 28
Montevideo, Uruguay, in
outer roads, — 30
in inner harbour —- 21+
Odessa, Russia mm mm
30 (max.)
Oporto, Portugal 18
Ostend, Belgium 32 to 35 17
Pernambuco, Brasil 21+ 21
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 33 (neap tides)
Riga 22 __ »
Petrograd, Russia — 21 (basin)
Rouen 18 10
Singapore, S. S. — Up to 1+5
Stettin 25 21
Stockholm, Sweden 23
Venice — 2?

103* The question of appropriate depth is a very interesting but

complex one, turning as it does on the drafts of vessels in various

forms of trade and on the trend of these drafts in future construction*

Since the introduction of steam, vessels have in general tended to become

of still deeper draft and this tendency continues. The increase is,

however, more noticeable and more regular in the case of the average

vessel than in the case of the largest vessels.(rTgY"~gT).

1 0 lu In the case of very deep draft vessels, with the exception

of oil tankers, there is apparently no decided tendency to go beyond the

maximum adopted in the past decade# Vessels like Leviatham, Majestic, etc.,
 were constructed la rg e ly on account o f commercial r iv a lr y between

d iffe r e n t b ig steamship lin e s , or n atio n al r iv a lr y . I t i s g en erally

understood that they were not paying investment^ C areful co st s t a t i s ­

t ic s in d icate that fo r the h igh est grade passenger se rv ice on the North

A tlan tic the t y p ic a lly most economic v e s s e l has a d r a ft of about JO f t .

The tendency in the postwar construction program of the important A tlan tic

lin e s was toward v e s s e ls of such d r a fts as these and around 20,000 gross

ton s, in stead of toward the mammoth types b u il t ju s t before the World War^

105* The follow ing tab le shows the maximum d r a f ts , loaded and lig h t ,

of -the standard v e sse ls constructed by the American Shipping Board, the

fig u r e s being derived from a c tu a l measurements of v e sse ls constructed at

d iffe r e n t points under the same p lan s. I t may be a very u se fu l reference

to the design of channel depths.

Table b
Maximum D rafts of the Standard V essels
t ; U r â F î ----------- 3
t * De ad-Weight a
a : L igh t 8
t Type í Tonnage : Loaded t Kean « Forward : o ff.
t 3
*
' * a : F t . , I n .j F t . In. t F t . , I n . : F t . , I n . 3

S te e l
Cargo 12,000 30 6 9 3 -3 A
Troop Cargo 11,800 28 7 - 1 /2 9 2-1/1+
Tanker 10,500 25 7-3/1+ 18 3 17 19 6
Cargo 9 ,6 0 0 27 7 10-1/2 1+ 6 11 3
Cargo 8,800 2l+ 2 11 1+-1/2 8 8 A 1
Cargo 7 ,5 0 0 21+ 5 - 1 /4 9 5 6 6 12 1+
Tanker 7 ,5 0 0 26 0 12 1 12 l 12 1
Cargo 5 ,0 7 5 22
11-3/1+ 8 9 -1 /2 5 6 11 9
Cargo passenger U,300 1+-3/1+ 16 7
21+ 11 5 -1 /2 21 8-1/2
Cargo (Lake) l+,000 /21+ 2 9 11 6 6 13 1+
Cargo (Lake) 3,500 21 1 7 6-3/1+ 5 9 -1 /2 9 1+

hi
 i

106. The tab le shows th at ocean-going cargo v e s s e ls as large

as the standard 8,800-ton v e sse l would be able to load to maximum d ra ft

on a waterway 25 f t deep at low water, and th at such a waterway would

more than meet the requirements fo r g e ttin g out to the ocean newly con­

stru cted v e sse ls of a l l the standard c l a s s e s , N evertheless, a port with

le s s than 30 f t of water a t low tid e w ill be placed in a very unfavorable

p o sitio n in competition fo r modem lin e r t r a f f i c , fr e ig h t or passenger#

