A = {1, 2, 3}

A
1 2

2 2
/

1 2 A, 42
/A

{1, 1} = {1}, {1, 2} = {2, 1}

A B A
B ⇢

A = {1, 2}, B = {1, 2, 3}, A ⇢ B, A⇢A

 A2B A B

A(B

A⇢B A B A(B
A B

;⇢A

A = {2, 4, 6, 8}

A={ }

A ={ }
A ={ }

A = {} B = {0} C=0 D=; E = {{}} F = {;}

B = {1} B⇢A B2A

A = {1} A = {{1}} A = {1, {1}}

 #
A = {1, 3, 5, 7} #A = 4

#{#{#;}}

A [ B = {x : x 2 A x 2 B}

x A B

A = {1, 2} B = {2, 3} A [ B = {1, 2, 3}

A \ B = {x : x 2 A x 2 B}

A = {1, 2} B = {2, 3} A \ B = {2}

A \ B = {x : x 2 A, x 2
/ B}
 A \ B 6= B \ A
A = {1, 2} B = {2, 3} A \ B = {1} B \ A = {3}

4
A4B = {x : x 2 a x 2 B}

A = {1, 2} B = {2, 3} A4B = {1, 3}

A4B = (A [ B) \ (A \ B) = (A \ B) [ (B \ A)

A [ B = B [ A, A \ B = B \ A, A4B = B4A.

X A
A = {x : x 2
/ A} = X \ A

A X
A = {1, 2} X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
A
A = {0, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

A[B A\B A4B

A B
X
A

A\B A
 A [ (B \ C) = (A [ B) \ (A [ C)
A \ (B [ C) = (A \ B) [ (A \ C)

A[B =A\B
A\B =A[B
[ \

A = {1, 2, 3} B = {3, 4, 5} C = {1, 3, 5, 7}

(A [ B) \ C A \ (B \ C) (A \ B) [ C
A [ (B \ C) (A4B) \ C A4(B [ C)

A [ B = A\B A [ B ⇢ A\B
x2A[B
A\B
x 2 A [ B =) x 2
/ A [ B =) x 2
/A x2
/ B =) x 2 A x 2 B =) x 2 A \ B.
A\B ⇢A[B

A
A P(A)
P(A) = {B : B ⇢ A}

A = {1, 2, 3}

P(A) = {;, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}}

A #A = n A 2n

#P(A) = 2#A

P(;)
 (1, 2)

(1, 2) 6= {1, 2}

(1, 2) 6= (2, 1) (1, 1)

n n
3 : (3, 1, 2) 5 : (7, 0, 4, 1, 9)

A B A⇥B
A
B
A ⇥ B = {(a, b) : a 2 A, b 2 B}

A = {1, 2} B = {2, 3} A ⇥ B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3)}

A n B m A⇥B n⇥m
#(A ⇥ B) = #A ⇥ #B

A ⇥ B ⇥ C = {(a, b, c) : a 2 A, b 2 B, c 2 C}

A2 = A ⇥ A A3 = A ⇥ A ⇥ A

{1} ⇥ {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2} ⇥ {1, 2, 3}, {1, 2} ⇥ ;

A ⇥ B 6= B ⇥ A
 f A B
x2A f (x) 2 B

f :A !B
x 7! f (x)
x2A
f (x) 2 B

A = {1, 2, 3} B = {a, b, c} f (1) = a f (2) = c f (3) = c

B A
A
B

A f :A! A
f (x) = x x
f (x)

f (x) x
x

f (x) = x
f (4) = 2
2
f (4) = 2 f (x) = x

f :A!B BA

A = {1, 2} B = {a, b, c}

A n B m BA nm

#(B A ) = #B #A

f : A ! B P(A ⇥ B)
A⇥B

G(f ) = {(a, b) : a 2 A, b = f (a)}

G(f ) = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, c)}

 f (x) = x2

G(f ) = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), . . . }

0
2 1 0 1 2

f (x) = f (y) =) x = y.

f (x) = 2x + 1

f (x) = f (y) =) 2x + 1 = 2y + 1 =) 2x = 2y =) x = y

f (x) = x2
x=2 y= 2

f (x) = 22 = 4 = ( 2)2 = f (y).

A f :A!A
f (x) = x x y
f (x) = f (y)
 A
B f :A!B f (x) =
x

f :A!B
8y 2 B 9x 2 A f (x) = y.
8 9
B A
B A

f (x) = 2x + 1
y x f (x) = y x

y 1
f (x) = y =) 2x + 1 = y =) 2x = y 1 =) x =
2
✓ ◆
y 1
f =y
2

f (x) = x2

x f (x) = 1

f (x) = x

f (x) = x

f :A!B

f (x) = 2x + 1

A n f :A!A
n n! n

n n

n! = n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) . . . 3 · 2 · 1

 3! = 3 · 2 · 1 = 6 4! = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24 5! = 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 120

50! = 3 · 1064
50

0! = 1

n m
m
n
m n

A = {1, 2, 3, 4}

{1, 2} {3, 4} {1, 3} {2, 4} {1, 4} {2, 3}

4
2
=6

✓ ◆
m m!
=
n n!(m n)!

✓ ◆
7 7! 7·6·5·4·3·2
= = = 21
2 2! 5! 2·5·4·3·2

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 4 5 7 6 7 0
2 1 2 0 2 3 0

k=n ✓ ◆
X
n n
(a + b) = ak bn k

k=0
k

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 3 0 3 3 1 2 3 2 1 3 3 0
(x + y) = xy + xy + xy + x y = y 3 + 3xy 2 + 3x2 y + x3
0 1 2 3
 N

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . }

/N
12

Z = {. . . , 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }

N⇢Z

Q ⇢
p
Q= : p, q 2 Z, q 6= 0
q

3 6 9 3
= = = = ...
2 4 6 2

7
7= 1

N⇢Z⇢Q

3 12 7 14
15 4 3 21
 Q

1 4
= 0, 5 = 1, 333 · · · = 1, b
3
2 3

0, 5 = 0, 5000 · · · ... = 0, 5b
0

0, 777 · · · = 0, b
7 1, 2343434 · · · = 1, 2 c
34

p
2 ⇡

R
R = {x : x }

p R ⇡
2

N⇢Z⇢Q⇢R

C
H

p ⇡
3 2 0 1 3 2 4.b
3
2
 1 1

/R
12 /R
12

a<b a b
a b

a < b () a b

I⇢R
a b

(a, b) = {x 2 R : a < x < b}

[a, b] = {x 2 R : a  x  b}

(a, b] = {x 2 R : a < x  b} [a, b) = {x 2 R : a  x < b}

( 1, b) = {x 2 R : x < b} ( 1, b] = {x 2 R : x  b}

(a, 1) = {x 2 R : a < x} [a, 1) = {x 2 R : a  x}

a  b
(a, a) = ; [a, a] = {a}

R = ( 1, 1)
 I = (0, 4] J = [3, 6]

I = ( 4, 2]

R R2
R2 = R ⇥ R = {(x, y) : x 2 R, y 2 R}

R2
(x, y) 2 R2 x
y

y (x, y)

x
y

(1, 0)
(2, 1) ( 1, 2)

I =
(1, 3) J = [1, 2]

R3 = R ⇥ R ⇥ R = {(x, y, z) : x 2 R, y 2 R, z 2 R}
(x, y, z)

Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) : xi 2 R, i = 1, . . . , n}

R5
 ⇡

P
P
D P D P
=⇡ =⇡
D D

⇡ = 3,14159265358979 . . . , ⇡ 2R\Q

2⇡

⇡
2⇡ = 360 ⇡ = 180 2
= 90

⇡ ⇡ ⇡
3
= 60 4
= 45 6
= 30

⇡ 180

↵+ + =⇡
↵
 ↵ ↵ r
r↵

r↵
↵
↵ ↵
1 r

d d
(sen x) = cos x, (cos x) = sen x
dx dx
x

⇡
2

a2 + b 2 = h 2 b h

↵ a
↵ b h

h
b

↵
a
b a b
sen ↵ = , cos ↵ = , tan ↵ =
h h a
 1 h 1 h 1 a
cosec ↵ = = , sec ↵ = = , cot ↵ = =
sen ↵ b cos ↵ a tan ↵ b

↵
sen ↵
= tan ↵
cos ↵
b
sen ↵ h b
= a = = tan ↵
cos ↵ h
a

sen ⇡4 cos ⇡4

⇡
4
45

h
1

45
1

h
p
h2 = 12 + 12 =) h = 2

sen ⇡4
p
⇡ 1 2
sen = p =
4 2 2

p
⇡ 1 2
cos = p =
4 2 2

⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡
sen , cos , sen , cos .
6 6 3 3
 1 sen ↵
↵ cos ↵
1
tan ↵

⇡ ⇡
sen 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1, sen = 1, cos =0
2 2

(0, ⇡/2)
↵

sen ↵ > 0 sen ↵ > 0 sen ↵ < 0 sen ↵ < 0

cos ↵ > 0 cos ↵ < 0 cos ↵ < 0 cos ↵ > 0

2⇡
⇡

sen x 2 [ 1, 1], cos x 2 [ 1, 1], tan x 2 R

sen( x) = sen x, cos( x) = cos x

 cos2 ↵ + sen2 ↵ = 1
a2 + b 2 = h 2
⇣ a ⌘2 ✓ ◆2
2 2 b a2 + b 2 h2
cos ↵ + sen ↵ = + = = =1
h h h2 h2
sen2 ↵ (sen ↵)2

sec2 ↵ = 1 + tan2 ↵
cos2 ↵
⇣ sen ↵ ⌘2 ✓ ◆2
cos2 ↵ sen2 ↵ 1 1
+ = =) 1 + = =) 1 + tan2 ↵ = sec2 ↵
cos2 ↵ cos2 ↵ cos2 ↵ cos ↵ cos ↵

1
sen ↵ = 5
tan ↵

tan ↵ = 2 sen ↵

↵ 2 (0, ⇡/2)

sen(↵ + ) = sen ↵ cos + cos ↵ sen

cos(↵ + ) = cos ↵ cos sen ↵ sen

sen(2↵) = 2 sen ↵ cos ↵ cos(2↵) = cos2 ↵ sen2 ↵

1 + cos(2↵) 1 cos(2↵)
cos2 ↵ = sen2 ↵ =
2 2

a = sen x () x = arc sen a

 b = cos x () x = arc cos b
c = tan x () x = arctan c

x
1
sen x =
4
arc sen

1
x = arc sen = 0,2527
4

1 ⇡ 5⇡
sen x = 2
x= 6
x= 6

2⇡
2⇡
⇡ 5⇡
x= + 2k⇡, x= + 2k⇡, k2Z
6 6

↵
tan ↵ = 2 ↵

arctan( 2) = 1,1071

↵ = arctan( 2) + ⇡ ⇡ 1,1071 + 3,1416 = 2,0345

↵
↵

⇡
⇡
 (cos ↵, sen ↵)
(0, 0)

(cos ↵, sen ↵)

senh
cosh

(cosh t, senh t)

ex + e x
ex e x
cosh x = , senh x =
2 2

cosh( x) = cosh x, senh( x) = senh x

x ( x) x
e+e e+ ex
cosh( x) = = = cosh x
2 2
e x e ( x)
e x ex e x + ex
senh( x) = = = = senh x
2 2 2
 senh cosh

ex

senh x + cosh x = ex

ex + e x
ex e x
ex + ex
cosh x + senh x = + = = ex
2 2 2

senh x ex e x
tanh x = = x x
cosh x e +e

cosh2 x senh2 x = 1

✓ ◆2
2 ex + e x
((ex )2 + (e x )2 + 2ex e x ) 1 2x 2x
cosh x = = = e +e +2
2 4 4
✓ ◆2
2 ex e x
((ex )2 + (e x )2 2ex e x ) 1 2x 2x
senh x = = = e +e 2
2 4 4

1 2x 4
cosh2 x senh2 x = e +e 2x
+2 (e2x + e 2x
2) = =1
4 4

d d
(cosh x) = senh x, (senh x) = cosh x
dx dx

✓ ◆
d d ex + e x
ex e x
(cosh x) = = = senh x
dx dx 2 2
✓ ◆
d d ex e x
ex + e x
(senh x) = = = cosh x
dx dx 2 2
R2 R3
y

(a, b)
b v=

x
a
 v = (2, 3, 1) v (0, 0, 0)
(2, 3, 1)

v = (3, 2) v
(0, 0) (3, 2)

~v
v

i = (1, 0) j = (0, 1)
i = (1, 0, 0) j = (0, 1, 0) k = (0, 0, 1)

v = (2, 3, 1) = 2i + 3j + k

v=i 3k
v = (1, 0, 0) 3(0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 3)

0
0 = (0, 0) 0 = (0, 0, 0)

0 1
2
v= 2 3 1 v = 3A
@
1

2
p b
p a2 +
b
v = (a, b) kvk = a2 + b 2
a
 p
v = (a, b, c) kvk = a2 + b 2 + c 2

v = (3, 4)
p p
kvk = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5

v = (1, 2, 3), v = (1, 3, 1, 1, 2), v = ( 2)

p
11
v = ( 12 , 14 , 4
)
v !2
u ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 p r r
u 1 1 11 1 1 11 4 + 1 + 11
kvk = t + + = + + = =1
2 4 4 4 16 16 16

↵2R v = (cos ↵, sen ↵)

v P = (3, 5, 1) Q = (1, 2, 0)
!
v = PQ = Q P = (1 3, 2 5, 0 ( 1)) = ( 2, 3, 1)

n
 u = (u1 , u2 ) v = (v1 , v2 )

u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 )

+ !

(1, 2) + (2, 3) = (1 + 2, 2 + 3) = (3, 5)

(1, 0, 2) + (3, 3, 4) = (4, 3, 2)

u = (2a + b, b) v = (5a b, a + b)

u v
v u u
v u+v
u v

v v v

u u u u+v u
v

v
w

u+v+w
u

v = (v1 , v2 ) k2R

kv = (kv1 , kv2 )

· !
 7 (2, 3) = (7 · 2, 7 · 3) = (14, 21)

2 (0, 1, 3) = (0, 2, 6)

(2, 6, 8) = (2 · 1, 2 · 3, 2 · 4) = 2 (1, 3, 4)

( 13 , 23 , a) = 13 (1, 2, 3a)

v k
kv k
v k>1 0<k<1
k<0

v 2v 1
v 2v
2

P = ( 1, 1) Q = (5, 4) PQ

1
u v = u + ( 1)v

(2, 3) (1, 4) = (2 1, 3 4) = (1, 1)

u v w c d

u+v =v+u
 (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)

u+0=u

u + ( u) = 0

c(du) = (cd) u

(c + d) u = cu + du

c (u + v) = cu + cv

1 u = u; 0u = 0

u + v = (u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ) = (v1 + u1 , v2 + u2 ) = (v1 , v2 ) + (u1 , u2 ) = v + u

n
 u v c2R

ku + vk  kuk + kvk

kcvk = |c|kvk

v
u

u+v

v = (1, 2, 3)
p p
kvk = 1+4+9= 14
✓ ◆
v (1, 2, 3) 1 2 3
u= = p = p ,p ,p
kvk 14 14 14 14

v = (1, 1) w = (3, 0, 4)
 ·

· !
u, v 2 R3 u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) v =
(v1 , v2 , v3 )
u · v = u 1 v 1 + u2 v 2 + u3 v 3

u = (1, 2, 3) v = ( 1, 0, 4)
u · v = 1 · ( 1) + 2 · 0 + 3 · 4 = 11

u v w c2R
u·v =v·u
u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w
c (u · v) = (c u) · v = u · (c v)
0·u=0
u · u = kuk2

u · v = (u1 , u2 ) · (v1 , v2 ) = u1 v1 + u2 v2 = v1 u1 + v2 u2 = (v1 , v2 ) · (u1 , u2 ) = v · u

u · u = kuk2
✓q ◆2
u · u = (u1 , u2 ) · (u1 , u2 ) = u1 u1 + u2 u2 = u21 + u22 = u21 + u22 = kuk2

u·v =0 90
 ⇥

⇥ !

u, v 2 R3 u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) v =
(v1 , v2 , v3 )

u ⇥ v = (u2 v3 u3 v 2 , u 3 v 1 u1 v 3 , u 1 v 2 u2 v1 )

u = (1, 2, 3) v = ( 1, 0, 4)

u ⇥ v = (8 0, 3 4, 0 + 2) = (8, 7, 2)

R3

A |A|

a b
= ad bc
c d

a b c
d e f = aei + bf g + dhc (ceg + f ha + bdi)
g h i

i j k
u ⇥ v = u1 u2 u3 = (u2 v3 u3 v2 )i + (u3 v1 u1 v3 )j + (u1 v2 u2 v1 )k
v1 v2 v3

i j k
u⇥v = 1 2 3 = 8i 7j + 2k = (8, 7, 2)
1 0 4
 u v w c

u⇥v = (v ⇥ u)
u ⇥ (v + w) = u ⇥ v + u ⇥ w
c (u ⇥ v) = (c u) ⇥ v = u ⇥ (c v)
u⇥0=0⇥u=0
u⇥u=0
u · (v ⇥ w) = (u ⇥ v) · w

u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) w = (w1 , w2 , w3 )

i j k
u · (v ⇥ w) = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) · v1 v2 v3 =
w1 w2 w3
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) · (v2 w3 v3 w2 , v3 w1 v1 w3 , v1 w2 v2 w1 ) =
u1 (v2 w3 v3 w2 ) + u2 (v3 w1 v1 w3 ) + u3 (v1 w2 v2 w1 ) =
u 1 v 2 w 3 u1 v 3 w 2 + u2 v 3 w 1 u 2 v 1 w 3 + u3 v 1 w 2 u3 v 2 w 1

i j k
(u ⇥ v) · w = u1 u2 u3 · (w1 , w2 , w3 ) =
v1 v2 v3
(u2 v3 u3 v2 , u3 v1 u1 v3 , u1 v2 u2 v1 ) · (w1 , w2 , w3 ) =
(u2 v3 u3 v2 )w1 + (u3 v1 u1 v3 )w2 + (u1 v2 u2 v1 )w3 =
u 2 v 3 w 1 u3 v 2 w 1 + u3 v 1 w 2 u 1 v 3 w 2 + u1 v 2 w 3 u2 v 1 w 3

u⇥v u v
ku ⇥ vk = kukkvk sen ✓ ✓
u⇥v =0 u = kv k
ku ⇥ vk u v
 u v w 2 R3

[u, v, w] = u · (v ⇥ w) (u ⇥ v) · w

[ , , ] !

u1 u2 u3
[u, v, w] = v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3

u = (1, 2, 3) v = ( 1, 1, 1) w = (2, 3, 0)

1 2 3
[u, v, w] = 1 1 1 =0+4+9 (6 3 + 0) = 10
2 3 0

u v w

v
u
 {u = (1, 1), v = (1, 2)}
u v v u

u 6= kv k2R

{u = ( 1, 7, 2), v = (1, 1, 1), w = ( 1, 3, 1)}

u v w

u = v + 2w : (1, 1, 1) + 2( 1, 3, 1) = ( 1, 7, 2)

{v1 , v2 , . . . , n}
0

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + · · · + an vn = 0 =) ai = 0, i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

