Forensic 105 (ballistics) Exterior ballistics – traits of the motion of the
Alternative definition
Basic – it is an activity that involves throwing.
- It is a science in itself because it evolved from
systematic knowledge, research and
development training experience and
education of those who pioneered in this field.
Technical – it refers to the science of firearms
identification which involves the scientific
examination of ballistic exhibits (evidence
concerning firearms).
Legal – it is the microscopic examination of fire
cartridge cases and bullets together with the
recording and presentation by means of
photography of what is being revealed.
Broadest – it is the study of projectiles, firearms
and ammunitions including the characteristics of
firearm that affect the way projectiles are fired.
Motion – refers to the movement or mobility of
the projectile launched from firearms.
o Direct motion – shot out of the shell.
o Rotary motion – pass through the
riffled bore.
o Translational motion – hits an object
(ricocheted).
Projectiles – the metallic and none metallic
projectiles propelled from firearm.
Branches of ballistics
 Interior (internal) ballistics
 External ballistics
 Terminal ballistics
 Forensic ballistics
Interior ballistics – traits of the motion of the
projectiles while still in the firearm, namely the
studies of combustion of the powder, pressure
developed and velocity.
 Firing pin hitting the primer
 Ignition of the priming mixture
(percussion system)
 Combustion of the gun powder/powder
charge or propellant
 Expansion of heated gas
 Pressure developed
 Energy generated
 Recoiled of the gun
 Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
 Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
 Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the
bullet
projectiles after leaving the muzzle namely
trajectory, velocity, range penetration, etc.
 Muzzle blast – noise created at the gun
muzzle.
 Muzzle energy – energy generated at the
gun muzzle.
 Trajectory – curve path of the bullet.
 Range – distance from muzzle to the
target.
o Accurate range – controls shoots.
o Effective range – capable of
inflicting injury.
o Maximum effective range –
farthest distance bullet could
travel but still capable of
inflicting injury.
o Maximum range – farthest
distance bullet could travel.
 Velocity – speed.
 Pull of gravity – downward reaction.
 Air resistance – force of air encountered
by a bullet.
Terminal ballistics – traits if the effects of the
projectile on the impact on the target.
 Terminal accuracy – grouping size of the
bullet.
 Terminal energy – energy strike on the
target.
 Terminal velocity – speed strike on the
target.
 Terminal penetration – depth of the
bullet entries.
Forensic ballistics – the science of firearms
identification by means of the ammunition fired
through them.
Forensic
 Latin word “forum” – marketplace.
 Combination of science and law.
 Application of science into law.
Division of forensic ballistics:
 Field investigation – refers to the work of
an investigation in the field. It concerns
mostly with the collection, marking,
preservation, packing, and transmission of
firearms evidence. It includes the study of
class characteristics of firearms and
bullets.
 Legal proceedings – last part but the most
critical part in the field of investigation.
 Qualification
 Competence
  Expertise
Men behind firearms
o Col. Calvin h. Goddard m.d, os army –
father of modern ballistics.
o Horace smith – founded the great firm
smith and wesson and pioneered the
making of breech-loading regales.
o Daniel b. Wesson – an associate of
partner of smith in revolver making.
o John m. Browning – wizard of modern
firearms and pioneered breech loading
single shot riffle.
o John t. Thompson – pioneered the
making of the thompson sub-machine.
o David “carbine” williams – maker of first
know carbine.
o Alexander john forsyth – father of the
percussion system.
o Elisha king root – designed machinery for
making colt firearms.
o Eliphalet remington – one of the first
riffle makers.
o John malon marlin – founder of marlin
firearms company.
o James wolfe ripley – stimulated the
development of the model 1855 riffled-
musket.
o Samuel colt (1814-1862) – produced the
first practical revolver.
o Henry derringer – he gave his name to a
whole class of firearms.
o John c. Garand – designed the semi-
automatic us riffle, cal. 30.
o Oliver f. Winchester – one of the earliest
riffles and pistol makers.
o Major uziel gal – an israeli army who
designed the uzi (israel) 1950.
o Michael kalashnikov – designed the ak 47
(automat kalashnikov) – 1951.
o Eugene stoner – designed the us m16
armalite – colt company – 1959.
Important dates in firearms history
o 1313 – gunpowder as a propellant. The
age of gunpowder began with outs first
use as a propellant for a projective. Such
use has been recorded as early as 1313.
o 1350 – small arms, gunpowder was first
used only in cannons. It was in the middle
of the 14th century that portable hand, f.a
was introduced. These guns were ignited
by a hand-held wire or lighted match.
o 1498 – riffling, the first reference to riffled
barrels appeared. Although it is important
as an aid to accuracy was recognized by
some, it was many years after before
riffling was generally used.
o 1575 - cartridges, paper cartridges
combining both powder and ball were
developed. This greatly speeded loading
and reduced the hazards of carrying loose
powder.
o 1805 – percussion system, the discovery
of forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds
detonated by a blow would be used to
ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis
for all later percussion and cartridges
development.
o 1835 – samuel colt patented the first
practical revolvers in which the cylinder
was rotated by cocking the hammer.
o 1836 – pin fire, cartridge. Developed by le
faucheux in 1836, was probably the first
rim fire cartridge.
o 1858 – centerfire cartridge. The morse
cartridge in 1858 marked the beginning of
the rapid development of the centerfire
cartridge.
o 1884 – automatic machine gun. Hiram
maxim built the first fully automatic gun,
