2013 SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF | ETHIOPIA & , ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY SITE INVESTIGATION MANUAL 2013Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Foreword FOREWORD The road network in Ethiopia provides the dominant mode of freight and passenger transport and thus plays a vital role in the economy of the country. The network comprises a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design, construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of service. As the length of the road network is increasing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment becomes increasingly important. In 2002, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) first brought out road design manuals to provide a standardized approach for the design, construction and maintenance of roads in the country. Due to technological development and change, these manuals require periodic updating. This current version of the manual has particular reference to the prevailing conditions in Ethiopia and reflects the experience gained through activities within the road sector during the last 10 years. Completion of the review and updating of the manuals was undertaken in close consultation with the federal and regional roads authorities and the stakeholders in the road sector including the contracting and consulting industry. Most importantly, in supporting the preparation of the documents, a series of thematic peer review panels were established that comprised local experts from the public and private sector who provided guidance and review for the project team. This Manual supersedes the Site Investigation Manual part of the ERA Design Manuals of 2002. The procedures set out shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by the concemed bodies within ERA. However, I should emphasize that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall be observed in the use of the manual, and under no cumstances shall the manual waive professional judgment in applied engineering. For simplification in reference this manual may be cited as ERA’s Site Investigation Manual - 2013. On behalf of the Ethiopian Roads Authority I would like to take this opportunity to thank DFID, Crown Agents and the AFCAP team for their cooperation, contribution and support in the development of the manual and supporting documents for Ethiopia, I would also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and participants who contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the development of the documents. Special thanks are extended to the members of the various Peer Review Panels ‘whose active support and involvement guided the authors of the manual and the process. It is my sincere hope that this manual will provide all users with both a standard reference and a ready source of good practice for the design of roads, and will assist in a cost effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network. I look forward to the practices contained in this manual being quickly adopted into our operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our country. ‘Comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iPreface Site Investigation Manual 2013. PREFACE The Ethiopian Roads Authority is the custodian of the series of technical manuals, standard specifications and bidding documents that are written for the practicing engineer in Ethiopia. The series describe current and recommended practice and set out the national standards for roads and bridges. They are based on national experience and international practice and are approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority. This Site Investigation Manual -2013 forms part of the Ethiopian Roads Authority series of Road and Bridge Design documents. The complete series of documents, covering all roads and bridges in Ethiopia, are contained within the series: Geomet Design Manual 1 2. Site Investigation Manual 3. Geotechnical Design Manual 4. Route Selection Manual 5. Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements 6. Pavement Design Manual Volume II Rigid Pavements 7. Pavement Rehabilitation and Asphalt Overlay Design Manual 8. Drainage Design Manual 9. Bridge Design Manual 10. Low Volume Roads Design Manual 11. Standard Environmental Procedures Manual 12, Standard Technical Specifications 13. Standard Detailed Drawings 14, Standard Bidding Documents for Road Work Contracts — A series of Bidding Documents covering a full range from large scale projects unlimited in value to minor works with an upper threshold of $300,000. The higher level documents have both Local Competitive Bidding and International Competitive Bidding versions These documents are available to registered users through the ERA website: www.era.gov.et Manual Updates Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new policies or revised laws of the land or that is mandated by the relevant Federal Government Ministry or Agency should be incorporated into the manual from their date of effectiveness. Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may be accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new page(s) incorporating the revision, together with the revision date, will be issued and inserted into the relevant chapter. All suggestions to improve the draft manual should be made in accordance with the following procedures: Page ii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Preface 1, Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.cra.gov.et 2. Proposed changes should be outlined on the Manual Change Form and forwarded with a covering letter of its need and purpose to the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority. 3. Agreed changes will be approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads Authority on recommendation from the Deputy Director General (Engineering Operations). 4, The release date be notified to all registered users and authorities. Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iiiPreface Site Investigation Manual 2013. ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY CHANGE CONTROL DESIGN MANUAL MANUAL CHANGE ‘This area to be completed by the ERA Director of Quality Assurance Manual Title: CHANGE NO. (SECTION NO. CHANGE NO. Section Table Figure Page Explanation Suggested Modification ‘Submitted by: Name: Designation: ‘Company/Organisation Address email: Date: Manual Change Action ‘Authority Date _| Signature_| Recommended Action Approval Registration Director Quality Assurance Deputy Director General Eng.Ops Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change: Director General ERA: Date: Page iv Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Acknowledgements ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) wishes to thank the UK Government’s Department for International Development (DFID) through their Africa Community Access Programme (AFCAP) for their support in developing this Site Investigation Manual — 2013. The manual will be used by all authorities and organisations responsible for the provision of roads in Ethiopia. This Site Investigation Manual-2013 is based on a review of local and international procedures and is based largely on ERA’s Site Investigation Manual — 2002 but includes improvements and extensions to deal with topics that were not included in the earlier manual. This manual also contains relevant parts of ERA’s Low Volume Roads Design Manual. From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors and stakeholders in Ethiopia, The input from the international team of experts was supplemented by our own extensive local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and experience was shared through review workshops to discuss and debate the contents of the draft manual. ERA wishes to thank all the individuals who gave their time to attend the workshops and provide valuable inputs to the compilation of the manual. In addition to the workshops, Peer Review Groups comprising specialists drawn from within the local industry were established to provide advice and comments in their respective areas of expertise. The contribution of the Peer Group participants is gratefully acknowledged. The final review and acceptance of the document was undertaken by an Executive Review Group. Special thanks are given to this group for their assistance in reviewing the final draft of the document. Finally, ERA would like to thank Crown Agents for their overall management of the project As with the other manuals of this series, the intent was, where possible, and in the interests of uniformity, to use those tests and specifications included in the AASHTO and/or ASTM Materials references. Where no such reference exists for tests and specifications mentioned in this document, other references are used. or No. Organization 1 Amare Assefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vAcknowledgements a Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013, No. Name Organization 1 Abebe Asefa, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Alemayehu Ayele, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority Asnake Haile, Ato OMEGA Consulting Engineers Asrat Sewit, Ato Saba Engineering Colin Gourley, Dr. ERA/DRID Ethiopian Roads Authority Bfrem Degefu, Ato BEACON Consulting Engineers Fikert Arega, W/ro Et iopian Roads Authority 2 3 4 5 6 | Daniel Nebro, Ato 7 8 9 Muse Belew, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 10 _| Shimelis ‘esfaye, Ato Spice Consult 11 _ | Tewodros Alene, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority 12 | Zerihun Nuru, Ato Gondwana Engineering Team No. Name Organization Role 1 [Bekele Negussie | ERA ‘AFCAP Coordinator for Ethiopia 2_| Abdo Mohammed | ERA. Project Coordinator 3 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator 4 | Lulseged Ayalew | AFCAP/Crown Agents _| Lead Author 5 _| Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents | Technical Manager 6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Director Addis Ababa, 2013 Zaid Wolde Gebriel Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vi Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013, Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreworp. 1 PREFACE ssssstnteneutintnnenentinnanenenenninneneneneininenenasnnenanentnaenenenainnsenell ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS sss ‘TABLE OF CONTENT! vu List OF FiGures LIST OF TABLES ssssssssststesenese GLossary OF TERMS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .. 1 INTRODUCTION sess 1.1 Background and Conte: 1.2 Objectives... 1.3. Scope .. 1.4 Stages of Site Investigation 1.5. Approach .. 1.6 Manual Structure 1.7 Types of road projects 17d New Construction. 1.7.2 Rehabilitation. 2 1.7.3 Reconstruction (including upgrading)... 1.8 The Site Investigation Team. 1.9 Other Factors . . 1.9.1 Health, Safety and the Environment. 1.9.2 Site Access 1.9.3 Presence of Existing Services 1.9.4 Security. evn 1.9.5 Socio-political considerations. 1.9.6 Proximity to Existing Roads and Waterways 2. PHYSIOGRAPIHTY, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY AND SOIL DISTRIBUTIONS. 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Physiography and landform 23° Climate .rnnnrnn 23.1 Climatic Zones.... ae Climatic Indices 24 Geology — 2.5. Soil type and distribution... 2.6 Land cover and land use 3. INVESTIGATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUE! Introduction .. Topographic and them: Remote Sensing... Geophysical methods... Seismic refraction ss ic maps. BROOE Ethiopian Roads Authority Page viiTable of Contents Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013. 3.6 Electrical resistivity... 3.7. Pits and Trenches 3.8 Boring. 3.8.1 Auger boring 3.8.2 Wash type boring... 3.8.3 Rotary wash boring. 3.8.4 — Drilling in rock. .. 3.9 Pit, Trench and Boring Logs. 3.10 Sampling.. . 3.11 In-situ tests. 4 SOIL AND ROCK DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION.. 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Soil description. 4.3. Coarse grained soils 4.4 Fine grained soils .. 4.5. Soil classification 4.6 Engineering characteristics of soil 4.6.1 Coarse grained soils... 4.6.2 Fine grained soils. AT Rock... 1 Description. 2 Rock name. “3 Lithological descriptions. 4 Rock colour .... 5 6 Bedding. 6 Weathering. 4.7.7 Rock strengtlt.o.on 4.7.8 Rock discontinuity. SITE INVESTIGATION STAGES .. 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Desk study 5.2.1 Identifying sources of information 5.2.2 Reviewing available information ... 5.3 Reconnaissance survey. 5.4 Preliminary site investiga 5.5 Final site investigation 6 DESIGN DATA SURVEYS. 6.1 Introduction “6-2 6.2 Sub-grade characterization.. 1 Location and spacing of test pits and borings. nt 7) 2 Depth of test pits and boreholes 6-5 22.3 Laboratory testing snnnsrnesnnrninn seonnnnnninnnnnns O03 2.4 — Subsurface profile . rn seernnnnnns BoB Road Cuts and Embankments 6-9 on 6-10 3D Road CUS rrrnnnnnnn . o . 3.2 Embankments 6-13 4 River crossings 6-16 6.4.1 Bridges oe 617 Page viii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manval — 2013. Table of Contents 6.4.2 Subsurface investigation. 6.4.3 Footings 6.4.4 Driven Piles 6.4.5 Drilled Shafts. 6.4.6 Potential scour depth... 64.7 Inspection of existing bridges. 6.4.8 Culverts. 6.4.9 Low water crossings. 7 SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Landslides..n. 7.2.1 Types of landslides .. 7.2.2 Depths of landslides 7.2.3 The role of groundwater. 7.2.4 — Landslide mapping .. 7.2.5 Exploration and sampling . 7.2.6 Monitoring... 7.3. Expansive soils 7.3.1 Identification. 7.3.2 Laboratory tests. 7.4 Collapsible soils... 7.4.1 Identification. 7.4.2 Strengths 7.4.3 Collapse potential. 7.5. Dispersive soils. 7.5.1 Laboratory tests uuu 7.5.2 Field identification... 7.6 Colluvial soils. 7.6.1 Exploration techniques. 7.6.2 Engineering characteristics..... 7.7. Lateritie soils... 7.7.1 Identification. 7.7.2. Special properties 7.8 Saline soils. 7.9 Degradable rocks 7.10 Groundwater... 7.11 Wetlands. 7.12. Disposal sites 8 — CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL SURVEYS.. 8.1 Introduction ....... 8.2 Investigation procedures. 8.2.1 Aerial photographs... 8.2.2 Pits and borings... 8.3 Material types 1 Common Fill. 2 Sub-grade and capping layer. 3 Unbound granular pavement materials... sense 4 Bitumen-Bound Granular Layers and Surfacing Aggregates 8-7 20 90 90 Se we ee Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ixTable of Contents Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013. 84 Sources of materials 8-8 8.4.1 Borrow pits ee o ee soe BD 8.4.2 Quarry materials 8-10 8.5 Laboratory tests.. 8-11 8.5.1 Basic engineering tests. on SLT 8.5.2 Aggregate tests. soon os oid 8.5.3 Chemical and petrographic test 817 8.6 Sampling — 8.17 8.7 _ The Geological Background 8-18 8.7.1 Sedimentary rOCKS econo even 819 8.7.2 Volcanic rocks.. seen 7 seen 8-20 8.7.3 Plutonic rocks. 8-20 8.7.4 Pyroclastic rocks... 