✓ u v
u·v
cos ✓ =
kukkvk

✓ 2 [0, ⇡]

v = 2⇡ ✓
✓
cos ✓ = cos
 c 2 = a2 + b 2 2ab cos ✓
✓ c

u v u v

ku vk2 = kuk2 + kvk2 2kukkvk cos ✓

ku vk2 = (u v) · (u v) = kuk2 + kvk2 2u · v

2kukkvk cos ✓ = 2u · v

u·v
cos ✓ =
kukkvk

u · v = kukkvk cos ✓

⇡
✓= 2
cos(⇡/2) = 0
u v
u·v =0
v = (a, b) u

u = (b, a)

v · u = (a, b) · (b, a) = ab ab = 0 =)

v = (1, 2)
⇡

u = kv
k>0 u v k<0
⇡

u = kv ⇡

0
 u v u
u = w1 + w2

w1 v w1 = kv
w2 v w2 · v = 0
u

w2

v
w1

w1 v u v

w1 = vu

u v

⇡/2
w1 v
u
w2

v
w1

u v
v

v
vu

w2 u v
 ✓ ◆
u·v
vu = v
kvk2

w1 = vu w1 v
k2R w1 = kv

u = w1 + w2 = kv + w2

u · v = (kv + w2 ) · v
u · v = kv · v + w2 · v

w2 v w2 · v = 0

u · v = kv · v
u · v = kkvk2

k
u·v
k=
kvk2
k
✓ ◆
u·v
vu = w1 = kv = v
kvk2

|u · v|
k v uk =
kvk

w1 w2

w2 = u w1

u · v/kvk u v

u v kuk cos ✓
✓

u = (1, 2) v = (3, 4)
 v
p
(1, 2) · (3, 4) = 11, k(3, 4)k = 25 = 5
u · v/kvk = 11/5
v
11 (3, 4) 11
vu = = (3, 4)
5 5 25

v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )
v ↵ v
i j k
v·i (v1 , v2 , v3 ) · (1, 0, 0) v1 v2 v3
cos ↵ = = = , cos = , cos =
kvkkik kvk 1 kvk kvk kvk

k
v

j
↵
i

v kvk = 1

cos ↵ = v1 , cos = v2 , cos = v3

v = (cos ↵, cos , cos )

cos2 ↵ + cos2 + cos2 = 1.

v = (1, 2, 3)
v
p p
kvk = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14

1 2 3
cos ↵ = p , cos =p , cos =p
14 14 14
 R R
R ⇥ R = R2

P = (a, b)

R2
R3

v
Q
v
P
u u+v

Q
M
P

M = P + 12 P~Q

P = (p1 , p2 ) Q = (q1 , q2 )
P~Q = Q
P = (q1 p1 , q2 p2 )
M P P~Q
✓ ◆
1 ~ 1 1 1
M = P + P Q = (p1 , p2 ) + (q1 p1 , q2 p2 ) = p1 + (q1 p1 ), p2 + (q2 p2 ) =
2 2 2 2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2p1 + q1 p1 2p2 + q2 p2 p 1 + q1 p 2 + q 2
= , = ,
2 2 2 2

P0 v
 P P0
v P0 + t v t2R
v

P0 = (x0 , y0 ) v = (v1 , v2 )

R = {P 2 R2 : P = P0 + t v, t 2 R}

R = {(x, y) 2 R2 : (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + t (v1 , v2 ), t 2 R}

P = P0 + t v () (x, y) = (x0 , y0 ) + t(v1 , v2 )

P0 = (1, 2)
v = ( 1, 4)

P = P0 + tv
(x, y) = (1, 2) + t ( 1, 4)

P0 = (x0 , y0 ) v = (v1 , v2 )

(
x = x 0 + t v1
y = y 0 + t v2

(
x=1 t
y = 2 + 4t
 t
x x0 y y0
=
v1 v2

t
y 2
t=1 x t= 4
t
y 2
1 x=
4

x 1 y 2
=
1 4
( 1, 4)

x 2 y 3
= () 4(x 2) = 0(y 3) () x=2
0 4

(x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y1 )
(x1 x0 , y 1 y0 )
x x0 y y0
=
x1 x0 y1 y0

(1, 2) (4, 3)
v = (4 1, 3 ( 2)) = (3, 5)
x 1 y+2
=
3 5

x y

ax + by + c = 0
 a b
n

n = (a, b) ? v

(a, b)

y 2
1 x= =) 4(1 x) = y 2 =) 4 4x = y 2
4
4x + y 6=0
(4, 1) ( 1, 4)

y = mx + k

v2
(v1 , v2 ) m = v1

20
20 m= 100
= 0,2 = 20 %
100
 b
b m = tan ↵ = a
↵
a

m (x0 , y0 )

y y0 = m(x x0 )

x x x0
y y y0 (0, 0)
(x0 , y0 )

y = 2x
y 1 = 2(x 3)
(3, 1)

P0 = ( 1, 3)
v = (1, 2)

R1 R2
 R1 R2

R1
R2

R1 : 2x + 3y 6=0 R2 : x + 2y 1=0

n1 = (2, 3) n2 = ( 1, 2)

(x, y)

9 8
,
7 7

R Q = (x0 , y0 )
Q R Q
ax + by + c = 0

|ax0 + by0 + c|
(Q, R) = p
a2 + b 2
R Q

P = (x, y)
P~Q

n
~
nP Q

Q
P

R
 Q

~ |P~Q · n|
(Q, R) = k n P Qk =
knk
p
n = (a, b) knk = a2 + b 2

P~Q · n = (x0 x, y0 y) · (a, b) = ax0 + by0 ax by

P = (x, y)
ax + by + c = 0 ax by = c

P~Q · n = ax0 + by0 + c

|P~Q · n| |ax0 + by0 + c|

(Q, R) = = p
knk a2 + b2

R P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )

R = {P 2 R3 : P = P0 + tv, t 2 R}

R = {(x, y, z) 2 R3 : (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(v1 , v2 , v3 ), t 2 R}

P = P0 + tv () (x, y, z) = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) + t(v1 , v2 , v3 )

8
>
<x = x0 + tv1
y = y0 + tv2
>
:
z = z0 + tv3
 P0 = (1, 2, 0)
v = (2, 1, 3)
8
>
<x = 1 + 2t
y=2 t
>
:
z = 3t

P =
(1, 2, 3) Q = (3, 2, 1)

v = P~Q = Q P = (3, 2, 1) (1, 2, 3) = (2, 0, 2).

v
u= = (1, 0, 1)
2

P Q
P 8
>
<x = 1 + t
y=2
>
:
z=3 t

t
8 8
x x0
>
<x = x0 + tv1 >
<t = v1
y y0 x x0 y y0 z z0
y = y0 + tv2 =) t = =) = =
>
: >
:
v2
z z0
v1 v2 v3
z = z0 + tv3 t= v3

P =
(1, 3, 1) v = (1, 2, 7)

x 1 y 3 z ( 1) 3 y z+1
= = () x 1= =
1 2 7 2 7
 x 2 y 4 z 6
= =
3 5 7
P = (2, 4, 6) v = (3, 5, 7)

x+2 4 y 2z 1
= =
3 5 7

1
x ( 2) y 4 z 2
= = 7
3 5 2

P = 2, 4, 12 v = 3, 5, 72

x+2 2 3y
= = 2z + 1
3 5

P = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
Q = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) v = P~Q = (x1 x 0 , y1 y0 , z1 z 0 )
x x0 y y0 z z0
= =
x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0
 x 1 y 3 z 5
= =
2 4 3

x 1 y 3
=
2 4
4(x 1) = 2(y 3)
2(x 1) = y 3
2x 2 y+3=0
2x y+1=0

x 1 z 5
=
2 3
3(x 1) = 2(z 5)
3x 3 2z + 10 = 0
3x 2z + 7 = 0

(
2x y+1=0
3x 2z + 7 = 0

(
2x y+1=0
3x 2z + 7 = 0

x x=0 y z
(
2x y + 1 = 0
=) y + 1 = 0 =) y = 1
x=0
(
3x 2z + 7 = 0 7
=) 2z + 7 = 0 =) z =
x=0 2
 P = 0, 1, 72 x

R1 R2 v1 v2
P 2 R1 Q 2 R2

v1 = kv2 P 2 R2

v1 = kv2 P 2
/ R2

v1 v2
P~Q

[v1 , v2 , P~Q] = 0

v1 v2
P~Q

[v1 , v2 , P~Q] 6= 0

R2

(
x 1 y 2
R1 : 2
= 3
= z
x 2 y+1 z 2
R2 : 4
= 6
= 2
 R1 P = (1, 2, 0) v1 = (2, 3, 1)
R2 Q = (2, 1, 2) v2 = ( 4, 6, 2)
v2 = 2v1
P P = (1, 2, 0)
R2
1 2 2+1 0 2 1 1
= = () = = 1
4 6 2 4 2
P 2
/ R2

(
R1 : x 2 1 = y 3 2 = z
R2 : x 2 = y+1 3
= z22

R1 P = (1, 2, 0) v1 = (2, 3, 1)
R2 Q = (2, 1, 2) v2 = (1, 3, 2)
v2 6= kv1
P~Q

P~Q = (2, 1, 2) (1, 2, 0) = (1, 3, 2)

2 3 1
[v1 , v2 , P~Q] = 1 3 2 = 30 6= 0.
1 3 2

Q R

P 2R P~Q
D Q

D = kP~Qk sen ✓,
 ✓ P~Q v
Q

D = kP~Qk sen ✓
P ✓
v R

kv ⇥ P~Qk = kvkkP~Qk sen ✓

kvk
kv ⇥ P~Qk
D = kP~Qk sen ✓ =
kvk

Q = (1, 2, 3)
z
x 1=y 2=
2
v = (1, 1, 2) P = (1, 2, 0)
P~Q = (0, 0, 3)
i j k
v ⇥ P~Q = 1 1 2 = (3, 3, 0)
0 0 3

p
kv ⇥ P~Qk k(3, 3, 0)k 18 p
D= = = p = 3
kvk k(1, 1, 2)k 6

P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 )
u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )

P
P0
P = P0 + su + tv
t, s 2 R
 8
>
<x = x0 + su1 + tv1
y = y0 + su2 + tv2
>
:
z = z0 + su3 + tv3

⇧
P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) n = (a, b, c)

P0

u v ⇧

n=u⇥v

!
P = (x, y, z) 2 ⇧ P0 P n
!
P0 P · n = 0

(x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ) · (a, b, c) = 0
a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + c(z z0 ) = 0

P0
P

ax + by + cz + d = 0
 a b c n = (a, b, c)

2x + 3y + z + 2 = 0

P = (1, 2, 3)
n = (3, 2, 4)

a(x x0 ) + b(y y0 ) + c(z z0 ) = 0

3(x 1) 2(y 2) + 4(z 3) = 0

3x 3 2y + 4 + 4z 12 = 0 =) 3x 2y + 4z 11 = 0

n n 1

⇧1 ⇧2

⇧1
⇧2

⇧1
⇧2

⇧ Q Q ⇧
Q ⇧

Q
 ⇧ : ax + by + cz + d = 0 Q = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 R3
P = (x, y, z) 2 ⇧ ⇧
Q ~
P Q = (x0 x, y0 y, z0 z)

Q
~
nP Q

Q ⇧
P~Q n = (a, b, c)

~ |P~Q · n|
D=k n P Qk =
knk

|a(x0 x) + b(y0 y) + c(z0 z)|

D= p
a2 + b2 + c2
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 (ax + by + cz)|
D= p
a2 + b2 + c2
P = (x, y, z)

ax + by + cz + d = 0 =) ax + by + cz = d

|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|

D= p
a2 + b2 + c2

Q = (1, 2, 4) ⇧ : 2x y + 3z 7=0
p
|2 · 1 2 + 3 · 4 7| 5 5 14
D= p =p =
22 + ( 1)2 + 32 14 14
 0 1
1 2 3 4
A = @2 3 4 5 A
3 4 5 6

n m n⇥m
A 3⇥4

i j ai,j
0 1
a1,1 a1,2 a1,3 a1,4
A = @a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 a2,4 A
a3,1 a3,2 a3,3 a3,4

A = (ai,j )

a1,3 a2,1
a3,1
✓ ◆
1 2 3 4
A=
5 6 7 8

a1,1 a2,2 a3,3

0 1 0 1
✓ ◆ 1 7 1 8 3
1 2 3 4 @ 2 6A @5 6 7A
5 6 7 8
0 1 9 4 3
 0 0
✓ ◆
0 0
0=
0 0

v= 1 7 2

0 1
1
v = 3A
@
0

n⇥n

i, j ai,j + bi,j
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
a1,1 a1,2 a1,3 b1,1 b1,2 b1,3 a1,1 + b1,1 a1,2 + b1,2 a1,3 + b1,3
+ =
a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 b2,1 b2,2 b2,3 a2,1 + b2,1 a2,2 + b2,2 a2,3 + b2,3

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 3 3 7 2 1+3 2+7 3 2 4 9 1
+ = =
4 5 6 4 0 1 4+4 5+0 6+1 8 5 7

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 6 4 3 3 2
+ =
2 1 2 6 10 1

0 1 0 1
3 6 3 3
@ 2 7A + @ 6 9 A=
1 8 1 2

0 1
3
@ 3A + 3 6 2 =
8
 2R A = (ai,j ) A
( ai,j )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
a1,1 a1,2 a1,3 a1,1 a1,2 a1,3
=
a2,1 a2,2 a2,3 a2,1 a2,2 a2,3

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 2 7·3 7·2 21 14
7 = =
1 2 7 · 1 7 · ( 2) 7 14

A 1

A = ( 1)A

A B = A + ( B)

n⇥m

A B C
a, b 2 R

A+B =B+A

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

A+0=A

A + ( A) = 0

a(bA) = (ab)A

(a + b)A = aA + bA

a(A + B) = aA + aB

1(A) = A 0(A) = 0
 0 1
b1
B b2 C X
n
B C
a1 a2 . . . an B C= ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn
@ A i=1
bn

0 1
7
B5 C
2 4 6 8 B C
@3A = 2 · 7 + 4 · 5 + 6 · 3 + 8 · 1 = 14 + 20 + 18 + 8 = 60
1

A B
A B A
n⇥m B m⇥l
n⇥l

AB (i, j)
i A j B

A B
0 1
1 2 ✓ ◆
0 1
A = @3 4 A B=
2 1
6 7

A 3⇥2 B 2⇥2 AB
3⇥2 (1, 1) A
B ✓ ◆
0
1 2 = 1 · 0 + 2 · 2 = 4,
2
(1, 2) A B
✓ ◆
1
1 2 = 1 · 1 + 2 · ( 1) = 1,
1
 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 2 ✓ ◆ 1 · 0 + 2 · 2 1 · 1 + 2 · ( 1) 4 1
@3 4 A 0 1
= @3 · 0 + 4 · 2 3 · 1 + 4 · ( 1)A = @ 8 1A
2 1
6 7 6 · 0 + 7 · 2 6 · 1 + 7 · ( 1) 14 1

0 10 1
✓ ◆✓ ◆ 2 2 0 3 4 5
2 1 3 4 @4 3 4 A @6 7 2A
4 3 6 7
1 1 2 0 1 3
0 1
2 0 1 0 1
✓ ◆ 1 2 ✓ ◆ 3 4
B4C 0 1 @ 4 0 3 @
B C 3 4 1 2 3 4A 1 0A
@1A 2 1 6 7 1
6 7 5 2
1

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 1 0 5 4 1 0 1 2 1 2
= = .
3 4 3 2 9 8 3 2 3 4 9 14

(AB)C = A(BC)
(A + B)C = AC + BC, A(B + C) = AB + AC
(↵A)B = A(↵B) = ↵(AB)

( ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ax + by = e a b x e
() = () AX = B
cx + dy = f c d y f

A X B

8
>
<2x + y z = 1
x+y = 1
>
:
3y z = 3
 2⇥2

a b
= ad bc
c d

1 2 5 2
=4 6= 2, = 20 ( 4) = 24
3 4 2 4

3⇥3

1 2 3
3 4 5 = 8 + 10 9 (12 5 + 12) = 9 19 = 10
1 1 2

I
0 1
✓ ◆ 1 0 0
1 0
I= I = @0 1 0A
0 1
0 0 1

A
A
AI = A, IA = A

0 10 1 0 1
1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3
@4 5 6A @0 1 0A = @4 5 6A
7 8 9 0 0 1 7 8 9

v v
Iv = v

R
 A
1 1 1 1
A AA =A A=I A A

1
AA = I () A 1 A = I

1 1
A =A

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 2 1 1 0
3 1 =
3 4 2 2
0 1

✓ ◆
1 2 1 2
A= |A| = =4 4=0
2 4 2 4

A 6= 0
AB = 0
B B

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 2 2 0 0
=
2 4 1 1 0 0

R
a, b 2 R ab = 0
 ( ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ax + by = e a b x e
() =
cx + dy = f c d y f

✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆
a b a b x a b e
=
c d c d y c d f
| {z }
I

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 1 ✓ ◆
x a b e
=
y c d f

1 1
AX = B =) A
| {zA} X = A B =) X = A 1B
I

ax = b a a
1 1 b
ax = b =) ax = b =) x=
a a a

A T

0 1
✓ ◆ 1 4
1 2 3
A= , AT = @2 5A .
4 5 6
3 6

T
AT =A
 ✓ ◆
T a
v= a b () v =
b

(AB)T = B T AT

A = ( 13 24 )
v = ( 56 )
✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆T ✓ ◆T
T 1 2 5 17
(Av) = = = 17 39
3 4 6 39
✓ ◆T ✓ ◆T ✓ ◆
T T 5 1 2 1 3
v A = = 5 6 = 17 39
6 3 4 2 4

A A = AT

0 1
✓ ◆ 1 4 2 ✓ ◆
1 2 @4 2 0 0
, 7 A, .
2 3 0 0
2 7 3

ai,j i
j aj,i j i

A
1 T
A A

1
A AT AAT = I
 p ! ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 3
p2 2
1 0 1 0
, , .
3 1 0 1 0 1
2 2

0 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 1 0 0 ✓ ◆
7 0 0 0 @0 2 0 A , 0 0
, , .
0 5 0 4 0 0
0 0 3

0 12 0 2 1
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 2 0 0 2 0 0
2 0 4 0 2·4 0 @0 3 0 A = @ 0 3 2 0 A
=
0 3 0 5 0 3·5
0 0 4 0 0 42

A v
A 2R

Av = v.

A v
 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 2
A= v=
3 4 1

Av
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 2 4
= = 2v
3 4 1 2

v A 2

n⇥n n

v
A v

A(kv) = kAv = k v = (kv) =) kv

|A I| = 0

I
A v 6= 0
Av = v

Av Iv = 0

(A I)v = 0.

