P R EF A C E

SPEC I AL a ttenti o n h as b ee n p a id in th is b o o kt o t he s tud y o f

clima te a nd t o t h e us e o f m a p s .T he m eth o ds a do pte d diff er
s o m ewha t fr o m th o s e o fte n e m l o ye d Ins te a d o f a ttem pting
p »

t o p r o vid e a c o nd e ns e d e ncyclo p aedi a o f ge o gr a ph ic a l i nf o r m atio n

th e a utho r h as s elected th e fa cts in th e regio n a l d e s crip tio n o f
ea c h c o untry wh ich s eem ed m o s t typ ic a l o f the ph ys ic a l c o nditi o ns ,

a nd d e a lt with th em in c o ns id era b le d et a il .

Fo r i nst a n ce pr a ctic a l exercis es a re give n in th e c a s e o f e a ch

, ,

c o ntine nt o n clim atic pr ob lem s a nd m a teria l is pr o vi ded in th e

, , ,

fo rm o f st atis tic a l t a b les t o h elp th e stu d e nt t o s o lve th e questio ns

,

fo r h i ms elf Th es e a re a rra nge d so th a t w h e n t he p o i nt s d ea lt

.

with a re t o o a dva n ced fo r th e stud ent it will be fo und po ssible

,

to o m it a c o ns ecutive nu mb er o f p a ges with o u t i mp a iri ng the

genera l s ch em e o f th e work No a ttem pt sh o u ld b e ma d e in
.

elem enta ry wo rk to rea d th e wh o le o f th e clima tic s ecti o ns

s ys te m atic a lly b ut in t h e stu dy o f a n y regi o n
,
t h e M edit er
ra n ea n o r a s m a ller a re a s u c h a s t h e Ib eri a n Pe n i nsul a — refer
, ,

ence sh o ul d b e m a d e t o th e p la ces m a rked by figures o n the key

m a ps a nd t h e ge n era l princip les o utlin ed in t he intr o ductio n
,

sh o uld be c o nfir m e d b y s p eci fic ex a m p les At t he s a m e tim

. e
th e clim a te di a gr a m s sh o wing tem p er a tur e pressure winds a nd
, , ,

rainfa ll sh o u ld be c a ref ully c o mp a re d fo r the partic u la r regio n

wh ich is b ei ng s tu die d It will be fo u nd h elp fu l t o c o p y t he
.

st a tis tic s in t he t a b les wh ic h refer t o e a ch c o u ntry a nd ins ert

the tem p era tur e pressure a nd r a i nfa ll li n es o n l a rger sc a le m a ps

, ,

o f th at c o u ntry Fam ilia rity with th es e repres e nta ti o ns c a n o nly

.

b e a cquire d b y th e a ctua l p ra ctice o f dr a wi ng th e m . Th e tim e

 vi PREFACE

sp n e t in a pplyi ng c li ma te a nd in exa m i ni ng
th e pri ncip les of

m aps will give the stud e nt a m uch firm er gra sp o f th e o ry than

t he m e m o rizi ng o f abstra ct i de as One of th e m a in obj ects of
.

t h e b ook is t o le a d stud e nts t o a v o i d m em ory w o rk a nd to le arn

t o use ge o gr aph ic a l infor m atio n ; c o ns equently s o fa r a s p o ssible , ,

no is ol a ted exa m p le of a fa ct has b ee n give n w ith o u t expl ana

tion or so m e s ugges tio n as to its c o nn ectio n with o th er fa cts .

A full s eries o f di a gram s ha s b een cons tructe d t o exp l a in th e

text but it m us t be rem emb ered th a t it is impo ss ible t o sh ow
,

a nythi ng b u t s kelet o n m aps o n t h e s m a ll s c a le nece ss a ry f o r th e

pa ges of a text b o ok Refere nces m ust c o nst a ntly b e m a d e to

-

l arger s c a le m a ps e sp eci ally t o o r o gr aph ic a l m aps Th e s ketch

,
.

m a ps sho w ing relief a nd river ba s i ns are t a ke n ge n er a lly fro m

th e Dia gr a m Ha nd Ma ps ( Phi lip a nd S o n) Th is s eries o f o ro
.

gra phi ca lly co l o ure d m aps ( witho ut nam es) is rec o m m end ed for
use in a ns weri n g t he questi o ns .

The a uth o r h a s t o thank the Di a gr a m Co m pa n y ( W imb le do n)

fo r p er m iss io n t o m a ke u se o f th eir ge o gr a p hic a l La nter n S li d e
Maps fro m wh ich m o st of th e illus tr a tio ns in th e b o o k h a ve b ee n
,

copied o r a dap ted He is a ls o i nd ebted t o Pro f ess o r A J Her

. . .

h erts o n fo r p er m is s io n to us e his p ub lish e d Ra infa ll M a ps a n d f o r

Fig 4 ; t o Mr A J B artho l o m ew for Fig 7 ( M ea n Ra nge o f
. . . . .

T emp er a ture ) ; t o th e d eleg a te s o f t h e Cl are ndo n Pre ss fo r s o m e

o f th e m ateri a l e mploye d in t h e veget a tio n dia r a m s a nd to
g ,

th e H igh Co m m issi o n er fo r N ew Z e a l and f o r Fig 8 0 Mr . . .

B B Dicki nso n of Rugb y S ch o o l h as b ee n ki nd e n o u gh to re a d

. .

t he bo o k in m a nuscript a nd pr o o f a nd to m a ke nu m erous va lu ,

a ble sugges tio ns a nd co ntributio ns .

L ON D O N , 1913 .
 CO NTENT S

P ART I
GENERAL GEO GRAP HY

LAND FORM S

EART II M O V E M E N T S
Ra p id M o vem en ts ( Vo l c a n ic ) — S l o w M o v em en ts ( Elev a tio n a n d
S u b sid enc e ) — Fo ld s d u e t o Ear th Wa v es— Fo ld s d ue t o Pressure
— Cru st W a v es — O verf o ld in
g .

AG EN C IES OE D IS IN T E G RAT IO N
Ch emic a l Act io n o f Ra in — M ec h a n ic a l Actio n o f R a nk— Act ion o f
H ea t— Act io n o f Win d — Fr ost — Ch an g es o f Cli m a t e— Un d er
gro un d W a t er Ero s iv e Po w er o f Rivers Flo o d s Vertic a l a nd
— - — —

L a ter a l Ero sio n — W a ter Ga p s— T h e Cy c le of Ero sio n— Ic e W o rk

— Act io n o f th e S ea .

AG EN C IES or R E C O N S T R U CT IO N
S o il R a in W ind River T ra n sp or t — Allu via l Fa ns — Riv e r
T err a c es— D el ta s .

ST RU C T U RAL D IVIS I O N S
Pla in s of D enu d a tio n— e
U nf o ld d S edim en ta ry T a blela nd s
e
Fo l d d M o u n ta in s a nd H ig hl a nd s— Lo wlands — T h e Co n tinen t al
S h elf .

O CEAN CUR R EN T S

M AP S AN D M AP R E AD IN G
S c a l es a nd M ea surem en t — Cur va t ure o f th e Ear t h— M eth o ds of

j j
Pro e ctio n— Pro ecti on s c o mp a red w ith a T errestria l Gl o be .

T H E US E or LARG E S C AL E CO N T O U R M APS
 CO NT ENT S

CLIMATE
T E M P E R AT U RE
e
T mp era t ure
Ma p s a nd T a b l es— La titu d e a nd S u n Fo rc e -

e O f the Atm o sph ere o n Insola tio n — Va ryin g D ista n c e o f

Eff ct s
t he S un — T emp era t ure a n d S lo p e— T emp era t ure a n d Al tit ud e
T em p era t ure a nd S urf a c e— Eff e cts o f O c ea n Curren t s— Ra n g e o f
T em p era ture— T em p era te Z o n es .

H U M I DIT Y
W a ter Vap o ur— Prop o rtio n o f W a t er Va p o ur in t h e Air Co n —

d ens a t io n o f W a ter Va p o ur : R a i nf a ll— Cha ra cter o f Ra inf all

r
D ist ib u t io n of Ra inf a ll .

PRES S U R E AN D W IN D S
La w s o f W ind — Antic y cl o nica nd Cy cl o n i c Co n dit io n s— T h e
Atm o sp here— T h erm a l Eff ect s— Iso b a r Ch art s— Int erf eren c e o f
La n d : M o n s o o n s — La n d a n d S ea B reez es — M o u n ta in a n d Va l ley
Wind s— M o un tains a n d Lo cal Win ds : Fo ehn : Chi n o o k: B o ra :
Mistra l .

BIO GEOGRAPHY

DIS T RIB U T I O N OF PL AN T S
T he Ed a p hi c Fa ct o rs— rs— Zo nes o f Veg et a
T h e Clim at ic Fa ct o
tio n T und ra Co o l T em p era t e Forests : Co nif ero u s Fo rest :
: :

Decid u o u s Forest W a rm T em p era t e Fo res ts : T em p era t e Gra s s

:

l a n d s o r S t ep p es H o t Gra s sl a n d s o r S a v a n n a s S em id es ert s a n d
: :

Des er ts : T ro p i ca l Fo rest s— M o u n ta i n As so cia tio ns .

DIS T RIB U T I O N OF AN I M AL S
Z o o l o gica l Pro vi n c es —
Cli m a t i c Co n trol of Distrib u tio n — D o m es
t ic at io n of Anim al s .

DIS T RIB U T IO N OF M AN
O cc up a tio n s in A D 1 5 00— Pri mit iv e Co n ditio n s — N o m a dism
.

H u ntin g a nd Fishi ng with so m e Pa s t oral Life— Prim it iv e Agric u l

t ure w ith H u ntin g Fish in g a n d Coll ectin g— Pa st o ra l N o m a ds
, ,

Pa st o ra l S o cieties — M o d ern O cc u p at io n s .

'

S O M E IM P O RT AN T EC ON O M IC P R O DU CT S
e
T mp a ter e Cereals : Wh eat : B a rley : Rye : B u ckw h ea t— T ro p ic a l
a n d Su b tr opic al Cereals and Foo d Pro d u cts : Ri ce : Su g a r Ca ne -

Millets : Ma iz e— T ro pic al a n d S u b tro p ic a l Pl a nt a tio n Pro d u cts

Ru bber T ea : Co ff ee : Ca c ao : Cin ch o na : T o b a cc o — T ext il e Pro
:

d u cts : Co tto n S ilk: W O O l : Fla x : H em p : Ve g et a b le O ils : T im b er

: .
 CO NT ENT S ix

PART II

REGIO NAL GEO GRAPHY

THE BRITISH ISLES

G eo l o gic a l S tru ct ure ( 9 6 ) — Cli m a t e ( 1 02 ) — S c o tl a n d a n d t he

B o rd er ( l o6 ) — N o rt h Engla nd ( 1 14 ) — T h e M idl a nd s W a l es a n d , ,

t he B ris t o l Ch a n nel ( 12 1 ) — Ea st Engl a nd ( So u th o f t h e Hum b er )

an d S o u t h Ea st En gl a n d ( l 3 4 ) — T h e S o u th
- -
W est Penin su l a ( 14 7 )
— Irel a n d

EUROPE

S tru ct u re a nd R eli ef ( 1 6 5 ) — Clim a t e ( l 69 ) — Et h n ic Divisio ns

P AG E

S C AN D IN AVI A IT AL Y
N O RW AY S W IT Z E RL AN D
S W E D EN T H E ALP S
D EN M AR K . WI T H TH E FAR O E S AU S T RIA H UN G ARY
-

AN D I C EL AN D T H E BAL KA N P EN I N S UL A
T H E G E RM AN EM PI R E R O U M AN IA
T H E N ET H E RL AND S S ERV IA
B E L G IU M M O N T EN E G R O
FRAN C E B U L G ARIA
T H E IB E R I AN P EN IN S U L A T U R K EY IN EU R O P E
S P AIN GRE E C E
PO RT U G AL R U S S I A I N EU R O P E

ASIA
S t ru ct u re a n d R elief ( 2 9 5 ) — Cli rna te ( 3 02 ) — Veg eta tio n ( 326 )
C o mm un i c a t io n s a nd Po p ula t io n

R U S S IAN LAN DS 336 S O U T H W ES T AS IA

-

S IB E R I A 33 6 M ES O PO T AM IA
T RAN S C A U C AS IA 33 8 T H E PL AT EA U o r IRAN
T H E S T EPP E S AN D RU S SIAN
T H E IN D IAN E M P IRE
T UR K E S T AN 339 E IN D I A
S OU TH -
W ES T AS IA 342
CE Y LO N
AS IA MI N O R 342
B U RM A
S Y RIA 346
PAL E S T IN E 34 7 T H E M AL AY P EN IN S U L A A N D
AR AB IA 34 7 i EAS T ER N ARC H IPE L AG O 3 82
x CO NTENT S

PAGE PAG E

T H E S T RAI T S S ETT LE M E N T S AN D CH IN E S E OR EAS T E R N TUR

FED E RAT ED MA L AY S T AT E S x ES T AN

IN D o CH IN A
-

M O N G O LIA

FRE N C H IN D o CH IN A-
T H E JAP AN ES E EM PI R E
T H E CH IN ES E EM PI R E T H E J APA N E S E IS L AN DS
CH IN A PR O P ER K O R EA
M AN C H U RIA FO RM O S A
T IB ET

AFRICA
Stru ctu re a nd R elief ( 4 01 ) — Cli m a t e ( 4 08 ) — Veg eta t io n ( 4 32 )
Co m m u n i c a t i o n s ( 4 3 5 ) — Et hnic D ivisio ns
N O RT H -
W ES T AFRIC A IS L AN D S OF WE S T IN D I AN
M AR O C C O O C E AN
AL G E RIA W ES T AF R IC A
T UN IS U PP ER G U IN EA AN D TH E

T RIPO LI W ES T E RN S U D AN
N O RT H EAS T AFR IC A
-
B RIT IS H W ES T AFR I C A
EG Y PT AN D T H E EG Y P T IAN L O W E R G U IN E A
S U D AN T H E C O N GO B AS IN
AB Y S S IN IA PO RT U G U ES E W E S T AFR IC A
ERIT R EA GER M A N S O U TH W ES T
S O M AL IL AN D AF RIC A
EAS T AFRIC A B RIT I S H S O U T H AFR IC A
B RIT IS H EAS T AF RIC A T H E T R AN S V AAL
U G AN D A T H E O RAN G E FR E E S T AT E
G ER M AN EAS T AFRI C A B AS U T O L AN D
P O RT U G U ES E EAS T AF RIC A N AT AL
N Y AS AL AN D CAP E OF GO O D H O P E
R H O D ES IA IS L AN D S OF THE S O U T H AT
M A D AG AS C AR L AN T I C

AUSTRALIA
Stru ct ure a nd R eli ef ( 4 74 ) Clim a te ( 4 82 ) —Veg et a tio n ( 4 92 )
-

Dis c o very an d S ettl em ent ( 4 93 ) —Co m m u ni c a t io n s

VICT O RIA 494 S O U T H AU S T R AL IA AN D T H E

N EW S O U TH W ALE S 49 6 N O RT H E RN T E RRIT O RY

Q U E EN S L AN D 4 98 T AS M AN I A
W ES T AU S T RALIA 5 00 N E W GU I N EA

N EW ZEAL AN D 504 PACIF IC ISL AN D S

 CO NTENT S

NORTH AMERICA

S tru ct ure and R eli ef ( 5 19 ) — Clim a t e ( 522 ) — Vegetatio n (5 39 )

Co mm uni c a t io ns
PAG E
B RIT IS H N O RT H AM E RIC A T H E UNI T E D ST AT E S
N E W F O U N D LAN D S O U T HE RN CO AS T AL PLAIN
T H E M A RIT I M E PR O VI N CES GR E AT PL AIN S
T H E ST . LAW R EN C E B AS IN RO C KY M O UN T AIN S AN D

Q U E B EC GR E AT B AS IN
O N T AR I O PAC IFIC S L O PE
M AN IT O B A CEN T RAL AM ERIC A AN D W ES T
S AS KAT CH EW A N I N D IE S
ALB E RT A M E x IC O
B RIT IS H CO L U M B IA PAN AM A
N O RT H -
W ES T T E RR IT O RIE S CO S T A RIC A
YU KON B AS IN AN D AL AS KA N IC ARAG U A
T H E UN IT E D S T AT E S H O N D U RAS
EAS T E R N H IG H L AN D S AN D SAL V A D O R
L O W L AN D S B RIT I S H H O N D U RAS
G RE AT LA KES , O H IO , AN D G U AT E M AL A
P RA I RI E S W ES T IN D IE S

SO UT H AMERICA

S t ru ct u re and R eli ef ( 5 92 ) — Cli m a t e ( 6 00 ) Veg eta tio n

—
( 6 14 )
Co m m u nic a tio n s

6 20 B RAZIL
62 2 U R U G U AY
62 3 PARAG U AY
623 T H E ARG E N T IN E
6 24 CH ILE
62 6

IN D E x
 T AB L E S
P AG E

I . VAL UE OF D E G RE ES OF LAT IT U D E AN D L O N G IT U D E

II M ID D AY ALT IT U D E
. OF S UN

III LEN G T H
. OF D AY

IV GEO LOGICAL FO R M AT IO NS
. OF T H E B RIT IS H ISL E S

V EUR O PE : CLIM AT E S T AT IS T ICS

.