821 8.7.5 Metamorphic rocks. oe 821 8.8 The influence of weathering 8-22 8.9 Local sources of rocks and soi 8-25 8.10 Sources of sand 8-25 8.11 Sources of water oe B25 9 CONSTRUCTION REVIEW sve —— revemeennies 9-1 9.1 Introduction... 9-1 9.2 Subgrade conditions... oe De 9.3. Road cuts 93 9.4 Embankments.. 94 9.5 River crossings 9-5 9.6 Landslides. 9-6 9.7 Retaining walls...... 9-7 9.8 Construction materials. 97 9.9 Pavement condition survey... 9-9 10. REPORTS AND CHECKLISTS snsnnnnnnmmnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnminnnnnnnnnsnsee el 10.1 Introduetion 10-1 10.2 Reports 10-1 10.2.1 The site investigation report. ...smssnsinnnnnnness 10-1 10.2.2 Soil and materials report. -. 10-5 10.3 Checklists ....sssssssssssssssssssssseses ws 10-6 T1_REFERENCES .jnnssnnnnninnnnnnntnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnsses MeL ApreNInIX A ‘THE DYNAMIC CONE PENETROMETER (DCP) TEST 1 APPENIDIXB SYSTEMS OF ROCK MATERIALS AND DISCONTINUITY DESCRIPTION .... 1 APPENIDIXC SUMMARY OF GEOTECHNICAL NEEDS AND TESTING CONSIDERATIONS 1 APPENIDIXD COMMON SOIL LABORATORY TESTS.:ossststseese Page x Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013, List of Tables LisT OF FIGURES igure 1.1: Phased Approach to Site Investigation (Geotechnical aspects) Figure 2.1: Physiographic regions of Ethiopia ure 2.2: Traditional climatic zones in Ethiopia. Figure 2.3: Rainfall distribution of Ethiopi = Figure 2.4: Generalized geological map of Ethiopia, igure 2.5: Agricultural soil map of Ethiopia. sure 2.6: Land cover and land use map of Ethiopia... Figure 3.1: Illustration of the Geophysical Seismic Refraction Method. Figure 3.2: The Basic Installation of Electrical Resistivity Apparatus Figure 4.1: The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)... Figure 6.1: Different Options of Sub-grade Location: Figure 6.2: Illustrations of Instability and Settlements Concerns in Embankments .. Figure 6.3: An example of a subsurface profile at a bridge site. Figure 7.1: Schematic Illustrations of Slope Failure - Fall and Topple. igure 7.2: Rotational (slump) and Translational (planar) Landslide sure 7.3: Examples of flow and creep. ure 7.4: Landslides Related to a Perched Water Table... ure 7.5: Illustration of Borehole Locations to Investigate a Failed Slope.. Figure 7.6: Distribution of Survey Stakes and Inclinometers in a Landslide... Figure 7.7: Red Clays with Significant Plasticity around Bako in Wellega. .. Figure 7.8: Classification Chart for Swelling Potential (after Seed et al, 1962)... Figure 7.9: Guide to Collapsibility and Expansion... igure 7.10: Collapse holes near Shashemene Figure 7.11: Erosion Gulies at Roadcuts in the Rift Valley near Arsi Negele. ... Figure 7.12: Test for the Dispersive Nature of Soil Figure 7.13: Colluvium from Basalt and Volcanoclastic Rocks - Blue Nile basin. Figure 7.14: Nodular Laterite - Assossa-Kurmuk Road Project Figure 7.15: Salt Deposits in the Dallol Depression (Northern Afar region) jure 7.16.: Degradable Shale Underlying a Sandstone Layer - Road Cut near Kulbi Figure 7.17: Illustration of the Movement and Occurrence of Groundwater Near Roadways igure 8.1: The Relative Engineering and Excavation Concerns for Different Rocks ...8-19 Figure 8.2: Schematic Illustration of a Cross Section in a Quarry. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiList of Tables. Site Investigation Manual — 2013. List OF TABLES Table 2.1: Ethiopian Climatic Zone: Table 2.2: Thornthwaite Moisture Regions. Table 2.3: A summary of the characteristics and distribution of soils in Ethiopia.....2-11 Table 3.1: Common site investigation technique: Table 3.2: Comparison of Geophysical Methods. = Table 3.3: Comparison of Different Types of Test Pit and Trenching Methods 3-8 Table 3.4: Soils and Soft Rock Boring Methods. Table 3.5: Example of a Pit Log. .. Table 3.6: Example of a Standard Boring Log. Table 3.7: Common In-Situ Tests for Foundation Investigation Table 4.1: Particle Size Definition for Gravels and Sands... Field Identification Procedures for Fine Grained Soils : A Field Method to Describe Plasticity in terms of Dry Strength... 44 Additional Tests to Identify Fine Grained Soils in the Field The AASHTO soil classification system. . : Rock groups and types... : Terminology for Layer Thickness... ‘Terminology for Rock Mass Weatherin ; Description of rock strength in the field iscontinuity Spaci 4-13 414 416 4-17 oo 4-18 Table 4 10: Basic Steps for a Typical Investigation to Design a Road. 5-2 Ethiopian Data Sources for Site Investigation 54 he Frequency and Depth of Investigation for Sub-grade Characteri 6-4 : The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test 6-6 Options for Measuring Dry Density. 6-8 Information Needs During the Design of Road Cuts and Embankments.........6-9 : Suggested spacing and depth of trenches and boreholes for road cuts. ..n.n 6-11 Investigation Needs for Embankments sen 614 Spacing and Depth of Exploration Points 6-15 Table 6.8: Information Needs for Design of Different Types of Bridge Foundations... 6-19 Table 6.9: The Minimum Number and Depth of Exploration Points for Bridge Foundations 6-23 Table 6.10: Indicators of Active or Potential Scour at or around Existing Bridges.......6-25 Table 7.1: Classification of Expansive Soils according to US Bureau of Reclamation...7-14 Table 7.2: Qualitative Assessment of Collapse Potential TIT Table 7.3: Relationship between the Degree of Dispersion and % of Exchange Sodium. 7-18 Table 7.4: Guide to Interpret of the Result of the Jar Slake Test 7-28 Table 7.5: The Characteristics of Rocks as Potential Sources of Seepage at Road Cuts.7-31 Table 8.1: Techniques that Assist the Investigation of Construction Materials. 8-2 Table 8.2: General Requirements for Fill Materials... 185 Table 8.3: General sub-grade and capping layer material requirements. seve 86 Table 8.4: The requirements for unbound granular pavement materials .. 8-7 Table 8.5: Requirements for Bitumen-Bound and Surfacing Aggregate Materials........ 88 Table 8.6: Borrow pitting and quarrying methods... 8-9) Table 8.7: Types of Tests required to Analyse Materials for various purposes. 8-12 Table 8.8: Basic Engineering Tests needed for Material Analyses.... 8-13 Table 8.9: Field tests useful to identify engineering properties of soils and rocks....... 14 Page xii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manval — 2013. List of Tables Table 8.10: Aggregate strength and durability test: Table 8.11: Sample sizes needed for different tests Table 8.12: Weathering Grades for Describing and Class Materials, Table 8.13: The Local Distribution and Usage of Mat Table 10.1: Site Investigation Checklist. ing Road Construction ials for Road Construction ... Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiiiGlossary of Terms Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 GLOssaryY OF TERMS Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock. Alluvium Loose, unconsolidated (not cemented together into a solid rock), soil or sediments, eroded, deposited, and reshaped by water in some form in a non-marine setting. Basalt A hard, dense, dark voleanie rock composed chiefly of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, and often having a glassy appearance. Bedrock ‘The more or less continuous body of rock that underlies the overburden Bench Step in a slope formed by a horizontal surface and a surface inclined at a steeper angle than that of the entire slope. Berm A shelf that breaks the continuity of a slope. Borrow Area ‘An area within designated boundaries approved for the purpose Borrow Material Boulder Chippings Colluvium Compressive Strength Consolidation Core Culvert Cut of obtaining borrow material. A borrow pit is the excavated pit the borrow area. Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash obtained from borrow areas, dumps or sources other than cut within the road prism which is used for construction of the specified work for the project. It doe not include crushed stone or sand obtained from commercial sources. ‘A rock fragment usually rounded by weathering or abrasion with an average dimension of 0.3 m or more. Stones or aggregate used for thin bituminous surface dressings (treatments). Loose bodies of sediment that have been deposited or built up at the bottom of a low-grade slope or against a barrier on that slope, transported by gravity The load per unit area at which an unconfined cylindrical specimen of soil or rock will fai in a simple compression test. The gradual reduction in volume of a increase in compressive stress. soil mass resulting from an A cylindrical sample rock, concrete, hardened grout or grouted deposits usually obtained from core drilling. ‘A structure other than bridge that provides an oper carriageway or median for drainage or other purposes. 1g under the Cut means all excavations from the road prism including side- drains, and excavations from intersecting roads (including open drains when classified as cut). Page xiv Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013. Glossary of Terms Faulting Ferricrete gravel Fill Foundation Gravel Groundwater Lacustrine deposits Laterite Massif Mountainous terrain Physiography Project specifications Quarry Quartzite Reconstruction Rectilinear A fracture in the continuity of a rock formation caused by a shifting or dislodging of the earth's crust in which adjacent surfaces are displaced relative to one another and parallel to the plane of fracture. A mineral conglomerate consisting of surficial sand and gravel cemented into a hard mass by iron oxide derived from the oxidation of percolating solutions of iron salts. Materials from which a man-made raised structure or deposit such as an embankment is constructed. These could include soils, soil-aggregate or rock. Materials imported to replace unsuitable roadbed material are also classified as fill. Lower part of a structure that transmits the load to the soil or rock. Rounded or semi-rounded particles of rock that will pass a 75 mm sieve and be retained on a 4.75 mm sieve. That part of the subsurface water that is in the saturated zone. Sedimentary deposits that is laid down in the waters of a lake. Soil types rich in iron and aluminium, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. ‘A prominent upland usually of considerable extent. Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in both vertical and horizontal alignment. The study of physical features of the earth's surface (physical geography). The specifications of a project that form part of the contract documentation and which contain supplementary and/or amending specifications to the standard specifications, An area within existing boundaries approved for the purpose of obtaining rock by sawing or blasting A rock consisting entirely of quartz; white, very hard rock that shows little or no granular structure. The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing mostly new materials, to replace an existing pavement. A form of drainage pattem in which the streams flow at right angles to each other, controlled by the joint pattern of the underlying rocks. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvGlossary of Terms Rehabilitation Rhyolite Roadbase Roadbed Roadbed Material Roadway Scarp Schist Shear Strength Stability Stabilisation Subbase Subgrade Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an existing pavement. This may include overlays and pre-overlay repairs, and may include complete removal and reconstruction of the existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials. An acid igneous rock of the same mineral composition as granite, but of fine grain. The fine grain is caused by rapid chilling of a lava flow and the consequent suppression of the growth of large crystals. A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on top of the sub-base, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A roadbase may extend to outside the carriageway. The natural in situ material on which the fill, or in the absence of fill, any pavement layers, are to be constructed. The material below the subgrade extending to such depth as affects the support of the pavement structure The area normally travelled by vehicles and consisting of one or a number of contiguous traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and shoulders. ‘A slope formed on the exposed ends of a tilted sequence of rocks. The slope is usually associated with a dip slope, which is developed on the exposed upper bed in the sequence. Scarp slopes are usually steeper and more irregular than dip slopes. ‘A metamorphic rock characterised by a parallel arrangement of most of its constituent minerals, which are chiefly micas. Schists are usually soft, easily weathered, and easily split along the plane of weakn ‘The maximum resistance of a soil or rock to shearing stresses. The condition of a structure or a mass of material when it is able to support the applied stress for a long time without suffering any significant deformation or movement that is not reversed by the release of stress. The treatment of the materials used in the construction of the road bed material, fill or pavement layers by the addition of a cementitious binder such as lime or Portland Cement or the mechanical modification of the material through the addition of a soil binder or a bituminous binder. Concrete and asphalt shall not be considered as materials that have been stabilized. ‘The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the subgrade and below the roadbase. ‘The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are constructed. Page xvi Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual ~ 2013. Glossary of Terms ‘Traps Vertisol Volcanism Wadi Wetland A common name for basaltic lava flows. A soil in which there is a high content of expansive clay known as montmorillonite that forms deep cracks in drier seasons or years. The phenomena associated with voleanie activity, A flat-floored valley with an intermittent stream, characteristic of arid and semi-arid areas. An area of land whose soil is saturated with moisture either permanently or seasonally. Such areas may also be covered partially or completely by shallow pools of water. Wetlands include swamps, marshes, and bogs, among others. The water found in wetlands can be saltwater, freshwater, or brackish. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xviiAbreviations Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013, ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AAV Aggregate Abrasion Value AC Asphaltic Conerete ACV Aggregate Crushing value AFCAP Africa Community Access Programme AV Aggregate Impact value ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials CBR California Bearing Ratio cR Core recovery DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer DEM Digital Evaluation Model DFID Department for International Development, UK. DMT Dilatometer test DOS! Depth of Significant Influence E Young’s Modulus EMA Ethiopian Mapping Agency ERA Ethiopian Roads Authority 10% FACT 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Test FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer GI Group Index GSE Geological Survey of Ethiopia HCI Hydrochloric Acid HS&E Health, Safety and the Environment I; Flakiness Index I Elongation Index ITCZ Inter-tropical Convergence Zone MDD Maximum Dry Density OMC Optimum Moisture Content LAA Los Angeles Abrasion Li Liquidity Index LL Liquid Limit Page xviii Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manval 2013, Abbreviations and Acronyms MCV MDD MPa. omc PL PL PMS PMT PSD Psv RQD SAICE SASW SPT TCDE, TRL uscs vsT wel 3-D Moisture Condition Value Maximum Dry Density Mega Pascal Optimum Moisture Content Plasticity Index Plastic Limit Pavement Management System Pressure Meter Test, Particle Size Distribution Polished Stone Value Rock Quality Designation South African Institute of Civil Engineers Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Standard Penetration Test Transport Construction Design Enterprise ‘Transport Research Laboratory Unified Soil Classification System Vane Shear Test Weighted Plasticity Index Three Dimensional Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xixChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background and Context All roads, whether they are built above or below the ground surface, use naturally ‘occurring soils and rocks as the basic foundation and construction materials. Unlike man- made materials, the properties of these soils and rocks are highly variable and a function of the complex natural processes that occurred in the geologic past. As a consequence, road construction engineers are faced with the challenge of using soils and rocks available near the project site, whose properties are often unknown and of variable quality. Hence, the investigation of potential sites and alignments is a vital and integral part of the location, design and construction of a road and its associated structures. It provides essential information on the following: * Characteristics of the soils along the possible alignments; * Availability of construction materials; * Topography; © Land use; * Environmental issues; and * Socio-political considerations. Typical uses of the information are; # Selection of the route/alignment of the road; * Location of water crossings and drainage structures; * Provision of design information for the road pavements, bridges and other structures; © Identification of areas of possible geotechnical problems requiring specialist investigation; * Identification of areas of possible problem soils requiring additional investigation and treatment; * Location and assessment of suitable, locally available, borrow and construction material. From the above, it is evident that the main component of site investigations is focussed on what is generally described as ‘engineering’ or, more precisely, “geotechnical engineering’ and itis these investigations that will be the focus of this manual. It is recognised that various other types of surveys are required for the design of a road Hydrological surveys are required to determine the water flows that determine the drainage design of the road, including bridges; traffic surveys are required to estimate the numbers of vehicles that will use the road, both motorised and non-motorised; surveys are required to evaluate environmental impacts and how to control them; surveys are required in which the local communities are consulted about the road project; and so on. Guidance on conducting these surveys is provided in the respective ERA Manuals. It is important to note that the Route Selection manual and Geotechnical Design manual produced as part of the 2013 series of ERA manuals provide more comprehensive guidance on route selection and geotechnical design than was previously provided in the 2002 Site Investigation Manual and other manuals in the 2002 series. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page [-1Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 Not all projects will require the same detailed surveys. Road projects fall into one of the following categories: ‘* A new road that follows the general alignment of an existing track or trail; ‘© Upgrading a lower class of road to a higher class; ‘* A completely new road where nothing currently exists, Some realignment, and therefore site investigation, will almost certainly be necessary when upgrading an existing road and considerably more will be required when converting a track into an all-weather route. Major site investigations are usually only needed when designing and building a completely new road. In all cases the extent and quality of any investigation has a strong influence on the selection of the most cost-effective route and road design. Roads of all standards require sufficient investigation to provide sufficient data and information to enable the engineer to optimise the design. In this respect, itis the job of the design engineer to ensure that a well-designed and organised site investigation is undertaken, The design engineer must therefore specify a site investigation programme for the site investigation teams (survey, materials, geotechnical, socio-environmental) that will provide adequate information and data to examine the feasibility of all the routes and designs under consideration. Site investigation techniques encompass a large range of methods and the amount and type of exploration that is needed for a specific road will depend on the nature of the proposed project and the environment in which it is to be built. Information is provided in the manual on the various site investigation techniques that could be used depending on the prevailing circumstances. Each site investigation technique has its own purpose and when two or more are taken together in the right combination they can provide a valuable insight into the subsurface conditions. Deciding which technique to use when, where and how, is normally made by geotechnical engineers with a good geological knowhow or engineering geologist with a background of road design. The practice can also be performed by a team comprising pavement engineers and geologists. It is also important to emphasise that without exception, it is always more cost-efective to undertake an appropriate site investigation (depending on the category and importance of the road) from the start of the project rather than trying to rescue an inadequate investigation during construction or even worse, after the construction has been completed. The preparation of this document represents the interests of the Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) to revise and upgrade the 2002 site investigation manual. It is the responsibility of the user to ensure that the use of this document conforms to the policies and engineering practices of ERA. 1.2 Objectives ‘The main objective of this manual is to provide sufficient guidance on site investigation for road design so that the necessary input data can be developed and proper engineering principles applied to the design of new roads, or upgrading and rehabilitation of existing roads. This manual is prepared to provide project engineers with tools to assist in the Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction rational development of site investigation programmes, the execution of suitable in-situ and laboratory tests and the interpretation of data obtained from these programmes and test results. 13. Scope The ERA (2002) site investigation manual provided the foundation for this manual. However, this edition of the manual contains a number of major additions and modifications in the contents and the structure. For example, unlike the previous manual, formation is provided on the general distribution of soils and rocks in the country. In many cases in Ethiopia the soils which form the foundation or sub-grade of the roads in any specific climatic, traffic and terrain conditions become the most critical component in the design and construction of the road. For this reason, the document attempts to addres the entire range of soil materials potentially encountered in different regions of Ethiopia so as to assist engineers in selecting appropriate investigation techniques for each landform, geological makeup and climatic region, It should however be stressed that this manual is not all encompassing in terms of explaining every technique and procedure that can be used to investigate roads during the design phase. Practitioners will need to use other references to broaden their knowledge and use diverse approaches for different conditions. In addition, this manual must be used in conjunction with other documents such as the ERA Pavement Design Manual, Geotechnical Design Manual, Bridge Design Manual, Drainage Design Manual and the Route Selection Manual. Moreover, although laboratory tests that are useful for pavement design are listed in appropriate sections and appendices, detailed procedures are not covered in this manual, The procedures given in this manual should be adhered to, unless otherwise directed by ERA. However, it should also be understood that careful consideration to geotechnical engineering practice should be observed in the use of the manual, and under no circumstances shall the manual be used as an excuse to disregard professional and expert judgment. In addition to the guidance given on site investigation requirements, the document also recommends a phased investigation approach that will be essential to all. projects irrespective of size. As a good indication, international practice suggests that expenditure of 2% of the project costs on adequate site investigation has the potential of saving the client between 10% and 100% on over-expenditure of project foundation and structural costs. 1.4 Stages of Site Investigation Some form of site investigation is required at all stages in the development of a road project. In general there are four stages leading up to and including Final Engineering Design. These are; 1 Identification and general planning; 2 Pre-feasibility study; 3. Feasibility Study or Preliminary Engineering Design; Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-3Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 4 Final Engineering Design. More detail is presented in Chapter 5 related on the site investigations associated with each stage. It should also be noted that not all stages are required for all projects. 1.5 Approach Figure 1.1 highlights the phased approach for site investigations and moves away from the concept of a single-phased ground investigation. It is only as the investigation proceeds that one can assess the need (or otherwise) for further often more sophisticated investigation. However, this approach must not be seen as an “open cheque book” for additional costs for site investigation. Any cost variation should be dealt with up front with the Client and the additional investigation techniques agreed Without a phased approach as shown in Figure 1.1 investigations may be left incomplete and the engineer unable to draw the correct conclusions. The engineer responsible for the design of the road should not be left guessing on the required design parameters. Hence, sufficient investigation must be carried out to determine the parameters with a reasonable degree of confidence. 1.6 Manual Structure The first five chapters of the manual, including the introduction, provide general information on the physiography, climate, geology and soil distribution specific to Ethiopia; soil and rock classification; commonly used site investigation techniques; and the application of these to the various stages of site investigation highlighted in Section 1.4 and Figure 1.1, These chapters provide valuable information mainly at prefeasibility and feasibility stages as part of the desk study to understand the prevailing terrain and climate; and to plan for more detailed investigations, using the most appropriate techniques, to support the design stage. Information specific to design requirements and special investigations are covered in Chapters 6 and 7 with construction material surveys and a review of construction covered in Chapters 8 and 9. Reports and checklists are presented in Chapter 10. These are essential components of a successful site investigation programme. The reports allow geotechnical engineers to present the information obtained during the investigation of the sub-grade, fills and embankments, foundation characteristics and the behaviour of construction materials in the design phase. The checklists are important to assess the work done and for completion of the site investigations. References are given at the end of the document and provide a source of more detailed information to supplement what is presented in this manual. Page 1-4 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction “Appoint Geotechnical Specials Project I Start-up Iden nal ste sk, geotechnical Client brief on yplcass of road, constants & esimateseapeorwors — f&—] — srucues, geometry ee z Desk dy and walkover survey makin tucmur ve of existing date local hl saree ee alighinents pt three) ith Pre- me alternative solutions for each feasibility alignment ‘Upsatesope of se investigation based on the possible alignments Evaluate sks and benfis of ech st elated oan appropri os forthe Comprebesive desk say with respective investigaions (value engineering) [—P] _ limited fieldwork and lab testing inline with the cent bret Feasibility | Abandon Feasibility Report Project Yo Detaled sits imvestgation along chosen alignment focussing on soll characterisation, terain/slope [*] cturateristion and founding condigons of sbustares = — wo Fectat Tnerpeive , “Additional esting ee Design Cann) Report Report Yes Geotechnical ones design required’ pavement design Undertake Geotesh Design + Monitor and value engnee as se conditions L__,| ; Construction are exposed. Verify design assumptions. + Post Tong em monitoring of pavement Canstraciion performance tough visuals, deflection and viding uals Figure 1-1: Phased Approach to Site Investigation (Geotechnical aspects) Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-5Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 1.7 Types of road projects The first important issue before conducting any site investigation in an area is to know whether the project involves new construction, rehabilitation or reconstruction. ‘* New construction is the construction of a pavement system on a new alignment that has not been previously constructed. ‘© Rehabilitation is defined as the repair and upgrading of an existing pavement. Typically, this involves the repair or removal and construction of additional bound pavement layers, and could include partial-depth or full-depth recycling or reclamation. + Reconstruction (including upgrading) is defined as the complete removal of an existing pavement system, typically down to and including the upper portions of the foundation soil, and the replacement with a new pavement structure. ‘manual is primarily based on the site investigation requirements for the design of new roads. However, references are made to rehabilitation and reconstruction projects at different sections whenever it is assumed that the contents are applicable to them. A short note on techniques useful to investigate the condition of existing pavements is given in Chapter 9. 