utilizing the recoil of the piece to load and
fire the next charge.
o 1846 – smokeless powder. In france,
vielle, developed the first satisfactory
smokeless powder, a new propellant that
 not only lacked the smoke characteristics
of black powder but also more powerful.
o 1845 – rim fire cartridge. In france,
flobert, developed a “bullet breech cap”
which was in really the first rim fire
cartridge.
o Hiram maxim – developed fully automatic
rifle.
o 1857 – first patented of centerfire
cartridge.
Definition of firearms
 Legal definition of firearm – “firearms” or
“arms” are herein used including rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers,
pistols, and all other deadly weapons
from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or
other missile may discharge off by means
of gunpowder or other explosives. The
term also includes air rifles except such as
being of small caliber and limited range
used as toys. The barrel of any firearm
shall be considered a complete firearm for
all purposes hereof (sec. 877, revised
administrative code see also sec. 290,
national internal revenue code).
 Technical definition of firearm – an
instrument used for the propulsion of a
projectile by means of the expansive force
of gases from the burning powder.
Ra 10591
 Refers to any handheld or portable
weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to
expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile, or any
projectile, which is discharged by means
of the expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder of another form of
combustion or any similar instrument or
implement. For purposes of this act, the
barrel, frame, or receiver is considered a
firearm.
The four main types of firearms
o Revolver – a hand firearm in which a
rotating cylinder successively places
cartridges into position for firing.
o Pistol – a hand firearm usually applied to
simple shot and automatic loading.
o Rifle – a type of weapon designed to be
fired from the shoulder.
o Shotgun – a smooth-bore weapon
designed to shoot a number of lead
pellets in one charge.
Two general classes of firearm (according to gun
barrel internal construction)
o Smooth-bore firearms – firearms that
have no rifling (land and grooves) inside
their gun barrel. (ex. Shotguns and
musket).
o Rifled-bore firearms – firearms that have
rifling inside their gun barrel. (ex. Pistols,
revolvers, rifles).
Main types of .as. (according to caliber of
projectiles propelled)
o Artillery – those types of firearms that
propel projectiles more than one inch in
diameter. (ex. Cannons, mortars,
bazookas).
o Small arms – propel projectiles less than
one inch in diameter, can be operated by
one man. (ex. Machine guns shoulder
arm and hand arms).
Types of firearms (according to mechanical
construction)
o Single shot f.a – type of firearm designed
to fire only one shot for every loading.
(ex. Pistols, rifles, shotguns – single
shots).
o Repeating arms – fire several shots in one
loading. (ex. Rifles, shotguns)
o Bolt action type – reloading is done by
manipulation of the bolt. (ex. Rifles,
shotguns, machine guns).
o Automatic loading type – after the first
shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding
of the chamber takes place. (ex. Rifles,
shotguns).
o Slide action type (trombone) – loading
takes place by back-and-forth
manipulation of the under forearm of the
gun. (ex. Rifles, shotguns).
o Lever type (break type) – loading takes
place by lever action of the firearm. (ex.
Rifles, shotguns).
Pistols and revolvers
Pistol advantages Revolver advantages
o It has a o It is an old gas leakage
better grip, standard in its
the hand weapon that operation.
points is easy to
naturally. operate, Pistol disadvantages Revolver
hence almost disadvantages
everyone o Ammunition o It is bulkier
knows how to must be to carry than
handle it. perfect an
o It is more o Safer for otherwise; a automatic
compact for inexperience jam might be pistol.
the same users to experience
firing power. handle and o A misfire stops o Its grip or
carry than an the handle is
automatic functioning of generally
pistol. the gun. not as good
o It is easier to o Its mechanism as that of
load in allows the pistol.
comparison trigger pull to o When kept o It is slower
with that of a be better than loaded for to load.
revolver. an average long time, the
automatic magazine
pistol. spring is under
o In case of o A misfire does tension and
worn out or not put a may
corroded revolver out deteriorate
barrel, a new of action. and cause
one can be problems.
put in at a o It cannot use o It is harder
little expense blank or to replace
without reduced loads. worn out or
sending a broken part
gun to the – it is a
factory. factory job.
o It gives o It will handle o It has poorer o It is hard to
greater satisfactorily trigger pull. clean.
number of old or new or o The magazine o Worn out
shots than a partly requires a poorly made
revolver. deteriorated jacketed bullet weapon is
ammunition which is not subject to
which gives a good for improper
reduced practical use. lining of the
velocity that cylinder.
would jam an o More
average dangerous to
automatic handle and
pistol. fire.
o It is easier to o It is not
clean than a adapted to
revolver. reloading.
o It gives o Its mechanism
greater firing ejects empty
power and shell towards
cases of the face of the
firing. shooter
o There is no causing
 flinching. - Under the national internal revenue code, the
o It throws out word “ammunition” shall mean loaded shell
empty shells for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
on the ground revolvers, and pistols from which bullets, ball
to remain as shot, shell, or another missile may be
evidence. ammunition for air rifles.
o It cannot be
fired from the Technical definition
pocket - Refers to a group of cartridges or to a single
without cartridge.
jamming.
Cartridge – refers to a complete unfired unit
Miscellaneous types of guns consisting of bullet, primer, cartridge case, and
o Zip guns – refers to homemade guns. gunpowder.
o Cane gun – also called as “freakish gun.” Origin