There are ju s t enough v e sse ls of 27 to 29 f t d ra ft to make a port second

ra te th a t cannot accommodate them,

107* The usual methods of deepening a channel are ( l) converging

the current by train in g w alls or j e t t i e s ; ( 2 ) narrowing the channel by

g ro in s; ( 3 ) scouring by ebb tid e s or slu ic in g b a sin , or wave tr a p s ,

and (I4.) dredging work. However, a good harbour m aintains i t s depth by

n atu ral fo rc e s and the channel should be located in such a way as not

to be a trap fo r the p assin g sands and sh in g le s. As a m atter of f a c t ,

the p reserv ation of the depth of harbours at a le v e l lower than th at of

the o r ig in a l bottom involves both uncertainty and expense. Where the

d ep o sit i s confined to the space between high and low water marks, the

scouring by means of s a l t or fre sh water is com paratively easy ; but where

i t forms a bar outside of the entrance the p o s s ib ilit y of m aintaining

permanently a g re ate r depth becomes very doubtful. The e ffic a c y of the

scour, so long as i t i s not impeded by enlargements of the channel, may

be kept up fo r great d ista n ce , but i t soon comea to an end a f t e r i t meets

the se a . 1®ieh the volume of water lib e ra te d is great compared with the
a»Wons or channel through which i t has to p a ss, the stagnant water which

o r ig in a lly occupied the channel does not, to the same exten t, destroy

UB
the momentum as -where the scouring has to be produced by a sudden finite

impulse* In the one case the scouring power depends simply on the re­

lation subsisting between the quantity liberated in a given space of

time and the sectional area of the channel through which it has to pass;

while in the other it depends on the propelling head, and the direction

in which the water leaves the sluice*

108* Dredging either by buckets or suction pipe lines is now

universally the most common method adopted for maintaining the harbour

depth* However, annual expense on its operation and maintenance is rather

prohibitive, and the time has come when port authorities and municipal

exchequers must take a stand against being required to spend millions

to deepen a channel a foot or more in order to accommodate some private

steamship line which wishes to own "the biggest ship in the world,"

for advertising purposes.

109» Attention also should be paid to the small harbours where

deepening the entrances may cause a greater disturbance within. This is

due to the negligence of making a proportionate enlargement of the internal

area or providing other works at the same time for counteracting the effect.

As the depth of the water is increased waves of greater height reach the

entrance and thus gain admission to the interior. The truth of the

principle that the run in a harbour increases with the depth of the entrance

may be verified every tide at any exposed harbour, -where it will be found

that just as the tide rises the difficulty of keeping vessels at their

moorings increases. At the port of Sunderland the frequent dredging and

widening of the channel at and landwards of the entrance rendered the

b9
n e c e s s ity o f removing n e a rly th e whole of the in n e r stone p ie r and of
s u b s titu tin g works of open framework in o rd er to tra n q u iliz e the in te r io r .
S im ila r r e s u lts have been experienced a t o th e r h arb o u rs.
G eneral H arbour Layout and O ther F a c ilitie s
110. The e ffic ie n c y of a harbour i s to be measured n o t sim ply by
s iz e or th e fundam ental works lik e b reak w aters, though very im p o rtan t,
b u t a lso by perform ance of the o th e r f a c i l i t i e s provided and the desig n
of g en eral la y o u t.
111. B reakw aters or j e t t i e s p ro v id e th e v e sse ls a s h e lte re d a re a
f o r refuge or convenience f o r conducting th e tran sh ip m en t of cargoes
and p assen g ers, w hile the o th e r in s ta lla tio n s and equipm ent ren d er the
q u ic k e st d isp a tc h of v e sse ls p o ssib le a t economic c o s t. Since sh ip s
are u s e fu l only in tra n s p o rtin g th e f r e ig h t and passengers betw een p o rts ,
th e s ta y of th e sh ip w ith in th e harbour c u r ta ils h er u s e fu l fu n c tio n s .
112. T/hat kinds of f a c i l i t i e s should be provided fo r a p o rt
la rg e ly v a rie s w ith th e purpose th a t a p o rt o r a harbour is designed to
se rv e . A n av al harbour may have d if f e r e n t requirem ent from a f is h e r y
harbour and the same fis h e r y harbours may have some s p e c ia l in s ta lla tio n s
fo r d if f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s . T herefo re, we have no panacea f o r p o rt
f a c i l i t i e s a t any p o rt b u t t r y to num erate h ere th e im portant i n s t a l l a ­
tio n s t h a t to a p a rt may be in d is p e n s ib le .
a,. S ig n als
(1) Buoys, w ith o r w ith o u t lig h ts .
(2) Beacons, w ith or w ith o u t lig h ts .
(3) Channel lig h ts .
(UX Sound s ig n a ls