A I
1
(A I)

(A I) 1 (A I)v = (A I) 1 0

Iv = 0
v=0
v Av I

|A I| = 0
A I
(A I)v = 0
v 6= 0
Av = v
|A I| = 0
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x 0
(A I) =
y 0

x y
(0, 0)

✓ ◆
4 2
A=
3 1

A
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 0 0
I= =
0 1 0

✓ ◆
4 2
A I=
3 1

4 2 2
=( 4 )(1 ) 6= +3 10 = 0.
3 1

p p (
3± 32 + 4 · 10 3 ± 49 3±7 1 =2
= = = =
2 2 2 2 = 5

ax2 + bx + c = 0 c
b 2 · ( 5) = 10 2 + ( 5) = 3
a=1

A
(x, y)

1 =2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
4 2 2 6 2
A 2I = =
3 1 2 3 1

0
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
6 2 x 0
=
3 1 y 0
 6x + 2y = 0
3x y = 0
2

3x y = 0 =) 3x = y
3x = y
x x=1 y=3
✓ ◆
1
v1 =
3

2 = 5
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
4+5 2 1 2
A ( 5)I = =
3 1+5 3 6

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 x 0
=
3 6 y 0
x + 2y = 0
3x + 6y = 0

x= 2y

2 x= 2y
y
✓ ◆
2
v2 =
1

✓ ◆
4 0
3 2

✓ ◆
1 2
2 5
 0 1
3 2 1
A = @0 1 2A
0 0 5

1 = 3, v1 = (1, 0, 0)T , 2 = 1, v2 = (1, 2, 0)T , 3 = 5, v3 = (5, 2, 6)T .

A
|A I| A

A
D P
1
A = P DP

P
AP = P D

A = ( 13 02 )
D= ( 10 02 ) P = ( 13 01 )
✓ ◆✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
P DP = = =A
3 1 0 2 3 1 3 2

n n

( 10 11 )
2⇥2

1 1
= (1 )2 = 0 =) =1
0 1

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ (
0 1 x 0 0x + y = 0
= () () y = 0
0 0 y 0 0x + 0y = 0

v = (1, 0)
 n⇥n n n

( 23 1
1)

p
2 1 2 1± 21
= (2 )( 1 ) 3= 5 = 0 =) =
3 1 2

( 01 1
0 )

✓ ◆
2 1
A=
2 3
1
D P A = P DP

2 1 2
= (2 )(3 ) 2= 5 +4=0
2 3
p (
5± 25 16 1 =4
= =
2 2 =1

1 =4
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 1 x 0
A 4I : =
2 1 y 0
✓ ◆
2x + y = 0 1
() 2x = y v1 =
2x y = 0 2
 2 =1
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 1 x 0
A I: =
2 2 y 0
✓ ◆
x+y =0 1
() x = y v2 =
2x + 2y = 0 1
D
✓ ◆
4 0
D=
0 1
P A
D
✓ ◆
1 1
P =
2 1

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 0 1 1
D= P =
0 4 1 2

A=
1
P DP AP = P D

✓ ◆
3 2
A=
1 0

A
P

A = P DP T

2⇥2
P

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
a b a b
v1 = =) v2 = =) P =
b a b a
 2⇥2 P
↵

✓ ◆
cos ↵ sen ↵
G↵ =
sen ↵ cos ↵

P
P G↵ ↵2
[0, ⇡2 ] ✓ ◆
4 2
A=
2 1

(
4 2 2 1 =0
= (4 )(1 ) 4= 5 = ( 5) = 0 =)
2 1 2 =5

=0 1
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
4 2 x 0 1
= () 2x = y =) v1 =
2 1 y 0 2
P
v1
! p ✓ ◆
p p v1 p1 5 1
5
kv1 k = ( 1)2 + 22 = 5 u1 = = p2
=
kv1 k 5 5 2

u1 v1

p ✓ ◆
5 2
u2 =
5 1
D P 1 2
2 1 D P
✓ ◆ p ✓ ◆
5 0 5 2 1
D= P =
0 0 5 1 2

P
↵ cos ↵ sen ↵
P
(+
+ +) P
✓ ◆
cos ↵ sen ↵
P = G↵ =
sen ↵ cos ↵
 p p
2 5 5
↵ = arc cos ↵ = arc sen .
5 5

A = P DP T

P
⇡
G↵ ↵ 2 [0, 2
]
✓ p ◆
1
p 6
A=
6 2

(x, y) x y

x P = (x, y)

u
v P x y
u, v

(
u=x+1
v = 2y
 P (x, y) = (3, 1)
(u, v) = (4, 2)

y v
P
P

x u

u, v
(
u = x2
v = y2

( (
u=x+1 x=u 1
()
v = 2y y = v2

(
u=x+y
v=x y

x, y
u, v x, y
 x 3y 1=0
u, v
(
u = x 2y
v =x+y

x, y u, v
x x = u + 2y
v = u + 2y + y = u + 3y
v u
y 3y = v u ! y= 3

x x = u + 2 v 3u = 3u+2v 2u
3
= u+2v
3
(
x = u+2v
3
y = v 3u
x, y

x 3y 1 = 0
u + 2v v u
3 1=0
3 3
u + 2v 3v + 3u 3
=0
3
u + 2v 3v + 3u 3 = 0
4u v 3=0

( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u = ax + by + e u a b x e
() = +
v = cx + dy + f v c d y f

3
 (0, 0) (1, 0)
(0, 1) ( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u = 3x 2y 1 u 3 2 x 1
() = +
v = 4x + y + 2 v 4 1 y 2
y v

x u

0,5
5 2,5

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 1 ✓✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
u a b x e x a b u e
= + () =
v c d y f y c d v f

w = (x0 , y0 ) w
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u = x + x0 u x x0
() = +
v = y + y0 v y y0
 w w = (2, 1)
y v

x u

w
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x=u x0 x u x0
() =
y=v y0 y v y0

x x x0 y y y0
(x0 , y0 )

y = x2
(x0 , y0 )
y y0 = (x x0 ) 2

r, s > 0
r s
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
u = rx u r 0 x
() =
v = sy v 0 s y

r
s
 y v

x u

r=3 s=2

(0, 0)

r=s

k
2
k

1/r 1/s
( ✓ ◆ ✓1 ◆ ✓ ◆
u
x= r x 0 u
() = r 1
y= v y 0 s v
s

x
x/r y y/s
r x s y

y = x2
(0, 0)
r s
y ⇣ x ⌘2
=
s r

↵ 2 [0, 2⇡) ↵
G↵ ✓ ◆
cos ↵ sen ↵
G↵ =
sen ↵ cos ↵
 ↵ = ⇡/6
✓ ◆ ✓p ◆ ✓p ◆
cos(⇡/6) sen(⇡/6) 3/2 p1/2 1 3 p1
G⇡/6 = = =
sen(⇡/6) cos(⇡/6) 1/2 3/2 2 1 3

G⇡/2

↵
cos ↵ sen ↵
|G↵ | = = cos2 ↵ ( sen2 ↵) = 1
sen ↵ cos ↵

( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u = cos ↵ x sen ↵ y u x
() = G↵
v = sen ↵ x + cos ↵ y v y

↵
(0, 0)
y v

x u

↵ = ⇡/2 (0, 0)

↵ ↵

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
cos( ↵) sen( ↵) cos ↵ sen ↵
G ↵ = = = GT↵
sen( ↵) cos( ↵) sen ↵ cos ↵

( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x= cos ↵ u + sen ↵ v x T u
() = G↵
y= sen ↵ u + cos ↵ v y v
 x cos ↵ x + sen ↵ y y sen ↵ x + cos ↵ y
↵

↵ = ⇡/4
2
y = x (0, 0)
y= x
p p p p !2
2 2 2 2
x+ y= x+ y
2 2 2 2

p p
x2 + 2xy + y 2 + 2x 2y = 0

x y
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
u=x u 1 0 x
() =
v= y v 0 1 y

y x
( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
u= x u 1 0 x
() =
v=y v 0 1 y

y v

x u

1
 180

( ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
x= u x 1 0 u
() =
y=v y 0 1 v

x
x y
y y x

y y y = x2

y = x2 () y= x2

2⇥2

A v1 v2
1 2

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u x
=A
v y

1 2 v1 v2
 ↵ P0 = (x0 , y0 )
P = (x, y) P0
P0 ↵ P0

P ! P P0 ! G↵ (P P0 ) ! G↵ (P P 0 ) + P0
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
u cos ↵ sen ↵ x x0 x0 cos ↵(x x0 ) sen ↵(y y0 ) + x0
= + =
v sen ↵ cos ↵ y y0 y0 sen ↵(x x0 ) + cos ↵(y y0 ) + y0

(x, y) (x, y, 1)
0 1 0 10 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ u 1 0 x0 x
u x x0
= + () @v A = @0 1 y0 A @y A
v y y0
1 0 0 1 1

0 1 0 10 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ u r 0 0 x
u r 0 x
= () @v A = @0 s 0A @y A
v 0 s y
1 0 0 1 1

4⇥4
 P r
P O = (0, 0) ✓
~
OP
y

P
r
✓
x

(r, ✓) P
r

✓ x

r ✓

r ✓

(r, ✓) = (2, ⇡/4)

y ✓

p
2
⇡
2

4
⇡
4
p x r
2 2

(r, ✓) = (3, ⇡/6) (r, ✓) = (1, ⇡).

 r ✓
⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
(r, ✓) = (1, 2
) (r, ✓) = (1, 2
) (r, ✓) = ( 1, 2
)

r=0
✓
(x, y) = (0, 0)

r 0
✓ 2 [0, 2⇡)

(
x = r cos ✓
y = r sen ✓

( p
r = x2 + y 2
✓ = arctan xy

✓
⇡

(x, y) = (1, 0), (x, y) = (4, 3), (x, y) = (0, 2), (x, y) = ( 1, 1).

P = (x, y) (x, y)
= k(x, y)k

C (0, 0) R
R
C = {(x, y) 2 R2 : k(x, y)k = R}

k(x, y)k = R () k(x, y)k2 = R2 () x2 + y 2 = R2

 R (0, 0)

(0, 0)
y

x2 + y 2 = 4 x
2

P = (x0 , y0 ) Q = (x, y)

P kP~Qk = k(x x0 , y y0 )k

R P = (x0 , y0 )
P R

{(x, y) 2 R2 : k(x x0 , y y0 )k = R}

k(x x0 , y y0 )k = R () k(x x0 , y y0 )k2 = R2 () (x x0 )2 + (y y0 ) 2 = R 2

R (x0 , y0 )

x x x0 y y y0
(x0 , y0 )

R=1
(3, 2)
x2 + y 2 = 1
(x, y) (x 3, y 2)
y
3
(x 3)2 + (y 2)2 = 1 2
1
x
1 2 3 4

x2 + y 2 6x 4y + 12 = 0
( 1, 0)

2(x + 1)2 + 2(y + 2)2 = 1

x2 + y 2 = R 2 y = ax

x y

x = r cos ✓ y = r sen ✓

y = ax

sen ✓
y = ax =) r sen ✓ = ar cos ✓ =) = a =) tan ✓ = a =) ✓ = arctan a
cos ✓
✓ a arctan
⇡

✓ = arctan a + k⇡, k2Z

✓ 2 [0, 2⇡)
a arctan a arctan a+⇡
✓ = arctan a
r>0

y ✓

y = ax ✓ = arctan a + ⇡

✓ = arctan a
x r
 ✓ = arctan a
✓ = arctan a + ⇡
r=0 (0, 0)

x2 + y 2 = R 2

x2 + y 2 = R2 =) (r cos ✓)2 + (r sen ✓)2 = R2 =) r2 (cos2 ✓ + sen2 ✓) = R2

cos2 ✓ + sen2 ✓ = 1
r2 = R2 =) r = ±R
r>0
r=R

y 2⇡

x r
R R

{(x, y) 2 R2 : 1  x2 + y 2  4, y > 0}
y>0
⇡ ✓ 2 (0, ⇡)
r 2 [1, 2]
y ✓
2⇡

x r
1 2 1 2

(r, ✓, z)
 (x, y, z) XY
(x, y, 0) z
z y
(x, y, 0)
(x, y, z)
y x

x (x, y, 0)

r z

XY
z

y
r
x

✓ x
z

y
✓
x

z z

r 0 ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡)

8
>
<x = r cos ✓
y = r sen ✓
>
:
z=z
(r, ✓, z) = (2, 5⇡/6, 3)
5⇡ p 5⇡
x = 2 cos = 3, y = 2 sen = 1, z=3
6 6
p
(x, y, z) = ( 3, 1, 3)

r, ✓ z
8 p
>
< r = x2 + y 2
✓ = arctan xy
>
:
z=z

(x, y, z) = ( 2, 2, 4)
p p p
r= ( 2)2 + 22 = 8 = 2 2
z r
( 2, 2, 0)
2 ⇡
✓ = arctan = arctan( 1) =
2 4
⇡
4
✓
⇡
⇡ 3⇡
✓= +⇡ =
4 4
z z=4
✓ ◆
p 3⇡
(r, ✓, z) = 2 2, ,4
4

R h XY
z XY
R

r
z R
 ✓
2⇡

z
h

r 2 [0, R], ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡), z 2 [0, h]

z 0

{(x, y, z) 2 R3 : x  0, y 0, 1  z  2, 2  x2 + y 2  3}

(⇢, ✓, )

⇢
(x, y, z)

⇢
y

✓ ✓
 XY x
z

y
✓
x

z
z

⇢ 0, ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡), 2 [0, ⇡]

✓
x XZ

=0 =⇡
900 900
⇢

8
>
<x = ⇢ sen cos ✓
y = ⇢ sen sen ✓
>
:
z = ⇢ cos
 r
⇢

r = ⇢ sen

x y

(⇢, ✓, ) = (3, ⇡/3, ⇡/4)

p p
⇡ ⇡ 21 3 2
x = 3 sen cos = 3 =
4 3 2 2 4
p p p
⇡ ⇡ 2 3 3 6
y = 3 sen sen = 3 =
4 3 2 2 4
p
⇡ 3 2
z = 3 cos =
4 2
p
r r = 3 sen(⇡/4) = 3 2/2

8 p
>
> ⇢ = x2 + y 2 + z 2
<
✓ = arctan xy
>
>
: = arc cos p 2 z 2
x +y +z 2

⇢ ✓

⇢ 2 [0, R], ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡), 2 [0, ⇡]

 F

p=

P
P
P
 P

p2R (0, p)
y= p

x2 = 4py

p p>0
p<0 p=0

(p, 0)
x= p
y 2 = 4px

(0, 0)
(x0 , y0 )
x x x0 y y y0

(x x0 )2 = 4p(y y0 ) (y y0 )2 = 4p(x x0 )

(x0 , y0 )
p

(x0 , y0 + p)

(x0 + p, y0 )

(y 1)2 = 8(x 2)
 (2, 1) y =1
4p
8
4p = 8 p= 4
=2 p
(4, 1)

(1, 2) (1, 5)
x=1

p=5 ( 2) = 7 (0, 0)
2
x = 4 · 7y (1, 2)

(x 1)2 = 28(y + 2)

p=7 y= 9

y = x2

(0, p)
y= p
x2 = 4py

(x, y)

(x, p)
p
= k(x, y) (0, p)k = x2 + (y p)2

p
= k(x, y) (x, p)k = (y + p)2 = |y + p|

p
x2 + (y p)2 = |y + p| () x2 + (y p)2 = (y + p)2

x2 + y 2 + p2 2py = y 2 + p2 + 2py

x2 = 4py
 ax2 + bx + c,

ax2 bx
c

a(x ↵)2 + .

(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2

x2 + 8x + 5
x2 + 8x
A B A2
2
x 2AB 8x A=x B=4

(x + 4)2 = x2 + 8x + 42

42

(x + 4)2 42 = x2 + 8x

x2 + 8x + 5 = (x + 4)2 42 + 5 = (x + 4)2 11

x2 6x + 1

x2 6x + 1 = (x 3)2 32 + 1 = (x 3)2 8.

x2 5x + 9
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆ 2 ✓ ◆2
2 5 5 5 11
x 5x + 9 = x +9= x + .
2 2 2 4

2x2 + 12x + 21
 1

2x2 + 12x + 21 = 2(x2 + 6x) + 21 = 2 (x + 3)2 32 + 21 = 2(x + 3)2 + 3.

3x2 2x + 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2 ! ✓ ◆2
2 2 2 1 1 1 2
3x 2x + 1 = 3 x x +1=3 x +1=3 x +
3 3 9 3 3

x2 + 6x + 1

x2 5x + 2

2x2 + 4x 3

p
b± b2 4ac
x=
2a

y2 8x 4y + 4 = 0
y

y2 4y 8x + 4 = 0 () (y 2)2 4 8x + 4 = 0 () (y 2)2 = 8x.

y
p
p=2
(y 2)2 = 4 · 2x
(0, 2)
p (0 + p, 2)

(0, 2) (2, 2)
 F2 F1

a
b
c

b=

c= a=

a>b
p
c= a2 b2

c
e=
a
 e
e=0 e=1

P
P

a b
(0, 0)
⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ =1
a b
a b
⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ =1
b a

a b
(u, v)
(
u = ax
v = by

x = u/a y = v/b
⇣ u ⌘2 ⇣ v ⌘2
x2 + y 2 = 1 =) + =1
a b

(x0 , y0 )

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x x0 y y0 x x0 y y0
+ =1 + =1
a b b a
 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x 2 y+5
+ =1
3 4
x 5 y

(2, 5)

y
p p p
a=4 b=3 c= a2 b2 = 16 9= 7

a c
y
( ( p
(2, 1) ⇣ p ⌘ 2, 5 + 7
(2, 5 ± 4) = 2, 5 ± 7 = p
(2, 9) 2, 5 7

x2 + 9y 2 + 2x 36y + 28 = 0

9x2 + 2y 2 12y = 0

2a

2a
2a
V

a
c c F1 V
F2 0

V =a c
V =a+c
=a c + a + c = 2a
a 2a
(0, 0)
(x, y)
(c, 0)
( c, 0)
p
= k(x, y) (c, 0)k = (x c)2 + y 2
p
= k(x, y) ( c, 0)k = (x + c)2 + y 2

2a
p p
(x c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a

p p
(x c)2 + y 2 = 2a
(x + c)2 + y 2
p
(x c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 + (x + c)2 + y 2 4a (x + c)2 + y 2
y2

p
x2 + c2 2xc = 4a2 + x2 + c2 + 2xc 4a (x + c)2 + y 2
p
0 = 4a2 + 4xc 4a (x + c)2 + y 2
4a
p xc
(x + c)2 + y 2 = a +
a

x2 c2
(x + c)2 + y 2 = a2 + + 2xc
a2

x2 c2
x2 + c2 + 2xc + y 2 = a2 + + 2xc
a2
x2 c2
x 2 + c 2 + y 2 = a2 + 2
a
x2
✓ ◆
2 c2
x 1 + y 2 = a2 c2
a2
✓ ◆
2 a2 c2
x + y 2 = a2 c2
a2
a2 c 2 = b2 a b c
✓ 2
◆
b
x2 + y 2 = b2
a2
b2
x2 y 2 ⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ 2 = 1 () + =1
a2 b a b
a
c
p
b c2 a2

b=

c= a=

a c
c>a
 c 2 = a2 b2 c 2 = a2 + b 2

2b

c
e=
a
c>a e>1

(0, 0)
⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
=1
a b

a b
⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ =1
b a

a b

(x0 , y0 )

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x x0 y y0 x x0 y y0
=1 + =1
a b b a

3x2 + 12x y 2 + 11 = 0

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x 3 y+1
=1
2 3

x2 + y 2 + 2x 4y 1=0
 b
m=±
a
a
m=±
b

m (0, 0) y = mx

b a
y y0 = ± (x x0 ) y y0 = ± (x x0 )
a b

2a 2b

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x+4 y+1
=1
3 2

2x2 y 2 + 4x 2y + 2 = 0

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

B=0 B 6= 0
 ax + by + c = 0

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0,

✓ B
◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A 2
x x
x y B + D E +F =0
2
C y y

⇣ ⌘
A B/2
M= B/2 C

x2 + 6xy 2y 2 + 5x 2y 6=0
A=1 B=6 C= 2 D=5 E= 2 F = 6
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 3 x x
x y + 5 2 6=0
3 2 y y

2x2 + 3y 2 + x 4y + 1 = 0
A=2 B=0 C=3 D=1 E= 4 F =1
✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 0 x x
x y + 1 4 +1=0
0 3 y y

x y

B
A 2
d= B
2
C
 d>0!

d=0!

d<0!

