LECTURE 4

THERMODYNAMIC AND CYCLING

2.1 First Law Analysis of Engine Cycle Energy Balance

System boundary
Fuel in

Air in

Engine Work out

Exhaust
Qt

a). Indicated thermal efficiency (

ηt ).

Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated horse power to fuel
energy.
ihp ihp
ηt =
fuel hp piston
fhp
ihp × 4500
=
mass of fuel/min × calorific value bhp
b). Mechanical efficiency (η m )
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake horse power (delivered power) to the indicated
horse power (power provided to the piston)
Heat lost
bhp friction
η m= fuel hp Combustion ihp bhp
ihp Piston
camber
and friction hp=ihp−bhp

Energy lost in exhaust, coolant, radiation etc.

Energy loss is in friction, pumping etc.

Energy in fuel

ihp

bhp

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c). Brake thermal efficiency (
ηth ).

Brake thermal efficiency is ratio of energy in brake horse power to the fuel energy.
bhp
η th =
fuel hp
bhp × 4500
=
mass of fuel/min × calorific value

The brake thermal efficiency equals the product of the indicated thermal efficiency,
ηt and

the mechanical efficiencyη m .

η th =ηt × η m

d). Volumetric efficiency (

ηV )

mass of charge actually indicated

ηV =
mass of charge represented by cylinder volume at intake temperature and pressure condition
e). Specific fuel consumption.
The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of
specific fuel consumption in grams per horsepower-hour. Brake specific fuel consumption
and indicated specific fuel consumption, abbreviated as bsfc and isfc, are the specific fuel
consumptions on the basis of bhp and ihp, respectively.
f). Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel (A/F) ratio.
The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from the
standpoint of combustion and efficiency of engine. This expressed either as the ratio of the
mass of the fuel to that of the air.
actual fuel-air ratio
F r=
stoichiometric fuel-air ratio
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio = a chemically correct is a
mixture that contains just enough air for complete
combustion of all fuel.

2.2 Useful Thermodynamic Relations

Standard air cycles are defined as cycles using the perfect gas as a work medium. The
following are the useful thermodynamic relations used in the analysis of air standard
cycles.
a). For ideal gas cycle, the working fluid is a perfect gas which follows the law
pV =mRT , or pv=RT

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 where p is the pressure, V volume, v specific volume, m mass, R gas constant and T
absolute temperature (in oKelvin).
b). For perfect gas
R
c P −c V =
J J = Joule
where cP (= 0.24) is the specific heat at constant pressure and cV (= 0.17) is the specific
cp
γ= =1 . 4
heat at constant volume. The ratio cV will be designated by the symbol γ .
c). From the perfect gas law, it can be seen that an isothermal process will follow the
relationship
pv=cons tan t
d). It is readily shown that for perfect gas the reversible adiabatic or isentropic process will
follow the relationship

pv γ =constant
e). The definition of enthalpy h is given by the expression
u + pv
h=u+ pv u
which for a perfect gas, becomes
h=u+ RT
f). For a perfect gas internal energy u and enthalpy h are functions of temperature only
T2 T2
Δu=∫T c v dT Δh=∫T c p dT
1 1

g). In a compression process, if p1, V1, and T1 represent the initial conditions; p2, V2, and T2
the final conditions are given by

( ) ( )
n−1 ( n−1 ) /n
T2 V1 p2
= =
T1 V2 p1
where n is the index of compression.
For reversible adiabatic or isentropic compression n = γ = λ.
h). For isothermal process of a perfect gas, the change in u and h is zero. Therefore, for both
flow and non-flow process
v2
Q=W isothermal =mRT log
v1
where Q is the heat interchange and W the work done
i). The work done in a non-flow polytrophic process is given by

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 p1 V 1 − p2 V 2 mR ( T 1 −T 2 )
W= =
n−1 n−1
where m = mass of gas
The work transfer during flow process is given by
m R ( T 1 −T 2 )
W =n ×
n−1
j). The heat transfer to any fluid can be evaluated from