1.7.1 New Construction hhere are two or more investigation phases that new construction may require. The first phase is to identify the best of several possible routes, or to evaluate sub-grade and foundation alternatives. This phase of investigation may not require a detailed exploration. Rather, it is limited to a geologic reconnaissance and some sampling, and identification of surface and subsurface conditions to perform a generalized site characterization, (See the ERA Route Selection Manual for more details). Once a route is selected, the site investigation programme for the design of new roads requires a complete evaluation of the vertical and horizontal variability of the sub-grade, and the characteristics of construction materials. This may use all or many of the site investigation phases mentioned in Chapter 5. Little will be known in advance of the soil profiles along the new alignment. Therefore, a comprehensive surface and subsurface exploration programme and material characterization is required at this stage, although access to the site is often limited due to adverse terrain condition. The locations and dimensions of cuts and fills, and structural elements such as bridges and culverts should also be identified as accurately as possible. In addition, for new road construction projects, samples from the sub-grade immediately beneath the pavement and from soils that will be used as fill material will be required to obtain the design-input parameters. For designs based on sub-grade strength, lab CBR or DCP CBR values can be used to determine the support characteristics of the sub-grade (see Chapter 6). Location of the groundwater table is also an important aspect of the subsurface exploration programme for new construction to evaluate water control issues such as sub- grade drainage requirements with respect to both design and construction. Other design sues include the presence of problem soils and the identification of soft or otherwise unsuitable materials to be removed from the sub-grade. New construction has been, and still is, the main focus of most pavement design procedures in various regions of Ethiopia. However, this focus may shift to rehabilitation Page 1-6 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction and reconstruction projects in the coming years, when the Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA) and regional road agencies switch from a strategy of road access expansion to a more extensive road maintenance programme. 1.7.2 Rehabilitation In specific circumstances, site investigations could involve the restoration and repair of road failures (including landslides), assessment of embankment stability, slope stabilization, sub-grade and pavement settlement, and replacement of old foundation systems. The restoration of a road section, or the addition of structural capacity to an existing pavement, is known as rehabilitation. The details and extent of the site investigation for rehabilitation projects depend on many factors such as the condition of the road and the nature of any distress; whether the road segment will be returned to its original, as-built condition, or whether it will be upgraded, If the road is distressed, the type of distress should be investigated (e.g. shallow basecourse failure; deep seated failures; settlement of a structure; landslides; drainage and water flow problems; evidence of imminent collapse). The proposed geometry, location, changes of structures (for instance culvert to bridge), and the required design life of the road, are also required. In general, rehabilitation projects need some pits and trenches to be dug. As access will not be a problem, pits and trenches can be excavated easily and quickly using backhoes and dozers. This can even be done as the rehabilitation progresses. In some cases, such as deep- seated landslides, some borings may be required prior to rehabilitation to evaluate the properties of the slope and sub-grade materials. For minor problems, the pit and trenches in the pavement can be used to investigate the in-situ and disturbed properties of the sub- grade. In the field, DCP tests can be carried out to examine structural properties as well as layer thicknesses (Appendix A). Non-destructive evaluation using the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) can also be used to determine in-place material properties for rehabilitation design (see Chapter 3) 1.7.3 Reconstruction (including upgrading) The practice of upgrading and reconstruction includes activities like roadway replacement, full depth reclamation, or road widening. In Ethiopia, upgrading often involves the replacement of a gravel road by a new asphalt concrete (AC) or surface treated road on the same or slightly different alignment. Except for the demolition of the existing pavement during construction, upgrading and reconstruction are very similar to a new pavement in terms of design. Before upgrading and reconstruction, a preliminary investigation of the type, severity, and amount of visible distress on the surface of the existing pavement and the condition of the road (whether gravel or surfaced) can indicate issues that need a more extensive investigation. Original design documents and construction records are often available for reconstruction projects. However, even with the presence of these records, additional subsurface investigation is usually needed to confirm and validate the new pavement design parameters. The engineering parameters measured during the original construction often change with time. In addition, previous data such as traffic counts may no longer be valid. Hence, it is advisable that design values are obtained for the prevailing materials and Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-7Chapter 1 Introduction Site Investigation Manual-2013 sub-grade condition using current data, especially when the existing pavement is beyond its original design life. However, depending on the purpose and scale of the project, foundation soil properties for reconstruction of some roads can be determined from original design records and in situ testing, similar to rehabilitation design. For road widening projects, the use of in-situ tests on the shoulder section of the old road will be helpful. The characterization of the new or recycled unbound sub-base and base materials should be determined through laboratory tesis, similar to the design of a new road. Subsurface investigations for upgrading and reconstruction projects can also be undertaken using non-destructive methods or geophysical tests performed over the old pavement. 1.8 The Site Investigation Team The following attributes are needed by the team or from individuals involved in any site investigation activity for pavement design: * Concepts of soil and rock mechanics; * Knowledge of the geology of the area; and * Experiences on direct and indirect exploratory methods. It is also important that all engineers and geologist on the team have sufficient general knowledge in all areas of pavement design and construction to communicate effectively with one another, and to guide site inspectors and drilling technicians. In addition, team members should have the enthusiasm and drive for work and the ability to take responsibility for decisions in the field when necessary. 1.9 Other Factors 1.9.1 Health, Safety and the Environment Any type of site investigation undertaken in Ethiopia must comply with the prevailing Occupational Safety and Health Act of the country (Labour Proclamation No. 37/2003 - Part 7) and all environmental legislation whether national, regional or local. In addition, it is the responsibility of the Client to obtain any site-specific health, safety and environmental (HS&E) requirements and to make these available as part of any procurement process for site investigation works. It is also advisable that an HSS&E plan is prepared by the appointed contractor and approved by the Client prior to commencement of the fieldwork (also see section 1.9.6). 1.9.2 Site Access Its the Client's responsibility to obtain the necessary permission to access the land. This may include permission from land owners, and permission to undertake work within previously developed areas. 1.9.3 Presence of Existing Services It is the Client’s responsibility to obtain and indicate the presence of any existing services on the site prior to commencement of fieldwork. This is particularly crucial with respect to Page 1-8 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 1 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Introduction fuel lines, telecommunication lines, major electrical installations and water reticulation lines. It is also the responsibility of the Client to apply for and obtain the necessary excavation permits, 1.9.4 Security Allowance should be made to provide security for equipment and personnel in certain areas as required. For example, the employment of security guards to protect valuable drilling equipment left overnight on unprotected sites 1.9.5 Socio-political considerations A site may be located which has socio-political sensitivities. In these circumstances, cessential that the local community is informed by the Client of the need to undertake a site investigation, along with the extent and nature of the investigation. 1.9.6 Proximity to Existing Roads and Waterways If fieldwork needs to be conducted adjacent to an existing road or waterway then safety aspects must be taken into account. This would affect the personnel working on the site and the general public in proximity to the site, Potential hazards could include: dust pollution; spillages and pollution of potable water sources; traffic accommodation; and strongly flowing river crossings. Appropriate safety and precautionary measures will need to be implemented. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-9Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution 2. PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY AND SOIL DISTRIBUTIONS 21 Introduction Before commencing the design of any type of road it is the responsibility of the engineers and geologists involved in the project to become familiar with all aspects of the environment. Environmental information on the climate, topography and geological aspects of the project site is an essential requirement to the understanding of the engineering characteristics of the area and is a prerequisite for the planning, design and construction of roads. The information is useful to identify the broad-scale climatic and terrain conditions of the area within which a route corridor is to be placed and thus provide a basis for: + Evaluating alternative locations during planning; # Defining the geotechnical situation of the selected route during design; and * Analysing external influences during construction. Ethiopia is a country of great geographic diversity with high, rugged mountains, flat topped plateaus, incised river valleys, broad lowlands, and rift valley basins. Over the geological past, volcanic eruptions, tectonic movements, landslides and erosion have ‘occurred throughout the country to create long escarpments and deep gorges. The location of the country within the tropics, in association with the physical conditions and variations in altitude, has also resulted in a great diversity of climate, soil, and vegetation. In the following sections, basic environmental information on the physiography, geology, climate, soil distribution and vegetation of the country are given to provide the user of this manual with a basic knowledge of these parameters during site investigation for the design of roads. 2.2 Physiography and landform As shown in Figure 2.1, Ethiopia is divided into three physiographic regions: the north- western and the south-eastern highlands separated asymmetrically by the rift valley. The highlands are formed from lava flows that have created extensive plateaus, dissected by very deep, river-worn gorges, and marked by isolated summits rising to more than 4,000 m. In the west, the north-western highlands give way to a large low lying flat plain, The south-eastem highlands on the other hand grade into a semi-arid lowland further east and south towards Somalia and Kenya. The tropical lowlands on the periphery of the plateaus contrast markedly with the upland terrain, The north-western highlands are considerably more extensive and rugged and are divided into north and south sections by the Blue Nile gorge. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-1Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual — 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Elevation (m) High : 4502 The rift valley is a large open basin, bounded from the east and west by long and high scarps of volcanic rocks. It is very wide in the north and narrow in the central and southern portions. Its undulating but relatively flat floor is occupied mainly by lake basins and voleano-tectonic depressions. Some of these lakes hold fresh water recharged by small streams. Others contain salts and soluble minerals. Existing literature indicates that the Ethiopian rift valley is affected by NE-SW trending normal faults. There are also suggestions of the presence of extensions in the E-W direction which can be related to rifting, Hence, the rift valley is thought to be geologically active and earthquakes are ‘common in the regior Many places in the Ethiopian highlands have a general elevation in the range of 1,500 to 3,000 metres above sea level. Interspersed on these landscapes are high mountain ranges and level-topped peaks known as Ambas. The highest mountain in the country at an elevation of 4,620 metres is Mt. Ras Dashen located in the northern part of the country. In contrast, lowlands with an elevation of less than 1,500 m are common in the rift valley. Lowlands are also present in the Somali region and in areas bordering Sudan, Kenya and Somalia, The lowest place in the country at about 115 m below sea level is the Dalol (Denakil) depression, a large, triangle-shaped basin located in the northern part of the Afar region. Active voleanoes occur in the Denakil area, and hot springs and steaming fissures are found in surrounding areas. The existence of small volcanoes, hot springs, and many deep gorges indicates that large segments of the landmass in the country are still geologically active. Page 2-2 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution In general, the highlands, lowlands and associated basins in Ethiopia can be divided into ten distinct landforms on the basis of broad terrain characteristics useful for engineering purposes. These are: © The northern, western, central and eastern highlands; # The western, southern and Ogaden lowlands; and * The northem, central and southern rift valley basins. All of Ethiopia's rivers originate in the highlands and flow outward through gorges and basins. The general westward inclinations of the highland areas dictate that rivers such as the Blue Nile, Tekeze, and Baro belong to the drainage system of the Nile. The Awash river flows in the northern half of the rift valley and goes to the saline lakes found near the border with Djibouti. The southeast part of the country is drained by the Genale and Shebele rivers and their tributaries, while the Omo river flows in the southwest towards Lake Turkana 2.3. Climate 2.3.1 Climatic Zones ‘The major factors influencing rainfall in Ethiopia are the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and winds blowing from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The variation in altitude throughout the country also influences climatic conditions. In addition, the micro-climatic changes over small distances are often created by differences in micro-relief. The traditional classification of climatic zones in Ethiopia is based on altitude and temperature. It divides the country into five climatic zones are shown in Figure 2.2 and summarised in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Ethiopian Climatic Zones 7 1 ‘Average ‘Average Annual Climatie Zone Elevation (m) mengeectaa co | Ralnfall (nm) Warch (cold) 53.200 =10 = 800 Dega (cool-cold) 7300-3 200 10-16 1000 - 2000 Weina Dega (warm-cool) 15002 300 16-20 1200 Kolla (hot-warm) 500-1 500 20-28 (1.000 wrplaces) Berka (hot) =300 28-34 400 Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-3Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual — 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Figure 2.2: Traditional climatic zones in Ethiopia. Generally, central, eastern and northem areas of Ethiopia experience a bimodal rainfall pattern, receiving the major rains from June to September and small spring showers between February and May. Western and south-western parts of the country are characterized by a unimodal rainfall pattem brought about by wind systems to give continuous rains from March or April to October or November. Southern and south-eastern parts get two periods of rain from September to November and from March to May. North-eastern parts of the country comprise part of the western escarpment of the rift valley and the adjacent Afar depression. These lowlands have one very limited rainy season anytime between November and February. In all regions of the country, the amount of rainfall and length of the rainy season decreases when one goes from south to north and from west to east (Figure 2.3). ‘The mean monthly temperature varies slightly throughout the year, although the difference between the minimum and maximum temperatures is high only in the dry season, According to the National Metrologieal Agency of Ethiopia, the highest mean maximum temperatures in the country, in the range of 40°C to 45°C, are recorded in the Afar depression, The other hot areas are the north-westem lowlands close to the border with Sudan, which experience a mean maximum temperature of 40°C in June, and the western and south-eastern lowlands with mean maximum temperatures of 35°C during April. Most of the Somali, Dire Dawa and Afar regions are also hot for several months in a year. The lowest mean temperatures in the range of 5°C to 15°C or even lower are recorded in the morning or at night between October and January in the highland areas, with an elevation of over 2,000 m above sea level. In these areas, the midday warmth diminishes quickly by Jate afternoon and nights are usually cold. Page 2-4 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual - 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution (Point Bendy mu ‘Annual Rainfall (mm) ibution of Ethiopia. Figure 2. 2.3.2 Climatic Indices While the most common measure of climate is rainfall, both Thornthwaite (1948) and Weinert (1980) developed indices for the evapotranspiration of an area. For the purpose of site investigation in Ethiopia it is recommended that the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (Im) is used. ‘According to Emery (1985) the index derived by Thornthwaite provides a rational classification of climate based the potential evapotranspiration which is defined as: The amount of moisture that would be transferred from vegetation covered soil to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration if it were constantly available in optimum quantity. ‘A comparison of the potential evapotranspiration with precipitation gives the va soil moisture and hence, a measure of water surplus or water deficiency on an annual basis. Thornthwaite assumed that the stored water was equivalent to 100 mm of rainfall and a water deficiency occurred when the rainfall was 100 mm less than the potential evapotranspiration. By combining the potential evapotranspiration with the water surplus and water deficiency, a moisture index can be obtained. Potential evapotranspiration (E,) can be derived from the following (Nata Tadesse et al, 2010): otential transpiration in ems/month, Mean monthly air temperature (°C 1, 2,3 ....12 is the number of considered months. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-5Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution J Annual heat Index given by the equation: the monthly heat index expressed as: 1514 Ta El A= 0.49 + 0.0179J— 0.000077 LF + 0.000000675.° The overall availability of moisture during the year can be assessed by the moisture lex (Im): (100 D ~ 60d) 7 Drainage soil moisture deficit (approximately d= E,-R-4) R= Rainfall Table 2.2 shows the moisture index in terms of the moisture regions defined by ‘Thomthwaite. Table 2.2: Thornthwaite Moisture Regions Moisture Region Moisture Index (Ia) Per-humid A >100 By 80 to 100 , By 60 10 80 Humid By 40 10 60. By 20 to 40 , C 01020 Sub-humid i SAD Semicarid D ~40 t0 20 ‘Arid E ~60-10 40 2.4 Geology In pavement design and construction, it is necessary to understand the geological history of the project area. In particular itis essential to: * Determine the major geological processes that led to the formation of rocks and soils in the area; Know the regional and local stratigraphy; Draw attention to important features like major faults and landslides, Assess whether any construction activity, especially earthworks, will cause major changes to the existing environment; Obtain an appreciation of the regional groundwater conditions; and Form a logical basis for the location of proven sources of construction materials, Page 2-6 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual - 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution The geology of Ethiopia provides a variety of rocks and soils (Figure 2.4). The oldest rocks in the country are metamorphosed igneous and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age. They are exposed in parts of Harar, Dire Dawa, Sidamo, Illubabor, Welega, Gojam, and Tigray. The metamorphic rocks in the south and west of the country, where granitic rocks and gneisses predominate, are more strongly metamorphosed than the Precambrian sequences in the north, After a time of intense erosion in the Paleozoic, a shallow sea spread over much of the south-eastern part of the country in Mesozoic times and then extended farther north and northwest as the land continued to subside. This process first formed an accumulation of sandstone followed by depositions of mudstone and limestone as the depth of water increased. Much of the Blue Nile basin, Tigray, and places in Dire Dawa and Harar, are covered by Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The Blue Nile in particular provides long cliffs of sandstone, limestone, and gypsum intercalated with relatively soft units of mudstone, shale, and marl Extensive fracturing occurred in the Cenozoic, followed by major displacements along the rift system, Faulting in late Tertiary was accompanied by widespread volcanic activity. This resulted in the outpouring of vast quantities of basaltic lava known as the Trap Series over much of the country, accompanied by the eruption of large amounts of ash and tuff. Most of the highlands in the northwest, west, central and south-eastern part of the country are now covered by these rocks. More recent volcanic activity is associated with the development of the rift valley, being concentrated within the rift and along the edge of the adjoining plateau. Generalized Geology emer et eet sry neta Prone maa Res Figure 2.4: Generalized geological map of Ethiopia. At present, the rift valley is covered by Cenozoic volcanies and recent sediments. The volcanics are dominantly basaltic lava flows, rhyolites and ignimbrites intercalated with voleano-clastic deposits derived from tuff and voleanie ash, Volcanism has persisted into the present time in the Afar region within small eruptive centres. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-7Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual — 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Many areas in the rift valley are covered by alluvial and lacustrine deposits. The youngest sediments in the country are of Quaternary age. These include conglomerates, sands and clays which are accumulated in the Afar depression and the northern end of the rift valley. Sediments are also present in dried lakes of the southern part of Afar, in the central and southern part of the rift valley, and in the lower part of the Omo River. Undifferentiated Quaternary sediments and superficial deposits occur intermittently along the border with Sudan and Kenya, 2.5 Soil type and distribution During road design and construction, soil engineering maps are very essential, These maps show the distribution of soils, and describe their origin, physical characteristics and engineering properties. However, national or regional based soil engineering maps do not exist in Ethiopia, Consequently, maps are often only available in association with specific road construction projects. In the absence of engineering soil maps, it is common practice to use agricultural soil classification systems of the type given in Figure 2.5, y a, ao Tlie eon Hi recon sinc Figure 2.5: Agricultural soil map of Ethiopia. In road design, it is necessary to use maps and material categories that are useful for engineering purposes. Such maps and categories need to be comprehensive (covering all materials), meaningful in an engineering context (so that engineers will be able to understand and interpret them), and relatively descriptive. Engineering maps and categories should normally be prepared to facilitate an easy transition from field observations and descriptions made during site investigation to general classification of soil and rock properties used for design. ‘The distribution of soils in Ethiopia is a function of climate, regional landform, local topography and the underlying parent materials. Drainage is also an important factor in the formation’ of some soils. Table 2.3 summarizes the engineering characteristics and distribution of the most common soil types in Ethiopia, Page 2-8 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Generally, many places in Ethiopia are covered by thick autochthonous (residual) soils. These soils, which are generally red and black in colour, are classified as oxisols and vertisols, respectively, in agricultural or pedological soil maps. Laterites are also present and the general trend of soil cover in the country is that black soils are replaced by red soils which in turn grade to lateritic soils when one goes from central areas towards the west. Transported soils in the form of lacustrine, alluvial and aeolian deposits are present in the rift valley, along major river basins, and in depressions and lowlands, The red soils normally occur on sloping ground close to local high points where there is good drainage (Dumbleton, 1967), a vegetative cover with little organic matter and high temperature and rainfall. Water removes the more soluble bases and silica, leaving the soil rich in iron (in the form of iron oxide) and aluminum (as clay minerals of the kaolin group). Deposits of these soils are present in the western part of Ethiopia (westem and north-western highlands), southern lowlands and southern rift, most part of the central highlands, and in pockets of well drained lands throughout the north-east and eastern highlands. Red soils can be formed from many kinds of rocks if the weathering conditions, climate and drainage are suitable. In Ethiopia, they have developed mainly on voleanie (basalts, ryholites, ete) and pyroclasties rocks. In the western part of the country they have also been seen on granitic terrains. The iron oxide in these soils, which accounts for their dark red colour, occurs in a hydrated (goethite) and an unhydrated form (hematite). Goethite and hydrated halloysite predominate under wetter conditions. The clay mineral is usually kaolin of the halloysite type, which occurs as hydrated and meta-halloysite, Hydrated halloysite is readily converted to meta-halloysite on drying. Kaolin in the form of halloysite has a disordered structure, which gives rise to a soil of higher potential plasticity than well-ordered kaolinites. Red clays in the wetter regions of Ethiopia often show this nature of possessing high plasticity and should be subjected to plasticity tests before they are used for road construction purposes. The black soils are formed when voleanic rocks and some sediment are weathered under humid, alkaline conditions. Because of poor drainage, these soils are rich in soluble bases and silica. Black clay soils, also called “black cotton soils”, contain montmorillonite and other smectite group clay minerals. The presence of montmorillonite allows them to absorb much water and expand upon wetting. The poor drainage pre-condition means these soils can also contain some calcite grains. The black colour is largely due to organic matter. Black soils are widely distributed in Ethiopia, especially in the highlands. Known as vertisols, they are present in the central, north-western and eastern highlands and western lowlands. They are fertile and used intensively for agriculture. It is estimated that 7.6 million hectares of vertisol area are located in the highlands with a height of greater than 1,500 m above sea level (Jutzi and Abebe, 1986). The remaining area (over five million hectares) is located at elevations below 1,500 m. The general slope range of the landscape on which vertisols occur is 0 ~ 8% (Debele, 1985). They are more frequent in 0 - 2% slope range and are usually found in landscapes of restricted drainage such as seasonally inundated depressional basins, alluvial and colluvial plains, undulated plateaus, valleys and undulating side slopes. Laterites and lateritic