VI . AS IA : CLIM ATE S T AT IS T ICS

AFRIC A : CLIM AT E S T AT IS T ICS

VIII AUS T RAL IA : CLIM AT E ST AT IS T IC S

.

IX . NEW ZEAL AN D : CLIM AT E ST AT IS T ICS

N O R T H AM ERIC A : CLIM AT E S T AT IS T I CS

AN D S O U T H AM E RIC A : CLIM AT E S T AT IS T IC S
 A TEXT BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY
-

PART I

GENE RAL GE O GR APH Y

THE O R I GIN O F L AN D F O RM S .

IN th e stu dy o f t he la n d for m s o f t he e a rth three kind s of p r o ce ss

ha ve to b e considere d : Ea rth m o ve m e nt s pro du cin g stru ctu ra l
’
c han ge s ; di sintegra tion of th e m a teria ls of the ea rth s cr u st ;
an d rec on struction The se t w o la tte r p roce sse s m ay b e gen era lly
.

”
term e d
“
e ro sion and a ccu m u la ti on .

EARTH M OVEM ENTS .

Th e uns tab le equili brium o f th e c ru st of t h e e arth is sh o wn by

eleva ti on and subsi den ce Th e s e m o vem ent s a re a s a rule so
.

s lo w t ha t th ey c an on ly be inferre d f ro m a stu dy of t he re sul t a n t

la n d f o r m s .

Rap i d M ovements ( Vol c anic ) — Earth qua ke s pro duce r a p i d

.

changes o n the s urfa ce bu t if we j u dge fro m th e lim ited efi ec t

, ,

of m o d er n sh ocks s uc h m o ve m e nts m us t
,
in th e p a s t h a ve , ,

bee n rep e ated l o c a lly at i nterva ls during a lo ng p erio d o f

, ,

time to form th e la nd fea tu res wh ich we rec o g nize to da y as t h e

,
-

resu lt of v o lc a nic a cti o n Th e ea rth qua ke wh ich d estr o ye d S a n

.

Fr ancisc o in 1906 h as pr o du ced n o l a sti ng tra ces o n th e gen er al

c o nfigur atio n excep t a sh a llo w t renc h ab o ut 10 feet br o a d a nd
'
,

5 feet d eep . In m o u nta i n regi o ns wh ere er osio n h as left l a rge

,

mass es of rock in a n u ns t a b le c o n di ti o n m ore m a rke d e ffects a re ,

p r o d uce d b y e a rth qu a ke s w h ile grea t v

,
o lc a ic erupti o ns h a ve
n
b ee n resp ons ib le fo r a c o ns id er a b le m o di fi c a ti o n of su r fa ce c o n
.

dit io ns (of Ja v a 1 7 7 2 ; a vo lc a n o w a s re duced

. ,
f eet m
h eigh t ). In t h e Wes t Indi es in 1 902 th e spi ne , o r l a v a p lu g
,

t feet in M a rtinique and th e S o u fi riere

of M o n P t elée ro s e o ,
I
2 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
eruptio n in Vi ncent c o vered m uch o f the is la nd w ith vo lc anl c
St .

ash . B ut t h e resul ts bo th of ea rth qua kes a nd erupti o ns a re aa s a

,
,

rul e n ot m u ch m o re notice able th an th e c at a clysm s du e to str i ctly

externa l f o rce s s uch as th e burs ti ng o f a l ak
,

,
e da m i n a Hi m a la yan
va lley or the fa ll o f a hanging gla cier t he Alt els o n th e Ge mi ni
Pas s) i ue ce i te l force c fi r t n S m o st
T h e nfl n o f n rn a s o n o n
gu a i o I

strik
.

i ng wh e n th ey a lter existi ng c o nd iti o ns s uffic i e ntly t opro vl de

a new fi el d for th e a ge ncies o f eros i o n Th e S na ke Ri ver th e . ,

mai n tri but a ry o f th e Co lu mbi a in th e Unite d Sta tes h as h a d t o ,

cut its way through vast sh eets of la va a nd to exc av a te d eep

c afi o ns whi ch res emble in s ize th os e o f the Colora do ( s ee a ls o
,

p 45 1 Vict ori a F a lls)

.
, .

S low M ove m e nts— Ele vati o n and S ubsidenc e — As t he e a rth i s .

slowly r a d ia ti ng it s h e at ( s ecul a r cooli ng ) i nt o s pa ce th e i nter i or

c o ntra cts a nd t he s olid but ela stic crus t wri nk
,

,
les a nd m o vem ent s ,

o f d iff ere nt ki nds are set u p Th e m o s t c o ns p icu o us m ovem e nt s

.

a re th os e wh ich o ccur in t h e c o u r s e o f m o u nt a i n b u il di ng wh ere ,

f o l ds a nd fra ctures are pr oduced thr ou gh s tres s es a cti ng o n th e

’
e arth s crus t .

To th e se m u st b e a dde d t he le ss m a rke d m o ve m en t s wh ich re sult

from a su bs id ence o f the cru st o r a ri se o f t he sea in c on s equ en ce
o f t he s e d i m ent d e posite d in it ( po s iti ve m o ve m en t s ) o r f ro m ,

a lo werin g o f t he sea level in c o ns eque nce of a su b si d e nce o f the

-

ocean flo o r (n egative mo vem ent s) Th e se m o vem ent s are gen er .

”
a lly c a lle d e leva tion and sub s id e n ce a nd m ay b e co nsi d ere d ,

wit h re f eren ce t o t h e la n d wi th o u t reg a rd in g the que sti on o f

c han ge s in t he sea level -
.

Th e q u es ti o n o f o rigin is still in s om e c as es a m atter of c o ntr o

vers y b ut fro m t h e d ifi erent typ es o f l a nd f o rm s p r o duce d we
c a n dis tingui sh t wo k
,

inds o f m o vem ents— viz folds du e t o e arth .

,

waves a nd fo l ds du e t o pressure .

Folds du e to Earth W ave s — Crus t wa ves p ro duce a n a lter na .

tio n o f a rc h and troug h a ffecting very large areas Th es e are .

b elieve d t o b e th e c aus e o f t h e larger c o ntin e nt a l l a nd a re a s

a nd th e oce a n b a s i ns wh ich with th e exc ep ti o n o f m ar
, , 1
su bs id e nces a nd eleva ti o ns h ave pr o b ab ly a ltere d little for
,

l ong p eriods It is clea r that crust wa ves wh ic h c a n pr o duce

.

s uch gre a t rel ative differe nces b etwee n arch a nd tro ug h a s are

repres ented by m o u nt ain h eigh ts a nd o ce an d epth s m us t b e of

the fir st im p ort a nce in determ ini ng th e elev a ti o n o f la nd m a sse s
a nd th e tilti ng o f strat a irresp ective of any additio nal lo c a l
,

f o ldi ng ( Fig l ) . .
 LAND FO RM S 3

The co mp lexity o f m o u nt a i n f o r m is ofte n due to a later

f o lding of l and whic h has a lread y b een eleva ted by wa ve m ove
m e n t o r w o rn do wn by lo n g er o si on and re eleva te d t he -

Alps ) Simi la rly , a re a s re duce d a lm o s t t o a pla in (a p enepla t a )

’

m a y be a gain ra i se d a n d a new cycle o f er o si o n begun

, Va lley s .

m ay be dr o wn e d b en e a th t he sea t he e stu a rie s of Corni sh

an d Devon rive rs ) o r a sea b o tt o m r a i se d an d a ga in ex o se d t o
,
p
su ba eri a l e ro sion .

Fol ds due to Pressure As in t h e c a s e of c ru st wa ve s , t he

.

caus es of pressure fo lds are s till ins u ffi ciently investigated In .

most c as es th es e fo ldings c an p r obably b e acc o u nted for by the

’
co ntra ctio n o f th e earth s crus t The elasticity of r o cks und er .

pres sure h as b ee n cle a rly d em o ns tr a ted b y th e rem ark able experi

m ents m a d e by Mil n e in th e Is le o f Wight It was proved that .

the ebbi ng a nd flowi ng tid e c a us e d a m e a surable d eflecti o n s o m e

d is t a nce i nl a nd .

Cert ain are as are c o m pre ss e d fr o m end t o end , a nd th e wh o le

length of th e r o cks S h o rte ned ( in th e c as e o f th e Alps it is esti
mated th at th is sh orteni ng am o u nted t o abo ut seventy f our m iles) -

As th is us ua lly ta kes p la ce at gre a t d ep ths u nder e no rm ous pres

sure s a nd at a h igh tem p er a ture , t he r o ck s mus t f o ld or racture
f .

Folds m ay b e o f di ff erent typ es a cc o r ding t o wh ether th e pressure

is u ni for m or , as is usu a l , u nequa l .

Fractures may be o f vario u s k ind s

(a ) FAUL TIJNG in c on sequ en c e o f th e brea k

, ing o f f olds the c entra l
vall ey of Sco tland du e to subsid en c e b etw een p a rall el faults )
, Th e s tra ta .

are no l ong er c o ntinu ous bu t a re lo w er o n o ne sid e o f the f a ul t th an th e

,

o th er. Esc arp m ents and vall ey s o f ten h a v e th eir o rigin in faul ting .

(b) CLEAVAGE wh ere o win g to g rea t p ressure fro m a bo v e and th e

, ,

charac t er o f the m ateria l ( sh a l e cla y v o l c a n i c a sh , ,th e roc ks d o no t ,

ea sily fold bu t sp l it u p in to planes p erp endicula r to the pressure The

, .

resul tant fo rm is a sla te .

c F — A a rall el a rran em en t o f th e m in eral s l ead s to a so m e

( ) O LI ATIO N.
p g
wha t irregul a r tend en cy to spl it in d efinite d irec tio n s T he resul ta nt form s .

a re gneiss and sc hists T h e f o rm er is p ro b a bly f o rm ed fro m igneo us ro c k

. s ,

the la tter fro m sed im enta ry In f ol ia tion and to so m e ex tent in c l ea vage

. , .

t h e eno rm ou s p ress ure in t h e p res en c e o f w a t er a n d v ery h igh t em p era tures

tends t o alter th e ch ara c t er o f t h e ro ckm a t eria l .

Crust W aves It is o b vio u s tha t the f o rm of a w ave will

.
-

d ep end on t he di recti o n in wh ic h t he f o rce is applie d and t he

n atu re of t h e m a te ri a l on wh ic h it a ct s The relatively sim ple .
4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

forms o f waves wh ich occur in wa ter are ra re o n la nd a nd are ,

diffi c ul t t o rec o gni ze wh e n er osio n h as d es troyed th e origina l fo rm .

Tw o s imp le ty pe s o f eleva ti o n p r o du ced by cru st wa ve s m a y

b e d i stin guish e d ( a ) The Ui nta Typ e so c a lle d from t he Uinta
M o un t a in s in the Unite d St ate s ) H ere t he a rc h is a b ro a d
.

t a bl elan d and the sl ope s t o t h e tro ugh s a re symm et ric a l Such

,
.

T ron gh
T ro ng

FIG . 1 .
— A SIM PLE CRU S T WAV E .

m o u n ta in s m ay o r ma y n ot b e b r o ken by fra cture s or fa u lt s

( Fig .
( b) Th e BlockTy p e (pro m in e nt in t h e Grea t B a s in in
No rth Am eric a ) H ere th e wa ve m o vem ent s, t o wh ich th e tiltin g
.

o f th e stra ta is du e, a re le ss m a rke d w h ile su bs id ence, sh o wn by

fra ctures a nd fa ults, is well d evel o p e d ( Fig Area s wh ich h a ve .

genera lly ma inta in ed th eir level, o r rather ha ve been less re

FIG 2 — B LO C
. , K TY P E OF M O U N T AIN .
( AFT E R D RY ER ) .

A Lo n g
, sl o p se formed by s urf a c es o f s tra ta ; B brok en edg es f o rm in g .

s t eep sl o p es ; 0 t rou gh b l o c k
, s f o rm ing a rift vall ey by s u b sid en c e .

s
p o ns ive to t he s m o vem e nts th a n th e surr o u nd i ng
tress of ea rth
regions, are ca lled horsts th e H igh la nds o f S cotla nd a n d t h e
S o u th ern Upla nds, betw een wh ich lies t he d ep re ss io n o f t h e
Centra l Va lley ; t h e Vo sges a nd B la ck F o rest , with t h e rift va lley
o f th e Rh ine ; Such m a ss e s fro m th eir st ab ility, exerc is e ,

a n i mpo rtant in fluence o n m o unt a in for m .

 LAND FORM S 5

0 verf ol ding Where r o cks ha ve b een su bj ecte d t o grea t

.
—

pre ssu re a p o rti o n o f t h e f o l d is s o m eti m e s c o m p letely di spla ce d

, ,

so t ha t o ld r o cks lie a b o ve t h o s e o f m o re rece n t d ate Th i s pro .

ce ss whic h is c a lled overf olding is of grea t i m p o rt a nce in t he

, ,

st u d y o f er o si o n a s in t he c ou r se o f a cycle of er o si o n a river
,

FI G . 3 .
—
O V E R FO L D IN G .

A . S y m m etric a l f o l d s w ith eq u a l sl o p es o n b o t h sid es o f p erp en di c ula r

a x es ; B ,0 a s y mm etri c a l f o l d s w ith in c li n ed a x es a nd s teep er S l o p e o n
,

rig h t ; D E rec u m b ent f o ld s ( E sh o win g m arked o verthrus t a n d

, ,

f a u lt ing ) .

may wea r it s w a y
d o wn t o r o ck s o f gre a t va riety a n d c o m p le x ity .

( Fig . It sh o ul d b e no tice d th a t t he s o il f o r m e d fr o m t h e
dis i ntegr a ti o n o f s uch r o ck s is likely t o c o nt a in m o re us e fu l p l a nt
fo o d th a n if d erive d fr o m a u nifo rm t yp e .

AGENCIES O F DISINTEGRATIO N .

Fo r th e of
clear ness it is necessary t o c o ns ider th e
sa ke
s e ar a te a cti o n o f th e di ff ere nt a ge ncie s yet it m ust b e re m e m
p ,

b ere d th a t th ey a re s o i ntim ately c o nn ected th a t in a n y give n

i nst ance s ever a l are us ua lly a cti ng t o geth er .

Ch e mical Action of Rain Ra in—wa ter ta kes up c a rb o nic a cid

.
—

a nd o xyge n fr o m t he air a nd cert a i n we a k a ci ds d erive d fr o m

,

p la nt r o o ts a nd fr o m d ec o m p o s i ng vegeta b le m a tter Th e s e .

a gent s a c t o n r o cks in d iff ere nt wa ys Ro cks c om p o s ed c h iefly .

o f c a r b o na te o f lim e ch a lk a nd lim e s t o ne s are le ss a ffecte d b y

, ,

m ech a nic a l er o s i o n th a n o th er r o cks— th e ch a lk o wing t o it s

p o r o us na tu re a n d th e lim es t o ne s o wi ng t o t h e natura l j oi nt s a nd
,

cr a cks a nd th eir wid eni ng by ch em ic a l so luti o n ( Ca lcium c ar

, .

bo na te is s o lub le in wa ter c o nt a ining c ar bo nic a ci d ) H e nce c a l .

c areo us r o ck s te nd t o m a i nt a i n th eir ge ner a l f o rm f o r a l o n g tim e .