(x, y)
10 1 0
A B/2 D/2 x
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = x y 1 @B/2 C E/2A @y A
D/2 E/2 F 1

4⇥4

x0 y0

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
cos ↵ sen ↵ cos ↵ sen ↵
G↵ = G ↵ =
sen ↵ cos ↵ sen ↵ cos ↵

y y0 y
G ↵ G↵

x x0 x

G↵
1
G↵ = G ↵
G↵ 1 = GT↵
⇣ ⌘
A B/2
M = B/2 C

D P M = P DP T
 D
A0 C0
P G↵
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A0 0 A0 0
D= , P = G↵ =) M = G↵ GT↵
0 C0 0 C0

(x0 , y 0 ) GT↵
✓ 0◆ ✓ ◆
x T x
= G↵
y0 y

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

◆✓ ◆ ✓ ✓ ◆ B
x A x 2
x y B + D E +F =0
2
C y y
| {z }
M

M
G↵ GT↵
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A0 0 T x T x
x y G↵ 0 G↵ + D E G↵ G↵ +F =0
0 C y | {z } y
| {z } I
M

(x, y) (x0 , y 0 )
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
A0 0 T x T x
x y G↵ G↵ + D E G↵ G↵ +F =0
| {z } 0 C0 y | {z } y
( x0 y 0 ) | ⇣{z⌘ } ( D0 E 0 ) | ⇣{z⌘ }
x0 x0
y0 y0

D0 E0
G↵

✓ ◆ ✓ 0◆ ✓ 0◆
A0 0 x x
x 0
y 0 0
+ D E 0
+ F 0 = 0.
0 C0 y 0
y0
 F0 F0 = F

x0 y 0
B 0 x0 y 0

A0 (x0 )2 + C 0 (y 0 )2 + D0 x0 + E 0 y 0 + F 0 = 0.

x y

G↵

= G↵ ·

✓ 0◆ ✓ ◆
x 1
=
y0 2

✓ ◆ ✓ 0◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
x x cos ↵ sen ↵ 1
= G↵ 0 =
y y sen ↵ cos ↵ 2

G↵
↵ G↵
P
M

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
⇣ ⌘
A B/2
M = B/2 C

A0 C0
 G↵

↵ 2 [0, ⇡/2]

A0 C0

D0 E0

D 0 E 0 = D E G↵

B0 = 0 F0 = F

A0 (x0 )2 + C 0 (y 0 )2 + D0 x0 + E 0 y 0 + F 0 = 0.

x, y x0 , y 0

P
P0

P = G↵ P 0

p p
7 x2 6 3xy + 13 y 2 12 3x 12 y + 20 = 0

p p
7 x2 6 3xy + 13 y 2 12 3x 12 y + 20 = 0.

p
B= 6 3
✓ p ◆
7p 3 3
M=
3 3 13
 M
p
7 p 3 3 2 2
= (7 )(13 ) 9·3= 20 + 91 27 = 20 + 64 = 0
3 3 13

2
p p (
20 ± ( 20)2 4 · 64 20 ± 144 1 = 16
= = = 10 ± 6 =
2 2 2 =4

A0 C0

1 = 16 M 16 I

✓ p ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ( p
9 3 3 x 0 9x 3 3y = 0
p = () p
3 3 3 y 0 3 3x 3y = 0
p
p 3
y= 3x
p
x=1 y= 3
✓ ◆
1
p
v1 =
3

v1
0 1
1
r ⇣ p ⌘2 p B C
p v1 B 2 C
kv1 k = 12 + 3 = 1 + 3 = 4 = 2 =) u1 = =B p C
kv1 k @ 3A
2

0p 1
3
B 2 C
B C
u2 = B C
@ 1 A
2
G↵
u2 A0
A0 = 2 = 4 G↵
 u1 u1
0 p3 1
1 ✓p ◆
A= 1
2 2 3 p1
G↵ = @ p
1 3 2 1 3
2 2
G↵ ↵
p
3
↵ = arc cos 2
=
⇡
6

A0 = 4 C 0 = 16
D0 E0 D0 E 0 =
D E G↵
✓p ◆ ✓p ◆
0 0
p 1 3 p1 p 3 p1
D E = 12 3 12 = 6 3 1 =
2 1 3 1 3
p p
6 3+1 3+ 3 = 24 0

B0 = 0 F 0 = 20

x y x0 y0
4 x2 + 16 y 2 24 x + 20 = 0 () x2 + 4y 2 6x + 5 = 0

✓ ◆2
2 2 2 2 x 3
(x 3) 9 + 4 y + 5 = 0 () (x 3) + 4 y = 4 () + y2 = 1
2

(3, 0) p p a=2
b=1 c= 22 1= 3

(3, 0)
(3 2, 0) = (1, 0) (3 + 2, 0) = (5, 0)
p p
(3 3, 0) (3 + 3, 0)
G↵

✓p ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓3p ◆
1 3 p1 3 3
= 2
2 1 3 0 3/2
✓p ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓1p ◆
1 3 p1 1 3
= 2
2 1 3 0 1/2
✓p ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓5p ◆
1 3 p1 5 3
= 2
2 1 3 0 5/2
 ✓p ◆✓ p ◆ ✓3 p ◆
1 3 p1 3 3 2
( 3 p1)
= 1
2 1 3 0 (3 3)
✓p ◆✓ p ◆ ✓ 32 p ◆
1 3 p1 3+ 3 (1 + p3)
= 21
2 1 3 0 2
(3 + 3)

p
x2 + 2 xy + y 2 + 16 2x + 16 = 0

7 2 1p 7 2 p p
x 15xy y + (1 2 15)x + (2 + 15)y + 24 = 0
4 2 4

r(t) =(x(t), y(t))

r(t) =(x(t), y(t), z(t))

i j k
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k.

p
r(t) =p(ln t, 1 t)
x(t) = ln t y(t) = 1 t

Dom(x) ={t 2 R : t > 0} = (0, 1)

Dom(y) ={t 2 R : 1 t 0} = {t 2 R : 1 t} = ( 1, 1]
Dom(r) = Dom(x) \ Dom(y) = (0, 1) \ ( 1, 1] = (0, 1].

r(t) = (x(t), y(t))

 r(t) = (t2 , t3 ) t 0 t2
3
t r(t)

⇣ ⌘
lı́m r(t) = lı́m t2 , lı́m t3 = (0, 0).
t!0 t!0 t!0

r(t) = (sen t, cos t) sen t cos t

r(t + h) r(t)
r 0 (t) = lı́m .
h!0 h

r(t) = (et , ln t)
⇣ ⌘ ✓ ◆
0 t 0 0 t 1
r (t) = e , (ln t) = e, .
t

p
r(t) = t2 , t3 , t

r(t) = (cosh t, senh t)

r(t) = (cos t sen t, tan t)

✓ ◆
t+1 2 2
r(t) = , sen(t ), cos (2t)
t
 r(t) = (t2 , t3 )
Z ✓Z Z ◆ ✓ ◆
2 3 t3 t4
r(t) dt = t dt, t dt = ,
3 4

r(t) = (sen t, cos t) t=0 t=⇡

Z ✓Z Z ◆ ⇣
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡⌘
r(t) dt = sen t dt, cos t dt = cos t , sen t = (2, 0).
0 0 0 0 0

2 R h(t) r(t) u(t)

( r)0 = r 0

(r + u)0 = r 0 + u0

(hr)0 = h0 r + hr 0

⇣ r ⌘0 hr 0 h0 r
=
h h2

(r · u)0 = r 0 · u + r · u0

(r h)0 = (r 0 h)h0

r r = (x, y)

( r)0 = ( (x, y))0 = ( x, y)0 = (( x)0 , ( y)0 ) = ( x0 , y 0 ) = (x0 , y 0 ) = (x, y)0 = r 0

 r
I⇢R R2 R3

r(t)
I
R
t r(I)
x

r(t) = (t2 , cos t), t 2 [0, ⇡]

x(t) = t2 y(t) = cos t

[0, ⇡]

r(0)
x(t)
x

y(t) r(⇡)
r(t)

(
x = t2
r(t) = (t2 , cos t) ()
y = cos t

8
>
<x = 2 + t
y = 3 2t
>
:
z =1+t
 r(t) = (2 + t, 3 2t, 1 + t).

8
> t
<x = e
y=2 r(t) = (et , 2, ln(t + 1)), t 2 [0, 1].
>
:
z = ln(t + 1)

t t
r(t)

r(t) = (cos t, sen t), t 2 [0, ⇡].

[0, ⇡]
t=0 t ⇡ t
t = ⇡/4
r(0) = (cos 0, sen 0) = (1, 0)
r(⇡) = (cos ⇡, sen ⇡) = ( 1, 0)
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣ p p !
⇡ ⇡⌘ 2 2
r = cos , sen = ,
4 4 4 2 2
y

r(⇡/4)

t x
0 ⇡/4 ⇡ r(⇡) r(0)

t [0, ⇡]

r(⇡/4)

x
r(⇡) r(0)
 C r(t)
C

r(t) I C

r(t)
C = {(x, y) 2 R2 : (x, y) = r(t), t 2 I}

(0, 0) (1, 1)

r(t) = (t, t) t 2 [0, 1]

r(t) = (t2 , t2 ) t 2 [0, 1]
r(t) = (sen t, sen t) t 2 [0, ⇡/2]
r(t) = (1 t, 1 t) t 2 [0, 1]
(1, 1)
(0, 0)

t r(t)
t

C
C

(0, 0) (1, 0)
r1 (t) = (t, 0) t [0, 1]

r2 (t) = (t2 , 0) t
 y 2 = 9x

p
x y 9x
p
r(x) = (x, 9x)

y x y 2 /9
✓ ◆
y2
r(y) = ,y
9

t x y

(y/3)2 = x
t = y/3 y = 3t
2
x=t
r(t) = (t2 , 3t).

x
y t

t
x y

8
✓ ◆ < x = t2 4
t
r(t) = t2 4, () t
2 :y =
2
t t = 2y

x = (2y)2 4 = 4y 2 4 =) x = 4(y 2 1)

P Q

r(t) = P + tP~Q, t 2 [0, 1]

t=0 r(0) = P t = 1 r(1) = P + P~Q = Q

 P = (1, 1) Q = (4, 0)
P~Q P~Q =
(4, 0) (1, 1) = (3, 1)

r(t) = (1, 1) + t(3, 1) = (1 + 3t, 1 t), t 2 [0, 1]

0 1 r(0)
t

x
r(1)

r(0) = (1, 1) = P r(1) = (4, 0) = Q

y = f (x)

r(t) = (t, f (t)), t 2 [a, b]

[a, b] x

y = cos x x
[0, 2⇡]
x
y

r(t) = (t, cos t), t 2 [0, 2⇡]

y
r(0) r(2⇡)
0 ⇡ 2⇡
t x

r(⇡)

r(0) = (0, 1) r(2⇡) = (2⇡, 1) r(t)

r(⇡) = (⇡, 1)

(0, 0) x2 + y 2 = 1 x(t)
y(t)
1
t
r(t) = (cos t, sen t), t 2 [0, 2⇡]
 y

r(t)
sen t

t
x
cos t

(1, 0)

(cos t, sen t) (cos t, sen t) ( sen t, cos t) ( sen t, cos t)

900
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
cos ⇡2 sen ⇡2 0 1
G ⇡2 = =
sen ⇡2 cos ⇡2 1 0

✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
0 1 cos t sen t
=
1 0 sen t cos t

y x2 + y 2 = 1

p p
r1 (x) = (x, 1 x2 ), r2 (x) = (x, 1 x2 ), x 2 [ 1, 1].

x
 a b

⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2
+ =1 ! r(t) = (a cos t, b sen t).
a b

(x0 , y0 )

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x x0 y y0
+ =1 ! r(t) = (a cos t + x0 , b sen t + y0 ).
a b

x2 y2 = 1

cosh2 t senh2 t = 1

x2 y2 = 1

r(t) = (cosh t, senh t), t 2 ( 1, 1) = R

r(t) = ( cosh t, senh t)

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x x0 y y0
=1 ! r(t) = (a cosh t + x0 , b senh t + y0 )
a b

P
a

a
x (0, a)
 (2⇡a, a)
2⇡a

a
0 2⇡a

c(t) = (at, a) t 2 [0, 2⇡]

(0, 0)

p(t) = ( a sen t, a cos t) t 2 [0, 2⇡]

(0, 0)

(at, a)

r(t) = p(t) + c(t) = ( a sen t, a cos t) + (at, a)

r(t) = (a(t sen t), a(1 cos t))

 B
A A>B
8 ✓ ◆
> A B
>
> x(t) = (A B) cos t + B cos t
>
< B
>
> ✓ ◆
>
> A B
:y(t) = (A B) sen t B sen t
B

B
A
8 ✓ ◆
> A+B
>
> x(t) = (A + B) cos t B cos t
>
< B
>
> ✓ ◆
>
> A+B
:y(t) = (A + B) sen t B sen t
B

r
✓
r = f (✓)

✓ 2 [0, 2⇡]

r f (✓)

r=1
✓ r

r=✓ ✓

⇡ ⇡
✓ = 0 ! r = 0, ✓= !r= , ✓ = ⇡ ! r = ⇡, ✓ = 2⇡ ! r = 2⇡.
2 2
 y

f (✓)

(
x = r cos ✓
y = r sen ✓
r = f (✓)
t=✓

r(t) = (f (t) cos t, f (t) sen t).

r r(t)
r

r(t) = (t cos t, t sen t)

a>0 b>0

r = a ± b cos ✓

a b
a/b < 1 a<b
a/b = 1 a=b
1 < a/b < 2 b < a < 2b
a/b 2 a 2b
y y y y

x x x x

n a 6= 0 n2N
r = a cos(n✓) r = a sen(n✓).

n n n 2n

2n n

a>0
r2 = a2 cos(2✓) r2 = a2 sen(2✓)
y

x
a

a
 r(t) = (x(t), y(t))

(x0 , y0 )

r(t) = (x(t) + x0 , y(t) + y0 )

r(t) = (ax(t), by(t))

G↵
✓ ◆✓ ◆
cos ↵ sen ↵ x(t)
r(t) =
sen ↵ cos ↵ y(t)

x=y

r(t) = (y(t), x(t))

r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)), t2I

x0 y 0 z0 I
I C
I
C
 C P Q

P Q P~Q

4t
t P = r(t) Q = r(t + 4t) P
Q P 4t
r

4r = r(t + 4t) r(t) = Q P = P~Q

4r
4r 4t 4t

4t

P Q
P~Q
t
4t
4r r(t + 4t) r(t)
lı́m = lı́m = r 0 (t).
4t!0 4t 4t!0 4t
h
4t r(t)
0
r (t)

C r(t)

r0 C
C r0

r(t) t
r 0 (t) t

v = r0
 kr 0 (t)k
kvk = kr 0 k

r 00 (t)

a = v 0 = r 00

a0 = r 000

a00 = r (4)

a000 = r (5)

a(4) = r (6)

C r I

r 0 (t)
T (t) =
kr 0 (t)k

P = (0, 1)
T

r(t) = (cos t, sen t), t 2 [0, 2⇡].

p
r 0 = ( sen t, cos t), kr 0 k = ( sen t)2 + cos2 t = 1
 T
r 0 (t) ( sen t, cos t)
T (t) = 0 = = ( sen t, cos t)
kr (t)k 1
t P
t
(
cos t = 0 ⇡
r(t) = P () (cos t, sen t) = (0, 1) () () t=
sen t = 1 2
⇡
P T t= 2
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣ ⇡ ⇡⌘
T = sen , cos = ( 1, 0).
2 2 2
y
T ( ⇡2 ) r( ⇡2 )

T0 T
T

1 = kT k2 = T · T
T ·T

0 = T0 · T + T · T0 = 2T0 · T
T0 · T = 0
C r I
T 0 (t) 6= 0
T 0 (t)
N (t) =
kT 0 (t)k

N
 N

r(t) = (3t, 2t2 ).

p
r 0 (t) = (3, 4t), kr 0 (t)k = 9 + 16t2

T
(3, 4t)
T (t) = p
9 + 16t2
N T

p 32 t
9 + 16 t2 (0, 4) p (3, 4t)
2 9 + 16t2
T 0 (t) = =
9 + 16 t2
p
9 + 16t2

((9 + 16 t2 ) (0, 4) 16t (3, 4t))

=
(9 + 16 t2 )3/2

1 1
(0, 36 + 64t2 ) (48t, 64t2 ) = ( 48t, 36) =
(9 + 16t2 )3/2 (9 + 16t2 )3/2

12
( 4 t, 3)
(9 + 16t2 )3/2
( 4t, 3)

( 4t, 3) 1
N (t) = =p ( 4t, 3)
k( 4t, 3)k 9 + 16t2

N
T N
T N

N
 C r I T 0 (t) 6= 0
C t

B(t) = T (t) ⇥ N (t)

{T , N , B}

{i, j, k}

r(t)

z
B
T
k
N B
i j N y

T
x

T N B

T N

T N

a = aT T + aN N

aT aN
 a = v 0 = (r 0 )0 =
r0
✓ ◆0
r0
0
= kr k 0 = (kvk T )0 =
kr k

= kvk0 T + kvk T 0 =

T0

T0
= kvk0 T + kvkkT 0 k 0
= kvk0 T + kvkkT 0 kN
kT k

aT = kvk0 aN = kvkkT 0 k

kak2 = a2T + a2N

kak2 = a · a = (aT T + aN N ) · (aT T + aN N ) =

= a2T T · T + 2aT aN T · N + a2N N · N = a2T + a2N .