soils are present in the western lowlands near the border with Sudan and in some lowlands of the southern region, They are reddish highly weathered soils that contain oxides of iron and aluminium and may have also some amount of quartz and Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-9Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution, kaolinite. Laterites may have hardened either partially or extensively into gravel like or rock like masses, they may have cemented other materials into rock like aggregates, or they may be relatively soft but with the property of self-hardening after exposure. Laterites are thought to be formed by the influence of a fluctuating water table to allow solution and transfer of soluble silica, iron, and aluminium ions, resulting in iron and aluminium oxides accumulating in the upper part of the profile. In Ethiopia, laterites have been developed on common igneous and metamorphic rocks. Most of the lateritic soils are clays, or sandy or gravelly clays, which behave as soils of medium plasticity. Sinkholes similar to those in limestone are known to occur in some laterite profiles. These sinkholes develop when voids are formed by the removal of silica and silicate minerals. In-situ laterite profiles are often permeable. Many of the structural features which cause the high permeability are near-vertical. Lateritie soils usually make excellent earth-fill construction materials. When used as fill, lateritie soils are characterized by a high effective friction angle and medium to low density and permeability. In most cases, they are readily compacted despite often having high and poorly defined water content, Sometimes, lateritic clays are readily compacted at water contents between 40% and 50%. However, some particularly silty laterites with high halloysite contents can be difficult to compact. The ferricrete gravels and weak rocks in the near-surface erust zone are used as base or sub-base material in pavements for roads and airstrips. Lateritic soils are often non- dispersive. Lacustrine deposits are common in the rift valley, in various lowlands, and along river basins. The group includes soils which have been deposited in lakes and depressions and in surrounding flood-plain. Lacustrine deposits consist of a heterogeneous sequence of clay, thin lenses of sand and silt, pumice fragments and other volcanic sediments. In some parts of the rift valley, these deposits are reported to be 40-30 m thick on average. Several small, loosely interconnected erosion pipes are observed in these deposits. The relative density of such deposits is variable, but the upper few metres are likely to be loose to medium sand and silt, hence, will be relatively compressible. Deeper deposits are more likely to be dense, less compressible and could have a high effective friction angle. The alluvial soils form a skeletal layer above the lacustrine deposits. They are largely soft, irregular in grading and rounding, and have light-grey to yellow-coloured weathering sheath surrounding the fresh interiors. The alluvial sands and silts had origins from the pumice layers and supplied to the rift during periods of flooding. Alluvial soils deposited elsewhere outside the rift can vary from clays of high plasticity to coarse sands and gravels. These soils are characterized by great variability in engineering property, both vertically and laterally. Typical geotechnical properties of these soils include high void ratios which are related to porosities of above 60%, low bulk densities and low moisture content. The tensile strength of these soils is found to be low because of their clay mineralogy. Page 2-10 Ethiopian Roads AuthoritySite Investigation Manual - 2013 Chapter 2 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution ‘Table 2.3: A summary of the characteristics and stribution of soils in Ethiopia ‘Type of soit Engineering characteristics Availability in Ethiopia The red colour is the result of ion oxide; they ace eee contain kaolin in the form of hallysite, which has a | Yesent large quantities in the West Red clay soils | disordered structure and may produce a soil witha bese potential of high plasticity than sols with well- ordered kaolinite, Ethiopia, and in well drained a arts ofthe country sof other Black clay soils Black clay soils (black cotton soils) contain a clay ‘mineral called montmorillonite which promotes [expansion on wetting, These soils often have high dry strength, and are highly plastic with aliquid limit of above 40°%. A measure ofthe activity (the rato of| the plasticity index to the clay’ fraction) i a good indication of swelling potential ‘Available in central, north-west and eastern highlands and western lowlands. They are fertile and used for agriculture. They are mone frequent in 0 - 2% slope range and are usually found in landscapes of restricted drainage such as seasonally inundated depressional ‘basins, alluvial and colluvial plains, undulated plateaus, valleys and undulating side slopes. Tnsita laterite profiles are often permeable, Lateritc soils usually make excellent earthefll construction Lateites and lateitc soils are present in the Laeritie soils | materials. When used a fil, atertie sols are ‘western lowlands near the border to Sudan characterized by high effective friction angle and | and in some lowlands ofthe southern region. medium to low density and permeability “Material deposited within lakes by waves, curren, and organo-chemical processes, Deposits consist oF | Lacustrine deposits are common inthe rift Lacusttine | ?Statified organic clay or clay in central portions of | valley, in various lowlands, and along river may the lake and typically grade to stratified sills and | basins. The group includes soils which have sands inthe peripheries. Usually very uniform in horizontal direction, fine-grained soils generally compressible ‘been deposited in lakes and depressions and in surrounding floodplain. Alluvial soils They are largsly soft, regular in grading and rounding; possess high void ratio whieh i related to porosities of above 60%, low bulk densities and low ‘moisture content. Tensile strength ofthese soils is found 19 be low because of their clay mineralogy ‘The alluvial soils form a skeletal layer above the lacustrine deposits inthe rift valley of | Ethiopia Aeolian (wind blown) soils These soils eonsist most of silt with minor amounts of sand and clay. Loess isthe most common type of windblown soils. Due to the method of deposition, Toess has an open (honeycomb) structure with very high void ratios. The lay component of loess plays & pivotal role because it acts asa binder (along with calcium carbonate) holding the structure together. However, upon wetting, the caleium carbonate bonds dissolve or the negative pore pressures within the clay reduce and the soil undergoes shear failures andior settlements, Aeolian (windblown) sands in the form of | dunes are common in the Afar region, ‘Moreover, windblown loess deposits are reported from the Lower Omo Basin in southern Ethiopia. Aeolian soils are also believed tobe present in Somali region and in north-eastern part of the country. In Ethiopia, ‘wind-blown sediments are characteristics of| relatively dry periods in the past. Collapsible soils These soils appear to be strong and stable in their natural (dry) state, but rapidly consolidate under ‘wetting, generating large and often unexpected seitlements. The basie characteristics of collapsible soils are eategorized as high porosity (more than 40%), low saturation (less than 60%), high sit content (more than 30%), and rapid softening inthe Most ofthe rift valley alluvial soils including the aeolian deposits ofthe Lower Omo basin are compressible and collapsible Dispersive soils These soils deflocculate in the presence of relatively pure water to form colloidal suspensions and are, therefore, highly susceptible to erosion and piping, They contain a high amount of sodium in their pore water, Dispersive clays cannot be identified by standard engineering index tests Dispersive soils have not boen definitively associated with any specific geologie origin ‘bat most have been found as alluvial elas in the form of slope was, lake bed sediments, loess deposits, and flood plain silts and clays Dispersive soils are common in the rift valley, in lowland areas, and in some places ofthe highland where the annal rainfall i less than 1,000 mm. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-11Chapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution, Acolian (windblown) sands in the form of dunes are common in the Afar region Moreover, windblown loess deposits are reported from the Lower Omo Basin in southern Ethiopia. Aeolian soils are also believed to be present in the Somali region and in the north-eastern part of the country. In Ethiopia, wind-blown sediments are characteristic of relatively dry periods in the past. In the Lower Omo Basin, the loess deposits contain a predominance of silt accompanied by some clay and fine sand. The size proportion and the alignment of soil grains indicate the general pattern of the wind direction in the past. Aeolian silts have porosities in excess of 50%, Most of the rift valley alluvial soils including the aeolian deposits of the Lower Omo basin are compressible and collapsible. This originates from the fact that the soil grains are loosely arranged and prone to considerable settlement due to minor changes in water content. The high void ratio values are characteristic of soils that could collapse upon wetting. Usually the soil collapse is caused by minor changes in water content or the weakening of soil cement. The magnitude of soil collapsibility depends on initial porosity The basic characteristics of collapsible soils are categorized as high porosity (more than 40%), low saturation (less than 60%), high silt content (more than 30%), and rapid softening in the water. Dispersive soils are common in the rift valley, in lowland areas, and in some places of the highlands. These soils deflocculate in the presence of relatively pure water to form colloidal suspensions and are, therefore, highly susceptible to erosion and piping. They contain a high amount of sodium in their pore water. However, there are no significant differences in the clay contents of dispersive and non-dispersive soils. Dispersive soils can derive from any rock, although in Ethiopia they are associated with volcanic rocks. They are commonly found in regions where the annual rainfall is less than 1,000 mm, Suspicion of their presence is indicated by the occurrence of erosion gullies and piping at unprotected road shoulders and cuts, drainage ditches, and other surfaces from which vegetation has been removed. 2.6 Land cover and land use Ethiopia was once heavily wooded. Now most parts of the country are sparsely vegetated with natural forests existing in some areas of the western and southern parts of the country (Figure 2.6). The highlands are characterized by extensive cultivation The central and southern part of the rift valley is also a zone of agricultural activity. As shown in Figure 2.6, a significant proportion of the country is classified as “Bareland”. This is especially common in the eastern and north-eastem semi-arid and arid lowlands of Afar and Somali regions. Grasslands are distributed throughout the country. In relatively dry areas, the proportion of grass reduces and is replaced by patches of shrubs and bushes. The intermediate zones between humid and semi-arid parts of the country are areas of bushes and shrubs. The woodland areas are characterized by a more discontinuous canopy and smaller trees than the high forest region. The escarpments along the rift valley are areas where wooded grasslands are common. Portions of villages, towns and cities consisting of planted eucalyptus trees around settlements are included in the woodland regions. The high forest region is found mostly in the southwest and west. It consists of coniferous forest in parts of the central and western highlands and of mixed tree species in the southw Page 2-12 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 2 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Physiography, Climate, Geology and Soil Distribution Figure 2.6: Land cover and land use map of Ethiopia. Most of the central and northern highlands are intensively cultivated for rain-fed agriculture as well as livestock grazing. As shown in Figure 2.6, pockets of lands in these locations are either barren or covered by grass. In these regions it is estimated that about 70% of the land is under annual crops during the rainy season. The grazing land is intensively used, and in many cases very few trees are visible. In contrast, the land used for agricultural in the central, southern and western part of the country contain patches of natural forests or woodlands. Wetlands that include large lakes and swampy areas also cover a significant percentage of the country. In addition, the extent of urban and built-up areas is continually increasing although the proportion of land used for this purpose is still relatively small. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 2-13Chapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3. INVESTIGATION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 3.1 Introduction This chapter contains information on site investigation methods and techniques including the use of aerial photographs and remote sensing, geophysical methods, test pits, borings, and in-situ tests. Usually, if site investigation is to be effective, it must be carried out in a systematic way using techniques that are relevant, reliable and cost-effective. The choice of methods for site investigation is determined by the type of road project, the practical problems arising from site conditions, and the terrain and climate. For any road project, it is advisable to start investigations using standard methods with sophisticated and expensive procedures being employed only when the nature of the geotechnical problem has been determined. A wide variety of methods have been used for site investigation, and Table 3.1 shows those used most frequently. Table 3.1: Common site investigation techniques. Tavestigation, Applicability | “technique Description Collation of available maps, references, reports, records. Background ‘Topographic and | information on geological, geomorphological hydrological, vegetation thematic maps | and climatic can be collected at this stage. May be used to define project Desk study organization with respect to sites, materials, and project objectives May involve techniques ranging from aerial photography to satellite Remote sensing |imagery interpretation. Can be used for terrain evaluation and the preliminary organization of projects into convenient sites or soil masses. Seismic reffaction is the most generally used procedure, Best utilized to interpolate or extrapolate in. situ conditions in conjunetion with boreholes. Caution required in cases where stronger material overlies ‘weak layers. Cross-hole seismic data can be correlated with geotechnical parameters. The logging of boreholes by means of a suite of geophysical procedures is now a well-established ground investigation procedure in ‘many projects. Other geophysical procedures utilized are resistivity, gravity and magn May be either hand or machine dug. Particularly cost effective in the examination and logging of material fabric and the delineation of mass Tests pits structure. Caution should be exercised in geotechnical interpretation of | areas where weak materials underlie strong layers. Very useful for Field study obtaining bulk undisturbed samples in sensitive materials. ‘Geophysies This ranges from hand augers to machine driven hollow stem augers ‘with undisturbed sampling and in situ testing. May be sunk by a number of percussion or rotary methods. The techniques employed should be chosen to take into account the type and condition of material involved. Special precautions and care should be taken in attempting to recover undisturbed samples in sensitive soils or those whose fabric is of geotechnical significance. In some locations, options may be restricted by economic or access constraints Tncludes the currently utilized in situ ground investigation techniques such as standard penetration testing (SPT), dynamic cone penetration (DCP), pressure meter test (PMT), plate load pest, and vane shear test (sr, Auger boring Borcholes In situ testing Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-1Chapter 3 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3.2 Topographic and thematic maps The initial phase of site investigations consists of a review of landforms and geological conditions at the site and in its environs. This includes a desk study of topographic maps at different scales. In Ethiopia, topographic maps prepared by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency (EMA) are often pul ied at scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000. Larger scale maps can be prepared by the EMA and other private companies upon request. The information obtained from topographic maps is useful as a guide for planning subsequent explorations. The denoting of important features such as bench marks on topographic maps at an early stage is often a requirement for road design. Later during the investigation all other features should be marked on these maps, preferably aligned to a regional system of coordinates. Thematic maps such as rainfall, geology, and geomorphological maps are also necessary during site investigation. The presence of these maps and the information that can be extracted from them ean reduce the scope and financial requirement of the investigation, Geologic maps should be examined prior to sub-surface investigation to provide a reasonable idea of what may be encountered during construction, The Geological Survey of Ethiopia provides a variety of maps and reports on the many aspects of the country’s geology. Most of the geological maps are regional and encompass large areas, but could be useful for the general assessment of the geology associated with the project site. Other types of geologic and geomorphologic mapping also exist and are useful to use in the first steps of a project. Rainfall data at daily, monthly and annual basis can be obtained from National Metrological Agency of Ethiopia. 3.3. Remote Sensing Remote sensing is the collection of data about an object with a device not in contact with it, More commonly, the term refers to the imagery and image information derived from airborne platforms and satellites carrying sensory equipment. Remote sensing data from aerial photographs and satellite images can be used directly during road design to identify terrain conditions, buried streams, site accessibility, right-of-way surveys and general soil and rock format the aerial photographs are also helpful to prepare a digital elevation model (DEM) of an area, with which three dimensional topographic features can easily be studied. Aerial photographs and satellite images can effectively be used to identify terrain conditions, geologic formations, escarpment, site access conditions and the location of construction materials. For example, soil formations can be interpreted from aerial photos using drainage patterns, U-shaped gullies are found in stratified sandy or silty soils. A broad gully is indicative of a clay or silty clay soil and V-shaped gullies are found in semi- granular soils. A radial pattern indicates a hill or a voleanie cone. A parallel drainage pattern is characteristics of a regionally sloping terrain or a system of faults and rock joints. Whenever a drainage pattern appears rectangular, it is almost certain that rock stratum is near the ground surface, ‘Actial photography is also used for the following to provide important information at the preliminary phase of road design ‘© Identification of ground phenomena that suggest instability which should be avoided if possible when locating a new road. Page 3-2 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques * Areas susceptible to landslides are associated with steep scarps, hummocky surfaces, depressions, disturbed drainage and vegetation conditions; and * Provision of up-to-dated information regarding current land use. Aerial photographs are produced in black and white (panchromatic) or in colour. Many of the aerial photographs in Ethiopia are available in black and white. Aerial photographs are usually taken as flight strips with 60% or more overlap between pictures along the flight line, and from 20 to 30% side overlap between parallel flight lines. On aerial photos, every ground feature has a distinetive ‘tonal signature’. Thus, a road covered by cinder graveis appears dark grey on panchromatic aerial photos. In contrast, when the gravels are from a crushed limestone, the road appears light grey. The contrast is normally greater when colour photos are used as they contain hue and chroma as well as tonal and textural information. Practical scale recommendations for route surveys are 1:30,000 to 1:16,000 for desk study, from 1:16,000 to 1:8,000 for preliminary survey, and 1:10,000 to 1:500 for detailed investigation, with the exact scale determined by the type of information being sought. Photographs taken in early times are obtained at scales in the range of 1:50,000 to 1:20,000. The choice of the scale depends upon the intended usage, the presence of cloud and the extent it affects flying height, and the problems associated with scale distortion and its acceptable limits. Aerial photos in Ethiopia can be purchased from the Ethiopian Mapping Agency. Interpretation of aerial photographs and other remote sensed data require considerable experience and skill, and the results obtained depend on the proficiency of the interpreter. Spot checking in the field is an essential element in any photo-interpretation and accuracy is often limited where dense vegetation obscures ground features. Although locally available aerial photographs are sufficient for a standard ground survey at any stage of a road project, satellite images can also be used at the planning phase or at early stage of the design. For roads, regional investigations using LANDSAT images are normally good enough. Other images such as SPOT and IKONOS are relatively expensive. Standard LANDSAT image comes approximately at a scale of 1:100,000, although enlargements are also available. These images provide a broad view of the terrain, and are useful to understand the regional geology, landforms, drainage, vegetation cover, and land use at the time of route selection or when realignment is considered during construction, A digital elevation model (DEM) is a digital representation of the ground surface. Recent developments in technology allow the use of radar technology to generate DEMs. Alternatively, DEMs can be produced from stereoscopic pairs of aerial photographs. Older methods of developing DEMs often involve interpolating digital contour maps obtained by direct surveys of the land surface. This method is still used in mountainous areas, where interferometry is less satisfactory due to terrain roughness. The use of DEMs range from extracting terrain parameters to modelling landslides, creation of relief maps, 3D visualizations, and rectification of aerial photography or satellite imagery. Some simulation techniques such as elevation-flattening applied to a selected sloppy area on a DEM produces terraces similar to those created by actual earth- moving equipment. Moreover, moderate Gaussian blur applied to road selections removes excess height from elevated protrusions and adds data to bisected valleys, creating virtual road cuts and fills. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-3Chapter 3 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3.4 Geophysical methods Geophysical methods are used as part of the preliminary site investigation phase of a road project or to supplement the information collected by other exploration programmes. They can be used for establishing stratification of subsurface materials, the depth to the bedrock, level of groundwater, limits of soil deposits, the presence of voids and buried pipes, and depths of existing foundations. They can also be used to assess the depth of excavation and boring. Geophysical methods offer some advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are they are non-invasive (can be carried out from the surface or exiting boreholes) and non- destructive (do not alter soil conditions). They can also provide information between data points (e.g. boreholes). The surveys can usually be performed quickly and cover a relatively large areas at a reasonable cost. The disadvantages are that the methods require expensive equipment and skilled operators. Geophysics also assumes sub-horizontal layering or boundaries, and provides no samples, It is also difficult to develop good stratigraphic profiles where hard material overlies weak rocks. For all these reasons, the interpretation of a geophysical survey must always be confirmed by boreholes. Geophysical data should also be interpreted by a professional in the field with a background in road engineering, There are different kinds of geophysical methods. Table 3.2 provides a summary of these methods and their significance in engineering. The selection of these methods depends on regional and local site conditions, the purpose of investigation, time and cost. For road design, the most commonly used methods are seismic refraction and electrical resistivity. Page 3-4 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques Table 3.2: Comparison of Geophysical Methods Method Basic field procedures Applications Limitations Impact load is applied to the | Depth to bedrock Does not work if around surface. Seismic Depth to water table | stiffness decreases with energy reffacts off the soil or | « ‘Thickness and depth or ifsoft layer rock layer interfaces and the |” relative stiffness of underlies stiff layer. Seismic time of arrival is recorded on | soil or rock layers. refraction | the ground surface using several dozen geophones positioned along @ line or performing repeated events using a single geophone. Dep to bedrock Resolution decreases Measurement of significantly with Impact load is applied to the | shear wave velocity increasing depth — aground surface. Surface Accurate interpretation arevuicor | 83¥€S propagate along the may require a aaa Or eg. | around surface and are pavement layer significant amount of casa recorded on the ground Qualitative indicator | expertise surface with two geophones | oferacking in Interpretation i difficult positioned along a line. pavement iff stiff layer overlies a soft layer and soft layer properties are desired Depih to water table |» Slow; must install DC current is applied tothe Groundwater ‘electrodes directly in the aground by electrodes, contamination and ‘ground oui Voltages are measured at salinity Resolution decreases BES | dilren pois on he Soil yer thickness |” signiieany wit resistivity) ground surface with other Delineation of increasing depth electrodes positioned along a | certain features (e.g., | Resolution is dificult in line. sinkholes, waste highly heterogeneous trenches) deposits Electromagnetic energy is Depth to water table |» Not effective below the eo pulsed into the ground. Identification of water table or in clay iron ng | This energy reflects off buried objects | Depth of penetration is i (GPR) boundaries between different Thickness of limited to about 10m soil layers and is measured pavement layers atthe ground surface. Void detection Tentification oF Resulls are non-unique large subsurface (Ge. more than one voids subsurface condition The earth's gravitational Identification of ‘can give the same Gravity field is measured at the large objects result) around surface. possessing unusually | e Primarily, large-scale high or low densities | surveying tool Applications in road ‘engineering are limited Tdentification of Results are non-unique ee ferrous materials Primarily @ large-scale ni ‘he car's magnetic fediS |. igentification of soil | reconnaissance tool fagneties | measured atthe ground 5 Goa and rock containing, Applications in road large amounts of ‘engineering ae limi magnetic minerals Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-5Chapter 3 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3.5 Seismic refraction This method is illustrated in Figure 3.1 and utilizes the fact that seismic waves travel at different velocities in different materials. In rock and soil masses, the velocity increases with an increase in substance strength and compactness or consolidation. Seismic refraction using shear waves is the method most commonly used for delineation of boundaries between soil and weathered rock, and within weathered rocks. The method is becoming increasingly popular for road site investigation and general geotechnical engineering practice as it has the potential to provide quantitative data regarding the shear wave velocity of the subsurface materials. |2 TIMES THE EXPLORED DEPTH= ERENT ERRORS ORS SOIR RK RR justration of the Geophysical Seismic Refraction Method. Figure 3.1 The shear wave velocity is directly related to small-strain material stiffness, which in turn, is often correlated to material strength, and soil and rock types. However, seismic refraction can only be used when the velocity of wave propagation increases in the successively deeper strata. Hence, it doesn’t detect velocity inversions. Therefore, if a hard rock overlies a weak material, or if the underlying material is a thin layer of less consolidated soil, it is very difficult to identify the boundary between the two using this method. Complications also sometimes arise in loose deposits where the velocity of transmission increases gradually with depth. Page 3-6 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3.6 Electrical resistivity The electrical resistivity method (Figure 3.2) measures the resistance of the ground to induced electrical current. Interpretation assumes a horizontally layered model. The method has been used to locate fault zones, zones of deep weathering and cavities. It can also be used in the exploration of alluvial deposits where permeable gravel and sand beds can be distinguished from low permeability clays or rocks. This capability has been applied searches for construction materials beneath alluvial terraces. The resistivity of sound igneous rocks is far higher than that of loose saturated soils. However, some dry sedimentary deposits can have fairly high resistivity. Resistivity depends mainly on the quantity and ionization of the water contained in the subsoil, and to a lesser degree on the mineralogical composition. Electrodes, Figure 3.2: The Basic Installation of Electrical Resistivity Apparatus In valleys, the results of resistivity surveys are affected by the irregular terrain and by changes in the electrical properties of dry materials on the valley sides and the wet material beneath the valley floor. Resistivity methods have been used in route investigations and can give useful results when the ground conditions are favourable. However, in many cases the results are disappointing either because the strata boundaries offer insufficient contrast, or because there are natural anomalies such as caverns and solution cavities present. 