o Flare gun – designed for tracing or Charta – (latin) refers to a paper.
sending signals or locating enemy troops. Cartouche – (french) rolled of paper.
o Gas gun – designed for firing tear gas.
General types of ammunition
o Harpoon gun – refers to a barbed spear in
 Dummy ammunition
hunting large fish.
o Liberator – smooth bore gun used in  Drill ammunition
europe and designed to fire an automatic  Blank ammunition
colt pistol cartridge.  Live ammunition
o Multi barreled gun – guns containing a
Classification of cartridge (according to firearms
number of barrels.
used)
o Paradox gun – type of gun which contains
 Revolver cartridges
lands and grooves a few inches from the
muzzle point.  Pistol cartridges
o Tool guns – generally used for the  Rifle cartridge
construction of furniture.  Shotgun cartridge
o Trap guns – refers to gun used for
Classification according to location of primers
trapping animals.
 Pin fire – is an obsolete type of metallic
Four main types of firearms and its main parts firearm cartridge in which the priming
o Revolver cal .38 compound is ignited by striking a small pin
that protrudes radially from just above the
 Barrel assembly
base of the cartridge. Invented by frenchman
 Cylinder assembly
casimir lefaucheux.
 Frame or receiver
 Rim fire – is a type of firearm metallic
o Pistol cal .45
cartridge whose primer is located within a
 Barrel assembly
hollow circumferential rim protruding from
 Slide assembly the base of its casing. (louis-nicolas flobert).
 Frame assembly  Center fire – is a firearm metallic cartridge
o Rifle assembly cal .30 whose primer is located at the center of the
 Barrel assembly base of its casing.
 Magazine assembly o Rimmed type
 Stock group o Semi-rimmed type
o Shotgun gauge 12 o Rimless type
 Barrel assembly
 Magazine assembly Classification of cartridges (according to caliber)
 Stock group  Caliber .22
 Caliber .25
 Caliber .30
 Caliber .32
 Caliber .380
Ammunition
 Caliber. 38
Legal definition
 Caliber .357
 Caliber .44
 Caliber .45
 Caliber .50
- There are 10 millimeters (mm) in 1 centimeter
(cm) and 2.54 centimeters in 1 inch (in).
Therefore, multiply a bullet or bore caliber
given in inches by 25.4 in order to convert it
to millimeters.
- The formula to convert millimeter to caliber is
1 millimeter = 3.937007874 caliber. The
millimeter is 3.937 times bigger than caliber.
M6 = 5.56 mm (.22 caliber)
Ak47 = 7.62 mm (.30 caliber)
Revolver = 9.1 mm (.38 caliber)
According to rim diameter
o Rimmed type – the rim is bigger than the
body of the cartridge.
o Semi-rimmed type – the rim is slightly
bigger than the body of the cartridge.
o Rimless type – the rim is equal to the
body of the cartridge.
o Rebated type – the rim is smaller than the
body of the cartridge.
o Belted type – it has belt-type rim.
Parts of cartridge
o Bullet
o Shell
o Gunpowder
o Primer
Shotgun cartridge
o Bird shot
o Buckshot
o Slug
Projectile
Origin – boulette (french word) means bullet.
Nomenlature of a bullet
o Tip – extreme forward end of a bullet.
o Ogive – curved forward part of a bullet.
o Nose – forward end of a bullet, including the
tip, ogive and meplat.
o Cannelure – circumferential groove in a bullet
generally of a knurled or plain appearance for
the purpose of lubrication or identification, or
assist in crimping a bullet in the mouth of a
cartridge case.
o Bearing – portion of the outer surface of a
bullet that makes direct contact with the
interior surface of a gun barrel.
o Base – rear portion of a bullet.
o Heel – configuration of the intersection of the
bearing surface and base of a bullet.
General types of bullets (according to mechanical
construction)
o Lead bullets – those which are made of
lead alloys of this metal, lead, tin,
antimony which is slightly harder than
pure lead.
o Jacketed bullets – those which core of
lead covered by jacket of harder metal.
According to effects on their target
o Ball bullets – this type of bullets intended
for anti-personnel and general use.
o Armored piercing – have hardened steel
cores and are a fired against vehicle and
other armored target is general.
o Tracer bullets – contains a compound at
the base usually similar barium nitrates
which is set on fire when the bullet is
projected. The flash of the smoke from
the burning permits the light of the bullet
to be seen.
o Incendiary – contains a mixture of such
phosphorus and other materials that can
be set on fire by impact. They are used
against target that will readily burn such
as air crafts or gasoline depot.
o Explosive (fragmentary) – contains a high
changed explosive, because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse that will
work reliably in small size ammunition.
For the reason, the use of high explosive
bullets is usually limited to 20 mm and
above.
o Pointed bullet – is more effective
ballistically than the round ball of the
same weight.
o Soft point or mushroom bullet – will
expand on striking an object and there to
produce much more serious check, and
have corresponding greater stopping
power.
o Hollow point bullet – a bullet with a
cavity in the nose design to increase the
expansion when it hits the target.
According to shape
o Flat base
o Boat tailed
o Square base
o Hollow base
Cartridges cases/shell
- Is a tabular metallic or non-metallic container
which hold together the bullet, gunpowder,
and primer.
- The cartridge case is the portion of the
cartridges that is automatically ejected from
the automatic firearm during firing and this
remains at the scene of the crime. This is
firearm evidence that can help trace particular
firearms use.
Functions
- It serves as a means whereby the bullet,
gunpowder, and primer are assembled into a
unit.
- It serves as a water proof contained for
gunpowder.
- It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear
as the sidewalls of the cartridge’s cases are
forced against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as the “gas seal” at the
breech end of the barrel.
Parts
o Rim – serves the purpose of limiting the
forward travel of the cartridges into their
chambers and this also limit the clearance. If
any between the heads and the supporting