T N

B
B
0 00
r ⇥r

B T N
B⇥T
 r0
T =
kr 0 k
r 0 ⇥ r 00
B=
kr 0 ⇥ r 00 k
(r 0 ⇥ r 00 ) ⇥ r 0
N=
k(r 0 ⇥ r 00 ) ⇥ r 0 k

N = B ⇥T

r(t) = (cos t, sen t, t)

r(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t))

t 2 [a, b],
Z b
L= kr 0 k dt.
a

r(t) = (cos t, sen t, t), t 2 [0, 2⇡].

r0

r 0 = ( sen t, cos t, 1).

p p
kr 0 k = sen2 t + cos2 t + 1 = 2

t
Z 2⇡ p p
L= 2 dt = 2⇡ 2.
0

R
 r = f (✓), ✓ 2 [↵, ],

Z p
L= f (✓)2 + (f 0 (✓))2 d✓
↵

r(t) = (f (t) cos t, f (t) sen t), t 2 [↵, ].

r=1 cos ✓, ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡].

f (✓) = 1 cos ✓ f 0 (✓) = sen ✓

Z 2⇡ p
L= (1 cos ✓)2 + sen2 ✓ d✓ =
0
Z p Z
2⇡ 2⇡ p
1+ cos2 ✓ 2 cos ✓ + sen2 ✓ d✓ = 2 2 cos ✓ d✓ =
0 0

sen2 x = (1 cos(2x))/2
r  ✓ ◆
p Z 2⇡
✓
Z 2⇡
✓ ✓
2⇡
= 2 2 sen2 d✓ = 2 sen d✓ = 2 2 cos =8
0 2 0 2 2 0

sen 2✓

y = f (x)
[a, b]
y=0 x=a x=b
Z b
A= f (x) dx
a
 r(t) = (x(t), y(t)) t 2 [t0 , tf ]

Z tf
A= y(t)x0 (t) dt
t0

y x0

f (x) = y(t), dx = x0 (t) dt, a = x(t0 ), b = x(tf ).

y x = x(t0 ) x = x(tf )

r(t)

r(t) = (t2 , t3 ) t 2 [0, 2]

y(t) = t3 x(t) = t2 x0 (t) = 2t

Z 2 Z 2  2
3 4 t5 2 5 64
A= t 2t dt = 2 t dt = 2 = 2 05 =
0 0 5 0 5 5

r = f (✓) ✓ 2 [↵, ]
✓=↵ ✓=
Z
1
A= f 2 (✓) d✓
2 ↵

y ✓=

r = f (✓)
✓=↵

r = 1+✓ ✓=0
✓ = ⇡/4
f
f (✓) = 1 + ✓
Z Z
1 ⇡/4 2 1 ⇡/4
A= (1 + ✓) d✓ = (1 + ✓2 + 2✓) d✓ =
2 0 2 0
  ⇡/4 ✓ ◆
1 ✓3 1 ⇡ ⇡3 ⇡2 03 ⇡3 ⇡2 ⇡
✓+ + ✓2 = + + 0 0 2
= + + .
2 3 0 2 4 3 · 43 42 3 384 32 8

kr 0 (t) ⇥ r 00 (t)k
K(t) =
kr 0 (t)k3

y = f (x)
(x, y)

|f 00 |
K=
(1 + (f 0 )2 )3/2

r(t) = (t, f (t))

r(t) = (cos t, sen t, t)

1
R=
K
N

N
| {z } r(t)
R

⌧ = 0
B

[r 0 (t), r 00 (t), r 000 (t)]

⌧ (t) =
kr 0 (t) ⇥ r 00 (t)k2

[r 0 , r 00 , r 000 ] = r 0 · (r 00 ⇥ r 000 ) = (r 0 ⇥ r 00 ) · r 000

r(t) = (cos t, sen t, t)

r

r 0 = ( sen t, cos t, 1), r 00 = ( cos t, sen t, 0), r 000 = (sen t, cos t, 0).

i j k
r 0 ⇥ r 00 = sen t cos t 1 = (sen t, cos t, 1)
cos t sen t 0
sen t cos t 1
0 00 000
[r , r , r ] = cos t sen t 0 = cos2 t + sen2 t = 1
sen t cos t 0
r 0 ⇥ r 00

kr 0 ⇥ r 00 k2 = sen2 t + ( cos t)2 + 12 = 2

 [r 0 , r 00 , r 000 ] 1
⌧= 0 00 2
=
kr ⇥ r k 2

Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Exz + F yz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

xy
xz yz

D E F

x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1

(0, 0, 0)
(x0 , y0 , z0 )

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + (z z0 )2 = 1

⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2 ⇣ z ⌘2
+ + =1
R R R
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R 2
 (1, 2, 3)

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x 1 y 2 z 3
+ + =1
7 7 7

z=0
z=0

(x 1)2 + (y 2)2 + (0 3)2 = 49

(x 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 40
p
40

⇣ x ⌘2 ⇣ y ⌘2 ⇣ z ⌘2
+ + =1
a b c

(0, 0, 0) a b c

x2 + y 2 z2 = 1
 z=0

x2 y2 + z2 = 1

x=0 y=0
z=0

x2 + y 2 = z 2
x=1
x=1
12 + y 2 = z 2 () y2 + z2 = 1
z (0, 0) a=b=1

x2 + y 2 = z

x2 y2 = z

z = xy
 C L

L C

L z

x2 + y 2 = 1

(x/a)2 + (y/b)2 = 1

x2 y2 = 1

y 2 = 4px

x2 + y 2 + 2z 2 + 2x 4y + 8z 3=0

(x + 1)2 1 + (y 2)2 4 + 2((z + 2)2 4) 3=0

(x + 1)2 + (y 2)2 + 2(z + 2)2 = 1 + 4 + 8 + 3 = 16

✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x+1 y 2 z+2
+ + p =1
4 4 2 2
p
( 1, 2, 2) a=4 b=4 c=2 2
 V = ⇡r2 h
r h
T
t (x, y)
(x, y) t T (x, y, t)

R2
(x, y)

R2 = {(x, y) : x 2 R, y 2 R}.

R3 = {(x, y, z) : x 2 R, y 2 R, z 2 R}.

n Rn n 2
R 2

R n

D R2 f :D!R
(x, y) 2 D f (x, y) 2 R
D f

R(f ) = {z 2 R : z = f (x, y), (x, y) 2 D}.

f (x, y) = xy R2 R
 f (x, y) = 1 + x2 + y 2 R2
[1, 1)
p
f (x, y) = xy

f (x, y) = cos(x + y)
p
x2 + y 2 9
f (x, y) =
x
(x, y) 2 R2 x2 + y 2 9

x=0 (0, y)

D = {(x, y) 2 R2 : x2 + y 2 9, x 6= 0}.

D
2 2
x +y =9 y
y

1
f (x, y) = p
9 x2 y2

9 x2 y2 > 0

x2 + y 2 = 9

D = {(x, y) 2 R2 : x2 + y 2 < 9}.

x
 f (x, y) g(x, y)

(f + g)(x, y) = f (x, y) + g(x, y)

(f g)(x, y) = f (x, y) g(x, y)

(f g)(x, y) = f (x, y)g(x, y)

f f (x, y)
(x, y) = g(x, y) 6= 0
g g(x, y)

h h g
(h g)(x, y) = h[g(x, y)] g(x, y)
h g h
p
f (x, y) = 16 4x2 py 2
f =h g g(x, y) = 16 4x2 y 2 h(t) = t

h(x) = x2 g(x, y) = xy + 1 f =h g

f :D!R z = f (x, y) x
y z

z = f (x, y) (x, y, z) 2 R3
(x, y) 2 D z = f (x, y)

{(x, y, z) 2 R3 : (x, y) 2 D, z = f (x, y)}.

(x, y) 2 D z = f (x, y)

z = f (x, y)

y
x D (x, y)

z = f (x, y)
 p
f (x, y) = 16 4x2 y2

f (x, y)
D = {(x, y) 2 R2 : 4x2 + y 2  16}.
x 2 y 2
4x2 + y 2 = 16 2
+ 4
= 1
D

z = f (x, y)

p x2 y 2 z2
z= 16 4x2 y 2 =) z 2 = 16 4x2 y 2 =) + + = 1,
4 16 16
p
0z 16 = 4 z = f (x, y)

k2R k
f (x, y) = k k
k k
z = f (x, y) z=k
p
z = f (x, y) = 64 x2 y2 0z8
k 2 [0, 8] k=0
p
f (x, y) = 0 =) 64 x2 y 2 = 0 =) x2 + y 2 = 64.
k=0
k=1
p
f (x, y) = 1 =) 64 x2 y 2 = 1 =) x2 + y 2 = 63,
p
63 ⇡ 7,94
0<k<8
k=8
f (x, y) = 8 =) 64 x2 y 2 = 64 =) x2 + y 2 = 0 =) x = y = 0.
k=8 (0, 0)
y

x k = 0, 2, 4, 6 8
 f (x, y) (x, y)
f (x, y)

f (x, y) (x, y)

f (x, y, z) f (x, y, z) = k
k

T (x, y, z) (x, y, z)

h(x) x0
lı́mx!x0 h(x) = l h(x) l
x x0
h(x) x0 l
x0
(x0 , y0 ) 2 R2

(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) R2
p
d[(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )] = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 ) 2 .

r (x0 , y0 )

D[(x0 , y0 ); r] = {(x, y) 2 R2 : d[(x, y), (x0 , y0 )] < r}.

(x0 , y0 ) r
r (x0 , y0 )

D[(x0 , y0 ); r] = {(x, y) 2 R2 : d[(x, y), (x0 , y0 )]  r}.

(x0 , y0 ) r

R R2 R
(x0 , y0 ) 2 R (x0 , y0 ) R
 R R2 \ R

R
R R

f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 ) (x0 , y0 ) l

lı́m f (x, y) = l
(x,y)!(x0 ,y0 )

✏>0 >0 |f (x, y) l| < ✏ (x, y) 2 D[(x0 , y0 ); ]

(x, y) 6= (x0 , y0 )

R
R 2

f (x, y)
l (x, y) (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 )

(x, y) (x0 , y0 )

5x2 y
lı́m
(x,y)!(1,2) x2 + y 2

(x, y)
(1, 2)
5x2 y 5 · 12 · 2 10
lı́m 2 2
= 2 2
= =2
(x,y)!(1,2) x + y 1 +2 5
 y3
lı́m
(x,y)!(0,0) x2 + y 2

y3 03 0
lı́m 2 2
= 2 2
=
(x,y)!(0,0) x + y 0 +0 0

(
x = r cos ✓
y = r sen ✓

(x, y) ! (0, 0) r!0

✓
y3 r3 sen3 ✓ r3 sen3 ✓
lı́m = lı́m = lı́m = lı́m r sen3 ✓ = 0 · sen3 ✓ = 0
(x,y)!(0,0) x2 + y 2 r!0 r 2 cos2 ✓ + r 2 sen2 ✓ r!0 r2 r!0

sen3 ✓ 1 1

✓ ◆2
x2 y 2
lı́m
(x,y)!(0,0) x2 + y 2
0
0
x (x, 0)
✓ ◆2
x2 0 2
lı́m = lı́m 1 = 1
(x,0)!(0,0) x2 + 0 2 x!0

(x, x)
✓ 2 ◆2 ✓ ◆2
x x2 0
lı́m = lı́m = lı́m 02 = 0
(x,x)!(0,0) x2 + x2 x!0 2x2 x!0

f (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) R

lı́m f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 ).

(x,y)!(x0 ,y0 )

f (x0 , y0 )
 f (x, y) R
R

f
g R 2R h
f

f ±g

fg

f
g 6= 0
g

h f

x 2y
f (x, y) =
(x2 + y 2 )2

R2 \ {(0, 0)} (0, 0)

(x, 0) x>0

1
lı́m + f (x, y) = lı́m+ = 1.
(x,0)!(0 ,0) x!0 x3

(0, y) y>0

2
lı́m f (x, y) = lı́m+ = 1.
(0,y)!(0,0+ ) y!0 y3

2
g(x, y) =
y x2
g(x, y)
y = x2 g(x, y) R2 \ {y = x2 }

f (x, y) f0
 f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 ) f f x
(x0 , y0 )
@f f (x0 + h, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 ) = lı́m ,
@x h!0 h
y (x0 , y0 )

@f f (x0 , y0 + h) f (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 ) = lı́m .
@y h!0 h

@f @f
fx = , fy =
@x @y

@f
@x
y
x
y x

f (x, y) = sen x + xy 2
x y

@f
= cos x + y 2
@x
y x

@f
= 2xy.
@y

ex y

x2 y 3

x + y2
x + 2y

(x + 3z)y 2
 z = f (x, y) y y0 z = f (x, y0 )
z = f (x, y) y = y0

x y
fx (x0 , y0 ) fy (x0 , y0 )
z z

x0 x0
x y0 x y0
y y

(x0 , y0 ) (x0 , y0 )

@f f (x0 + h, y0 ) f (x0 , y0 )
fx (x0 , y0 ) = (x0 , y0 ) = lı́m
@x h!0 h
(x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 )) fy (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 ))
z = f (x, y) x = x0 fx fy
z = f (x, y) x y

fx fy

f (x, y)
@f @f
@x @y

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@ 2f @ @f @ 2f @ @f
2
= = fxx , 2
= = fyy ,
@x @x @x @y @y @y

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@ 2f @ @f @ 2f @ @f
= = fxy , = = fyx .
@y@x @y @x @x@y @x @y

✓ ◆
@ @f @ 2f
fxy = (fx )y = =
@y @x @y@x
 f fx fy fxy fyx R
fxy = fyx

fxx fxy = fyx fxz = fzx fyy fyz = fzy fzz

f (x, y) = x2 y 3 + xy + 1.

@f @f
= 2xy 3 + y, = 3x2 y 2 + x.
@x @y

@ 2f @ 2f @ 2f @ 2f
= 2y 3 , = 6x2 y, = 6xy 2 + 1 = .
@x2 @y 2 @y@x @x@y

f = x2 y 3 + xy + 1
fx = 2xy 3 + y fy = 3x2 y 2 + x
fxx = 2y 3 fyy = 6x2 y fxy = fyx = 6xy 2 + 1

f (x, y) = x2 yey

@f @f
= 2xyey , = x2 (ey + yey ) = x2 ey (1 + y).
@x @y

@ 2f @ 2f @ 2f @ 2f
2
= 2yey , 2
= x2 ey (2 + y), y
= 2xe (1 + y) = .
@x @y @y@x @x@y

x2 + y 2 + 2x 3y + 1
sen(x + 2y) + 2 cos(y)
ln(x + y 2 )
x2 y 3 z 4
 y = h(x) dx = x
x h x dy = h0 (x)dx
dx = x dy = h0 (x)dx
y y = h(x + x) h(x)

z = f (x, y)
x y x y
z

z = f (x + x, y + y) f (x, y).

x y

dx = x, dy = y,

z
@z @z @f @f
dz = dx + dy = (x, y)dx + (x, y)dy.
@x @y @x @y

f (x, y)
dz z f (x, y)
(x, y)
z = f (x, y) () dz ⇡ z

z = f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 ) z

@f @f
z= (x0 , y0 ) x + (x0 , y0 ) y + ✏1 x + ✏2 y,
@x @y

✏1 ✏2 ( x, y) ! (0, 0)

f R

z = 2x sen y 3x2 y 2

@z @z
= 2 sen y 6xy 2 , = 2x cos y 6x2 y.
@x @y

dz = (2 sen y 6xy 2 )dx + (2x cos y 6x2 y)dy.

 f (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) (x0 , y0 )

f (x, y) R
fx fy R f R

dz z x y

±0,1 x = 50 y = 20
z = 15

V (x, y, z) = xyz,

@V @V @V
dV = dx + dy + dz = yz dx + xz dy + xy dz.
@x @y @z
V
dV V dx = dy =
dx = ±0, 01

dV =20 · 15 · (⌥0,01) + 50 · 15 · (±0,01) + 50 · 20 · (±0,01)

=300 · (⌥0,01) + 750 · (±0,01) + 1000 · (±0,01)
3
=20,5 .

3
V = 50 · 20 · 15 = 15000 ,

V /V

V dV 20,5 3
⇡ = ⇡ 1,367 · 10 (⇡ 0,14 %).
V V 15000
z = f (x, y) x y
t x = g(t) y = h(t) z t

@z @z @x @z @y @z 0 @z 0
= + = g (t) + h (t).
@t @x @t @y @t @x @y
x y
t z = f (x, y) t z = f (g(t), h(t))
dz
dt

z = x2 y y2 x = sen t y = et z
x y t

z = x2 y y 2 = sen2 t e2t .

z t

dz
= 2 sen t cos tet + sen2 t 2e2t
dt
dz
dt
z
@z @z
= 2xy = 2 sen tet , = 2y = 2et ,
@x @y
dx dy
x y t dt
= cos t dt
= et

dz @z dx @z dy
= + = 2 sen t cos tet + sen2 tet 2e2t .
dt @x dt @y dt

z = f (x, y) x y
t s x = g(s, t) y = h(s, t)
@x @x @y @y @z @z
@s @t @s @t @s @s

@z @z @x @z @y @z @z @x @z @y
= + , = + .
@s @x @s @y @s @t @x @t @y @t

z = 2xy x = s2 + t 2 y = s/t
z s t z = 2xy = 2 (s2 + t2 ) st

@z 6s2 + 2t2 @z 2st2 2s3

= , = .
@s t @t t2
 @z 2s @z @x @x @y 1 @y s
= 2y = , = 2x = 2 s2 + t2 , = 2s, = 2t, = , = .
@x t @y @s @t @s t @t t2

@z @z @x @z @y 6s2 + 2t2 @z @z @x @z @y s2t2 2s3

= + = , = + = .
@s @x @s @y @s t @t @x @t @y @t t2

z = f (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) f
fx (x0 , y0 ) P = (x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 ))
y = y0
P x fy (x0 , y0 )

u f (x, y)
f u Du f f
u

u Du f
D(1,0) f = fx D(0,1) f = fy

xy u = cos ✓i + sen ✓j
✓ x
P u z = f (x, y)
C P
u C
f (x0 + t cos ✓, y0 + t sen ✓) f (x0 , y0 )
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = lı́m .
t!0 t

f (x, y) u = cos ✓i+sen ✓j

f u Du f (x, y)

f (x0 + t cos ✓, y0 + t sen ✓) f (x0 , y0 )

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = lı́m
t!0 t
f (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) u = cos ✓i +
sen ✓j ✓
f u (x0 , y0 )
@f @f
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = (x0 , y0 ) cos ✓ + (x0 , y0 ) sen ✓.
@x @y
 u u = u1 i+u2 j
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = fx (x0 , y0 )u1 + fy (x0 , y0 )u2

v = v1 i + v2 j
v
u= kvk

f (x, y) = x2 sen(2y) (1, ⇡/4)

v = 3i 4j

p v 3 4
kvk = 32 + ( 4)2 = 5, u= = i j,
kvk 5 5

fx (x, y) = 2x sen(2y) =) fx (1, ⇡/4) = 2

fy (x, y) = 2x2 cos(2y) =) fy (1, ⇡/4) = 0

✓ ◆
3 4 6
Dv (1, ⇡/4) = fx (1, ⇡/4) · + fy (1, ⇡/4) · = .
5 5 5

f (x, y)
(x0 , y0 ) f (x0 , y0 ) xy

rf (x0 , y0 ) = (fx (x0 , y0 ), fy (x0 , y0 )).