3.7 Pits and Trenches Test pits and trenches are used to examine and sample soils in situ for the determination of the thickness of the top part of the subsurface and depth to groundwater. Exploration pits permit detailed examination of the soil and rock conditions at shallow depths and relatively low cost. They are an important part of site investigation where significant variations in soil conditions occur, soil materials with boulders and debris exist that cannot be sampled with conventional methods, or buried features must be identified. Table 3.3 compares the Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-7Chapter 3 Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques different types of pits related to their use and limitations. They range from manual to machine excavated holes. In addition to being a low cost investigation option, the soil profiles are visible and can be logged and photographed, undisturbed samples can be collected, in-situ tests can be carried out, and the strength of the sub-grade can be determined from the resistance of the ground. It must however be stressed that all reasonable safety precautions must be adhered to when excavating and logging pits and trenches. Suitable safety equipment and adequate shoring of deeper pits and trenches should be provided. Under no circumstances should personnel be allowed to enter pits or trenches for observation, logging and sampling purposes if unstable ground is suspected. In such circumstances the risks must be evaluated (risk assessment) and mitigated (signed off) by a qualified and experienced professional. In the absence of an Ethiopian guideline, documentation such as the SAICE (South African Institute of Civil Engineers) code of practice: "The safety of persons working in small diameter shafts and test pits for geotechnical engineering purposes" should be followed. Table 3.3: Comparison of Different Types of Test Pit and Trenching Methods Exploration ; xporati Genera Use Capaniies Limitations Hand- pet) Time-consuming, limited to Bulk sampling sity | inaoesibl areas, less excavated test nig cessible eas, ess ges abovegrounwaer mewvated test | cing vil inspetion. | mechanical diturnce | Pits ~ of surrounding ground. Backhoe | Bulk sampling insitw | Fax economical, | Equipment ascess, generally exeavatsd testing, visual inspection, | generally lesthan 3 m | limited to depts shove testpits and | excavaon rts depth of | deep can be upto 6m | groundwater level, linited trenches bedrock and groundwater. | deep. undisturbed sampling. Preexemvation for pies | Ethier cconomical | Equipment acess, difcul v p than hand excavated, obtain undisturbed samples. and sats ands Dried hats minimum 930 mm | easing may obsure vita investigations and | > remay obscure investigations ameter maxinum’ m_| ispeton and cosy diameter. mobilization. Bsirock characterises, depth of bedrock and froundvater lover | Relatively lowcost, | ps sori i Dover cuts | Sil nerease dep | exposures for geolog_| Explosion inte o depth ‘capability of backhoes, mapping, er Teel tea for ther exploration equipment The depth of the exploration pit is determined by the purpose of the investigation, but is typically about 2 ~ 3 metres. In areas with high groundwater level, the depth of the pit may be limited by the water table, Exploration pit excavations are generally unsafe and uneconomical at depths greater than 5 metres. Pits should be backfilled and compacted afier investigation, It may be possible to leave pits open for an inspection, but in this case fencing is required. During excavation, the sides of the pit should be cleaned by chipping continuously in vertical bands, or by other appropriate methods so as to expose a clean face of soil or weathered rock. Survey control at exploration pits should be done to accurately determine Page 3-8 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques the ground surface elevation and plan locations of the exploration pit. Measurements should be taken and records should include the orientation, plan dimensions and depth of the pit, and the depths and the thicknesses of each stratum exposed in the pit. In logging the exploration pit, a vertical profile should be made parallel with one pit wall. After the pit is logged, the pit may be photographed or video logged. Photographs should be located with reference to project stationing and baseline elevation. A visual scale should be included in each photo or video. A logical extension of the use of test pits is the excavation of trenches, which provide continuous exposures where there is little natural outcrop. Trenches are especially useful to vestigate cut slopes, valley sides and bridge abutments where lateral variations material conditions are expected. Trench exposures are logged in a similar manner to test pits. 3.8 Boring The main objective of boring is to extend the knowledge obtained from surface mapping, test pits and trenches below the depth limitations of these methods and to provide control for the interpretation of any geophysical investigations. Boring is also useful to provide samples from these greater depths and access for test equipment. Boring has little effect on the environment. Holes can be easily covered, backfilled or neatly preserved. Surface disruption is commonly restricted to the preparation of a boring pad on sloping ground. Boring has the disadvantage that information obtained is almost always indirect, either from the observation of resistance to rig penetration, by the measurement of in situ properties with equipment lowered down the hole, or by the logging of samples recovered. Direct observation of the ground is restricted to the use of down-the-hole-camera, television or other techniques. In the design and construction of roads boring is necessary only in certain circumstances such as when there is a need to investigate major bridge foundations and drainage structures, in areas where landslides are common and realignment is difficult, and when unforeseen problems are encountered in the sub-grade or road cuts. In such cases, boring up to the depth of sound rock is often necessary to obtain adequate information. There are different methods to perform borings in soils. Some of these methods are summarized in Table 3.4. The method used should be compatible with the soil and groundwater conditions to ensure that soil samples of suitable quality are obtained. Below the groundwater level, drilling fluids are often needed to stabilize sidewalls and the bottom of the boring in soft clays or cohesionless soils. Without stabilization, the bottom of the hole may heave or the sidewalls may contract, either disturbing the soil prior to sampling ‘or preventing the sampler from advancing down. In most investigations, borings are performed with solid and hollow-stem augers, or rotary wash boring methods. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-9Site Investigation Manual ~ 2013 Chapter 3 Investigation Methods and Techniques ‘Table 3.4: Soils and Soft Rock Boring Methods circulating fluid and discharged into settling tub, Method Procedure Applications Limitations/Remarks Dry ole drilled with hand | Insoil and soft rock; to | Soil and rock stratification ‘Auger boring | "POET auger: samples | identi geologic units and | destroyed; sample mixed ger boring | ecavered from auger water content above water | with water below the water flights table table Hole advanced by hollow | Typically used in sos] Samere nied hy lareer Hottow-stem stem auger; sol sampled | that would require easing | FC Man augerboring | bolowaugerasinauger | to maintain an open hole _| Hydrostatic balance boring above. for sampling. Pee Involves light chopping and ey pay strong jetting of soil Sofl to stiff cohesive 5 Wasketpe | Cains removed by materials and fine to | Should note used in boring ws boreholes above water table coarse granular soils. ‘where undisturbed samples are desired, Bucket auger boring A.0.6 0 1.2 m diameter drilling bucket with cutt teeth is rotated and advanced. When each advance is completed, the bucket is retrieved from the boring and soil is emptied fon the ground. Most soils above water table; ean dig harder soils than above types and can penetrate soils with cobbles and boulders if ‘equipped with a rock bucket, Not applicable in running sands; used for obtaining large volumes of disturbed samples and where it is necessary to enter a boring to make observations. Rotary wash Power rotation of drilling bit as circulating fluid removes cutting from the hole. Changes indicated by rate of progress, action of drilling Applicable to all soils ‘except those containing ‘much large gravel, cobbles, and boulders. Applications are Difficult to determine changes accurately in some soil strata, Not practical in inaccessible locations drilling tools, and ‘composition of the slurry. Casing required exeept in stable rock boring [ols and examination af | increasing sino is | Pesause fey trek ating nding Tid. | sual the mostrpia_| Mounted eauinen Casing usually not required | method of advancing a | Samples and rock cores are except near the surface borehole, usually limited to 150 Power chopping with limited amount of water at ; the bottom of the hole. Used in combination with | Not preferred for ordinary exploration or when Water becomes slurry and auger or wash borings for undisturbed samples are Percussion | should be periodically Penetration coarse | wetted samp ariling removed with bile orsand_ | gravel, boulders and rock Tetred because of (Chum pump. Changes known by | formations, useful t0 strata changes, disturbarce drilling) | rate of progress, action of | probe cavities and ‘weakness in rock by: changes in drill rate caused below chopping bit, difficulty of access, and usually higher cost. Page 3-10 Ethiopian Roads AuthorityChapter 3 Site Investigation Manual-2013 Investigation Methods and Techniques 3.8.1 Auger boring ‘An auger is an apparatus with a helical shaft that can be manually or mechanically advanced to bore a hole in soil. The practice of advancing a borehole with a mechanical auger consists of rotating the auger while applying a downward pressure to penetrate soil and weak rocks. The auger may be continuous, where the helix extends along the entire length of the shafi, or discontinuous when the auger helix is at the bottom of the drill stem. The most common type of boring in cohesive soils uses a spiral flight auger to penetrate and remove the material below the surface. The simplest form is a hand auger which is usually restricted to about 3m by the physical effort involved. Hand driven augers are often used to obtain shallow subsurface information from sites with difficult access or terrain where vehicle accessibility is not possible. Several types of hand augers are available with the standard post hole type barrel auger as the most common. In stable cohesive soils, hand augers can be advanced up to 5m or a little more. Maintaining an open hole in granular soils is often difficult. Boulders and cobbles, if present, will create significant problems. Most augers are power driven. The common power driven auger rig equipped with either 100mm or 150mm diameter solid or hollow flight augers can reach up to 30m in relatively hard soils. A steel blade “V" bit will penetrate most fine-grained soils and very weak rocks. A tungsten-carbide bit will grind slowly through weak and medium strong rock. Auger boring allows the logging of disturbed material collected from the flights during drilling. By removal of the augers, it is practical to regularly recover tube samples and carryout in situ testing of the material properties. Auger boring is suited to the vestigation of areas with thick soil deposits which extend beyond the practical limit of pits and trenches. In many cases, it is used as a rapid method of establishing the depth and general properties of the material overlying rock. A major difficulty in auger boring in cohesion-less soils or soft clays is the stability of the sides of the drill hole particularly below groundwater. Solid stem augers are generally limited to stiff cohesive soils where the boring walls are stable for the entire depth of boring. The auger must be removed from the borehole to allow access to the hole for sampling or testing devices. Because the auger must be periodically removed from the borehole, a solid stem auger is not appropriate in sands and soft soils or in soil deposits where groundwater is close to the surface. A drill bit is attached to the leading section of flight to cut the soil. The flights act as a screw conveyor, bringing cuttings to the top of the hole, Additional augers are added as the auger drills into the earth. Hollow stem augers are very similar to solid stem augers except, as the name suggests, they have a large hollow centre. Both augers have the auger flights continuous along the entire length of the auger. For both of these types of auger the drill cuttings are returned to the ground surface via the auger flights. Hollow stem augers are commonly used in clay soils or in granular soils above the groundwater level where the boring walls may be unstable, The auger has a circular hollow core that allows for sampling through the centre of the auger. The augers form a temporary casing to allow sampling below the bit. The cuttings produced from this boring method are mixed as they move up the auger flights and are, therefore, of limited use for visual observation purposes. This should be noted during soil description. Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 3-11