surface of the bolt or breech block.
o Primer pocket – performs triple function:
 Holding primer securely in control
position.
 Providing or means to prevent the
escape of gases to the rear of the
cartridges.
 Providing a solid support from primer
anvil without which the latter could
not be fired.
o Vents or flash hole – is the hole in the web or
bottom of the primer pocket through which
the primer “flash” impart ignition to the
primer charges. The “opening” or “canal” that
connects the priming mixture with the
gunpowder.
o The body – constitute the “cork” that plugs
the breech of the barrel against the escape of
the gas.
o Neck – that part of the cartridges case that is
occupied by the bullet.
o Cannelures – are the serrated grooves that are
sometimes found “rolled” into the neck and
bodies of the cases at the location of the
bullets bases to prevent the bullet from being
pushed back or loosened.
o Crimp – is that part of the mouth of the cases
that is turned in upon the bullet.
- It aids in holding the bullet in place.
- To resist the movement of the bullet out of
the neck which effects the burning of the
powder.
o Base – the portion of case which contains:
 The primer which contains the
priming mixture.
 The shell head which contains the
head stamp caliber and the year of
manufacture.
o Shoulder – that portion which support the
neck.
o Extracting groove – is the circular groove near
the rim of the shell designed for automatic
withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
According to case shape (3 general shapes)
o Straight – all rim fire shell and most center fire
revolver cartridges that are new manufactured
have straight cases.
o Tapered – is very rare but presently being
used in the so called “magnum jet” cartridges
cal .22.
o Bottle neck – most modern center fire rifle
cartridges cases are of bottle neck types. Since
this case form provided the greatest powder
capacity commensurate with overall case
length.
Primers
- Is that portions of the cartridge which consist
of the brass gilding metal-cup containing a
highly sensitive mixture of chemical
compound, which when struck by the firing
pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is
called percussion.
- Use for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from
the firing pin on the primer cup compresses
the priming mixture and this causes the
composition to detonate on explodes. This
detonating on explosion produces “flame”
which passes through the “event” on “flash
hole” in the cartridges case and this ignites
the gunpowder.
Types of primer
o Berdan type
o Boxer type
o Battery type
Parts of primer
o Primer cup – container of the priming mixture The latter term being applied to them only
made up of brass, gilding metal, or copper. because they do not give off huge cloud of
o Priming mixture – highly sensitive chemical white smoke like the black powder.
mixture contained in the primer cups. - Most powerful propellant and cleanest.
o Anvil – that portion of the primer against
which the priming mixture is crushed by a Three main classes of smokeless powder
blow from the firing pin. To provide the o Single – base propellant or nitrocellulose
resistance necessary to fire the priming - Contains only the pure nitroglycerine
mixture. gelatinized with nitrocellulose.
o Disc – piece of small paper on disc of the pin, o Double – base propellant
foil which is pressed over the priming mixture. - Composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine
 Two-fold purposes as their major ingredients according by one
o To help hold the priming mixture in more ingredient such as:
place.  A. Centralize
o To exclude moisture.  B. Vaseline phthalate esters
 C. Inorganic salt
Priming compounds
o Corrosive primers Purposes of minor ingredients
o Non-corrosive primers  Insure instability
 Reduce flash or flame temperature
Gun powder  Improve ignitability
- Is the propellant which when ignited by the
primer flash is converted to gas under high Triple based propellant
pressure and this propels the bullet or shot Ingredients:
changes through the barrel and on the target.  Nitrocellulose
 Nitroglycerine
Types of gunpowder  Nitroguanadine
o Black powder
o Semi smokeless powder
o Smokeless powder
Shapes of smokeless gunpowder
Black powder  Disc
- Oldest propellant  Squares
- Consist of irregular grains  Flakes
 Depending on manufacturing process  Perforated cylinder
 Either dull or shine  Pellets
- Produce large volume of smoke  Strips
Ingredients:
 Potassium nitrate – 75% Powder flame test
 Sulfur – 10%  Black powder – quick flash with considerable
 Charcoal – 15% smoke.
 Semi smokeless powder – medium rate flash
Semi smokeless powder with less smoke.
- 1890 to early 1900 substitute for black  Smokeless powder – relatively slow burning
powder. with little smoke.
- Having ingredients of smokeless and black
powder. Explosives
Ingredients: - Is any substance that may cause an explosion
 Sulfur by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
 Potassium nitrate
Classification of explosives
 Charcoal
 Propellants or low explosives
 Nitrocellulose
 Primary explosives or initiators
 High explosives
Smokeless powder
- Term smokeless powder is misnomer for they
Other forms of explosives
are neither powder nor they are smokeless.
 Nitroglycerine
 Trinitrotoluene (rdx)
 Nitrocellulose
 Bomb
Firearm characteristics
o Things created has a unique characteristic and
could be traced upon its creation.
o Knowledge of firearm manufacture plays a
vital role in identification of firearm.
o Firearm examiner determine how and why
made and interpreted to himself and court.
o Markings transferred to firearm evidences by
deliberate accidental operation during the
process.
Barrel
- Is the tube, usually metal, which a controlled
explosion or rapid expansion of gases are
released in order to propel a projectile out of
the end at a high velocity.
- Metal carefully selected.
How the barrel is made
 Drilling – special deep hole is used and
through the center of which lubricating oil is
forced under pressure.
- Results to uniform rough diameter.
- Interior surface will bear numerous scars and