50
 (5) Lightship
(6) Lighthouse

Y/ater front structures

(1) Landing piers

(2) Jetties or wharves

(3) Quays

(J4) Bank revetments

c. Cargo storage

(1) Transit sheds

(2) Warehouses and godowns

(3) Silos

(I4.) Coal bins

(5) Petroleum reservoirs

(6) Timber pond

(7) Refrigerating houses

(8) Ore plants

d* Wet docks (or harbour docks) with or without locks for tiie

loading and unloading at practically constant level*

ÜL* Repair docks

(1) Floating docks

(2) Dry docks or graving docks

f* Cargo handling equipments

(1 ) Different kinds of cranes with different capacities

(2) Derricks, booms and telfers

(3) Elevators

(to Conveyors

(5) Trailers, trucks and cars

51
 £• Perries

(1) Ferry racks

(2) Transfer bridges

(3) Ferry houses

(l|.) Railroad car and motor car transfers

h. Transportation services

(1) Railroad belt line

(2) Short distance car service

(3) Lighterage and barge transfer

i* Other reducing wave structures

(1) Stilling basins

(2) Cellular structures along the lee side of breakwaters

(3) Small harbour booms

(i4 ) Spending beaches

Defense works

(1) Marine railways

(2) Lift docks

113# In a harbour there are two lines to which all installations are

required to observe. The bulkhead line is the line beyond which solid-

filled structures may not be built. The pier head line is the line beyond

which open-pile structures may not be built. Yihere the local conditions

are favorable the distance between the bulkhead and pier head lines is

generally made so that steamers of the length using the waterways may be

alongside the piers at right angles to the channel* Inhere the narrowness

of the waterway makes it impossible to allow this, a combined bulkhead and

pier head line is sometimes adopted,in which case the vessels using the

52
 f

waterway have to lie parallel to the channel. There may be all kinds

and varieties of conditions between these two. If the distance between

the bulkhead and pier head lines is not sufficient to allow a vessel to

lie at right angles with the channel, the piers may be built at an angle

such that the vessel can lie between the two lines. Also the slip may

be excavated into the shore land inside the established bulkhead line»

111*.. Among all the world ports we cannot find a universally

adopted system of layout. Different local conditions from the varieties

of vessels to geological or meteorlogical differences necessitate special

design for each layout. Generally speaking, the following systems are

usually suitable for certain places and can be adopted singly or in

combination with others.

ja. Pier and slip system

b^. Double pier system

c* Quay and basin system

d. Square basin system

^e. Herringbone system

f. Fork system

Conclusion

115* A harbour is a composite performance of all branches of

engineering. Civil engineering, of course, is the most fundamental

but an engineer of harbours eaaa'tknow nothing abeut mechanical, electri­

cal, chemical, and marine engineering, meterology and hydrology.

Even within the field of civil engineering a harbour design/ifcquires all

CUA-J}
Aspects of -the* knowledge from -¡fee city planning^ water supply to the

materials of construction. EevMeo ~jbhe innumerable variations in

55
 titen ihe Manne.
different localities make the problem more intricate* The-general
W 0y/(s Qre- less thtin General lajoui • 4èhnr
layout io not as simple as the iaarine worka, -*»dr the engineer must-have M{

patience in the planning* Waves, winds, currents, drifts, -and those

inimical natural phenomena, are bound together as if they were an

offensive alliance to urge incessant and unrelenting war upon man*s

handiwork — sapping, wearing, battering, making subtle inroads and

open breaches, working now by patient effort, long sustained, and now

by sudden, prodigious feats, month after month, year in and year out,

knowing neither truce nor armistice.

116. Therefore, we cannot hope to deal exhaustively with such

problems as this. It has only to be through experience gained from the

initial results and through the modifications introduced in consequence

that the solution of this difficult problem can be achieved. In fact,

harbour engineering is still far from perfection or satisfaction, and

further research and developments are soon expected by engineers.

5k
 List of References

1* Thomas Stevenson: ^Design and Construction of Harbours.w

2# The Encyclopedia Britannica //

3« H. A* Manner: wThe Tide.11

'4* A.S.C.E. Transactions I9 0 I4. Congress Papers No. 6 - N q . 11.

5« George Stewart: "Range-Action in Harbour,” (Dock and Harbour

Authority, April 19l|3).

6. R. R # Minikin: "Breakwaters” (Dock and Harbour Authority,

April 1914-3)

7* XVIth International Congress of Navigation Reports No. 63-811

8* Captain D # D. Gaillard: "Wave Action in Relation to Engineering

Structures."

9» Brysson Cunningham: Harbour Engineering

10# Roy S. MacElevee: Port Development

55