Du f (x0 , y0 ) = rf (x0 , y0 ) · u.

f (x, y) (x0 , y0 )

rf (x0 , y0 ) = 0 Du f (x0 , y0 ) = 0 u

f (x0 , y0 ) rf (x0 , y0 )

Du f (x0 , y0 ) krf (x0 , y0 )k

 ✓ rf (x, y) u

Du f (x, y) = rf (x, y) · u = krf (x, y)kkuk cos ✓ = krf (x, y)k cos ✓,
u Du f (x, y)
cos ✓ = 1 =) ✓ = 0 u = rf (x, y) Du f (x, y)
cos ✓ = 1 =) ✓ = ⇡ u = rf (x, y)

T (x, y) = 20 4x2 y2 x y
(2, 3)

rT (x, y) = (Tx , Ty ) = ( 8x, 2y)

rT (2, 3) = ( 16, 6).

p p
krf (2, 3)k = ( 16)2 + 62 = 292 ⇡ 17,09

f (x, y) = k
(x0 , y0 )
u
Du f (x0 , y0 ) = rf (x0 , y0 ) · u = 0.
u
f (x0 , y0 ) rf (x0 , y0 ) 6= 0
rf (x0 , y0 ) (x0 , y0 )

k=0
f (x, y) = y sen x (x, y)
k=0 0 = y sen x =) y = sen x
(x, y) rf (x, y) = fx (x, y)i + fy (x, y)j = cos xi + j (x, y)
y = sen x cos xi + j k=0

z = f (x, y)
 {(x, y, z) 2 R3 : F (x, y, z) = 0},
F
F (x, y, z) = 0

F (x, y, z) = 0

z = f (x, y)
F (x, y, z) = 0 F (x, y, z) = f (x, y) z

F (x, y, z) P =
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) rF (x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0
P r(t) = x(t)i +
y(t)j + z(t)k

F (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = 0

0 = F 0 (t) = Fx (x(t), y(t), z(t))x0 (t) + Fy (x(t), y(t), z(t))y 0 (t) + Fz (x(t), y(t), z(t))z 0 (t).

P = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = r(t0 )

rF (x0 , y0 , z0 ) · r 0 (t0 ) = 0.

F P
P
rF (x0 , y0 , z0 ) P
P rF (x0 , y0 , z0 )
F (x, y, z) = 0 P

P rF (x0 , y0 , z0 )
F (x, y, z) = 0 P
F (x0 , y0 , z0 )
F (x, y, z) = 0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

Fx (x0 , y0 , z0 )(x x0 ) + Fy (x0 , y0 , z0 )(y y0 ) + Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0.

z = f (x, y) F (x, y, z) = f (x, y) z F x = fx F y = fy

Fz = 1 z = f (x, y)
x0 , y0 , f (x0 , y0 ))

fx (x0 , y0 )(x x0 ) + fy (x0 , y0 )(y y0 ) (z z0 ) = 0.

 z2 2x2 2y 2 12 = 0
(1, 1, 4)
(1, 1, 4) F (x, y, z) = z 2 2x2 2y 2 12
Fx = 4x Fy = 4y Fz = 2z (1, 1, 4) Fx (1, 1, 4) = 4
Fy (1, 1, 4) = 4 Fz (1, 1, 4) = 8

4(x 1) + 4(y + 1) + 8(z 4) = 0 =) x y 2z + 6 = 0

x2 + 4y 2
(2, 2, 2)
10
x2 +4y 2
f (x, y) = 10
fx = x/5 fy = 4y/5 f (2, 2) = 2/5 f (2, 2) =
8/5 (2, 2, 2)

2 8
(x 2) (y + 2) (z 2) = 0 =) 2x 8y 5z 10 = 0
5 5

F (x, y, z) = 0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) rf (x0 , y0 , z0 )

x x0 y y0 z z0
= = .
Fx (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fy (x0 , y0 , z0 ) Fz (x0 , y0 , z0 )

z = f (x, y)
x x0 y y0 z z0
= = .
fx (x0 , y0 ) fy (x0 , y0 ) 1

y = f (x)

x
a x1 x2 x3 b

a f (a)  f (x) x 2 [a, b]

x1
 x2

x3 f (x3 ) f (x) x 2 [a, b]

x f (x)

f (x) = 1/x x 2 (0, 1)

f (x) = sen x

a b

f :R!R R
(x0 , y0 ) f f (x, y)  f (x0 , y0 )
(x, y) 2 R (x0 , y0 ) f
f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) (x, y) 2 R

x
 y

!
x

f
R f

f
f

f R (x0 , y0 )

(x0 , y0 ) f f (x, y)  f (x0 , y0 ) (x, y)

(x0 , y0 )

(x0 , y0 ) f f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) (x, y)

(x0 , y0 )

f rf = 0

rF = (fx , fy , 1) = (0, 0, 1)

f R (x0 , y0 )
(x0 , y0 ) f

rf (x0 , y0 ) = 0 fx (x0 , y0 ) = 0 fy (x0 , y0 ) = 0

@rf (x0 , y0 )

rf = 0
 ✓ ◆
fxx fxy fxx fxy
H= d= = fxx fyy (fxy )2
fyx fyy fyx fyy
f
(x0 , y0 ) rf (x0 , y0 ) = 0 d
f
d>0 fxx (x0 , y0 ) > 0 (x0 , y0 )
d>0 fxx (x0 , y0 ) < 0 (x0 , y0 )
d<0 (x0 , y0 )
d=0

f (x, y) = 2x2 +y 2 +8x 6y+20

R2

(
4x + 8 = 0 =) x = 2
rf = (fx , fy ) = (4x + 8, 2y 6) = (0, 0) =)
2y 6 = 0 =) y = 3
 (2, 3)
f (x, y) = 2(x + 2)2 + (y 3)2 + 3 3 = f ( 2, 3),
( 2, 3) f
f ( 2, 3) = 3

f (x, y) = x3 + 4xy 2y 2 + 1
f
(
fx (x, y) = 3x2 + 4y = 0,
fy (x, y) = 4x 4y = 0

x = y 3x2 + 4x = 0
x = 0 x = 43 (0, 0) ( 34 , 43 )
(0, 0)
fxx = 6x, fxy = 4, fyy = 4
(0, 0) d
d = fxx (0, 0)fyy (0, 0) [fxy (0, 0)]2 = 0 16 < 0.
(0, 0)
( 43 , 43 ) d = 16 > 0 fxx ( 43 , 43 ) = 8 < 0
( 43 , 43 )

f (x, y) = x2 y 2
(
fx (x, y) = 2xy 2 = 0,
fy (x, y) = 2x2 y = 0
x = 0 y = 0
x y fxx = 2y 2 fxy = 4xy
fyy = 2x2 d= 12x2 y 2 x=0 y=0 d=0

x=0 y = 0 f (x, y) = 0
2 2
f (x, y) = x y > 0

xy
6x + 4y + 3z = 24
6x + 4y + 3z = 24
z = 13 (24 6x 4y) V = xyz
1
V (x, y) = (24xy 6x2 y 4xy 2 ).
3

(
Vx (x, y) = y3 (24 12x 4y) = 0
(x, y) = (0, 0), (0, 6), (4, 0), (4/3, 2)
Vy (x, y) = x3 (24 6x 8y) = 0
 (4/3, 2)
8x 1
Vxx (x, y) = 4y, Vyy (x, y) = , Vxy (x, y) = (24 12x 8y),
3 3

64
d = Vxx (4/3, 2)Vyy (4/3, 2) [Vxy (4/3, 2)]2 = ( 8)( 32/9) ( 8/3)2 = > 0.
3
Vxx (4/3, 2) = 8 < 0 (4/3, 2)

64
V (4/3, 2) =
9

f R

R
 f (x) [a, b]
f
y = f (x) y = 0 x = a x=b

Z b
f (x) dx =
a

x
a b

f
x

+
x

f (x) = x/2 [0, 2]

y
1

x
2
 Z 2
x ⇥ 2·1
dx = = = =1
0 2 2 2

f (x) [a, b]
F (x) f f F0 = f

Z b
f (x) dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) F (a)
a

f (x) = x/2 [0, 2]

f F (x) = x2 /4
Z 2  2 2
x x 22 02
dx = = =1 0=1
0 2 4 0 4 4

[F (x) + C]ba = F (b) + C (F (a) + C) = F (b) F (a)

Z b Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (y) dy = f (w) dw = . . .
a a a

Z 1  1 Z 1  1
3 x4 1 3 z4 1
x dx = = z dz = =
0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4
Z ⇡/2
cos y dy
0
Z 2 p
z 1 + z 2 dz
1
Z e
1
dw
1 w
Z 1
1
2
d
0 1+

Z b Z z2 Z z
2 p
x dx x y dy z 3 dz
a x 0

Z 2y ⇥ ⇤2y
2xy dx = x2 y 1 = (2y)2 y 12 y = 4y 3 y.
1

Z 3
x dy
1

Z x2
y dz
0

Z 1
xy dx
0

Z 1
xy 2 dy
0

Z y2
xy dx
0
 Rx
+ 2y) dy 1
(2x2 y 2

Z x  x ✓ ◆
2 2 2x2 2 2x2 2
2x y + 2y dy = +y = +x 2x2 + 1 = 3x2 2x 1.
1 y 1 x

x
[1, 2]
Z 2 Z x Z 2
2 2
⇥ ⇤2
2x y + 2y dy dx = 3x2 2x 1 dx = x3 x2 x 1
= 3.
1 1 1

Z b "Z g2 (x)
# Z d
"Z
h2 (y)
#
f (x, y) dy dx, f (x, y) dx dy
a g1 (x) c h1 (y)

Z bZ g2 (x) Z d Z h2 (y)
f (x, y) dy dx, f (x, y) dx dy
a g1 (x) c h1 (y)

g 1 g 2 h1 h2

Z bZ x+1 Z d Z ey +y
f (x, y) dy dx, f (x, y) dx dy
a x2 c 1 y

dx dy dy dx

Z 2 Z 1
x dydx
0 0
 Z 2 Z ⇡/2
x sen y dydx
1 0

Z 1 Z 0 Z xy
(xy + z) dzdxdy
0 y 0

Z 2 Z x Z x+y
ex (y + 2z) dz dy dx
0 0 0

x y
Z x+y ⇥ ⇤x+y
ex (y + 2z) dz = ex (yz + z 2 ) 0 = ex x2 + 3xy + 2y 2
0

x
Z x Z x
x
e (y + 2z) dz dy = ex x2 + 3xy + 2y 2 dy =
0 0
 x
3 2 19
ex x2 y + xy 2 + y 3 = x3 ex
2 3 0 6

Z 2 Z x Z x+y Z
x 19 2 3 x
e (y + 2z) dz dy dx = x e dx = · · · =
0 0 0 6 0
✓ 2 ◆
19 ⇥ x 3 2
⇤2 e
e x 3x + 6x 6 0 = 19 +1
6 3

R ⇢ R2 f (x, y)
R f (x, y) R
f R
ZZ
f (x, y) dA =
R
 dA
R

RR R x2 + y 2  1 f f (x, y) = 7
R
f (x, y) dA

ZZ
7 dA = = ⇥ = ⇡ · 12 · 7 = 7⇡
R

f : [a, b] !
Rb
R a
f (x)dx
y = f (x)
f : D ⇢ R2 ! R

f (x, y) f (x, y) 0
(x, y) R xy
z = f (x, y) xy

Ai R k k
n Ai
(xi , yi ) f (xi , yi ) Ai
Ai = xi yi n f (xi , yi ) Ai = f (xi , yi ) xi yi
 z

n
n
X
f (xi , yi ) xi yi .
i=1

k k!0
n
X
= lı́m f (xi , yi ) xi yi .
k k!0
i=1

f (x, y)

f (x, y) R
xy R
n
X
lı́m f (xi , yi ) xi yi .
k k!0
i=1

f R
ZZ
f (x, y) dA.
R

RR
f R R
f (x, y) dA

f R f
R
 f g R 2 R

ZZ ZZ
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dA
R R
ZZ ZZ ZZ
[f (x, y) ± g(x, y)]dA = f (x, y)dA ± g(x, y)dA
R R R
ZZ
f (x, y)dA 0 f (x, y) 0 R
R
ZZ ZZ
f (x, y)dA g(x, y)dA f (x, y) g(x, y) R
R R
ZZ ZZ ZZ
f (x, y)dA = f (x, y)dA + f (x, y)dA
R R1 R2
R R1 R2

f
R

Rb
a
f (x)dx
f [a, b]
R

f (x, y) R = [a, b] ⇥ [c, d]

ZZ Z bZ d Z d Z b
f (x, y) dA = f (x, y) dydx = f (x, y) dxdy =
R a c c a
 f (x, y) = x sen y R = [0, 3] ⇥ [0, ⇡/2]
y
⇡
2

x
3

ZZ Z 3 Z ⇡/2 Z 3
x sen(y) dA = [ x cos(y)]y=⇡/2
x sen(y) dydx =
y=0 dx =
R 0 0 0
Z 3 Z 3  2 3
x 9
( x cos(⇡/2) +x cos(0)) dx = x dx = =
0 | {z } | {z } 0 2 0 2
0 1

f (x, y) = P (x)Q(y)

x x
x2 y ex+y sin(xy)
y x+y

f (x, y) = P (x)Q(y)
R = [a, b] ⇥ [c, d]
ZZ Z b Z d
f (x, y) dA = P (x) dx Q(y) dy
R a c

Z bZ d Z b Z d Z b Z d
P (x)Q(y) dydx = P (x) Q(y) dy dx = P (x) dx Q(y) dy
a c a
|c {z } a c
x

f (x, y) = x2 y
y
2

x
1 4
 Z 4 Z 2  4  2
2 x3 y2 1 3 1 2 63 3 63
x dx y dy = = 4 13 (2 12 ) = =
1 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 3 2 2

RR
R
(4 x2 2y 2 )dA R 0x1
0y1
R
dy dx
ZZ Z 1 Z 1
2 2
(4 x 2y ) dA = 4 x2 2y 2 dy dx =
R 0 0

Z 1 Z 1  1  1
2 2 x3 y3 1 2
=4 x dydx 2 y dydx = 4 2 =4 = 3
0 0 3 0 3 0 3 3

R
y = g1 (x) y = g2 (x) R

y
y = g2 (x)
Z bZ g2 (x)
f (x, y) dy dx y = g1 (x)
a g1 (x)

x
a x b

x [a, b] x y
g1 (x) g2 (x)

f (x, y) = xy
2
y=x y=2 x=0 x=1
y
2 y=2

y = x2

x
x 1
 Z 1 Z 2 Z 1  2 Z 1 Z
y2 x 2 2 2 1 1
xy dydx = x = 2 (x ) dx = 4x x5 dx =
0 x2 0 2 x2 0 2 2 0
 1 ✓ ◆
1 2 x6 1 1 11
2x = 2 =
2 6 0 2 6 12

R
x = h1 (y) x = h2 (y) R

y
d
Z dZ h2 (y) x = h1 (y) x = h2 (y)
f (x, y) dx dy
c h1 (y)
y
c

y [c, d] y x
h1 (y) h2 (y)

f (x, y) = x R
y = ln x x = 0 y = 0 y = 1
y = ln x y=1
(
y = ln x
=) ln x = 1 =) x = e1 = e
y=1

y
1
y = ln x
x
1 e

x=0
y = ln x x

y = ln x =) x = ey
x
x=0 x = ey
Z 1 Z ey Z 1  ey Z 1 Z 1
x2 e2y 11 1 ⇥ 2y ⇤1 e2 1
x dxdy = = dy = 2e2y dy = e 0=
0 0 0 2 0 0 2 22 0 4 4
 R
R1 , R2 , . . . , Rn

ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
= + +··· +
R R1 R2 Rn

f (x, y) = xy 2 R
y = x x = 2y y = 2 x

(
y=x
=) (x, y) = (0, 0)
x = 2y
(
y=x
=) x = 2 x =) 2x = 2 =) x = 1, y=1
y=2 x
(
x = 2y 4 2
=) x = 2(2 x) = 4 2x =) 3x = 4 =) x = , y=
y=2 x 3 3

1 y=2 x
2
x

3
=
y

2y
x=
x
1 4
3

y y

1 y=2 x 1 x=2 y
2
x

y
=

3
=

x
y

2y
y=
2
x=
x x
1 4 4
3 3

x
y
 x

ZZ Z 2/3 Z 2y Z 1 Z 2 y
2
f (x, y) dA = xy dxdy + xy 2 dxdy =
R 0 y 2/3 y
Z 2/3  2y Z 1  2 2 y
x2 x
y2 dy + y2 dy =
0 2 y 2/3 2 y
Z 2/3 Z
1 2 1 1 2
2 2
y (2y) y dy + y (2 y)2 y 2 dy =
2 0 2 2/3
Z 2/3 Z 1
3
y 4 dy + 2 y 2 y 3 dy =
2 0 2/3
 5 2/3  3 1
3 y y y4
+2 =
2 5 0 3 4 2/3
✓ ◆4 ✓ ◆3 ✓ ◆4 !
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 29
+2 + = ··· =
5 3 3 4 3 3 4 3 270

Z 2 Z 4
dx dy
0 y2

y
y 2 [0, 2] x x = y2
x=4 (4, 2)

y
2 y
2
x=

x
4
p
y y= x
x [0, 4] y
f (x, y) = 1 p
x
 R x3/2
x1/2 dx = 3/2

Z 4 Z p
x Z 4  4
p 2 3/2 16
dy dx = x dx = x = .
0 0 0 3 0 3

R y=0 y=x x=1

ZZ
x2
e dA
R

y
1

x
1

x2
e
2
Z 1 Z x Z 1 Z x Z 1
x2 x2 x2
V = e dy dx = e dydx = xe dx =
0 0 0 0 0
Z 1  1
1 x2 1 x2 1 1 e 1
( 2x)e dx = e = + =
2 0 2 0 2e 2 2e

Z 1 Z 1
2
e x dx dy =
0 y
| {z }

Z Z Z p Z
x2 sen x e x
e dx dx 1 x4 dx dx
x x
 f (x, y) R

f (x, y) = h

z y

h R
y
x
x
ZZ
f (x, y) dA = = ⇥
R

f (x, y)

ZZ
1 dA = = R⇥1
R

R
R ZZ
R= dA
R

f (x) = sen x
g(x) = cos x x = ⇡/4 x = 5⇡/4

(
⇡
x= 4
cos x = sen x =) tan x = 1 =) 5⇡
x= 4

y y = sen x
5⇡
4
⇡
x
4

y = cos x
 x

Z 5⇡ Z sen x Z 5⇡
4 4
5⇡/4
A= dy dx = (sen x cos x) dx = [ cos x sen x]⇡/4 =
⇡ ⇡
4
cos x 4
p p p p
5⇡ 5⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 2 2 2 2 p
cos sen + cos + sen = + + + = 2 2
4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2