scratches.
- Bore diameter is determined.
 Reaming – scars and scratches leave during
drilling operation remove.
- Reamer slightly larger in diameter than drill
which complete drill operation.
 Rifling – creation of lands and grooves.
 Hook cutter system
 Scrape cutter system
 Broaching system
 Button system
 Lapping -
 Chambering – final step of barrel process
- Creating a chamber on the barrel.
 Caliber (bore diameter)
 Number of lands
 Number of grooves
 Width of lands
 Width of grooves
 Direction of twist
 Depth of grooves
Grooves – the spiral cuts in a rifled bore.
Lands – the ridges of metal between the grooves in
a rifled bore.
Individual characteristics
- Those which are determinable only after the
manufacture of the firearm. They are
characteristics whose existence is beyond the
control of man and which have random
distribution. Their existence in a firearm is
brought about by the tools in their normal
operation resulting though wear and tear,
abuse, mutilations, corrosion, erosion, and
other fortuitous causes.
Individual characteristics (shell)
o Firing pin marks – base portion at the center.
o Breech face marks – backward movement of
breech face.
o Extractor marks – withdrawal from the
chamber.
o Ejector marks – throwing of the shell from the
firearm.
o Shearing marks – secondary firing pin mark.
o Magazine lip mark – magazine lips during
loading.
o Chamber mark – walls of the chamber.
Chamber marks
 Banded striae
 Banded spiral
 Fluting
 Ramp bulging
 Diagonal
 Rust
Individual characteristics (bullet)
o Land marks – marks left by contact of land.
o Groove marks – marks left by contact of
grooves.
o Skid marks – forward movement before it
rotates.
o Stripping marks – loose fit barrel.
o Shaving marks – poor alignment.
o Slippage marks – oily or oversized barrel.
Effect of bore on flight of projectile
- Rifled bore fires spinning projectile on a stable
course.
- Smooth bore fires tumbling projectile on
unstable course.
Principles of identification (bullets)
- No two barrels are microscopically identical as
the surface of their bores al possesses
individual characteristics markings of their
own.
- When a bullet is fired from rifled barrel, it
becomes engraved by the rifling and this
engraving will vary in its minute details with
 every individual bore. So it happens that the
engraving on the bullets fired from one barrel
will be different from another bullet fired from
another barrel.
- Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or
fingerprint on very single bullet fired through
it just as every breech face leaves its thumb
mark on the base of every fired cartridge case.
Principles of identification (shells)
- The breech face and striker of every single
firearm leave microscopically individualities of
their own.
- The firearm leaves its “fingerprints” or “thumb
mark” on ever cartridges cases which it fires.
- The whole principles of identification are
based on the fact that since the breech face of
every weapon must be individually distinct,
the cartridges cases which it fires are
imprinted with this individuality. The imprints
on all cartridge’s cases fired from the same
weapon are always the same; those on
cartridges cases fired from different weapons
are different.
Types of rifling
o Steyer type – four lands and grooves, right
hand twist, the width of the grooves is equal
to the width of the lands (4r g-l).
o Smith and wesson type – five lands and
grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
grooves is equal to the width of the lands (5r
g-l).
o Colt type – six lands and grooves, left hand
twist, the width of the grooves is twice larger
than the width of the lands (6l g2x).
o Browning type – six lands and grooves, right
hand twist, the width of the grooves is twice
larger than the width of the lands (6r g2x).
o Army type – four lands and grooves, right
hand twist, the width of the grooves is three
times larger than the width of the lands (4r
g3x).
o Winchester – rifling having six (6) land and
grooves, right hand twist, the width of the
grooves is three times larger than the width of
the lands (6r g3x).
o Webley type – seven lands and grooves, right
hand twist, the width of the grooves is three
times larger than the width of the lands (7r
g3x).
Forensic ballistic problem
 Type 1 – given fired bullet, to determine the
caliber and type of firearm from which it was
fired.
Objective:
 Determine the caliber, type, make of
firearm from which it was fired.
procedure:
 Identify bullet, type, shape, design.
 Instrument used, tortion balance,
caliper or micrometer.
 Identify rifling by determining lands
and grooves.
 Type 2 – given a fired cartridge case, to
determine the caliber and type of firearm
from which it was fired.
Objective:
 To determine the caliber, type, and
make of firearm from which it was
fired.
procedure:
 Determine caliber utilizing
micrometer caliper.
 Check the base of the cartridge case
for the head stamp.
 Type 3 – given a bullet and a suspected
firearm, to determine whether or not the
bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
Objective:
 To determine whether or not the
bullet was fired from the suspected
firearm.
procedure:
 Examine fired bullet as to its caliber
or applying procedure number one.
 Examine suspected firearm.
 Test fire suspected firearm.
 Type 4 – given a fired cartridge case and a
suspected firearm, to determine whether or
not the cartridge case was fired from the
suspected firearm.
Objective:
 To determine whether or not the
cartridge case was fired from the
suspected firearm.
procedure:
 Examine fired shell as to caliber type
make.
 Examine suspected firearm as to
rifling characteristics.
 Test fire of suspected firearm.
 Type 5 – given two or more bullets, to
determine whether or not they were fired
from only one firearm.
Objective:
  To determine fired bullets whether or Observe the "mac" rule
not they were fired from only one Photograph/sketch
firearm. Take notes
procedure:
 Identify bullets as to caliber, type, and
make by applying principle in
problem no. 1.
 Comparison of bullets utilizing bullet
comparator microscope.