Typ es o f th es e r o cks a re f o u nd in t h e Cha lk D o w ns t h e M e ndip ,

Hills a nd the num er o us c a r b o nif er o us lim es t o n e p la i ns o f t h e

,

Pe nni n es a nd o f th e Ce ntr a l Pl a i n o f Irela nd Th o u gh t h e r o ck .

is no t a s a rul e o f grea t h a r dness it resists wea th eri ng in c o n ,

s eq u e nce o f th e sm a ll a m o u nt o f m ec h a nic a l a cti o n

The typ ic a l p or o us s l o p e te nds t o b e c o nvex t o the sk

.

y wh ile ,

th e typ ic a l no n p o r o us s l o p e is c o nc ave
-
.
6 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY

T he c h e m ic a l a cti o n of ra in is i m p o rt a n t in t h e c a s e o f o t h er
r o cks b esi de s t h o se tha t c o nt a in c a rbon ate o f li m e Th e silic a te s .

o f li m e , s o da , a n d
p o ta sh , a re e a sily d ec o m p o s e d Fo r exa m p le . ,

gra n ite (t hro u gh th e dec ompo s i ti on o f t h e f el spa r ) wea t h er s

e as ily To thi s is du e t h e la rge am ou nt o f Ch ina cla y (k a o l i n )
.

o bta in e d in Co rnwa ll The t o rs o n gr a n ite h il ls , s u c h a s D a rt

.

m o o r , a nd t h e m a n y rem a rka ble p illa rs o r s ta cks fo u n d o n t h e

c oa st o f th e La nd ’ s End d istrict , o w e th eir o rigin pa rtly t o th e
ch em ica l ch a ra cter o f th e wea th erin g wh ich t h e gra n ite u nd ergo es .

A h e a vy cl a y with a l a rge p erce nt a ge o f a lum i na is p r o du ce d fr o m

ba sa lts a nd l a va s .

Th e M ech ani c al Action wa sh ing a wa y d ec o m p o s e d

of Ra i n in
r o ck is o f extrem e im p o rta nce Wh ere t h e r a in fall is h ea vy a nd .

S l o es a re stee a nd u n ro tecte d b veget a tio n t h e p r o gre ss o f

p p p y ,

d enu da tio n is ra p id a n d c a n b e c l ea rly m a rked Fo r in sta n ce in .

,

th e west o f S o u th Am eric a ( S o u th Ch ile ) a va l a nch es o f so il a re

gra du a lly d enu ding t h e h ills in c o nsequ ence o f th e h ea vy r a in
s t o r m s f r o m t h e we s t Th e d estr u ctio n o f fo rests in m o u nt a in
.

regio n s su ch a s B ritish Co lu m bia ca u ses d es tr u ctive l a ndslips

, ,
.

As a r u le h o wever pr o gre ss is so gra du a l th a t th ere is a d a nger

, ,

o f ign o rin g t h e i m o rt a nce o f th i s cree in g d o wn wa r ds o f l o o s e

p p
ro ck a nd so il th rou gh gra vita tion wh ich p la ys th e prim a ry pa rt in ,

t h e re du ctio n o f h ill s t o p la in s Th e e ff ect o f su dd en a n d vio le n t

.

ra in sto rm s is well Sh o wn in regio ns su ch a s th e gra nite d is trict s

-

o f Co rn wa ll wh ere m a n y o f t h e v a lley fo r m s
, ( a nd incid e nta lly , ,

t h e d epo s it s o f strea m t in left in th em ) c a n o n ly b e sa tis fa ct o rily

e x pl a in e d a s the resu lt o f th e flo o ds du e t o th e m eltin g o f sno w a t
th e cl os e o f t h e Gla cia l p erio d In d es ert regio ns wh ere r a in .
,

s el d o m fa ll s t h e er os ive
, p o wer o f vio lent s t o r m s is res p o n s i ble fo r
th e fo r m a tio n o f m a ny river va lleys ( wa di s ) e ntirely d ried u p ,

fo r m o st o f th e ye a r O n th e M e diterr a n e a n c o a st it is n ece ss a r y
.

t o terr a ce a ll th e S l o p es Th e ret a i n i n g wa ll s a re m a d e o f l a rge

.

s t o ne s c a re fu lly l a i d b ut with o u t m o rt a r
, B y th is m e a ns t h e .

s o il is no t wa sh e d a w a y by t h e a l m os t tr o p ic a l t h u nd er s t o r m s o f

s um m er a nd a c o ns id er a b le a m o u nt o f m o ist u re is s t o re d b
, y th e
s o il
. Where l o ng neglect in Pa le sti n e ) h a s a ll o we d th e
terr a ci ng t o fa ll i nt o r u i n all veget ati o n h as ce as ed o n th e s l op es
, ,

a nd th ere is a gre a t d e fi cie ncy o f w a ter .

Th e Acti on H e at — In c o untries wh ere th ere a re gre a t r a nge s

of
o f te m p era tu re t h e r o cks exp and a n d c o ntr a ct to a c o ns id er a ble

extent Much r o ck d is integra tio n in dry , h o t d es ert s

. th e
Sah a ra — is du e t o th a t c a u s e a lo n e Th e h ea t o n ly p en etr a te s .
 LAND FO RM S 7

to a fra ctio n o f a n inc h so tha t th e expa nsio n a nd c o ntra cti o n

,

is c o nfin ed t o t h e o u ts id e o nly Even in te m p era te regio ns th e

.

a lter n a te ex a ns i o n a nd c o ntra c t io n o f s t on e s o n a n ex o s e d
p p
h ill sl o p e is s u ffi cient t o c a us e a slight d o wn wa rd m o ve m ent .

Th e Actio n of W i nd — H a rd r o cks a re po li sh ed by th e a ctio n o f

wind t h e Egyptia n py ra m id s exp o s ed t o frictio n fr o m ,

des ert sa nd ) wh il e s o ft or pa rtly d ec o m po se d ro cks a re gra du a lly

,

wo rn a wa y ( gra nite t o r s are u ndercut by win d a nd sa nd o r grit ) .

In dry clim a te s su ch a s d es erts wind a ctio n is respo ns ible fo r

, ,

m uch o f th e la nd s culpture .

Frost — Wa ter expa nds 10 p er ce nt o f its vo lu m e a s it cha nge s

. .

t o ice . A re feren ce t o Fig 7 wh ich c o nta in s th e m ea n a nnu a l

.
,
°
m in im u m o f 3 2 F will S h o w h o w W ide is th e a re a o ver wh ic h
.
,

th is f o rce pla ys a n i m p orta nt pa rt in lan d sc u lp ture Na tura lly .

th e m o u n ta in regio n s a nd th e c o u ntries with m o st rig o r o us

clim ates wh ere ch a nges o f temp era ture between n igh t a nd da y
,

a re excess ive wil l be t h e s cenes o f it s grea test e ffi ciency Th e

, .

”
t alus s l op es a nd s crees c om p o s ed o f a ngula r fr a gm e nt s wh ich
, ,

a ccu m ul a te a t t h e b a s e o f m o u ntai n S l op es a re du e m a i n ly t o t h is ,

c a u s e Even mu ch o f th e S ah a ra h a s o cc asi o na l fr o st s at nigh t

. .

Ch ang es of Cli m ate —A stu d y o f th e pa rt p la ye d by th es e

.

a ge ncie s in e a rth s c ul pt u re will sh o w th e i m p o rt ance o f cli m a te

in th e p ro ductio n o f la nd fo r m s We ha ve evid ence o f grea t .

ch a nges o f clim a te in recent geo l o gic a l tim es The re m a ins o f .

°
f o rest s h a ve been f o u nd b etween 70 a nd 80 n o rth latitu d e °
,

wh ich ind ica te a clima te like th a t o f No rth It a ly t o da y S till -

.

m o re fa m il ia r is th e inst a n ce o f t h e gl a cia l ep o c h s wh ic h ha ve
left su ch m a rke d S igns o n th e su rfa ce o f no rth ern l a nds Th e .

dryin g u p o f l a kes in No rth Am eric a a n d th e d es icc a tio n o f

Centra l A ia ha ve a l so with le ss certa inty b een a ttribu ted t o
s
, ,

c ha nges o f clim a te Pro ba bly a n interch a nge o f dry a nd wet

.

clim ate is resp o ns i ble fo r m a n y p eculia rities o f la nd fo r m s su ch ,

a s c ha n ge s in gra des o f stre a m s va lley c u tting etc but we m a y

, , .
,

sa fely c o n clu d e th a t t h e sh a p e o f t h e p re s en t m a inl a nd fo r m s

ha s b ee n l a rgely d eter m in e d by clim a tes very s i m ila r t o th o s e

th a t no w exis t Fo r exa mple western c o a st s with d eep dro wn ed
.
,

va lleys sh o win g bo th s trea m a nd gl a cia l ero s io n su ch a s th o s e ,

o f No rwa y Sc o tla n d Ca n a d a Ch ile a n d New Z ea la nd p o in t

, , , , ,

t o th e l o ng c o ntin u e d influ en ce o f wet wester n winds dur i n g a ll

'

t h e s t a ges o f th eir evo lutio n At a ny ra te in th e c a s e o f th e s e

.
,

a nd o th er l a n d fo r ms th ere is a p r o ba bility t ha t t h e cli ma te h a s

,

been m u ch th e sa m e fo r l o n g p erio ds .
8 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Underg round W ater —A grea t pa rt o f t h e ra infa ll s inks int o

.

the gro und The a m o u nt th a t is a bso rbe d d ep ends o n th e

.

p or os ity o f t h e rock C l a ys a n.d sh a le s a re m o re o r le ss no n

o r o u s wh ile li m e to n e n d r ck wit h a m a rke d s ys te m of

p , s s a o s ,

j o ints o r l o os e s ubs ta nc es, s u ch a s s a nd st o n es, a llo w th e wa ter to

i k
s n in ea sily .

In regio ns of c a lca re o us ro ck ( esp ecia lly lim eston es ) th e so lve nt

a ctio n o f th is wa ter
pro du ces un d ergro un d c h a n n els a nd c a verns .

The na tura l a ctio n o f t h e wa ter ha s p ro du ced t h e s inks o r d e

press io ns ( dolina s) in t h e Ka rs t reg io n n e a r T ries te in m uch t h e
sa m e wa y a s o n a sma ller s c a le s in kin gs h a ve b een p r o duce d by
, ,

th e a rtificia l rem o va l o f sa lt fr o m b el o w t h e s urfa ce in Ch esh ire .

Occ asionall y as in th e ca s e o f the Ch edda r Gorge wh ich pro ba bly

, ,

repres ents a ca vern o f wh ich t h e ro o f has fa llen in th e u nd er ,

ground a ctio n o f water ha s h a d a m a rked eff ect o n scen ery .

Its m o st no ticea ble i nfluence h o wever o n la nd s culp ture is sh ow n

, ,

in th e c a s e o f cliffs th e er os io n o f wh ich is m a in ly du e to th e wa ter

,

wh ich o o zes out in th eir s id es in t o t he sea the wa ves in m o st ,

c ases m erely rem oving t h e fa ll en debris Landslip s occur o n .

c oasts c o mpos ed o f soft r o ck wh ile h a rd er cliffs a re d eco mp o s ed

,

a nd u nd er m i ne d Chalk c lifi s b ec o m e s a tur a te d with wa ter in

.

p eri o ds of h ea vy r a i nfa ll a nd are esp eci a lly li a b le t o sudde n f a lls

, .

Ma ny dry v a lleys esp eci a lly in c h a lk d istricts h ave pr o b ab ly

, ,

bee n f or m e d p artly by s u bs id e nce o wi ng t o th e s oluti on of th e ,

materi al b el o w As th e p o r o us or no n p o r o us ch ar a cter of rock

.
-

is all imp ort a nt in th e qu es ti o n o f river fl o o ds th e i ndirect a cti o n

-

of u nder grou nd w ater o n th e er osi o n o f l a nd for ms needs notice .

The c h e m ic a l a ctio n o f u nd ergr o u n d wa ter m us t o bvio u sly be

m ost po tent wh ere th e ch a ra cter o r f o r m a tio n o f t h e rock a ll o ws
a fa irly c o m lete s a tu r a tio n f o r l o n g
p p erio ds If water o nly .

p enetr a ted a few feet d eep t he d enu da tio n o f th e s urfa ce of th e

,

ea rth woul d be fa r less ra p id as th e rem o va l O f th e surfa ce ro ck

,

a nd so il to l o wer level s wo ul d lea ve a s u bstr a tum of u nd ec o m

p osed rock As it is ea ch su cceed in g la yer is a lrea d y a rtly

p
.
,

broken up before it is exp o s e d t o th e ful l force o f wea th ering .

For th e econom ic im po rtan ce o f u nd erground wa ter fo r well s ,

S prings a nd it s co ns equ e nt in flu en ce o n t h e
,
po sitio n o f s ettle
m e nts esp eci ally at th e ba s e o f ch a lk a nd li m estone hills see
,
,

pp 1 3 8 , 143 ; 3 3
. .

River Action .

Erosi ve Power — T he er os ive p o wer o f rivers de ends on the

p
.

velo mty of fl o w an d th e m a teria l c a rried b t h rive

y e r The .
10 TEXT B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
believe d t o ha ve o ccurred in t h e c a s e of th e Co l o ra do River wh e re ,

th e c o n d itio ns m ust origin a lly ha ve bee n e sp ecia lly fa v o u ra ble

fo r th e fo r matio n o f wa ter fa ll s Bu t th e l a rge a m o u n t o f
.

s ed i m ent bro ught d o wn ha s h a d gre a t influ en ce o n t h e rem a rka ble

d eep enin g o f the bed If a river ca nnot tra nspo rt t h e s ed im ent

.

wh ich it receives, it will be u na ble t o d eep en its bed The .

Arka nsa s a nd th e Pla tte in t h e Un ite d S ta te s, flo win g ea st fro m

the Ro ckies c a nno t cut d eep tr o u gh s , but c a n o n ly wi d en th e i r
,

valleys a s th e ir beds a re la d en w ith sand

,
.

If a ll in equ a lities o f s ur fa ce a nd so il c o ul d be rem o ved a r i ve r ,

wo ul d no t fo r m curves, but fl o w c o ntin u ou sly in a str a igh t lin e

( except s o far as it is deflected by th e r o t ati o n of th e e arth ) ; but
a s s uc h irregul aritie s are a l m os t i nva ri a bly pre s e nt in it s ch a nnel ,
th e river tends t o ta ke a m o re or less wi nding c o urs e Th e exte nt .

of th es e wi ndi ngs dep ends o n th e s lo p e a nd th e ab ility o f th e s tra ta

t o res is t la ter a l erosio n It is o bvi o us tha t wi ndi ngs o r m ea nders
.

will o ccu r m ost frequently in c o m pa ra tively level o r flo o d p la ins,

wh en vertica l eros io n ha s pra ctica lly ceas ed The m o st fa vou r a ble .

c ond itio ns fo r t he fo r ma tion o f su ch m ea nder s a re wh en a m a rke d

c ha nge o f s lo p e occur s in a river c a rryin g a grea t a m o u nt o f
s e di m e nt This h app e ns wh e n s tre ams le a ve a m o u nt a i n regi o n ,
.

eith er in br oad va lleys or fl at pl a i ns Of this the Th ei s s in th e

.

Pla i ns o f Hu ngary a nd the P0 a re g o o d ex a m p le s .

W ater Gaps — The erosive

. ctio n o f rivers is well illu stra ted
a

by wa ter ga ps When a river ha s d efinitely es ta blish ed it s

.

cha nn el fro m so urce t o m ou th it m a y fo ll ow it with o n ly s ligh t

,

d evia tio n fro m yo u th th ro ugh m a tu rity t o o ld a ge— al e th ro ugh ,

t h e who le c ycle of erosion A gra du a l u ph e a va l a cro ss it s p a th

.

is o ften n o t s u ffi cient to tu rn a la rge river from it s c o u r s e if it

c a n kee p pa ce with th e u h e a va l b
p y m ea ns of er o s io n T h ere .

are nu m ero u s regio ns wh ere th is h a s ha

ppe ned th e Go rge
cut by th e Rhi ne thr ough th e S la te M o u nt ai ns a nd th e g orges o f ,

the Su tlej which h as m a i nt a i n e d it s c o ur s e t hr o ugh th e m a rgi na l

,

ri dge s o f t h e Him al a ya u lifte d a t a c o m ar a tively l a te s t a ge

p , p ) .