Qrev =∫ Tds=∫ c n dT
where cn = specific heat of the fluid in which subscript n refers to the property which
remains constant during the process.
k). For any general process, according to the first law of thermodynamics,

for non-flow processQ−W =ΔU

and for flow processQ−W =ΔH

l). For any cycling process
ΣW=ΣQ=Qadded −Q rejected=η t × Q added
η
Where the symbol Σ refers to over the cycle and t is the thermal efficiency.
ΣW
∴ ηt =
Qadded

2.3 Air Standard Cycle Parameter

Air standard cycles are defined as cycles using a perfect gas as the working medium.
The following are the important parameters in ideal cycle or air standard cycle analysis.
a) Air standard efficiency (Thermal efficiency). As already defined above
W
ηth = Q1 W
Q1
where W is the work transfer from the cycle and Q1 is the heat transfer to the cycle
b) Specific work transport (w). It is the work transfer per unit mass of working
substance.
c) Specific consumption. It is the amount of working substance needed for unit work
transfer or alternatively the flow rate of working substance to give unit power. It is
inverse of specific work transfer.

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 THE CARNOT CYCLE
(Carnot is a French Engineer)

Q1

Q2

During the isentropic process bc and da the heat transfer form or to the working
substance is zero. Therefore, heat transfer takes place during isothermal process ab and cd
only.
Let r = ratio of expansion Vb/Va during process ab
= ratio of compression Vc/Vd during process cd
If the ratio of expansion and compression are not equal it would be a closed cycle.
Now, consider 1 kg of working substance:

Heat supplied during process ab,

q c− p a v a log e r =RT 1 log e r

Heat rejected during process cd,

q d − pc v c log e r =RT 2 log e r

Work done = heat supplied – heat rejected

=
RT 1 log e r−RT 2 log e r
∴ Thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle,
work done
η carnot=
heat supplied

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 RT 1 log e r−RT 2 log e r
=
RT 1 log e r
T 1−T 2 T2
= =1−
T1 T1
ΔT
=
Higher temperature

Carnot cycle on T-s diagram.

On T-s diagram the two isothermal processes ab and cd are represented by horizontal lines
and two isentropic processes bc and ad by vertical lines.
The heat supplied during the isothermal process ab is given by
q 1=area a b s1 s2 =T 1 (s 2 −s 1 )
Similarly, the heat rejected during the isothermal process cd is given by
q 2=area c d s1 s2 =T 2 (s 2 −s 1 ) a b
T1
Hence we have thermal efficiency of Carnot cycle
T 1 ( s2 −s 1 )−T 2 ( s2 −s1 )
Woutput
η carnot=
T 1 ( s 2−s 1 ) T2 d c
T 1−T 2 T2 q2
= =1−
T1 T1
s1 s2
Net Work output = (T1 – T2)(s2 – s1)
Gross work of expansion = work done during process ab + work done during process bc.
For isothermal process Q = W
i.e., Wab = Qab = area under line ab on T-s diagram
= T1(s2-s1)
For isentropic process from b and c
Wbc = ub - uc
Therefore, for a perfect gas
W bc=c v ( T 1−T 2 )

( T 1 −T 2 )( s2 −s1 )
∴ Work ratio=
T 1 ( s 2 −s 1 ) + c v ( T 1−T 2 )

Relative work outputs of various piston engine cycles is given by mean effective
pressure (mep or pm), which is defined as the constant pressure producing the same net work
output whilst causing the piston to move through the same swept volume as in the actual cycle

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Let pm = mean effective pressure

Vs = swept volume
W = net work output per cycle

work done per cycle

pm=
Then, stroke volume

W ∫ pdV
= =
Vs Vs
area of the indicator diagram
pm =
Also, length of the diagram

Reference:
1. Aris Munandar W, 1986, Motor Diesel Putaran Tinggi, Pradnya Pramita, Jakarta.
2. Aris Munandar W, 1994, Penggerak Mula Motor Bakar Torak, ITB, Bandung.
3. Maleev, Internal Combustion Engine.
4. M.L. Mathur and R.P. Sharma, A Course in Internal Combustion Engines, 3rd Edition,
1980, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi.
5. V Ganesan, Internal Combustion Engines, Second Edition, 2003, Tata Mc Grawhill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
6. William H. Crouse and Donald L. Anglin, Aoutomotive Engines, Eight Eddition, 1995,
Glencoe McGraw-Hill, New York,

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