 Type 6 – given two or more cartridge cases, to

determine whether or not they were fired
from only one firearm.
Objective:
 To determine cartridge cases whether
or not they were fired from only one
firearm.
procedure:
 Identify each fired shell as to their
caliber type and make applying the
procedure in problem no. 2.
 Compare each fired shell.

 Type 7 – given a suspected firearm, to

determine whether it is serviceable or not.
Objective:
 To determine whether it is
serviceable or not.
procedure:
 Examine suspected firearm, caliber
type, and make whether or not it is
serviceable/functional.
 Check serial number and records
identification.

o Caliber .22 – about 5.59 mm.

o Caliber .25 – about 6.35 mm.
o Caliber .30 – about 7.63 mm.
o Caliber .32 – about 7.65 mm.
o Caliber .38 – about 9 mm.
o Caliber .45 – about 11 mm.
o Caliber .50 – about 12 mm.

Investigation of ballistic case

 Steps to be followed upon arrival at any
crime scene
o Save life
o Cordon the scene
o Call for soco and emergency medical
team
o Record date, time, and weather
condition
o Conduct field inquiry

Iv. Collection of evidence

 6. Keep the complete record of the chain of
possession of the ballistics evidence.

►v. Marking of evidence

Rules in marking of evidence.

1. Make use of a hard pointed instrument called

stylus in marking ballistics evidence such as
metallic or plastic cartridge case, bullet and
firearm. In case of paper cartridge use fountain
for marking

2. Use distinctive marks such as initials of the

investigator, victim or suspects plus the date of
recovery.

3. Put the mark on the surface of the evidence

that would not in any way alter its very nature.

4. Make a complete record of the mark used

where it is placed and other distinctive marks that
the evidences possesses.

5. If tag are to be used, make the necessary entry,

attach it securely before putting on the evidence
bag or container. Mark the evidence tag for
proper entry.
► preservation of physical evidence

Transmittal of physical evidence

Chain of custody of evidence/s

▶the time of its recovery until the final disposition

in court
▶record of all the person who have handled the
physical evidence.
▶information as to who received and accepted
the evidences, date and time of received, number
of the physical evidence involved

►stereoscope microscope
This is generally used in the preliminary
examination of fired bullets and fired shells. To
determine the location of the extractor marks and
ejector marks for orientation purposes. It can be
used also in one close-up examination of
tampered serial numbers of firearms.