Su ch rivers are c a lled a ntecedent rivers b ec a us e th ey fo llo w a,

cours e wh ich is old er in da te tha n the disturbance o f t h e ba s in .

Us ua lly a s in the Jura a n up lift a lters t he cours e o f rivers wh ich

, , ,

fo ll ow th e new slo p e ; o r po ss ibly new rivers ( consequent rivers)

are f o r m e d in co ns eque nce o f t h e u lift
p .

In m a ny c as e s river s continue a d irect line th ro ugh a m a rgin a l

ra nge wh ich h a s re m ai ne d as a p r o m i ne nt fe at ure no t o wi n g t o ,

uph e aval but b ec au se th e sup eri nc umbent l a yer s h a ve disa p

,
 LAN D FO RM S 11

ed
p ea r thr o ugh l o ng c o nti nu ed
-
d e nu d ati o n , a ss s i ted by river
er o s i o n .

An ins ta n c e o f th is is a ff o rd ed by t h e W eald (see al so p . T h e o rig in al

s tructure w a s tha t o f a b roa d a n ticl in al c u rve o f whic h th e c en tre ( Ash ,

d o w n Fo rest ) rem a in s a s a rid g e T h e a r c h h a s b een d en u d ed a wa y a n d

.
,

tra cts o f l o w gro u nd no w su rro u n d th e di strict ; m o reo ver o n t h e o u t er ,

bo rd ers ex c ep t t o w ard s t h e ea st a re d o u bl e es c ar m en ts o f c h a lkt h e N o rt h

, ,
p (
a n d S ou t h D o wn s a n d
) green sa n d f o rm in g t h e pres ent ed g es o f th e o rig in a l
,

a r c h c o m o s ed b
,
p y t h e w h o l e s u cc es sio n o f c ret a c eo u s b ed s Th e riv ers d o .

no t h o w ev er f o ll o w t h e res ent li e o f t h e la n d b u t fl o w no rth a nd so u t h

,
p , , ,

c u ttin g g ap s in t h e c h a lkd o w ns T h ese f o rm ed th eir ch a nn els o n t h e

.

o rig in a l s u rf a c e sl o in
p g no rth a n d s o u th a nd c u t a cro ss b o t h h a rd a n d
,

s o f t b ed s As t h e l ess res is t a nt ro ckwh ich no w f o rm s t he l o wl a n d s wa s

.

ero d ed they m a int ain ed th eir o rigina l c o urses

, .

It is c l ea r h ere th a t th e rivers whi c h h a v e cu t ga p s in th e rid g es a re o ld er

th a n th e rid g es a n d in m an y c a ses th ey o ffer a cl u e t o the o rig in al to p o
,

gra p hy of th e l a nd .

In c ours e o f tim e a s a strea m ero d es it s va lley it c ut s its w a y

, ,

ba ck in to t h e d ivid e whic h s ep a ra tes it fro m a n a d j a cent river

s ys te m In th a t c a s e it
. ca ptu res t h e wa ter s wh ich bel o nged
t o t h e h e a d stre a m s o f t h e o th er river in j u s t t h e sa m e wa y a s if
a n a rt ificia l c u ttin g h a d bee n m a d e a cr o ss t he wa ter
pa rting
(see p .

Th e Cy cl e Ero sion — In c a s e s wh ere t h e river c h a nn el h a s

of .

been d eterm in ed by t h e la nd c o n t ou r a n d diff eren ces in t h e h a r d

ne ss o r so ft n e ss o f r o ck s , few c ha nges a re likely t o o cc u r in t h e
ba sin o f a river u ntil t h e p ro gress o f ero s io n h a s b ee n c a rried t o
s o m e le n th — till m a turity,
g in fa ct , h a s a rrive d As a ge in .

rivers d ep ends, n ot o n tim e , bu t o n t h e st a ge rea ch e d, it o fte n

hap p e ns th a t th e l o wer p a rt o f a river is a pp ro a c h ing o ld a ge
is flo win g o ver a n e a rly level pla in , wh ere little furth er
ero s io n is po ss ible— wh ile it s u pp er c ou rs e is still you ng— dc ,
is d ee p e nin g a n d wid eni ng it s ch a nn el Of th is t h e l o wer c o u rs es.

o f t h e Th a m e s , t h e S ever n , th e M issi ssi

pp i , th e Am a z o n , th e Rh i ne ,
a nd t h e H wa ngh o , are excelle nt ex a m les
p .

In s u c h p la in s t h e tribu t a ries o f t h e ma in river a re o ft e n c a p

t u red strea m s wh ich o n ce h a d a n in d ep end en t exit t o t h e sea .

Co ns eq u e ntly we fin d th a t t h e la rge s t river bas in s a re th o s e

wh ere th e l o wer c o ur s e c ons ists o f a wide a nd reaso na bly fl a t
p la in It s eld o m h a pp en s th a t t w o c o ns id era ble rivers h a ve
.

th eir m ou th s cl o s e t o geth er if th eir l o wer c o ur s e s a re o ver su ch

a
p la in Wh ere th is o cc u rs it will u su a lly be fou nd that th e ir
.
,

ba s in s a re s e p a ra te d by a lo w n eck o f re s ista nt r o ck .
 12 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

It might be exp ected th a t th is u n io n o f rivers in th eir l o wer

c ourses wo uld result in t he fo r m atio n o f wa terwa ys valua ble for
na viga tio n but th e l a rge a m o u nt o f s il t br o u gh t d own a nd t h e
, ,

nu m er o us a nd sh i fting ch a nn el s f o r m e d in it m a y rend er t h e ,

m ouths o f su c h rivers d ifficul t o f a ccess M ississ ipp i Hwa ng ho , ,

Lower Colora do ) .

Ice W ork— Th e ext en t t o wh ich ice er o d es is a ques tio n wh ic h

.

ha s c a u s ed m uch c o ntro vers y S o m e ge o lo gis ts h o ld tha t ice

.

eros io n is m a inly su p erficia l a nd is resp o ns i ble for little m o re

,

than t he planing po lis h in g and s cra tch in g o f th e ro cks wh i ch

, ,

ha ve been c o vere d by ice sh eets a nd gla ciers ; o th ers tha t m a n y ,

m o unta in va lleys ha ve b een la rgely d eep en e d by gla cia l er o s io n ,

t o wh ich th ey owe th eir di stinctive f o rm An imp o rta nt p o i nt in

.

fa vour o f extens ive gla cia l ero s io n is tha t gl a ciated va lleys tend
t o ha ve a U sh a p ed fo r m in c o ntra s t t o th e no r m a l V f o r m o f
-

valleys wh ich ha ve und o u bted ly been fo r m ed by river a ction

a l o ne . It is diffic u lt t o e x pla in t h e fjord typ e o f va lley (s e e
p. or t h e ha nging c a lleys o f gl a cia te d a re a s ( see p .

a part fro m gla cia l a cti o n in a d d itio n t o th a t o f wa ter It m u st .

b e rem em b ere d that sno w lyi n g in a s ligh t d epre ss i o n by m elti n g , ,

in tim e d eep ens th at d ep ress io n a nd it is quite p o ss ib le th a t th is

,

may h ave b ee n at l e a st a c o ntrib ut o ry c a us e t o t h e for m atio n of

many h o ll o ws o fte n a ttributed so lely t o th e work of gl a ciers .

Th e Action of th e Sea — T h e p re ss u re exerted by Atla ntic st o r m

.

wa ves has been esti m ate d t o am o u nt to a bo ut 3 t ons p er

s qu are f o o t Th is is su ffi cient t o m o ve h uge m ass e s of r o ck
.
.

”
The bl o w h o les s o num er o u s o n t he Co r nish c o ast a ff or d a
-

, ,

s triki ng ex am p le o f th e e ff ect o f c o m re ss e d a ir a nd w a ter o n th e

p
j oi nts o f t h e rocks Th e er os ive a ctio n o f t he sea es p ecia lly in
.
,

s tor ms is u ndo ub te d b u t it m us t b e rem e mb ere d th a t its a cti o n

, ,

is norm a lly lim ite d t o a sm a ll a re a with i n re a ch o f t he wa ve s .

Except o n sh o res wh ere th e s ea wa sh es t h e bas e of th e c lifis a t

lo w tid e th ere is a sh elvi ng b e a ch o n wh ic h th e force o f t h e wa ves
,

is sp ent Th o ugh th e fin er m a teri a ls wh ich c o mp o s e th e b ea c h

.

are t o s om e exte nt u s e d b y t h e wa ves in cliff eros i o n th ey c a n

,

o nly be respo nsi ble fo r a lim ited am o un t o f d estructio n .

Pro ba bly m o st of t h e d enu d a tio n o f cliff s is th e re sul t o f t he

c hem ic al and m echa nic a l a ctio n o f land dra ina ge the fu nction ,

o f the s ea bein g m a inly t o d egr a d e or bre a k u

p a nd c a rry a wa y
the d é br is loo se ne d fr o m the cliff s .
 LAN D FO RM S 13

AGENCIES OF RECONSTRUCTION .

Th e wa ste o f t h e l a nd is c o nsta ntly being redistributed by t h e

a gen cie s o f d e structio n Th e p r incipa l tra nspo rtin g fo rces a re
.

ra in wind river s a nd gl a cier s It m u st be rem em bered that the

, , , .

three pro cess es er o sio n tra nspo rta tio n a nd d epos itio n a re V ery
, , , ,

cl o s ely c o nn ected in th e shap ing o f l a nd fo r m s .

S oil — F o ur typ es o f r o ck c ap or s o il m a y b e dis ting ui sh e d :

.

(a ) So il p r o du ce d by t he we a th eri ng of th e r o cks th at lie b e n e a th

it ; (b) s o il tr a ns p o rted b y wi nds ; ( 0 ) s o il tr a ns p orte d by r a i n a nd
rivers ; a nd ( d) s o il tr a ns p orted by m o vi ng ice In m a ny c a s es .

all f o ur ki nds a re m i ngle d t o get h er Regi o ns wh ich h a ve b ee n

.

gl a cia ted sh o w m a ny striki ng fea tures wh ich are ge ner ally du e t o ,

d ep os its left b y retre a ti ng gla cier s M o ra i nes fo rm distinct ridge s

.
,

s o m e o f t h em as in No rth It a ly a nd t h e Unite d S t a te s b ei ng
, ,
o

s ever a l h u ndre d feet in h eigh t ( of As a r dr um li ns e s ker s .

pp 20 1 , , ,
.
,

T h ey a ls o f o r m l a kes in m o u nt a i n v a lleys by bl o cki ng th eir

exits (s ee pp 3 2 . A m ore wi d espre a d e ff ect o f gl a ci a ti o n is
,

sh o w n in t h e gl a cia l dri ft s re a d o ver l arge a re a s in Euro p e a nd

p
N o rth Am eric a t o wh ich m a ny regi o ns o w e th eir f ertility ( s ee
,

pp 1 4 1 ,
.

Rai n — A gra d ua l d o wn wa r d m o vem ent o f br o ken a nd d e

.

c o m po s ed r o ck is a lwa ys ta kin g pla ce Cliff s are turn e d into .

scree 3 10 p es by t h e a cc u m u l a tio n o f fa lle n m a teria l va lleys a re ,

fille d u p a n d in equa lities gen er a ll y levelled

,
Th is downwa rd .

creep o f t h e so il is a s a r u le le ss p erce p ti ble t ha n t h e re su lts o f

river tra nsp o rt, but it is no n e th e less i m po rtant .

River a ctio n is c o nfin ed t o t h e c h a nn el s o f t h e m a in strea m

a nd it s tri bu ta rie s ra in a ctio n o p era tes o ver a wid er field .

Even wh ere t h e so il is c o vered with gra ss o r vegeta tio n a n d ,

wh ere, o win g t o t h e po ro us cha r a cter o f th e r o ck, th ere is no vis ible

d ra in a ge ( ch a lk a nd lim est o n e s l o p es ) , th is c a us e a l o n e woul d be
s u ffi cie nt very gr a d u a lly t o level u p l a n ds i nt o p l a i ns O n s teep .

s l o p e s a nd b a re s lo p e s s u c h m o ve m e nt is f a r m o re r a p i d a s i s ,

sh o w n b t h e d e n u d a ti o n o f m o u nt a i n s l o p e s wh ic h h a ve b ee n d e
y
fo rested In a dd iti o n t o t h e a cti o n o f r a i n it sho u ld b e no ted th a t
.

ea rth w o rm s a re p o te nt a ge ncies in rem o vi n g t h e s o il a nd th a t ,

th e a lter n a ti o ns o f tem p er at ur e o n a n exp o s e d h ills id e a ss ist th e

a ctio n gra vit a tio n
of .

Wind — In dry regio ns t h e a cti o n o f t h e wind is i mp o rt a nt

.
in
s h i ft in g t h e fin er r o ck m a teria l T h e a d va nce o f sa n d du n e s
.
-
in

d es erts sh o ws th is o n a la rge s c a le S o m etim es a c o u ntry .

 14 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPH Y

c o vered by wind bo rn e du st t o a grea t d epth It is c a lcu la te d

-
.

tha t th e d epos its o f l o ess in No rth Chin a a re fr o m to

f eet d eep .

Loess i s a fo rm a tio n o f y ell o wish c a l c a reo u s c lay g en erall y very f ria bl e ,

a n d w i th o u t si ns o f s tra tific a tio n b u t c o n ta in in g a b u n d a n t rem a in s o f la nd

g ,

sh el l s a nd a nim a ls It is f o u nd in m a ny p a rts o f N o rth a nd S o u th Am eric a

.

M ississippi Vall ey— a nd a t ed ges o f a n c ien t ic e sh eets in Eu ro p e -

eg
. . t he Lo wer D a nu b e a nd in th e B la c kEa r th B el t o f Ru ss ia esp e c ia l ly
,

in Asia N o rthern Chin a an d th e Co tt o n Land s o f th e N o rth W es t -

D ecc a n .

S o m etim es it seem s a sso c ia t ed w i th gla c ia t io n bu t in Chin a in t h e ba s in , ,

o f t he H w a n g h o i t is a ppa ren tl y du e t o th e fin el y d ivid ed d u s t o f t h e

,

preva il in g N o rth a n d No rth W es t win t er win d s fro m th e no rthern d eser t

- s .

T his d u s t c a u ses th e rem a rk a b ly h a z y a tm o sph ere o f w in ter in N o rth Ch ina .

In the m iddl e H w an g h o b a sin it is f ou nd o n the no rth sl o pes o f hills w hic h ,

it ha s c o vered t o p ro d igio u s d ep th a m o u n ting so m e tim es t o

a ,
or

m o re f eet in thi c k n ess Th e H w a n gh o h a s c u t i t s w a y thro u g h th is d ep o sit

. ,

fo rm ing a fl a t va ll ey p l a in b o u n d ed by p erp end ic ul a r c l ifi s o f 5 00 f ee t o r

.

m o re in h eigh t It i s to o p o ro u s o n th e slo p es t o b e cu l tiva ted w i th o u t

.

very specia l terra c es y et a s it is fi rm eno ug h t o p erm it c a v es to b e ea s ily

,

ou t th ere is a rela tivel y la rg e p o pu la tio n whi ch c ul t iva t es the g en tler

,

terra c ed slo p es T he tra ffi c o n the ro a d s in wet wea th er cu ts th em ra pidl y

.

d o wn w a rd s an d fo rm s d eep gull ies wi th the ro a d b etween prec ip it o u s cliff s

, ,
.

T he d enu d a tio n by t h e river brin g s do wn va s t a cc um ul a tio n s fo rm ing th e ,

D elta o f t h e H w a ng h o a nd i t i s n o w ra p idl y ex t en d in g in to t h e Gu l f o f
,

Pec h il i .T he Red Ea rth ba sin o f S eoh w a n is o f sim il a r o rig in .

River Transp o rt —It h a s b ee n p o i nted o u t th a t th e er o s ive

.

p o wer o f a river d ep e nds o n its s l o p e a n d vel o city Th i s is d u e t o .

t h e f a ct th a t r o ck m a teria l in it s b ed is dr a gge d a l o n g t h e river

bo tt o m a n d c a us es m o re o r less er o s i o n a cc o r di ng t o t h e s ize o f ,

t h e fr a gm e nts a n d th e r a te at wh ic h th ey a re b ei n g tr a ns p o rte d .