5⇡
4
45

R y = 4x x2
x y= 3x + 6

( (
y = 4x x2 x = 1, y = 3
=) x2 7x + 6 = 0 =)
y = 3x + 6 x = 6, y = 12
( (
y = 4x x2 x = 0, y = 0
=)
y=0 x = 4, y = 0
(
y = 3x + 6
=) 3x = 6 =) x = 2, y = 0
y=0

y
6

3 y = 4x x2

y= 3x + 6
x
1 2 4

R R1 R2
x
 ZZ ZZ ZZ Z 2 Z 4x x2 Z 4 Z 4x x2
dA = dA + dA = dy dx + dy dx =
R R R2 1 3x+6 2 0
Z 21 Z 4
4x x2 + 3x 6 dx + 4x x2 dx =
1 2
 2  4
x3 7x2 x3
+ 6x + 2x2 =
3 2 1 3 2
8 1 7 64 8 15
+ 14 12 + + 6 + 32 8+ = ··· =
3 3 2 3 3 2

f (x, y, z)
Q f Q
f

ZZZ
f (x, y, z) dV
Q

dV
Q

dxdydz dxdzdy dydxdz dydzdx dzdxdy dzdydx

Q
Q
f (x, y, z) = 1
ZZZ
Q= dV
Q

x + 2y + z = 2
 8
>
<x + 2y + z = 2
x y=0 =) x = 2 z
>
:
z=0
8 2
>
<x + 2y + z = 2
y x=0 =) y = 1
>
:
z=0
8
> 1 y
<x + 2y + z = 2 2
z x=0 =) z = 2 x
>
:
y=0

x + 2y + z = 2 z=0

y
( y=
x + 2y + z = 2 x 1 1 x
=) x + 2y = 2 =) y = 1
z=0 2 2
x
2

x x=0 x=2

x
y y=0 y=1
2

z z=0 z=2 x 2y z

Z 2 Z 1 x Z 2 x 2y Z 2 Z 1 x
2 2
= dzdydx = (2 x 2y) dydx =
0 0 0 0 0
Z 2 Z 2✓ ◆
⇥ ⇤ x
2 1 2 x2 x2
2y xy y 0 dx = 2 x x+ 1+x dx =
0 0 2 4
Z 2✓ ◆  2
x2 x2 x3 8 2
1 x+ dx = x + =2 2+ =
0 4 2 12 0 12 3
 yz

z
z
2
2 x

z=2 x 2y

x
1 y y
x
2 1 2
x
x

x 1 x/2 z=2 x

x
⇥ 1 2
(2 x) (2 x)2 x2
= = = =1 x+
2 2 4 4

Z 1 x Z 2 x 2y
2 x2
dzdy = 1 x+
0 0 4

x Z ✓ ◆
2
x2 2
V = 1 x+ dx = · · · =
0 4 3

[0, 1] ⇥ [0, 1] z=0

2 2
z =x +y
x y z z = 0
z = x2 + y 2
Z 1 Z 1 Z x2 +y 2 Z 1 Z 1
V = dzdydx = x2 + y 2 dydx =
0 0 0 0 0
Z 1 1 Z 1✓ ◆  3 1
y3 1 x x 2
x2 y + dx = 2
x + dx = + =
0 3 0 0 3 3 3 0 3

Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
2 2 2 2 2
x +y dydx = x dydx + y dxdy = 2 x2 dydx =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
z=4 x2 2y 2 xy
(0, 0, 4)
xy
( ✓ ◆2
z=4 x2 2y 2 ⇣ x ⌘2 y
2 2
=) 4 = x + 2y () + p =1
z=0 2 2
p
(0, 0) 2 2
y
dydx

p y
q
2 4 x2
y= 2

2 2
x

q
4 x2
y= 2

Z 2 Z p(4 x2 )/2 Z 4 x2 2y 2
V = p dzdydx
2 (4 x2 )/2 0

Z 2 Z p(4 x2 )/2 Z 4 x2 2y 2
V =4 dzdydx =
0 0 0
Z 2 Z p(4 x2 )/2
4 4 x2 2y 2 dydx =
0 0
 p
Z 2 3 (4 x2 )/2
2 2y
4 4 x y dx =
0 3 0
Z 2✓ ◆
1 3/2 1 2 3/2
4 p 4 x2 p 4 x dx =
0 2 3 2
Z 2
8 3/2
p 4 x2 dx =
3 2 0
3/2

x = 2 sen ✓
4 x2 = 4 4 sen2 ✓ = 4(1 sen2 ✓) = 4 cos2 ✓
3/2
4 x2 = 8 cos3 ✓
dx = 2 cos ✓ d✓
 x = 0 =) 2 sen ✓ = 0 =) ✓ = 0
⇡
x = 2 =) 2 sen ✓ = 2 =) sen ✓ = 1 =) ✓ =
2

Z ⇡/2
8
= p 16 cos4 ✓ d✓ =
3 2 0

1 + cos(2↵)
cos2 ↵ =
2
✓ ◆2
2 1 + cos(2✓)
cos4 ✓ = cos2 ✓ = =
2
1
1 + 2 cos(2✓) + cos2 (2✓) =
4
1 1 1
+ cos(2✓) + (1 + cos(4✓))
4 2 8

Z ⇡/2
8
= p (4 + 8 cos(2✓) + 2 + 2 cos(4✓)) d✓ =
3 2 0
 ⇡/2
8 1 8 6⇡ 8⇡ p
p 6✓ + 4 sen(2✓) + sen(4✓) = p = p = 4 2⇡
3 2 2 0 3 2 2 2

z=1 x2 y2 z=1 y
(0, 0, 1)
yz x
z
( ✓ ◆2
z=1 x2 y2 2 2 2 1 1
=) x + y y = 0 () x + y =0
z=1 y 2 4

0, 12 1
2

y
1

z z
x 1 1
1 1
2 2

y x
1 1
 q dzdxdy x
1 1 2
p
x=± 4
y 2
=± y y2

Z 1 Z py y2 Z 1 x2 y 2 Z 1 Z py y2
V =2 dzdxdy = 2 y x2 y 2 dxdy =
0 0 1 y 0 0
p
Z 1 y y2 Z 1✓ ◆
2 x3 2 3/2 1 2 3/2
2 y y x dy = 2 y y y y dx =
0 3 0 0 3
Z 1
4 3/2 ⇡
y y2 dx = · · · =
3 0 32

sen t+1
y= 2

I = [a, b] I
f (x) = 1 I
Z b
L= dx = b a
a

Rb
a
f (x)dx x = g(t)
Z b Z d
f (x)dx = f [g(t)]g 0 (t)dt,
a c
a = g(c) b = g(d)

x g(t)

dx g 0 (t)dt

a b g 1 (a) g 1 (b)

g 0 (t)

(x, y) = T (u, v)
xy uv
uv
xy

(x, y) = T (u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v))

(x, y) = T (r, ✓) = (r cos ✓, r sen ✓)

(x, y) = T (u, v) = (u + v, u 2v)

( (
x(u, v) = u + v x=u+v
y(u, v) = u 2v y = u 2v

x = x(u, v) y = y(u, v)
(x, y) (u, v)

@(x, y) x x
J= = u v = xu yv xv yu
@(u, v) yu yv

(x, y) = (r cos ✓, r sen ✓)

@(x, y) x x cos ✓ r sen ✓

J= = r ✓ = = r cos2 ✓ + r sen2 ✓ = r
@(r, ✓) y r y ✓ sen ✓ r cos ✓
 (x, y) = T (u, v)
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x u
=A + B =) J = |A|
y v

(
x = 5u + 3v + 3
y = 2u + 2v 1

xu xv 5 3
J= = = 10 6=4
yu yv 2 2

(x, y) = T (u, v) = (u, uv)

(
x=u xu xv 1 0
J= = =u
y = uv yu yv v u

x = 2u cos v y = 3u sen v

uv xy

(u, v) J
(x, y) 1/J

R3
8
>
<x = x(u, v, w) xu xv xw
@(x, y, z)
y = y(u, v, w) =) J = = yu yv yw
>
: @(u, v, w)
z = z(u, v, w) zu zv zw

8
>
<x = r cos ✓
y = r sen ✓
>
:
z=z

xr x✓ xz cos ✓ r sen ✓ 0
J = yr y✓ yz = sen ✓ r cos ✓ 0 = r cos2 ✓ + r sen2 ✓ = r
zr z✓ zz 0 0 1
 8
>
<x = ⇢ sen cos ✓
y = ⇢ sen sen ✓
>
:
z = ⇢ cos
x⇢ x x✓ sen cos ✓ ⇢ cos cos ✓ ⇢ sen sen ✓
J = y⇢ y y✓ = sen sen ✓ ⇢ cos sen ✓ ⇢ sen cos ✓ =
z⇢ z z✓ cos ⇢ sen 0

⇢ ⇢ sen
sen cos ✓ cos cos ✓ sen ✓
2
= ⇢ sen sen sen ✓ cos sen ✓ cos ✓ =
cos sen 0
⇢2 sen cos2 cos2 ✓ + sen2 sen2 ✓ + cos2 sen2 ✓ + sen2 cos2 ✓ =
⇢2 sen cos2 + sen2 = ⇢2 sen

(x, y) = T (u, v)
S uv R xy f R
T S
@(x, y)/@(u, v) S
ZZ ZZ
@(x, y)
f (x, y)dxdy = f (T (u, v)) dudv.
R S @(u, v)

R xy S uv
f (x, y) f (T (u, v))

uv xy

y v
1
T (x, y)

R T (u, v) S
x u
RR RR
R
f (x, y) dxdy S
f (T (u, v))|J| dudv
 f (x, y)

f (x, y) x2 + y 2

f (x, y) = xy

✓
y 2⇡

x
1

r
1

x y
J = r

ZZ Z 1 Z 2⇡ Z 1 Z 2⇡
xy dxdy = r| cos
{z ✓} r| sen
{z ✓} |{z}
r d✓dr = r3 cos ✓ sen ✓ d✓dr =
0 0 0 0
x y J

✓
Z 1 Z 2⇡  1  2⇡
3 r4 sen2 ✓ 1
= r dr cos ✓ sen ✓ d✓ = = ·0= 0
0 0 4 0 2 0 4

R
RR x2 +y 2 = 1 x2 +y 2 = 5
2
R
(x + y) dA

y ✓
2⇡

p x
1 5

p r
1 5
 p
r r=1 r= 5 ✓ 0 2⇡
r✓

ZZ Z Z p
2⇡ 5
x2 + y dA = (r|2 cos 2
{z ✓} + r| sen
{z ✓}) |{z}
r dr d✓ =
R 0 1
x2 y J

Z Z p Z Z p
2⇡ 5 2⇡ 5
3 2
= r cos ✓ drd✓ + r2 sen ✓ drd✓ =
0 1 0 1
Z Z p Z Z p
2⇡ 5 2⇡ 5
2 3
cos ✓ d✓ r dr + sen ✓ d✓ r2 dr =
0 1 0 1
p p
Z 2⇡  4 5  3 5
1 r r
(1 + cos(2✓) d✓ + [ cos ✓]2⇡
0 =
2 0 4 1 | {z } 3 1
0
 2⇡ ✓ ◆
1 1 25 1 1 24
✓ + sen(2✓) = 2⇡ = 6⇡
2 2 0 4 4 2 4

R RR x 2y = 0 x 2y = 4 x+y = 4
x+y =1 R
3xy dA

(
2u+v
x= 3
u v
y= 3

J= 1/3

ZZ ZZ Z 4 Z 0
1 1 164
3xy dA = (2u + v)(u v)|J|dv du = 2u2 uv v 2 dv du =
R S 3 1 4 9 9

RR R (0, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (1, 0)

2
R
(x + y) sen2 (x y) dA
R x+y = 1
x y = 1 x+y = 3 x y = 1 u = x+y v = x y

(
x = 12 (u + v)
y = 12 (u v)
J= 1/2

ZZ Z 1 Z 3
2 2 1 13
(x + y) sen (x y)dA = u2 sen2 v du dv = · · · = (2 sen 2).
R 1 1 2 6
 r ⇢2 sen

p Q
z = 16 x2 y2 R x2 + y 2  4

p
z= 16 x2 y 2 () z 2 = 16 x2 y 2 () x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 16

x
2 4

y
2 4

r 2 [0, 2], ✓ 2 [0, 2⇡]

p p p
z= 16 x2 y2 = 16 r2 cos2 ✓ r2 sen2 ✓ = 16 r2

ZZZ Z Z Z p
2⇡ 2 16 r2
16⇡ ⇣ p ⌘
V = dV = r dzdrd✓ = · · · = 8 3 3
Q 0 0 0 3

✓ 2 [0, ⇡/2]
 Z 2 Z p4 y2 Z p16 x2 y 2
V = p dzdxdy
2 4 y2 0

x2 + y 2 r2

Q x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
r = 2 sen ✓

r = 2 sen ✓
r = 2 sen ✓ () r2 = 2r sen ✓ () x2 + y 2 = 2y () x2 + (y 1)2 = 1
y

x
2

z
p
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 () r2 + z 2 = 4 () z = ± 4 r2
✓
y 0 ✓ 0
⇡ Z Z Z p
⇡ 2 sen ✓ 4 r2
16
V = p
r dz dr d✓ = · · · = (3⇡ 4)
0 0 4 r2 9

f (x, y) = xy

Q
z 2 = x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9
z 2 = x2 + y 2 y
x
(
z 2 = x2 + y 2
=) z 2 = x2 =) z = ±x
y=0
(
z 2 = x2 + y 2
=) z 2 = y 2 =) z = ±y
x=0
 z z

x y
3 3

⇢2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9 =) ⇢ = 3

45 z
ZZZ Z 2⇡ Z ⇡/4 Z 3 p
V = dV = ⇢2 sen d⇢ d d✓ = · · · = 9⇡(2 2).
Q 0 0 0

f (x, y)
R xy S
z = f (x, y) R
ZZ q
S= 1 + [fx (x, y)]2 + [fy (x, y)]2 dA.
R

z = 2 x y
x2 + y 2 = 1 fx (x, y) = 1
fy (x, y) = 1 S
ZZ p q
p ZZ p
S= 3 dA = 3 dA = 3⇡4.
R R

z = 1 + x2 + y 2
fx (x, y) = 2x fy (x, y) = 2y
ZZ p
S= 1 + 4x2 + 4y 2 dA.
R

R 0r1 0  ✓  2⇡
Z Z
2⇡ 1 p ⇡⇣ p ⌘
S= 1 + 4r2 r dr d✓ = 5 5 1 .
0 0 6
 p
S z= 25 x2 y2
2 2
R x +y =9
@f x @f p p
=p , = y 25 x2 y2,
@x 25 x2 y2 @y

x2 + y 2 25
1 + [fx (x, y)]2 + [fy (x, y)]2 = 1 + = ,
25 x2 y 2 25 x2 y2
ZZ
5
S= p dA.
R 25 x2 y2
R 0r3 0  ✓  2⇡
Z 2⇡ Z 3
5r
S= p dr d✓ = 10⇡.
0 0 25 r2
 f :R !R
r : R ! Rn
f : Rn ! R

Rn Rn

F : Rn ! Rn

n=2 n=3

M N x y
R⇢R 2
F : R ! R2

F (x, y) = (M (x, y), N (x, y))

R
 y

✓ ◆
x+y y 1
F (x, y) = ,
2 2
R

x+y y 1
M (x, y) = N (x, y) =
2 2

F (0, 0) = 12 (0 + 0, 0 1) = 0, 1
2
F (1, 0) = 12 (1 + 0, 0 1) = 1
2
, 1
2
F (0, 1) = 12 (0 + 1, 1 1) = 1
2
,0 F (1, 1) = 12 (1 + 1, 1 1) = (1, 0)
y

M N P x y z
Q F : Q ! R3
F (x, y, z) = (M (x, y, z), N (x, y, z), P (x, y, z))
Q

F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j

F (x, y, z) = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, x)j + P (x, y, z)k
 rf (x, y) = (fx (x, y), fy (x, y)),

rf (x, y, z) = (fx (x, y, z), fy (x, y, z), fz (x, y, z)).

(x, y) F (x, y)

F (x, y) = (x, 2y)

kF k c
p
kF (x, y)k = (x2 + (2y)2 = c =) x2 + 4y 2 = c2 .

c
c=1 c=2

F
 F (x, y) = M i + N j
@M @N
div F = + .
@x @y
F (x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k
@M @N @P
div F = + + .
@x @y @z

r·F

✓ ◆
@ @ @
div F = , , · (M, N, P ) = r · F
@x @y @y

(2, 1, 1) F (x, y, z) = x3 y 2 zi+

2 2
x zj + x yk

@ @ @
div F (x, y, z) = x3 y 2 z + x2 z + x2 y = 3x2 y 2 z.
@x @y @z
(2, 1, 1)

div F (2, 1, 1) = 12

P = (x0 , y0 , z0 )

P
y

div < 0 div = 0 div > 0

F (x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@P @N @M @P @N @M
rot F (x, y, z) = i+ j+ k
@y @z @z @x @x @y
 r⇥F

i j k
@ @ @
rot F (x, y, z) = r ⇥ F (x, y, z) = @x @y @z
M N P

F (x, y, z) = 2xy i + (x2 + z 2 ) j + 2zy k

i j k
@ @ @
rot f (x, y, z) = @x @y @z = 0i + 0j + 0k.
2 2
2xy x + z 2zy

rot > 0

rot < 0

xy
z

F F (x, y) = (M, N )
 z

i j k ✓ ◆
@ @ @ @N @M
F (x, y, z) = (M, N, 0) ! rot F = @x @y @z = 0, 0,
@x @y
M N 0

div(rot F ) = 0

rf (x, y) = (fx , fy ) rf (x, y, z) = (fx , fy , fz )

F
f

F
f F
rf = F

F (x, y) = (x, 2y)

f F = (x, 2y)
f (
fx = x
rf = F ()
fy = 2y

x2
f (x, y) = + y2
2
 F f
C f +C

r(f + C) = rf + rC = F + 0 = F

M N
R F = (M, N )

@N @M
=
@x @y

F (x, y) = (x2 y, xy)

@ @
(xy) = y 6= x2 = x2 y
@x @y

F (x, y) = (2x, y)

@ @
(y) = 0 = (2x)
@x @y

M N P
Q F (x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k
rot F (x, y, z) = 0 F

@P @N @P @M @N @M
= = =
@y @z @x @z @x @y
 F = (M, N ) f F
(
fx = M
rf = F !
fy = N

Nx = M y

x
Z Z
fx = M ! f= fx dx = M dx

M (x, y) C
y x
x C(y)
Z
f = M (x, y) dx = A(x, y) + C(y)

A(x, y)

y A Ay (x, y) C(y)
0
C (y) C

fy = Ay (x, y) + C 0 (y)

fy = N

N (x, y) = Ay (x, y) + C 0 (y)

C 0 (y) x
N Ay y B(y)

C 0 (y) = N (x, y) Ay (x, y) = B(y)

y C
Z Z
0
C(y) = C (y) dy = B(y) dy + D

C(y)

f (x, y) = A(x, y) + C(y)

 x y
y

F (x, y) = 2xy i + (x2 y) j

@ @
(2xy) = 2x = x2 y !
@y @x

f F = rf
(
fx (x, y) = 2xy
fy (x, y) = x2 y
x
Z Z
fx (x, y) = 2xy =) f (x, y) = fx (x, y) dx = 2xy dx = x2 y + C(y).