Bullet recovery box

For obtaining best fired bullet or test fired
cartridge cases from the suspected firearms
submitted to the ballistics laboratory. In test firing
suspected firearms, it is standard procedure to
used ammunition that are of the same caliber,
make or brand and manufactured in the same
year with that of the evidence bullet or shell.

►measuring projector - mp6

This projector determines the width of the lands,
width of grooves, diameter and twist of fired
bullets.

▶verneir calipers
This instrument determines the bullet diameter
and barrel length.

Analytical balance
This more or less determines the weight of the
bullets, shots and pellets for possible type, caliber
and make for firearm from which they were fired
▶taper gauge
Used for determining the diameter of the bore of
the firearms.
▶onoscope
For examining the interior surface of the barrel.
►helixometer
For measuring the pitch of the rifling. Pitch of
rifling is the distance advanced by the rifling in
one complete turn or a distance traveled by the
bullet in one complete turn.
Chronograph
For determining the speed of the bullet or the
muzzle velocity
Shadowgraph
works almost the same as the bullet comparison
microscope.
Nomenclature and function
Barrel - initiates the path of the bullet.
Frame-houses the internal parts.
Yoke - connecting pivot between the frame and
cylinder.
Extractor pulls the empty shells from the cylinder
- simultaneously.
Extractor road - activates the extractor and is a
locking device.
Center pin - serves as a looking device for the
cylinder.
Center pin srping - holes the center pin in a locked
position.
Side plates - provides access to the internal parts.
Side plate screw - hold the side plate and yoke in
place.
Hammer block - safety device that prevents
hammer blow to primer.
double action sear - built into the weapon to
allow double action fire.
Hammer - strikes the blow that initiates or ignites
primer.
Bolt - disengage center prim to allow opening of
cylinder and blocks hammer.
Thumblatch - actuates bolt to release the cylinder.
Hand (pawl) - rotates the cylinder when the
hammer is cocked.
Cylinder stop - stops and holds the cylinder
alignment for firing.
Trigger - actuates the parts necessary to fire the
weapon.
Trigger guard - guards the trigger from
unnecessary action to avoid accidental firing.
Rebound slide - returns trigger, actuates hammer
block and locks hammer.
Trigger spring - provides energy for return
movement or rebound slide.
Trigger lever- contacts rebound slide to return
trigger forward.
Main spring - provides energy to the hammer to
activate firing mechanism.
Strain screw - controls tension of the mainspring.
Trigger stop- prevents excessive rearward
movement after hammer release.
racket - helps in the withdrawal of the cartridges
or shells from the chambers of the cylinder.
Cylinder notch - it helps hold the cylinder in place
and aligned ready for firing.
Definition of terms
Percussion - action when the priming mixture of
chemical compound hit or struck by firing in
would ignite.
Juxtaposition - two objects is evidence bullet and
test bullet are examined and compared under the
bullet comparison microscope. Includes also the
examination of fired shells.
Ballo or ballein
Greek words where ballistics was derived from
which means "to throw".
Ballista - the early roman was machine - a gigantic
bow or catapult.
Ballistics - science of the motion of projectiles.
Forum a greek word of forensic which means
debatable, argumentation in relation to the court
of justice.
Forensic balliastics- the study of firearms
identification by means of ammunition fired from
them.
Ballistician - person whose knowledge in
identification is accepted by the courts and other
investigation agencies.
Abrassion - (in the world) scratches cause by using
improper cleaning materials, or by firing
ammunition with bullets to which abrasive
material was adhering. Normal enlargement of
the bore and wearing away of lands due to the
abrasive action of the bullets.
Black powder - a mechanical mixture of charcoal,
sulfur and salt paper. Burned with considerable
white smoke.
Cartridge is a complete unfired unit of bullets,
cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.
Ammunition (legal) - sec. 877 of the rac - shall
mean "loaded shell" for rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers and pistols which a ball,
bullet shot shell or other missile maybe
discharges by means of gunpowder or other
explosive. The term includes ammunition for a
rifles as mentioned else where in the code.
Ball bullets -bullets have soft lead course inside a
jacket.
Round - one single complete cartridge.
Bullet energy - the powder possessed by a moving
bullet, or in other words its ability to keep going
meets an obstacle of immense importance, for
obviously, the more powder a bullet has and the
harder it is to stop the, more effective it can be as
a weapon.
Bullet recovery box - consist of a wooden box, 12"
x 12" x 96", with the hinged to cover and with
one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary
cotton and separated into section by card board
partitions.
Caliber is the diameter of the inner surface of the
barrel that is measured from land to land.
Dumdum bullet - "dumdum" is an out molded
and generally misused term. It was an unofficial
name first applied hallow point bullets maid at
the british arsenal at dumdum, india.
Erosion - the mechanical wear and tear of the
inner surface of the gun barrel due to the
mechanical abrasion or gliding.
Corrosion - the chemical wear and tear of the
inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or
chemical action of the by products of combustion