Wh e n t he c urrent is u na b le t o tr a nsp ort th is m ateri al f arth er it is

d ep os ite d a nd th e la rger st o nes a n d c o a r s er sa n ds a n d gr a vel s
,

a re le ft in t h e u
pp er ch a nnel wh ile o nly t h e fin e st s ilt a n d m u d ,

re ach es t h e sea .

Th ree exa m p les o f d ep o s it s o f d iff erent c h a r a cter wh ic h illu s

tra te th is a re a llu via l fa ns river terra ces and d elta s , , .

1 Alluvial Fans — A d ecre a s e o f s l op e in th e b ed o f a s tre a m is

. .

usu a lly m a rked by th e d epos it o f déb ris In a m ou nt a i n regi o n .

wh ere trib ut a rie s j o i n a m a in stre am th e sl op e o ften d ecre a s es ,

s udd e nly s o th a t t he w aste br o u gh t d o w n b

, y t h e s wi fter s tre a m
S pre a ds o ut in the f o rm o f a n a llu vi a l fa n .

Th e s ize o f th e fa n will d ep e nd o n th e a ctivity o f th e r o c k

 LAND FO RMS 15

wea th eri ng in th e l a ter a l m o u nt a in v a lley and it s free d om fr om ,

d es tructi o n b y th e m a i n s tre a m a s well as o n th e v o lum e o f wa ter

, .

H e nce th e l a rge s t fa ns will b e f o u n d in dry regio ns wh ere th e r a in ,

fa ll is i nterm itte nt a nd th e v a lleys are o nly o cc as i o na lly swept by

s t o rm s .A rem a rk ab le ex am p le is t o b e f ou nd in th e v a lley o f
Ca lifor ni a N e a rly a ll th e rivers th a t fl o w d o wn fr o m th e sur
.

r o u nd ing m o u nt a i ns bu ild u p fa ns in th e v alley t he l argest b ein g ,

f o r m ed by th o s e wh ich fl o w west fr om the m o re l o fty Sierr a

N eva da Th e M erce d River h a s built in th e va lley tr o u gh a fa n
.

o f a b o u t f o rty m ile s r a dius c o m o s e d o f

p gr a vel n e a r th e m o u n
,

t a i ns a nd fi ne s ilt fa rth er fr om th eir bas e a nd m uch o f this regio n ,

is o f gre a t ec o no m ic im p o rt a nce In Spa ni sh d a ys th is f o rm ed a

.

gr a zing gr o u nd f or c a ttle a nd l a ter w as so wn with wh ea t It is

-

,
.

no w a rtifi ci a lly irriga te d a nd c o vere d with o rch ar ds Th e c o nvex .

s ha e o f t h e f a n gr a d ua lly sl op i ng t o t he p la i n a nd s eam ed
p , ,

by num er o u s wa ter ch a nn els pr o vid es sp ecia l f a c ilities f o r ,

t h e irriga ti o n wh ich is ess e ntia l in a l a nd o f dry s umm er s a nd

,

po r o u s so il s .

Of a s im il a r t yp e a re t h e num er o u s fa ns f o rm e d a t th e f o o t o f
t h e la ter a l Alp i n e v a lleys esp eci a lly the D o r a B a lt ea a nd in th e
,

Upp er Rh o n e V a lley wh ere s teep g o rge s o p e n o n t o th e m a i n

,

va lley Th e villa ges in the Vallais are in m a ny c ases p l a ce d o n

.

th es e fa ns wh ich c a n be ea sily terr a ced and irriga ted f or vi nes ;

,

m o re o ver th ey a re h e a lth ier b ec a us e th e h o us es a re r a is e d a b o ve

, ,

th e b o tt o m l a nds wh ich a re frequ e ntly m a r sh y a nd c o ld er a nd

,

d am p er th a n t h e s l o p es exte ndi ng i nt o t h e va lley ( s ee p 43 .

,

Invers i o ns o f T em p er a ture ) .

Wh ere num er o u s tribu t aries op en o n t o a pl a i n as in th e c as e ,

o f Lo m b a r dy t h eir d é bris s re a ds o u t t o f o rm a river m a d e pl a i n

p
-
.
,

It sho ul d b e no te d tha t th e grea ter v o lum e o f d é bris fr o m t h e

Alp i n e tri bu t arie s h a s p us h e d t h e P0 in th e m idd le part o f it s
c o urs e so uthw a r d a ga i ns t th e spurs o f th e Ap enni nes Wh ere .

th es e fa ns are little c o ns o li da ted b y veget a ti o n esp ecia lly l n ,

d es ert o r s em i d es ert regi o ns th ey are t o o p erm ea ble t o a ll o w

-

wa ter t o ru n o ver th e surfa ce b u t spri ngs c a n o fte n be fou nd at,

th eir ba s e .

A rem a rka ble exa m p le o f a n a ll u via l fa n is th a t o f th e H wa ngho ,

wh ich is sprea d fo r 3 00 m iles f ro m t h e exit o f its encl o s ed va lley

(at 400 feet ) t o t h e sea in th e fo rm o f a gra dua lly sl opi ng c o n e .

Th is is c o m p o s ed o f very fin e s ilt a nd is extrem ely f ert il e a n d ,

d ens ely p o pul a te d th o u gh lia ble t o d isa stro us flo o ds

,
.

E 2 Rive r T errac e s —As h a s b ee n sh o wn a river c a rries a l o ng its

. . ,

bed fra gm e nts o f r o ck t h e s ize o f wh ich d e p e nd o n the velo mt y o f

,
16 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

th e t e m Wh ere this d ecreases d ep osits of gra vel or sa nd are

s r a .
,

m ad e . As few rivers except in steep r o cky c h a nnels a re strai gh t

, , , ,

the current impinges o n o ne b a nk with m ore force th a n o n t h e

oth er and acc um ul ati on t a kes p la ce in t h e e ddies or sl a ck water
,
.

As th e river deep e ns its b ed o r a lters it s c o urs e by cutting a w a y

the b a nk wh ere th e s wiftest c urre nt r u ns th e s e d ep os its te nd t o ,

be left a bo ve t he wa ter level -

.

We fin d therefore in m a n y rivers a s teep bank o n o ne sid e

, ,

a nd a ge ntly sh elving s lo e o n t h e o th er T h e terr a ce s wh i ch

p .

a re s o well m a rke d a l o ng t he ban ks o f En glish m e and erin g ri ver s

a re the result o f s uccess ive ch a n ge s o f level of th e r i ver wh i ch ,

d is tinguish epo ch s o r s ta ges in it s h is tory Two o r th ree suc h .

ste s f i ly h riz t l b t s l o in g do wn wa rds i n th e e n era l

p ,a r o o n a u p , g
d irection o f the strea m a re so m etim es m a rked by con tin uous ,

terra ces tho ugh u sua lly th ey ha ve b een nea rly wo rn a wa y by

,

ero s io n and only rem a in a s d is c o nn ected pa tch es Th e se sta ges

,
.

of d epo sition are due t o th e fa ct th a t a river d eep ens and W i d ens

it s bed irregul a rly At ea ch flo o d m o re m a teria l is d ep o si te d
.

on th e ma rgin o f the flo o d p l a in a n d a s t h e river is o ften a l s o , ,

d eep ening its bed a tim e will c o m e wh en t h e vo lu m e o f wa ter

,

will not be su ffi cient t o rea ch th e e a rlier ma rgin a nd a terrac e ,

will be left with a ma rked sl o p e b ec a us e th e l o o s e ch a r a cter o f ,

.

th e gr a vel or sa nd fo rm in g t h e terr a ce h a s no t sufficient coh e si o n

t o f o r m a cliff Aft er s o m e tim e t h e steps bec o m e o blitera te d
.

a nd th e terra ce f o r m is d ifficul t t o d istin guis h Owin g t o th eir .

g oo d dra in age ( po rous m a teria l s) a nd g o o d s upply o f wa ter ,

th es e ha ve o ften fo r m ed th e o rig ina l s ites o f t o wns Lo ndo n ,

built o n gra vel terra ces ) .

3 D eltas — Th e p l a in fo r med by th e H wa ngho classe d a s a typ e

. .
,

o f a lluvia l fa n is rea lly a d elta, th o u gh pa rt o f it m a y ha ve ,

been built u p o n th e la n d Th e m a in p rinciple o f th e fo rm a tio n .

of deltas is th e sam e a s tha t o f m o u nta in fa ns Th e fine s il t h eld .

in susp ens io n is ch ecked wh en it enters a l a ke o r s ea no t o n ,

a cc o u nt o f a ny m a rked c h a n ge o f s l o p e but o f th e d ecrea s e in ,

velocity of the current Delta s are us u a lly less s ym m etric a l th an

.

a lluvi a l fa ns b ec aus e th e m a teri a l o f wh ich th ey are c o mp os e d

,

is finer and the oce a n c urre nts a re m o re p o te nt a gents o f tr a ns

,

portatio n Als o bei ng less p erm eab le th ey are m o re e asily

.
, ,

trench ed by th e distribut aries i nt o which th e m ai n river br anch es .

The fin ger shap e esp ec iall y m a rk , ed in th e ou ter d elta o f th e Mississippi ,

is due to the set of sea c u rren t s a n d t o th e f a c t th a t each new d is tri bu ta ry

tends to fo rm a branch d el ta T his is a type o f very ra pid ad vanc e invol vi ng
.

a grea t volume o f wa ter a nd m u ch sed im en t A pa ral l el is pro vid ed by the .

18 T EX T B OOK-
OF GEO GRAPHY

STRUCTURAL DIVISIONS .

The ystema tic stud y o f l and fo rms canno t be d ea lt with in a

s
gen era l geo graph y fo r s ch oo l us e but th e rec o gnitio n o f th e m o s t
,

i mpo rtant typ es is ess entia l even fo r t h e ele m enta ry treat m ent
o f an regi o n Pr o m in en ce is given in t h e s ectio ns wh i ch d e a l
y .

wi th the ph ysic a l geogra ph y o f th e c o nt in ents t o th e mfl uenc e o f

,

l a nd fo rm s on s ettlem ent .

The fo ll o win g m a in stru ctu ra l d ivis io ns m a y be d is tin guis h ed

(Fig . 4)

Pl ains of D e nu datio n — Insta nces of s uch pla in s a re a ff o rd e d

.

by t h e d is trict ro und Hu ds o n B a y, extendin g to t h e no rth of

t h e Grea t La kes a nd ro un d th e Gul f o f B o thn i a B o th of th e s e
.

a re as are c om ose d o f very a ncie nt r o ck , a n d the p l a i ns h a ve

p
been ca rved o ut o f o th er l a nd fo r m s eith er by wea th erin g a nd
rem o va l o f th e la nd su rfa ce (su ba eria l d enu da tio n) o r thro u gh
.

a p l a ni ng a cti o n o f t h e s ea ( m a ri ne d e nu d ati o n) Th ey are, a s a

.

r ul e , tr avers ed by hills a nd ridges of h a r d er m a teria l , which ris e

a b o ve th e ge ner a l level Such pl a i ns a re k no wn a s p enep la i ns
.

( a lm ost a pl ai n) , b ec au s e th ey d e no te a st a ge in t he cycle o f
er os io n wh e n m ost of the i nequ a lities o f relief ha ve b een rem o ved .

In a dditi o n to th e a r eas m arke d o n Fig 4 as Ar chaea n , Centra l

.

R us sia sh o uld b e no ted a s a n exam ple o f a p l a in o f th is t yp e

(see p . As h as o ften happ ene d in o th er regi o ns , a n ancie nt
pla te a u wh ich h a d b ee n worn d o wn t o a lo w p l a in w a s a ga i n
uplifted, a nd the river s rega ined th eir p o wer o f er osi o n .

Unf olde d S e dim entary T ablel ands — Cen tra l a nd So uth ern Ind ia ,
.

Western Austra lia , Ara bia , Africa , a nd th e East o f S o u th

Am eric a , fo r m ta blela nds, usua lly o f o ld a nd u nd istu r bed r o ck .

Su ch pla t fo rms a re often bo u nd ed by e s c a rp m ent s thro u gh wh ich

t he rivers h a ve c ut g o rges to t h e lower p la in s t h e We stern
Gha ts, th e Dra k ensberg en , a nd t h e m a rgin o f t h e Africa n t a b le

la nd, u sua lly m a rked by c a ta r a ct s ) Co m m unica tio n is rela tively

.

ea s y on t h e surfa ce o f a ta bleland, except wh ere d eep river

va lleys c u t th e u pl a nd in to iso la ted s eg m ents, as in Abyssinia a nd
th e Co l o ra d o Pla tea u (a ta blela nd in a f o l d ed m o un ta in a rea
),
bu t th e a ppro a ch f ro m t h e low gro und n ecess ita tes windi ng routes
a t th e e dge of th e e s c ar pm e nts .

Fol de d M ountains andHig hl ands — Th es e in clu d e th e h igh est

.

m o unta i n sys tem s o f th e wo rld a nd t h e

pla tea us a nd ba sins
,

wh ich th ey encl o s e .
LAN D FO RMS 19
20 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
F our typ es o f m ounta in regions may be no te d
1 Fold M ountains o f wh ich t h e Jura is t h e m o s t s im p le typ e
.
, ,

c o ns isti ng of r o ughly p ar a llel arches a nd tr o ughs ( a ntic lines a nd

synclin es ) In m o s t instan ces o f fo ld ed m o u nt a in s s i m pl i c i ty
.

o f m o u nta in f o r m is r a re The ro cks h a ve been ben t o r cru m ple d

.

by p ress ure e x ercis e d o n t h e m f r o m d iff erent d irectio n s ; p o r

tions ha ve been uplifted at p erio ds o f geo lo gica l ti m e far rem o ved ,

fro m ea ch o th er pa rt s h a ve been d epress ed a nd va st qu a nt i t l es ,

o f ma teria l ha ve been re mo ved s in ce t h e da te o f t he fi rst u h e a va l

p .

Th e gr o wth o f a mo u nt a in r ange has been ap tly c o m pa red to th e

up risin g o f an ice berg out o f th e wa ter a s th e to p is m elted a wa y
by the su n De gra da tion a cc o mpa nies and m a y keep pa ce with
.
,

uph e av a l .

2 B lockM ountains o f wh ich s im p le fo r ms a re fo un d in Oreg o n

.
,

a nd Mo n g o lia Th es e ha ve eith er been u p lifte d a bo ve t h e su r

.

r o u ndi ng cou ntry or ha ve b een left a s pr om i nent fe atures by

th e s ubs i de nce of s urr o undi ng p arts Old fo ld ed m o u nta i ns
.

which ha ve b een wo r n do wn at le ast o nce in geo lo gic a l ti m e ,

a nd which s t a nd up a s h igh l a nds a bo ve t he ba s i ns h a ve b ee n ,

distinguish ed o n th e m ap fr om th e yo un ger fo l d e d m ount a i n

a re as .

3 Volc anic M o untai ns wh ic h ha ve b een fo r m ed b th e a ccu

.
,
y
m ula tio n of v o lc a nic m a teri al Vesuvius Et na T enerifl e , , ,

ris i ng fro m sea —level ; Kenia Kilimanj aro Arar a t Chimbo ra zo, , , ,
Po p o ca t ap et l ris i ng o n ro ck fl o o rs far i nl and
, .

4 M ountains or High l ands of Circumdetri tion wh ere t h e c o m

.
,

pa rat ive eleva tio n o f th e gro un d is m o stly du e t o th e re mo va l

o f th e s u rro u ndin g D ifferences o f eleva tio n a re m o re
p a rts .

co mmon ly pro du ced by th is c au s e tha n a ny o th er D etritio n .

is u sed in p la ce o f t h e ter m d enu da tio n ”

a s it i m lie s th e re
p ,

m o va l o f r o ck m a teria l fro m t h e la nd wh il e d enu da tio n is t h

la yin g ba re o f ro c ks urfa c es Th e British m o u nta in s are typ ic a l
, e
.

i nstances o f th is fo r m o f e arth sculpture Th e La ke D istrict .

o f No rt h We s t Engl a nd h as been ca rve d o u t o f a n o

ld ea rth
-

bl o ck by th e re m o va l o f th e so fter m a teria l a nd the re s ent

p ,

fo rms o f the m o unta i ns a re o nly in p art du e t o th eir origi na l

s truct ure .