y fy (x, y) = x2 y

@
x2 y + C(y) = x2 y =) x2 + C 0 (y) = x2 y =) C 0 (y) = y,
@y

Z
y2
C(y) = ( y) dy = + D,
2
D2R F

f (x, y) = x2 y y 2 + D,

F (x, y, z) = (y, x + 2yz, y 2 + 3z 2 )

i j k
@ @ @
rot F = @x @y @z = (2y 2y, 0 0, 1 1) = 0 !
y x + 2yz y 2 + 3z 2
 f (x, y, z)
8
>
< fx = y
rf = F ! fy = x + 2yz
>
:
fz = y 2 + 3z 2
x
C y z
Z Z
f= fx dx = y dx = xy + C(y, z)

C(x, y) y

fy = x + Cy (y, z) = x + 2yz
Cy y
D z x

Z
Cy (x, y) = 2yz =) C(x, y) = 2yz dy = y 2 z + D(z)

C(x, y) f
f = xy + y 2 z + D(z)
D(z) z

fz = y 2 + D0 (z) = y 2 + 3z 2
D0 (z) z E
y
F
Z
0 2
D (z) = 3z =) D(z) = 3z 2 dz = z 3 + E

D(z) f

f (x, y, z) = xy + y 2 z + z 3 + E

E=0
f
F
rf = (y, x + 2yz, y 2 + 3z 2 )

F (x, y) = (2xy 3 , 3x2 y 2 + 6y)

f (x, y) = x2 y 3 + 3y 2 + C

F (x, y, z) = (z, 2y + z, x + y)
f (x, y, z) = xz + y 2 + zy + C
 C r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j
t 2 [a, b] C x0 (t) y 0 (t)
C [a, b]

C
(x, y, z) f (x, y, z)
C P0 P1 Pn n

si i
(xi , yi , zi )

n
X
⇡ f (xi , yi , zi ) si .
i=1

k k
k k

f C
f C
Z X
f (x, y) ds = lı́m i = 1n f (xi , yi ) si
C k k!0

Z n
X
f (x, y, z) ds = lı́m f (xi , yi , zi ) si
C k k!0
i=1

C r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j

p
ds = kr 0 (t)k dt = [x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 dt.
 f C C
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j atb
Z Z b p
f (x, y) ds = f (x(t), y(t)) [x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 dt.
C a

C f ⌘1
Z Z b
C= 1 ds = kr 0 (t)k dt.
C a

R
C
(x2 y + 3z) ds C
(1, 2, 1)

x = (1 0)t = t, y = (2 0)t = 2t, z = (1 0)t = t,

0t1 x0 (t) = 1 y 0 (t) = 2 z 0 (t) = 1
p p
[x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 + [z 0 (t)]2 = 6

Z Z p
2
1
2
p 5 6
x y + 3z ds = t 2t + 3t 6 dt = .
C 0 6

C C 1 , C2 , . . . , C n f C

Z Z Z Z
f (x, y) ds = f (x, y) ds + f (x, y) ds + · · · + f (x, y) ds.
C C1 C2 Cn

R
C
x ds C
 C1 y=x
(
x=t
0t1
y=t
p p
[x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 = 2
Z Z p
1 p 2
x ds = t 2 dt = .
C1 0 2

C2 y = x2
(
x=1 t
0t1
y = (1 t)2
p p
[x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 = 1 + 4(1 t)2
Z Z 1 p 1 3/2
x ds = (1 t) 1 + 4(1 t)2 dt = 5 1 .
C2 0 12

Z Z Z p
2 1 3/2
x ds = x ds + x ds = + 5 1 .
C C1 C2 2 12

R
C
(x + 2) ds C r(t) = ti +
4 3/2 1 2
t j + tk 0t2
3 2 p p
r (t) = i + 2t1/2 j + tk kr 0 (t)k = [x0 (t)]2 + [y 0 (t)]2 + [z 0 (t)]2 = 1 + 4t + t2
0

Z Z 2 p 1 p
(x + 2) ds = (t + 2) 1 + 4t + t2 dt = (13 13 1).
C 0 3

T (t) C r(t)

F C
r(t) F C
Z Z Z b
F · dr = F · T ds = F (x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r 0 (t) dt
C C a

W
F C
 F (x, y, z) = xi xyj +
2
z k r(t) = cos ti+sen tj +tk
(1, 0, 0) ( 1, 0, 3⇡)
r 0 (t) = sen ti + cos tj + k F (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = cos ti cos t sen tj + t2 k

F (x(t), y(t), z(t)) · r 0 (t) = (cos ti cos t sen tj + t2 k) · ( sen ti + cos tj + k) =

sen t cos t sen t cos2 t + t2 .

Z Z 3⇡
2
W = F · dr = ( sen t cos t sen t cos2 t + t2 ) dt = 9⇡ 3
C 0 3

C
T (t) T (t)
Z Z
F ·r = F · dr
C C

R
F (x, y) = yi + x2 j C
F · dr

C1 : r1 (t) = (4 t)i + (4t t2 )j 0  t  3

C2 : r2 (t) = ti + (4t t2 )j 1  t  4

r 0 (t) = i + (4 2t)j F (x(t), y(t)) = (4t t2 )i + (4 t2 )j

Z Z 3
69
F · dr = ( 2t2 + 21t2 68t + 64) dt =
C1 0 2

r 0 (t) = i + (4t t2 )i + t2 j
Z Z 4
69
F · dr = ( 2t3 + 3t2 + 4t) dt =
C2 1 2
 F (x, y) = M i + N j C r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j
F ·dr M dx+N dy
Z Z Z b
dr
F · dr = F· dt = [(M i + N j) · (x0 (t)i + y 0 (t)j)] dt =
C C dt a
Z b✓ ◆ Z
dx dy
M +N dt = (M dx + N dy).
a dt dt C

C r(t) = 3 cos ti + 3 sen tj 0  t  2⇡

Z
y 3 dx + (x3 + 3xy 2 ) dy.
C
C x = 3cost y = 3 sen t 0  t 
2⇡ dx = 3 sen t dt dy = 3 cos t dt
Z
y 3 dx + (x3 + 3xy 2 ) dy =
C
Z 2⇡
[(27 sen3 t)( 3 sen t) + (27 cos3 t + 81 cos t sen2 t)3 cos t)] dt =
0
Z 2⇡
243⇡
81 cos4 t sen4 t + 3 cos2 t sen2 t dt =
0 4

y = h(x) a  x  b
x = t y = h(t) a  t  b
R
C
y dx + x2 dy C y = 4x x2
(4, 0) (1, 3)

x = t y = 4t t2 t
C dx = dt dy = (4 2t) dt
Z Z 1 Z 1
2 2 2 69
y dx + x dy = [(4t t ) + t (4 2t)] dt = 4t + 3t2 2t3 dt = .
C 4 4 2
 F (x, y) = 4xyi + 2x2 j (0, 0)
(1, 1)
C1 : y = x; C2 : x = y 2 ; C3 : y = x3 .

r(t) = ti + tj 0  t  1 dr = (i + j) dt
2 2
F (x, y) = 4t i + 2t j
Z Z 1
F · dr = 6t2 dt = 2
C1 0
p ⇣ ⌘
1
r(t) = ti + tj 0t1 dr = i + 2
p
2
j dt
F (x, y) = 4t3/2 i + 2t2 j
Z Z 1
F · dr = 5t3/2 dt = 2
C2 0

r(t) = ti + t3 j 0  t  1 dr =
2 4 2
(i + 3t j) dt F (x, y) = 4t i + 2t j
Z Z 1
F · dr = 10t4 dt = 2
C3 0

C R
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j a  t  b F (x, y) = M i + N j R M N
R
Z Z
F · dr = rf · dr = f (x(b), y(b)) f (x(a), y(a)),
C C
 f F F (x, y) = rf (x, y)

F
2
f (x, y) = 2x y C
(0, 0) (1, 1)
Z
F · dr = f (1, 1) f (0, 0) = 2
C

R
C
F · dr C (1, 4) (1, 2)
2
F (x, y) = 2xyi + (x y)j
F f (x, y) =
2 1 2
xy 2
y
Z
F · dr = f (1, 2) f ( 1, 4) = 4
C

F
C
C

R F
C
F · dr F

F
C1 C2 C3

C C
R

R C
C
R M N @M/@y @N/@x
R
Z ZZ ✓ ◆
@N @M
M dx + N dy = dA
C R @x @y

R
C
y 3 dx + (x3 + 3xy 2 ) dy
C (0, 0) (1, 1) y = x3 (1, 1) (0, 0)
y=x

M = y3 N = x3 + 3xy 2
Z ZZ ✓ ◆
3 3 2 @N @M
y dx + x + 3xy dy = dA =
C R @x @y
Z 1Z x
⇥ ⇤ 1
3x2 + 3y 2 3y 2 dy dx =
0 x3 4
 R
C
(arctan x + y 2 ) dx + (ey y x2 ) dy C

R 1r3 0✓⇡

@N @M
= 2x 2y = 2(r cos ✓ + r sen ✓)
@x @y

Z ZZ
2 y 2
arctan x + y dx + e y x dy = 2(x + y) dA =
C R
Z ⇡Z 3
2r(cos ✓ + sen ✓)r dr d✓ =
0
Z1 ⇡
52 104
(cos ✓ + sen ✓) d✓ = ,
3 0 3

@N/@x @M/@y = 1
Z ZZ
M dx + N dy = 1 dA = R
C R

M= y/2 N = x/2

R
C R
Z
1
A= x dy y dx
2 C
 x 2 y 2
a
+ b
=1

x = a cos t y = a sen t 0  t 
2⇡
Z Z
1 1
A= x dy y dx = [(a cos t)(b cos t) (b sen t)( a sen t)] dt =
2 C 2 C
Z Z
ab 2⇡ 2 2 ab 2⇡
cos t + sen t dt = dt = ⇡ab
2 0 2 0

F (x, y) = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j + 0k,

i j k ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
@ @ @ @N @M @N @M @N @M
rot F = r ⇥ F = @x @y @z = i+ j+ k= k,
@z @z @x @y @x @y
M N 0
@M @N
@z
= @z
=0 M N z
k
@N @M
(rot F ) · k =
@x @y

Z ZZ ✓ ◆ ZZ
@N @M
F · dr = dA = (rot F ) · k dA.
C R @x @y R
 ds = kr 0 (t)k dt C r(s) = x(s)i + y(s)j
T C r (s) = T (s) = x (s)i + y 0 (s)j
0 0

N = y (s)i x0 (s)j
0

F (x, y) = M i + N j
Z Z b Z b✓ ◆
dy dx
F · N ds = (M i + N j) · (y 0 (s)i 0
x (s)j) ds = M N ds =
C a a ds ds
Z Z ZZ ✓ ◆
@M @N
M dy N dx = N dx + M dy = + dA =
C C R @x @y
ZZ
div F dA
R

x y z u v D uv
(x, y, z)
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k

x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), z = z(u, v)

p
z= x2 + y 2
z = f (x, y)
u=x v=y
p
r(x, y) = xi + yj + x2 + y 2 k,
(x, y) xy
 S

r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k

D x y z
r u v
@x @y @z @x @y @z
ru = (u, v)i + (u, v)j + k, rv = (u, v)i + (u, v)j + k.
@u @u @u @v @v @v
S ru ⇥ rv
0 S (u0 , v0 ) 2 D
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (x(u0 , v0 ), y(u0 , v0 ), z(u0 , v0 ))

i j k
@x @y @z
N = ru (u0 , v0 ) ⇥ rv (u0 , v0 ) = @u @u @u
@x @y @z
@v @v @v

(x0 , y0 , z0 )

r(u, v) = ui + vj + u2 + v 2 k

(1, 2, 5)
(1, 2, 5) (u, v) = (1, 2) uv
ru = i + 2uk rv = j + 2vk ru (1, 2) = i + 2k rv (1, 2) = j + 4k

i j k
ru ⇥ rv = 1 0 2 = 2i 4j + k
0 1 2v

(1, 2, 5)

2(x 1) 4(y 2) + (z 5) = 0 =) 2x + 4y z=5

S D uv
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i + y(u, v)j + z(u, v)k S
D S
ZZ ZZ
= dS = kru ⇥ rv k dA
S D
 z = f (x, y)
r(x, y) = xi+yj+f (x, y)k
R xy rx =
i + fx (x, y)k ry = j + fy (x, y)k

i j k
rx ⇥ ry = 1 0 fx (x, y) fx (x, y)i fy (x, y)j + k,
0 1 fy (x, y)
p
krx ⇥ ry k = [fx (x, y)]2 + [fy (x, y)]2 + 1 S
ZZ q
1 + [fx (x, y)]2 + [fy (x, y)]2 dA
R

r(x, y) = (2 + cos u) cos vi + (2 + cos u) sen vj + sen uk,

D 0  u  2⇡ 0  v  2⇡

ru = sen u cos vi sen u sen vj + cos uk

rv = (2 + cos u) sen vi + (2 + cos u) cos vj,

ru ⇥ rv = (2 + cos u)(cos v cos ui + sen v cos uj + sen uk)

kru ⇥ rv k = 2 + cos u
ZZ Z 2⇡ Z 2⇡
A= kru ⇥ rv k dA = (2 + cos u) du dv = 8⇡ 2
D 0 0
 S z = g(x, y) R xy g
gx gy R f S f
S
ZZ ZZ q
f (x, y, z) dS = f (x, y, g(x, y)) 1 + [gx (x, y)]2 + [gy (x, y)]2 dA
S R

(x, z) (y, z)
S y = g(x, z) R
xz
ZZ ZZ p
f (x, y, z) dS = f (x, g(x, z), z) 1 + [gx (x, z)]2 + [gz (x, z)]2 dA
S R

S x = g(y, z) R yz
ZZ ZZ q
f (x, y, z) dS = f (g(y, z), y, z) 1 + [gy (y, z)]2 + [gz (y, z)]2 dA
S R

RR
S
(y 2 + 2yz) dS S
2x + y + 2z = 6

S z = 12 (6 2x y) = g(x, y) gx (x, y) = 1 gy (x, y) = 1

p 3
2
2 2
1 + [gx (x, y)] + [gy (x, y)] = 2
ZZ ZZ q
2
y + 2yz dS = f (x, y, g(x, y)) 1 + [gx (x, y)]2 + [gy (x, y)]2 dA =
S R

Z 3 Z 2(3 x) Z 3
243
3 y(3 x) dy dx = 6 (3 x)3 dx = ,
0 0 0 2
 R
C
F · T ds
C
C
S

S
N
S S

S z = g(x, y) G(x, y, z) = z g(x, y)

S
rG(x, y, z) gx (x, y)i gy (x, y)j + k
N= =p
krG(x, y, z)k 1 + [gx (x, y)]2 + [gy (x, y)]2
rG(x, y, z) gx (x, y)i + gy (x, y)j k
N= =p
krG(x, y, z)k 1 + [gx (x, y)]2 + [gy (x, y)]2

y = g(x, z) G(x, y, z) = y g(x, z)

x = g(y, z) G(x, y, z) = x g(y, z)
 S S
F S
S F

F ·N V = (F · N ) S

S
F S
F (x, y, z) = M i + N j + P k M N P
S
N F S
ZZ
F · N dS
S

⇢(x, y, z) (x, y, z)
ZZ
⇢F · N dS
S
S

S z=4 x2 y2 xy
⇢
S F (x, y, z) = xi + yj + zk
S
 S z=4 x2 y 2 G(x, y, z) = z 4 + x2 + y 2
R x2 + y 2  4

rG(x, y, z) 2xi + 2yj + k

N= =p
krG(x, y, z)k 1 + 4x2 + 4y 2

q p
dS = 1 + [gx (x, y)]2 + [gy (x, y)]2 dA = 1 + 4x2 + 4y 2 dA

ZZ ZZ
2x2 + 2y 2 + z p
⇢F · N dS = ⇢ p 1 + 4x2 + 4y 2 dA =
S R 1 + 4x2 + 4y 2
ZZ
⇥ ⇤
⇢ 4 + x2 + y 2 dA = 24⇡⇢
R

S z = g(x, y) R
xy
ZZ ZZ
F · N dS = F · ( gx (x, y)i gy (x, y)j + k) dA ,
S R

ZZ ZZ
F · N dS = F · (gx (x, y)i gy (x, y)j + k) dA ,
S R

Z ZZ
F · N dS = div F dA
C R

Q
Q
S Q
Q
S
 Q
S Q F
Q
ZZ ZZZ
F · N dS = div F dV
Q

Q
2x + 2y + z = 6 F = xi + y 2 j + zk
ZZ
F · N dS
S

S Q

@M @N @P
div F = + + = 1 + 2y + 1 = 2 + 2y,
@x @y @z

ZZ ZZZ Z 3 Z 3 y Z 6 2x 2y
63
F · N dS = div F dV = (2 + 2y) dz dx dy =
S Q 0 0 0 2
 Q z = 4 x2 y 2
xy F (x, y, z) = 2zi + xj + y 2 k

S1 N1 = k
S2
2xi + 2yj + k
N2 = p
4x2 + 4y 2 + 1

ZZ ZZ ZZ
F · N dS = F · ( k) dS + F · N2 dS =
S S1 S2
ZZ ZZ
2
y dA + F · (2xi + 2yj + k) dA =
R R
Z 2 Z p4 y 2 Z 2 Z p4 y 2
p y 2 dA + p 4xz + 2xy + y 2 dx dy = 0
2 4 y2 2 4 y2

@ @ @
div F = @x
(2z)+ @y (x)+ @z (y 2 ) = 0
ZZZ
0 dV = 0
Q

Q RR x2 + y 2 = 4 x+z = 6
xy S
F · N dS S Q F (x, y, z) =
2 y
(x + sen z) i + (xy + cos z)j + e k

ZZ ZZZ ZZZ
F · N dS = div F dV = (2x + x + 0) dV =
S Q Q

Z 2⇡ Z 2 Z 6 r cos ✓
(3r cos ✓)r dz dr d✓ = 12⇡,
0 0 0
 ZZ ZZZ
F · N dS = div F dV
S Q

S F

div F > 0

div F < 0

div F = 0

S
C
S C
N
N N
C

S N
C F
R
S C
Z ZZ
F · dr = (rot F ) · N dS
C S

C 2x+2y +z =
 R
6 C
F · dr F (x, y, z) = y 2 i + zj + xk

F
i j k
@ @ @
rot F = @x @y @z = i j + 2yk
y2 z x
z = 6 2x 2y = g(x, y)
Z ZZ ZZ
F · dr = (rot F ) · N dS = ( i j + 2yk) · ( gx (x, y)i gy (x, y)j + k) dA =
C S
ZZ Z 3 Z 3 y
(2y 4) dA = (2y 4) dx dy = 9,
R 0 0

F (x, y, z) = 2zi + xj + y 2 k
S z=4 x2 y2 C S xy

z = g(x, y) = 4 x2 y2

i jk
@ @ @
rot F = @x @y @z = 2yi + 2j + k
2
2z x y
N
ZZ ZZ
(rot F ) · N dS = (2yi + 2j + k) · (2xi + 2yj + k) dA =
S R
 Z 2 Z p4 y2
p (4xy + 4y + 1) dx dy = 4⇡
2 4 y2

r(t) = 2 cos ti + 2 sen tj + 0k, 0  t  2⇡

F (x, y, z) = 2zi + xj + y 2 k
Z Z Z Z 2⇡
2
F · dr = M dx + N dy = 2z dx + x dy + y dz = 4 cos2 t dt = 4⇡.
C C C 0