after firing.
Cannelure (bullet) - a knurled ring or serrated
grooved around the body of the bullet which
contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize
friction during the passage of the bullet inside the
bore.
Caliper - an instrument used for making
measurement such as bullet diameter and bore
diameter.
Chilled shot - shotgun pellets made from lead
especially hardened by the addition of a slight
amount of antimony.
Class characteristics are those that are
determinable even before the manufacture of the
firearm. It is categorized into caliber or gauge
number of lands and grooves, width of land and
grooves, twist of rifling, patch of rifling and depth
of grooves.
Range - the straight distance between muzzle and
target.
Point blank range - popularity used to indicate the
distance the bullet will travel before it drops
enough to require sight adjustment. A shot fired
so closed to the target that no sighting is
necessary for effective aiming
Maximum range - the farthest distance that a
projectile can be propelled form a firearm
Effective range the maximum distance at which a
bullet may reasonable be expected types of live
target.
Extreme range - the greatest distance the bullet
will travel the cartridge is fire
Effective range - the maximum distance at which a
bullet may reasonable be expected types of live
target.
Accurate range the distance with in which he
shoots has control of his shots
Fouling the accumulation of a deposit wit in the
bore of a firearm caused by solid by products
remaining a cartridge is fired.
Gum cotton - a very powerful explosive, like
nitroglycerine
Which is a chemical compound and not a mixture.
This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric
acid on cotton or nay other kind of cellulose.
Lands- the raised portion between the grooves in
the interior surface of the gun barrel.
Lapping is the smoothening of the inner surface
of the barrel.
Knocking power - power of the bullet which gives
of a very
Paralyzing blow that put the victim down and
may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is
not fatal.
Stopping power - power of the bullet which put
the victim out of the action instantly. So it should
be understood that stopping power is not
necessarily the same thing as killing power.
However, stopping power depends very largely on
the location of the shot
Primer - the complete assembly of cup, priming
composition, paper discs and anvil.
Cartouche of paper. - french word of cartridge
which means rool
Charta - latin word for cartridges which means
paper
Pistol - a hand firearm usually applied to simple
sot and automatic loading.
Revolver- a hand firearm in which a rotating
cylinder successively places cartridges into
position for firing.
Shotgun a smooth-bore weapon designed to
shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge.
Rifle a type of weapon designed to be fired from
the shoulder.
Cartridge term used to describe a complete
unfired unit consisting of the bullets, primer
cartridges case and powder charge
Bullet - is a projectile propelled from a charge.
Automatic - a weapon is automatic when its
mechanism is so arranged that it will fire
continuously while the trigger is depressed.
Double action - weapon in which pressure upon
the trigger both cocks and release the hammer.
Single action - weapon in which pressure upon
the trigger release the hammer that must be
manually cocked.
Caliber term used to indicate the bore diameter
which is measured between two opposite lands.
Gauge or gage - as applied to shotguns, it
indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the
diameter of a lead ball whose weight in pounds is
equal to the reciprocal gauge index.
Ex. Bore diameter of a lead ball weighing 1/12 of
a pound.
Bore - the cylindrical passage of the barrel
through which the projectile travels.
Pitch of rifling - the distance that the rifling
advances to make one complete turn.
Expert - as used in, court includes all witnesses
whose opinions are admitted on grounds of
specialized knowledge, training and experience.
Breechblock - the steel block which closes the
rear of
The bore against the force of charge or that part
in the breech mechanism that locks the action
against the firing of the cartridges; the face of this
block is known as the breech face.
Chamber - that part of the weapon in which the
cartridge is placed into position for firing.
Ejector- that mechanism in a firearm which
causes the empty shell or ammunition to be
thrown out from the gun.

Extractor- that mechanism in a firearm by which

the empty shell or ammunition is withdrawn from
the chamber.

Grooves- the depressed channels cut in the

interior of a rifled gun barrel.

Lands - that raised portion between the grooves

inside a rifled gun barrel.

Velocity is the forward speed at which the bullet

travels measured in feet per second.

Pressure - the outward thrust of the burning

powder gases against the breechblock, chamber
and bore normally measured one inch from the
breech and recorded in pounds per square inch.

Ex. 14,000 to 15,000 pounds per square inch for

caliber .45 automatic pistol.

Range - the straight distance between the muzzle

of the gun and the target.

Penetration - the depth to which a projectile sinks

in the tar

Get.

Ex. 6 inches at 15 yards in white pinewood.

Berdan primer - a primer with two flash holes or

vents.

Boxer primer - a primer with only one flash hole

or vents.

Rim - the projection edge of the base or head of a

certain cartridge.

OGIVE - is the technical name of the cylindrical

head critic of the bullets.

BREECH END - the rear end of the bore of an arm

where the cartridges is inserted.