Lowlands — It is o bvio us tha t o nly t he ma in a rea s c a n be

.
d is
t in gu ish ed o n a m a p of th e wo rld N orth Am eric a , Euro ea n
p
.

Ru ss ia , pa rt o f Ea stern S iberia , and t h e la in s o f Ea ster

p n
Au stra lia , a re c o mpo s ed o f o l d s ed im e nta ry r o ck ; wh ile th e
 !
LAN D FO RM S 21

Am a z o n a nd
Pla te Ba s ins o f S o u th Am eric a , th e Ara l regio n,
a nd th e B as ins o f t h e Ga nge s a nd Indu s a re c o m os e d o f
, p
tertia ry and rec ent r o ck Bo th a re u nfo lded, and, like th e
.

ta blelands, su ch regio ns a re ma rked by wid e pla ins .

Th e Co ntinent al Sh e lf .

By careful s ound in gs it h as b een ascertained tha t the slop e of

,

th e coast l a nds is c o ntinued s ea wa r ds t o f o rm a com a r a tively

p
-

level p la teau d eep eni ng a t a bo u t 6 00 feet ( 100 fath o ms) Alm ost
, .

i nvaria bly at th is d epth t he s teep ness of the sl op e i ncre as es

rapidl y ; h ence the l OO fa tho m lin e ha s b een fixed up o n as the
-

e dge o f the co ntinenta l level Th is is as a rule narrowest where

.
, ,

th e co ntine nts a re b o r d ere d b y a m o u nt a in m argin a s o n the ,

west c o asts o f No rth a nd S o u th Am eric a and bro adest wh ere ,

extens ive lowlands fa ce the o cea n If th e l a nd were lo were d o r .

t h e s ea r a ised 600 feet m a ny l a rge i sla nds would for m p art o f the
,

co ntine nt al l a nd are a esp ecially r o u nd th e British Isles a nd t he

,

sh ore s of the N orth S ea a nd t h e B a ltic a nd rou nd New Gui n e a ,

a nd th e Ma l a y A rch ip el a g o ( B o r ne o S um atr a etc N B — Th e , , . . .

Wa lla ce Li ne b etween B a li a nd Lom b o k p The co nti ne nt al , .

sh elf te nds to b ecom e sh a ll o wer in t h e vici nity o f l a nd fo r th e ,

r o ck waste brought do w n b y rivers is dis tribute d o ver its surfa ce

by the a ctio n o f curre nts Th is a cti o n is s o m ewha t irregular
. .

In so m e p arts th e surfa ce is kep t sec ured ; in o th ers wh ere th e ,

curre nt is ch ecked and f o rm s edd ies th e s edim ent accum ul ates , .

Of the N E co ast of So u th Am eric a a nd t h e Am azo n s edim e nt ;

. .

the Y ellow Sea a nd the Hwa ngh o a nd Y a ngts e—kia ng ; the S W .

c o as t of France (the La nde s) ; a nd m a ny pa rts of the British Isles .

The m o dera te d epths o f th e c o nti n e nta l sh elf are impo rta nt as

s ugges ti ng form er la nd c o nn ecti o ns a nd s o a ccou nting for th e
,

di sp ersa l of a nim a l life a nd a ls o in a ff o r d in g spa wni n g gr o u nd

,

for fo o d fish es wh ere th e yo ung fish wh en spa wn ed find fo o d in

,

p lenty a nd a la rger pr o p o rtio n o f di ss o lve d gas es th a n is p o ss ib le

,

at gre ater d epths .

OCEAN CURRENTS .

Just as t he p article s m o lte n m a ss tend t o ma ke

of a ro ta ting
th eir way tow ar ds t hat p art o f the m ass wh ich h as the greatest
velocity— i a , at righ t a ngles t o the a xis o f r o tati o n and mi dwa y
b etwee n the p oles o f ro t a tio n— s o t h e a tm o sph ere ( p 61 ) a nd the .

w a ter of o cea ns have a tend ency t o m o ve t o war ds t he Equ a t o r .

exa mples
For of typ ica l la n d f o rm s a nd c oas t f o rms d escribed in the
tex t see Index
. .
22 TEX T B OOK
-

OF GEO GRAPHY

In th e latter c a s e th e te n d e ncy is m a sked by t h e m o vem e nt s o f

th e s ur fa ce w a ter , wh ich are m o stly p o lew a r ds , b u t in p a rt i t
°
a cc o u nts f o r th e very lo w te m p er a ture o f o ce a n d ep th s ( 3 5 F ; .

m a xim um d e ns ity, 3 9 2 F ) a nd f o r t h e creep

°
.
t h e d ee p
sea curre nt wh ich h as b ee n o b s erve d in c o m p a r a tively sh a ll o w

necks s ep a r a ti ng gre a t o ce a n b as i ns Th e W yville Th o m s on

.
-

Rid ge betwee n t he N o rth We st o f S c o tl a nd a nd t h e Fa r o e s is

-

kept s c o ured, sh o wi ng th a t a current is a lwa ys a ff ecti ng 1 t , a nd

.

t h e directi o n o f th i s c urre nt h as b ee n a s cert a in e d t o b e equ a t o r

wa r ds No d o ub t in part th is curre nt is due t o return w a ter
.

fr o m t h e Arctic Oce a n .

In co nfi ne d s eas c urrents are cert a i nly p r o duce d b y di ff er

enc es o f d e ns ity a s fre sh w a ter is le ss d e ns e th a n s a lt w a ter a nd
, ,

th e gre a ter t h e p r o p o rti o n o f sa lin e m a tter di ss o lve d the gre a ter

is t h e d ens ity ; a lso w a r m w ater is less d e ns e th a n c o ld w a ter .

T hus in narr o w s tr a it s c o nn ectin g s uch s e a s th ere a re regu l

c urre nts a n u pp er cu rrent of ligh ter wa ter fl o wi ng in o ne directi o n
, ,

a nd a n u nder c urre nt o f d e ns er fl o wi ng in th e opp o s ite d irecti o n

b etween th e B a ltic a nd th e N o rth S ea ; b etwee n th e

M e d iterr a ne an a nd Atl antic ; in th e D ar d a n elle s a nd t h e B o s
p h orus .

In oc e anic are as c urrents a re set u p b y th e p rev a ili ng wi nds .

In t h e o p e n o ce a n th ey a re o nly drif ts— i a , th e upp er s ur fa ce

h a s a gen er a l s et in th e d irecti o n th e wi nd is bl o wing Th ere .

is , no do u bt , a lw a ys s om e exch a nge o f p a rticles fro m l o wer level s ,

b u t t h e s u r fa ce m o v es fa s tes t O n a sh a ll o wi ng c o as t t h e e ff ect
.

o f fricti o n o n t h e b o tt o m ret a r d s t h e l o wer l a yer s , a nd t h e s u rf a ce

wa ter bec o m es a c urrent wh ich is deflected b y t h e c o a s t , a nd

d o u btless th e sh ap e o f t h e c o a s t , if n ot c a u s e d , is a cce ntua te d
by t h e i ns h o re curre nt s a nd th eir e ddie s As in th e c a s e o f
.

wi nds (p drifts a nd c u rrents m o vi n g equa torwards a re

.

d eflecte d westwa rd, th o s e m o vi ng p o lewa rds a re d eflected ea st

wa rd Th e c o ns t a nt winds o rigi na te in t h e N o rth er n a nd S o uth er n
.

H igh Pre ssure B elt s Th e N orth —Ea st a nd th e S o u th Ea st

.
-

Tr a d es ( p 6 1 ) b o th st a rt equa torwa rd d ri fts ; th e S o u th W e s t

.
-

a nd N orth We s t System s ( p 61 ) s t a rt p o leward drifts both

-

.
,

in th e Atl a ntic a nd Pa cifi c Oce a ns In th e Ind i a n Oce a n

.

t h e S o u th er n High Pre ss u re h a s a si m il ar i nflue nce , b u t t h e

m o nso o ns o f t h e N o rt h Indi a n Oce a n give ri s e t o currents wh ich
c ha nge th eir directi o n with t h e s e aso n (p .

The gre a ter m o m e nt u m o f a m ass o f m o vi n g w ater as c o mp a re d

with the air c arries th e dri ft wa ter fa rth er tha n th e lim its o f th e
 O CEAN CURREN TS 23

wind wh ich c au s es it He nce in the Atl a ntic the S o uth er n .

, ,

Equa t o ria l Curre nt ( So u th Ea s t T r a d e Drift )

pa rtly b ec au s e o f
-

its m o m e ntum a nd p a rtly b ec a us e o f the c o a st o f So u th Am eric a

,
is c a rrie d a cr o s s t he E qu at or wh ere it m i ngle s w ith t he w a ter ,

br o ught d o wn b y th e No rth er n Equa t oria l Curre nt ( N o rth Eas t ~

Drift ) . In M i d Atla nti c no rth o f the E qua t o r t he drifts

-

neutr a lize e a c h o th er a nd t h e i nflue nce o f t h e e a rth s r o t a ti o n

’
,

( west t o e a st ) tur ns th e s c a le a nd th e wa ter begi ns t o m o ve ,

e a stwar ds a nd f or ms in the Gul f o f Gu i ne a a str o ng current ( the

,

Equa t o ria l Co u nter Curre nt ) Al o ng t h e c o as t o f S o uth Am eric a

-

t h e c urre nt d ivid es So m e wa ter p a ss es s o u thw a r ds a s t h e

.

B r a zili a n Curre nt b u t m os t fl o w s n o rth w a r ds a nd a ga in divid e s

, , ,

so m e fl o wi n g e a st o f t h e Ca rribb ea n Isl a nds b u t th e m a i n b o d y ,

e ntering the Ca rribbea n S ea Th e stea d y fl o w o f th is water is .

i ncreas ed by th e N o rth er n Equ a t o ri a l Drift so th a t th e press ure ,

in the Gu l f o f M ex ic o is c o ns id er a ble Th is pre ss ure is relieved .

b y t h e Gu lf S trea m wh ich iss ues fro m the Fl o rida Stra it a s a river

,

5 0 m ile s br o a d f eet d eep a nd a t a tem p er a ture o f over

, ,
°
80 F O n pa ss i ng t he B a h a m a s it is reinf o rced b y the o th er
.

br a nch o f th e Drift Th e c o mb i n e d stre a m fl o w s u p t h e c o a s t

.

o f No rth Am eric a gr a du a lly s l a ckeni ng sh a ll o wing wi deni ng

, , , ,

a nd c o o li ng u ntil fi na lly t h e s h a e o f t h e c o as t d eflects it e a s t

, p
wa rds Off th e N ewf o u nd la nd B a nks it m eets th e Lab r ado r
.

Curre nt a nd t h e c o ntr as t in temp er a ture pr o du ce s t h e Co ld Wa ll

, ,

a s tr o ngly m a rke d diff ere nce in tem er a tu re in a li m ite d s a ce

p p ,

a nd t he f o gs a nd driving r a i n ch a r a cteri stic o f t h e s e p arts .

At n o gre a t d ist a nce fro m th e B a nk s t h e Gu lf Stre a m ce as es

t o exis t a s a c urre nt bu t spre a ds fa nwis e o ver t h e s u r fa ce o f t h e
,

N o rth Atla ntic f o r m i ng wh a t m igh t be c o ns id ere d as a d elt a o f

,

wa rm wa ter Th is pa rt o f th e Atla ntic is th e regio n o f th e

.

s o u th wes t
p reva ili ng winds a nd th es e wi nds s o o n f o r m a drif t
-

t o wa r ds the wester n c o a sts o f Eur o p e T hus th e a ver a ge t em .

p era t ure o f w a ter s u rr o u nd i ng t h e we st c oa sts is h igh er th a n

w o ul d be exp ected It h a pp e ns th a t th e tid a l fl o w is in th e sam e
.

d irecti o n so th a t twice a d a y th e surf a ce w a ter is c a rrie d insh o re

, ,

a nd p e netr a te s t h e la nd b y m e a ns o f t h e l o n g e stu a rie s M o re .

o ver th e sh a p e o f t h e c o nti n e nta l s h elf a nd o f t h e c o a st s in

,

t ensifyi ng th e drift c a rrie s t he w a ter b o th s o uth w a r ds t o t he

,

c o as t o f Spa i n a nd int o th e Ca na ry curre nt its elf a nd no rthwar ds , ,

a l o ng th e S c a nd i na vi a n we s t c o a s t i nt o th e Arctic Oce a n Th e .

Arctic Oce a n relieves it s el f o f th e su r plus wa ter wh ic h it th us

receives p artly by t he Oce a n Creep a nd p artly by c o l d su rface ,

current s wh ich with a we sterly d eflecti o n m a ke th eir w a y d o w n

, , ,
24 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAP HY

the ea s t c o a st o f Gree nl a nd , th e c o a st o f Labra do r, a nd th r o u gh

th e B ehri ng Str aits d ow n th e e as t c o a st o f Asi a .

In t he Pa c ific th e curre nts a re s im il a r in o rigin, b ut t he b r o ke n

masses o f the equat o ria l arch ip ela g o s d o not c o nce ntra te t h e
north er n b r a n ch of th e drifts , so th a t t he Kur o S iv o , w
h i ch
c o rrespo nds t o th e Gulf Strea m has a far m ore lim ited influ ence
,

in th e N o rth Pa cific Wh ere p reva iling wi nds blo w stea dfl y

.

fr o m th e edges o f l a nd or o f h igh p ress ure c o ld wa ter wells u p ,

m b l c m e te f or t h e s u rfa ce drift a nd f o r m s c o l d
f ro e ow t o o p ns,
a ,

curre nts Th es e o ccur chiefly o n t he wester n m argi ns o f c o n

.

tinent s B e nguela Per u a nd Western Au str a li a n c o ld

, ,

currents .

M AP S AN D M A P R E AD IN G .

SCALES AND MEASUREMENT .

B efo re a h o us e c a n b e built c a refu l pl a ns m us t be prep a re d ,

,

so th a t a b u il d er in his o ffice m a y b e a b le fro m m e a sure m e nt s

o n t h e p l a ns t o w o rk o ut th e a ct u a l am o u nts o f m a teri a l h e will

requ ire For this p urp ose th e p l a ns mu st be of c o nve nient s ize ,
.

a nd are th eref o re dra wn to sc a le so t h at one i nch o n t h e p l a n

,

repres ents s a y , one f oot o n th e bu il di ng S uch a sc ale w o u l d b e

,
.

”
c a lled o ne i nch to the f o o t o r b e expressed by th e r a ti o 1 1 2
,
1
°
1 2
Sim ila r p la ns a re require d o f a p r o p erty for va ri o u s p urp o s es .

Th e exa ct sh ap e o f ev ery fi eld is o b ta ined b y finding t h e c o m p a ss

b e a rings o f e a ch sid e a nd no ting a ny va riati o n fr o m t h e ge n er a l
directi o n a nd th e le ngths o f e a c h sid e are eith er a cc ura tely
,

m e a su red o r th ey c a n be c alc u l a te d fro m th e co mp a s s b e a rings .

Wh en all p arts of the pr o p erty a re m e asured , t h e res u lt s are

pl o tted o n a sh eet o f pa p er , s uc h a s c a le b ei ng s elected a s is m ost
suit a ble f o r t h e s ize of t h e p r o p erty Th e a ccur a cy o f t h e w o rk
.

m u st b e s u fficient t o a llow t h e a re a o n th e re du ce d s c a le o n th e
pla n t o b e meas ured with ou t a ny a pprecia b le d ifl erenc e b etwee n
th e result s o obtai ne d a nd t h e a rea ca lc ulated fro m th e o rigi na l
m ea s urem ents .

All h igh ly d evelop e d c o u ntries require a ccur ate d es crip tio ns

of all pa rt s w ithi n th eir b o u nda ries, for c alcul ati ng revenu e o n
pr o p erty for s ettli ng dispu tes a s t o t he lim it s o f a dj a ce nt pro
,

pert ies , f o r determ i ni ng t h e na ti o na l res ource s , a n d f or m a ny

o th er p urp o s e s The filed o r t a b ula te d results f o r m t h e Ca d a s
.

” ”
tr al Survey, of whic h th e D om esday B ook was a n e arl y
26 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

Or to, p ut it in anoth er f orm :

The s quare m ile s rep re s e nte d o n one sh eet o f t he
-
inch woul d be repres ented o n f our sh eet s of t h e I r nc h ; -

o n 1 44 sh eets of t he 6 in ch ; o n sh eet s of t h e 25 i nc h
-
- .

It m u s t th erefore b e evident th a t even o n s uch la rge s c a le

maps a s th e é inch and even o n th e l inch cons ider a b le j u d g
-

,
-

m ent m us t be exercis ed by th e c art o graph er in s electing wh a t

sh a ll b e o m itte d .

Very little deta il c an be exp ected in m aps m easuri ng s a y , ,

1 2 x 9 i nch es a nd represe nting s a y Fr a nce or Russ i a o r Afri c a

, , , , ,
.

The l argest p o ssib le sc a le for getting such l arge a re a s o n t o s o

sm a ll a s h eet woul d b e appr o xim a tely :

Fr an ce 7 0 m iles t o the inch— d c I : 70 x

,
or ,

Rus s i a 200 m iles t o t h e inch— i a

,
1 : 200 x or ,

Africa , 600 m iles to th e inch 1 600 x or

It w o ul d a voi d a gre a t de a l o f m is co ncepti o n if th e m a ps in

or di na ry a tla s es were quite fra nkly c a lled di ag ra ms , f or they a re
little else Rel ative p ositions a nd dis t a nce s a re, as far a s p o s s ible ,
.

c o rrectly given, but th e sm a llness o f th e sc ale m akes it n ecess ary

to o m it a ll but essentials .

Curvatu re of the Earth — Th e difli c ul t y o f m a p re a ding is

s till furth er incre as ed by a n o th er dis turb ing elem ent — viz , .

the curv a ture o f the ea rth It is abs olutely im po ss ib le t o

.

rep res ent a curved surfa ce o n a p la n e surface wi th o u t s o m e

l oss o f a ccura cy In a si ngle sh eet o f th e 1 :
. s urvey
t h e c urva ture w o uld be s c a rcely p ercep tib le , bu t in o r d er
th a t s ever a l a dj a cent sh eets m ay fit reasonab ly well , it is f o und
neces s ary t o plot th e d et a il s o f t h e m e asure m ent s m a d e in
th e fi eld a cc or ding to a pre arr a nge d s ch e m e , b y ref errin g a l l
p o s iti o ns a nd d irections t o lin es repre s e nting t h e p ar a llel s o f
la titu de a nd t he m eridia ns o f l o ngitu de Hence o ne p a rt o f a .

’
surveyo r s w o rk in m app i n g a new regio n is to d eter m i n e with
th e grea test p oss ible a ccura cy t h e la titud e a nd lo n gitud e o f
imp o rta nt p ositio ns in the a rea c o vered Until th is is do n e , h is .

m e a su rem ents , wh e n tr a nsferred t o pap er , are o n ly p la ns , a nd

th ere is no p ossibility o f fi xing th eir p ositi o n o n t he e a rth ’ s
sur fa ce . Wh e n o nce the l a titu d e a nd l ongitud e are k no wn , ea ch
piece s urveye d c an be fitte d i nt o it s p la ce in a ny s ch em e o f lin e s
o f re f ere nce wh ich ma y b e d e sire d The county is t ake n a s the
.

unit for th e sch em e in the B ritish Survey Th e centra l m eri di a n .

 MAPS AN D M AP READ ING 27

is dra w n as the North and S o uth ba s e li n e , the p ara llels of l atitu de

-

and th eir su bdivis i o ns are dra w n a t th e c o rrect dist a nce s a art

p
so as to give th e requ ire d s c a le , a nd th eir curv ature is c alcul ate d
so that oth er m eri di ans a nd th eir s ubdivis io ns cut the
parallels
at righ t a ngle s in a ll
parts o f th e ma p .

T AB LE I .
-
VALU E or D E G R E ES or LAT IT U D E AN D LO N G IT U D E .

1
°
of La it tude 1° of t
Long i u d e
( S ta tu te M il es ) .
( S tat t
u e M iles ) .

T h es e figures are c o rrect t o th e n ea res t o n e h u n dred th of a m il e, a nd c a n

-

be us ed t o o btain a n app ro x im a t e v al u e o f int erm edi a t e la tit ud es a nd

l o ng itud es, b u t f or grea ter a ccura c y th e v al u e in f eet sh o uld b e taken .

Th e fig ures h a v e b een o b ta in ed b y m ea s u rem en t o f a rcs o f a m eri di a n

0

or a rcs o f l o ngit u d e in so m e thirty diff eren t p a rts o f t h e w o rld By m ea ns .

o f a b as e line a nd trian gula tio n t h e dis t a n c e b etw een t w o p o m ts o n t he

-
,

sam e m eridi a n w as m ea su red a nd t h e diff eren c e o f la tit u d e o bt ain ed b y

,

as tron o m ic al c al cula tio ns .

Meth ods of For re duce d surveys and for maps

Proj ection .
—

of sma ller sc ale , a netwo rk o f line s o f re f ere nce (s o c a lle d l i ne s o f

.

latitude and lo ngitud e ) m us t b e dr a w n in a cc or dance Wi th o ne

o f t he m a ny d evice s c a lle d p ro j e cti o ns Most of th e se prej ec.
28 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPH Y

ti o ns are mathematic a lly c a lcu l a ted so as t o m i nim ize the e ffects

o f c u rv a t u re a nd di stribu te t h e i n equ a litie s in s c a le s o t ha t

th ey will a ffect least th e m o st impo rta nt part of t h e m ap It .

is im p oss ible to de a l s ystem a tic a lly with the va rio us p r o j ectio ns

with in the lim its o f this wo rk A few p o ints h o wever c a n b e
.
, ,

d e a lt with .

The s c a le o f a map is d eterm in e d by th e d is ta nce b etwee n

c o ns ecutive l atitudes at th eir i nters ecti ons with t h e centr a l
“

“
l o ngitu d e of t he m ap T hu s o n the S o uth Sh eet o f Grea t
.
,

B rita i n in Stieler s Atl as the dis t a nce b etwee n th e i nter s ecti o ns

’

0 °
of 1 o f l a titu de o n the ce ntr a l m eri di a n ( 2 we s t ) is 2 92 i nches .

As th es e dist a nces are ex a ctly t he s a m e fro m no rth t o s o u th it is ,

clea r th a t th e le ngths o f t h e l a tit u d es ( Tab le I ) h ave no t b ee n .

t a ke n bu t th e mea n length— via 69 1 6 m iles ( 1 1 1 1 5 kilo m etres)

, ,

t o th e d egree ( Th e mean le ngth is ca lcul ate d fr o m th e mea n

.

glob e va lu es ) .

Thu s the sca le o f the m ap is c a lc u la ted a s f o ll o ws :

°
i n c h es 1
= of latitu d e m iles .

l m ile s .

t hec le is 1 : 23
s a
’

68 x or 1:
a ppr o xi m ately 1 :

In a ll
th e pr oj ecti o ns, excep t t h e p olar proj ecti o ns a nd t he
cyli ndric a l ( in wh ich the wh o le w o rld is repres ented o n a rect
a ngul a r s h eet ) th e ce ntr a l lin e is t h e ce ntr a l m eridi a n o f t h e a re a
,

to be m app ed the l atitud es a re th en d esigned s o tha t by th eir

,

curva ture th e l ongitud es m a y c u t th em a t rig ht a ng les a s f a r a s

p ossible wh en th e n etw o rk is c o mp lete
, The correct la titu d e .

a nd l o n git u d e o f a ll
p o ints n ecess a ry f or fi lli ng in d eta ils are
t ake n eith er fr om origina l surveys or from larg er sc a le m a ps tha n
that w h ic h it is d esired t o dra w Th en a c a lcul ati o n m us t b e .

m a d e t o d eterm ine the ex a ct p o s iti o n o f th es e p o i nts wit h rega r d

t o th e lin es o f refere nce a nd th e s c a le of th e new ma A p a ir of
p .

pr o po rti o na l c o mp asses saves m uch c a lcula ti o n wh e n p r o p erly ,

a dj us te d t o t he s c a le s o f the t w o m a ps It is ge nera lly b e s t to .

divid e e a ch m ap i nto ha lf o r qua rter d egrees s o as t o er m it o f

p ,

dra wing a s fa r a s po ss ible by eye .

Our kn o wle dge of t he exa ct sh ap e o f the e a rth is s till no t

p erfect a nd it is prob able th at a s a ccur ate s urveys a re m a d e o f
, ,

th e m a ny l a nds s till unsurveye d irregul aritie s in f o r m will b e ,

d etected wh ich a re a t pre s e nt o nly s usp ecte d .

Th e le ngth s o f th e Equa t o ria l a nd Pol ar dia m eters ha ve b ee n

m any tim es c alculated with s om ewha t difiering results t he ,
 MAPS AND M AP READ IN G 29

values gener ally a ccepted b ein g 79 26 6 a nd 78 99 8 m iles respec

tively The difierenc e 26 8 m iles m a y be re pre se nte d in terms
.
, ,

26 8 1
of th e p ola r d i a m eter a s a
pproxim ately . This
7 29 4
m e ans that to sh ow a di ff erence o f 1 i nc h b etwee n the di a m eters
a glob e h a vi ng a p ol ar d i am eter o f 29 4 in ch e s or 24 feet wo uld
% , ,

ha ve to be cons tructe d .

A gl o b e o f th is s ize w o uld h a ve a circ u m ference of 24 5 x .

3 1 4 1 59 or , feet and it s sca le ta king t he m ean va lue o f a

, ,

degreH e , 2 6 1 inc h es . . m iles , o r 1 inch ==26 5 miles °

On a m ap dra wn to th is
. s c a le , t h e c o rrect va lue o f one i nc h a t

the Equator w o ul d b e x m iles , a di ff ere nce

69 1 6
of 0 18 m ile .

22
( 1
In oth er w ords , 1 i nch at th e E quat o r is t o o lo ng by
6
0 0 067 m ile , and sh o ul d be 1 or 0 993 3 inch . Si m i
°
larly, ln latl tu de 8 5 th e va lue of 1 in ch wo uld be
inch es .

It is evi de nt tha t the di fference b etwee n th e m ean va lue

a nd t h e tr u e v a l u e is very sm a ll a nd th eref ore in all ,

s m a ll s c a le m ap s a nd even m o re in a ll o r d i na ry glo b e s it is quite

, , ,

u nnecess ary o r even m is le a di ng t o pretend a n a ccuracy wh ic h in

the na ture o f th e c a s e is qui te im p o ss ib le t o m a inta i n througho ut
the m a p .

Proj ections Co mp ared with a T errestrial Gl obe — It c a n e asily .

be sh o wn b y m ea ns o f a flex ib le p r o tra cto r th a t the line s o f

refere nce o n a g lo be cut e a ch o th er a t righ t a ngles everywhere

a nd th a t the tr ap e z ia c u t o fi b y th e m eri di a ns between two p ara llels

of la titude a re exa ctly equ a l in a re a , a nd th eref ore tha t the

di a go na ls o f th es e fi gure s a re exa ctly equa l .

B y tes ting th e a ng le s o f i nters ecti o n o f a num b er of m aps of

difierent proj ecti o ns , it will be f o u nd p o ss ible t o divi d e th e m i nto
0 lass s e
1 gles righ t a ngles th e li nes of l ongitude str aight
. All an ,

but co nverging the li n e s o f l a tit u d e curve d but p ara llel

,
.

Mo st m aps o f sm a ll a re a s will b e fo und t o b elo ng to thl s

cl ass .
30 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

2 Angles
. i nter secti o n righ t a n gles a t or n ea r t o th e
of

centr a l m eri di an but c o ns ider a b le divergence fr o m t h e

,

right a ngle a t t h e e ast a nd wes t m a rgins M os t m aps o f .

la rge area s will be fo und t o h a ve th i s d isti nctive feature ,

but it w ill be o bvi o us th a t t h ere a re m a n y v a rieties in t h e

a rr a nge m e nt o f t h e li n e s o f re f ere nce .

3 All a ngles o f i nters ecti o n righ t a n gle s t h e li n es o f

.
,

l a titu de a nd a lso th os e o f l o ngitud e s tr a igh t a nd p a r a llel .

T o th is cl a ss b el o ng t h e cylindric a l pr o j ecti o ns th e
M erc a t o r a nd Ga ll s Stere o gr a ph ic wh ich in sp ite o f m a n y
’
, ,

o bj ecti o ns a re c o m m o nly us e d f o r sh o wi ng di s tri bu ti o ns o f

,

a ll ki nd s .

Fo r a ll pr a c tic a l purp os es we m a y c o ns i d er Cla ss 1 t o pre s e nt

a s a ti s f a ct o ry i d e a o f t h e a re a bu t t h e a cc ura cy fa lls o ff in m o st, ,

ca ses t o wa r ds th e fo ur c o rners o f t h e m a p
,
.

In Cla ss 2 a c a re fu l c o m p a ris o n o f t he sha p e s o f well m a rke d -

a re a s o n t h e m a p wit h t h e s h a p es o n a gl o b e m u s t sh o w c o ns i d er

a b le d i st o rti o n e sp eci a lly t o w a r d s t h e m a rgi ns

, In s o m e pro .

jec t ions t h e m erest gl ance is su fiic ient t o revea l t h e dist o rti o n ,

a nd t h e d i a g o n a l s o f t h e tr a p e z i a a re evi d e ntly m os t u n eq u a l .

In s o m e m a ps h o wever t h e d is t o rti o n is c o mp e ns a te d for b y t h e

, ,

being e ua l
area s q .

B y th e us e o f
qu ared tr a cing pa p er it is e a s y t o test t he
s -

equ a lity of tr ap ezia Care fu lly tr a ce three tr a p ezi a in difi erent

.

p os iti o ns b etwee n t h e s a m e p a r a llels o f l a titu d e a nd c o u nt t h e ,

s qu a re s wit h i n t h e fig u re s c o u nting a s full s qu are s a ll th os e ,

ou t b y li n e s le avi ng h a l f o r m o re t h a n h a l f t h e s u a re with i n t h e
q
fig ur e a nd o m itti ng th os e wh ic h lea ve o b vi ou s ly le ss th a n h a l f a
,

s qu are .

B y a cc ura te tr a cing a nd fi n e li n es it sh o u l d b e p oss i b le t o

d eterm i n e wh eth er o r n o t t h e m a p is o n a n e qu a l a re a p r oj ecti o n -

Th e gre a test irregu l a rities in a re a will fr o m t h e n a t u re o f th e ,

c a s e b e f o u nd in maps o f Cla ss 3 Co m pa re the length a nd

,
.

bre a dth o f Gree nla nd with tha t o f Indi a o r So u th Am eric a o n t h e

gl o b e o n a m a p o f th e M erc a t o r pr oj ectio n a nd o n Ga ll s
, ,
’

Stere o gr a ph ic p r oj ecti o n Try a nd fi nd o u t wh a t a rts o f e a c h

p
.

o f the l a tter is m o s t a cc u r ate in s c a l e a s c o m a re d with t he gl e

p ob .

A efu l ex er c is e f o r a d va n c ed st u d en ts c a n b e c a rried o u t w ith a g l o b e

us ,

A st o u t g a lva n iz ed iro n w ire l o o p sh o u l d b e m a d e o f j u s t l a rg er d ia m eter

th a n t h e glo b e T his h oo p w ill m ak
.
“

e it p o ssibl e t o dra w c orrect Grea t

Circl es a t a n y a n gl e t o t h e Equ a t o r It is n ec essa ry first t o r v e tha t
p o
.
,

a ny two p o in ts lie o n a g rea t c ir cl e a n d t h a t a

grea t c irc le m us t ou t t h e
,

Eq u a t or at the o pp osit e en d s o f a dia m eter .

 MAPS AND M AP READ ING 31

Ta ke , e e r e
f o r x a m p l , B o d a u x a nd H a lif a x , w hi ch lie a
p p o x im a t ly o n r e
e
la titu d 4 5° N M ea su
.
re
t h e d is t a n c wit h a t a p o r a s t i
p o f pa p e e r er
a lo n g t h e la titu d e e re
Th n c a f ull y a d u s t t h e h o o p a nd dra w the
. j
g at circl re e
ee
o n w h i ch t h s p o in ts lie , a n d m ea su t h e dis ta n c b tw n t h e p o in t sre e e ee
re
a l o ng t h e r e
g a t c i cl Th n m a su . e e re
with a p o t a cto t h e an gl b tw n r r r e e ee
e e er e
s u cc ssiv re r e
int s ct io n s o f th e g a t c i cl w ith t h e m idi a ns , and f o m er r
ee e er
th s an gl s find t h e c o m p a ss b a ings a t t h e c itic a l p o sitio ns T h y will r .
e
er
b e f o un d t o di ff er r
c o n sid a bly f o m th e c o m pa ss sa iling a s giv n o n a e
M c ato Ch a t
er r r A v a lu a b l
. x e e er e
cis w o ul d b e t o p lo t on t h e M c a to er r
r r r e re r
Ch a t t h e rough g ea t c i c l sa iling c o u s f o m t h e a b o v a n gl s M a ny e e .

simil ar e er ex cis s m igh t be su gg st d e e

Ca p H o n t o M lbo u n e r e r e ,

e r e
Gl asgo w t o th e n t a n c t o H u d s o n B a y ; t h e dis ta n c f o m Q u b c t o e r e e
N ew W stm in st
e er r r
c o m p a ed w ith th a t f o m Q u b c t o Po t R up t ; o r e e r er ,

re r e r
t h e sh o t s t o u t f o m Lo ndo n t o B o ng K o ng -
.

At t h e end o f t w o o r t h sim il a x ree r e er e

c is s no o n e w ill d o u bt t h e va lu , e
of g re r e
a t c i c l s a il in
g .

THE USE OF LARGE S CALE CO NTOUR MAPS .

R eferen c es a re t o nu m b ers
r e Sheet Series ( 1 in ch to the m il e )
of t h e La g
o f t h e Or dna n c e S ur ve
y .

O n th e Or dna nce M aps o f th e B ritish Isles c o nt o urs are give n

a t 50 feet a nd a t every 100 feet u feet a fter wh ich th e
, p to ,

i ntervals are a t 250 feet B y m eas uri ng th e dist ance b etween .

th e c o nt o u rs it is e a s y t o e stim a te th e gra d ie nt ; bu t in are a s o f

,

sm a ll eleva ti o n 25 feet or eve n 1 0 feet c o nt o urs are nece ssary t o

- -

sh o w th e m i no r v aria ti o ns o f level Fig 5 is t a ke n fr om Sh eets . .

1 1 1 1 1 2 1 21 1 22 o f t h e Or dna nce S urvey

, , , It sh o ws th e wester n .

p o rti o n o f th e M e n dips Th e c o nt o u r s are at every 100 feet with

.
,

a d o tte d li n e a t 50 feet T he fi gur es sh o w h eigh ts a bo ve sea level

.
-

Fro m th e va lley o f th e Axe to th e ra ilwa y o r r o a d so u th o f

Ch e dda r t h e ris e is a bo u t 3 f eet t o 1 m ile ( 1 in Fro m
t he 200 f eet c o nt o u r a little to th e ea st o f Ch ed da r th e r is e
-

, ,

is 500 f eet in i m ile feet in l m il e— 1 in T h is

ma rks th e a s cent fro m t h e pl a in t o th e p la tea u wh ic h tho u gh , ,

a stee
p s l o p e is no t a p recip ice a s will be s een by a n exa m ina
, ,

tio n o f Fig 6 In Ch edda r Go rge th ere a re vertic a l cliff s It

. . .

will be no ted th a t a bo ve 700 feet th ere a re difierenc es o f eleva

tio n the h igh est p o i nt rea ch in g
, f eet bu t t h e typ e o f rel i ef
is tha t o f a s ligh tly u ndul a ting ta blela n d Th ere a re no ru nnin g .

s trea ms exce t o n t he Th e
p p la in a n d a t t he bas e o f th e pl a tea u .

wa ter s in ks into the surfa ce a nd fo rm s u nd ergro u nd pa ssa ges ,

a nd c a ves by so lu tio n Th e in equa lities o f th e u p l a n d a re m a in ly

.

du e t o s u bs ide nc e The m a i n ro a ds a nd t h e ra il wa y fo ll o w a
.

d epress io n no rth o f Ax bri dge Th ey a l so c o nnect t h e l i ne o f .

villa ges at th e sp rin g level a t t h e bas e o f the Mend ips .

32 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
34 TEXT B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPH Y

Fig .6 sh ows qu ite a d iff erent typ e . T h is is t a ken fr o m Sh eet

41 o f the Or dna nce Survey, a n d inclu d e s Sno wd on . Co nt o u r s
a re sh own a t every 250 feet f r o m 250 to feet Fr o m
.

B eddgelert, wh ich is 1 25 feet to t h e t o p o f t h e p a ss whic h

lea ds by Llyn Cw ellyn t o Ca rna rvo n, i s 526 f eet i n 2% m i les
a n ea stwa r d d i rect i o n t o t h e
.

( 1 in Fr o m L ly n C w ell yn in
s u m m it of Sno wd o n is 2 5 m il es feet ) Th e a ver a ge r i s e
.

is 1 in 4%— a l m os t th e lim it o f t h e steep est ro a d u p wh i ch a c a rt _

c a n be drive n . B u t th is a vera ge is m a d e u p o f m a rked di ff er

eno ce o f s10 pe Fro m th e 500 feet lin e o n Llyn Cw ell yn t o th e
.
-

feet c onto u r , wh ich ma rks a ppro xima tely th e beginnin g

-

o f the reci it o u s h ea ds of t h e cwm s o f Sno wd o n , th ere i s o n ly

p p
feet ris e in 2 m il es ( 1 in Fro m t ha t l in e t o t he su m m i t
th ere is anoth er ris e of feet in é m ile (a bo u t 1 i n 1 g) Any .

o f th e s e s l o e s c a n e as ily b e re pre s e nte d in term s o f a ngles Fo r

p .

m os t purpo s es it will p r o ba bly b e s uffi cie nt t o m e as ure th e di s

ta nces o n the t w o s ides o f a tria ngle e nclo si ng th e righ t a ngle ,
a nd t o e sti m ate t h e a ngle o f s l o p e .

An exa m ina tio n o f t h is c o nto u r d ia gra m , even witho ut ref er

ence t o the Ordna nce Map, sho u l d e na ble a s tu d ent t o d r a w
a
p p ro xima tely th e lines of th e m a in d riv ing r oa ds r o u nd Sno w d o n ,
a nd t o sho w th e d irectio n o f t h e stre a m s . T h e rem a rka ble
s y m m etry o f t h e cwm s is well br o u gh t ou t b t h e c o nt o ur s s electe d
y .

Th is c a n har dly fa il to sugge st tha t th e p re s en t l a nd fo r m s h a ve

a c o mmo n o rigin . Proba bly a t o ne tim e t h e h ill s p o sses s ed
d o m e shap ed su mm its a nd r o u nd e d s pur s, with gently gra d e d
-

sl o p es lea ding t o m atu re v alleys . In th e gla cia l p erio ds th ey

were c o vered with sno w and th e cwm s were fil le d with gla cier s .

As t h e result o f t h e c o m bin ed a ctio n o f fro st , ice , a nd m eltin g

s n o w a nd ice , t h e cwm s were er o d ed a nd d ee e n e d in t o c o nc a ve
p
U sha p e d s c oo ps, a nd th e s lo p es a t th e h eads s teep en ed
-

.So m e o f
th es e , as a t A ( Cwm Glas ) a nd B ( M ynydd Ma wr) , fo r m sm a ll
h a n gin g va lleys like th o s e o f t h e Alp s, bu t less well m a rke d .

T h e rock is gen era lly va ried in c ha ra cter, be ing pa rtly vo l ca n ic

( th e Snowd on fels ites ) , partly m et a m o rph ic , and pa rtly una ltere d
s e dim enta ry r o ck , s u c h a s so m e o f th e sl a te s bu t t h e d iff eren ces
o f st ruct ure wh ich o fte n give ris e t o d iff eren ces o f fo r m ha ve

been la rgely o blitera te d by t he ero s io n of th e Gla cia l p erio d In .

m a n y cas es th e ro cks wh ich do no t for m pro m in ent ridges a n d

p recip ices a re j us t a s h ard ( res ista nt ) a s tho s e th a t do . Pro ba bly
t h e s erra ted fo r m o f th e h igh er rid ges is du e t o th e fa ct tha t a t
an
y r a te in the l a st Gla cia l p erio d, th ey stoo d a bo ve the a ctio n o f
t he ice , and c o ns equently o we th eir sha p es ma in ly t o fro st, j us t
 MAPS AND M AP READ ING 35

as th e ridges o f the Al ps wh ic h st and a bove t h e gl a ciers do at

, ,

th e p res ent d a y The nu m ero u s la kes in th is d istrict a re p ro ba bly

.

pa rtly r o ck ba s ins a nd partly m o ra in e da mm ed l a kes du e t o t h e

-

a ccum ula tio n of wa te r beh ind th e d é bris left b retrea ting gla ciers
y .

A few su ggestions are m a d e as to t h e exercis es wh ic h c a n be

s et o n Or dna n ce Maps fro m wh ich Figs 5 a nd 6 a re ta ken . .

( 1 ) O n a m a p o f t h e M endips w ith n o riv ers dra w ( a ) t h e m a in riv ers

. ,

a n d strea m s in cl u d ing t h e Ax e ; ( b) t h e m a in ro a d s a nd ra il w a y s
,
( 2 ) M ark .

t h e p o s iti o n o f villa g es W h y are lin es o f vill a g es f oun d in c erta in pla c es

.

W hy a re o th er reg io ns u ninh a bited o r o nl y o cc upied by is o l a ted f a rm s

( 3 ) O n a m a p o f t h e S nowdo n d istrict with no riv ers d ra w ( a ) th e m a in
strea m s a n d m a rkt h e la k
, ,

es ; ( b) s h o w a n y ro a d s an d distin g uish b etw een

( 4 ) M a rka la k
,

m ain ro a d s a nd h ill ro ad s . e which is us ed fo r wa t er p o w er ,

a s l a t e q u a rry a m ill a dis u s e d c o p p er m ine a n d t hree lines o f ra il w a

, , ,
y .

( 5 ) Indi c a t e t he m ain woo ds a nd s wa m p la nd s .

In s tu d yi ng regio ns of th e B ritish Is les c o ns t a nt us e sh o u ld b e

m a d e o f eith er t h e 1 i nch o r t h e 2 m iles to a n i nch m a p s as ,

no th i ng b u t p r a ctice c a n e na b le s t u d e nts t o re a liz e t h e m e a ni n g

o f c o nt o urs Co nt o ur m aps sh o wi ng typ ic a l l a nd fo rms sh o u ld
.

be s elected s c arp l a nds ( t h e we ster n es c arp m e nt o f t h e

Co ts w o lds a nd th e pl a in o f t h e Av o n Sh eet 9 4 ; t he u pl a nds , ,

esc ar pm ents a nd va lleys o f t h e ch a lk d ow ns Sheet 1 23 ( Fig 1 4

, , .

the V a le o f War d our ) a gr a nite u pl a nd ( Fig 1 5— th e La nd s End

’
.
,

Pe n i ns u l a ) Sh eet 1 5 1 the S o uth D o wns Sh eet 13 7 t he Li nc o l n

, ,

Ed ge Sh eet 47 etc
, ,
.

Th e sm a ll a tla s wh ich is rec o m m en d ed fo r us e in t h e s tu d y of

the B ritis h Is les ha s c o ntou r s a t 250 5 00 , ,

a nd feet Except in m o u nt ainous regio ns s uch as

.

Sc o tla n d a n d Wa les th e s e c o nt o urs a re no t suffi cie nt f o r m ap

,

st u d y b u t th ey h elp t o em ph as ize th e m a i n are as o f elev a ti o n

, ,

a nd t h e v a lleys a nd d epressi o ns f o ll o we d by ro a ds a n d r a ilw a ys .

To a lim ite d exte nt c oast f or m s c a n be rec o gnize d but re fere nce ,

sh o u l d c o ns t a ntly b e m a d e t o Or d na nce Map s .

In s tu d yin g t h e na tura l regio ns o f th e wo rl d reference t o l a rge ,

s c a le ma p s sho ul d be m a d e wh erever p o ss ible but d ia g ra m s a re ,

a l so requ ire d wh ic h will h el p t o sh o w bro a d ly t h e d iff erence

b etween a rea s o f up la nd a n d lo wla nd Pu p ils m u s t c o ns ta ntly

.

ha nd le s u ch m a ps and lea rn t o c o nn ect th em by th e a ctu a l d ra w

ing o f lin es with cli ma te s ettlem en t cultiva tion a n d c o mm u nic a
, , ,

tio n .
36 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

CL I M AT E .

Th e Fac tors of Clim ate — Clim a te d ep ends d irectly o n tem p era

.

ture a nd hu m idity Th es e fa ct o r s a re u su a lly sh own in gra ph i c

.

fo rm by m aps on wh ich lin es a re dra wn th ro u gh places o f equa l

temp era tu re (iso th erm s) and o f equa l r a in fa ll ( isoh yets ) Th e .

m a ps o ften us ed a re th o s e o f m ea n a nn ua l is o th er m s , o r Ja n ua ry
and Jul y is o th er m s , a nd m e a n a nnua l r a i nfa ll Where th ere i s .

little v ari atio n in temp erature a nd h um idity thr o ugh out th e yea r
with very slight s e as ona l di fferences, as in so m e p arts o f th e
tro p ics , little m o re is n ecessa ry In m o st regio ns o f t h e wo rl d, .

h owever, th es e gen era liza tio n s m u st be s upp lem ente d by f urth er

info rm a tio n befo re a n a ttem pt c a n be m ad e t o und ersta nd t he
clima te o f any regio n .

I T EMPERATURE
. .

T emp erature M ap s ( at Sea Level and Ac tual ) and T ables -

Th e .
-

temp er a tures wh ich h a ve b ee n ac tua lly obs erved are gen era lly,
b y app lyi ng a well —k no wn f orm u l a , redu ced to sea level be fo re th ey -

are p l o tte d o n a ch art Th e n li nes ( is oth erm s ) a re dra w n t o

.

c o nn ect pl a ces having th e sam e aver a ge temp er ature f or th e

p eri o d s electe d As , h o wever , t he p articula r te mp er a ture wh ic h
.

t h e is o th erm s repres e nt m a y no t b e o n th e ch a rt , t h e iso th er ms

dr a wn b etwee n t w o p l a ces are m arke d with a tem p era t ur e a bove
the is o th er m , a nd t h e oth er belo w a t a p r op o rti o na te d ist a nce b y
i nter po l a tio n.

As tem p era ture is dimi nish e d a pp r o xim a tely 1 F f or every , ,

°
.

300 f eet o f eleva ti o n it is cle a r tha t th e lin es dra w n o n m a ps

,

sh o wi n g temp er a t ures at s ea level c a n o nl y re re s e nt a ctu a l

p
-

co nditi o ns in l o wl a nd regio ns .

In c o n v erting sea l ev el iso th erms in t o a c t ual it is a p pr o xim a t el y c orre ct

-
,

to c o nsid er 3 00 f eet o f el eva t io n a s representing 1 F S imilarly 1 m il e o f

°
.

a sc en t is ro u ghly e qu iva l ent to 8 00 m il es in a p o l e wa rd dire ctio n ( 1 7 6

°
F
'

if 1 F = 300 f eet )
°
. .

Fo r pra ctic a l stu d y it is nece ssa ry t o use b o th te mp er a t ur e m aps

reduce d t o s ea level a nd so m e kin d of gen er a liz e d m a
p wh ic h wi ll
-

give th e appro xim a te a rea o f z o nes o f equ a l temp er a ture A .

co mpa ris on o f Figs 3 8 a nd 3 9 (p 3 04, As ia ) will sh o w the u se o f

. .

th es e t wo kinds o f maps Th e S ea Level temp era ture sh o ws a

.
-

s eries o f lin e s , at a bo ut every fro m 68 t o

° °
50 F It ill us .

trates a d m ira bly t h e increa se o f tem p er atu re in w inter f r o m t he

 CLIMATE 37

po le o f grea te st c o l d t o wa rds th e Atla ntic a nd Pa cific Ocea ns ,

a nd th e i nfl ue nce o f l a tit ud e t o wa r ds the so uth Such m aps .

enable us t o estima te the i nfl u e nce o f sea a nd l a nd o n th e temp er a

ture of s urr o u nd in g regi o ns a nd t he m o dific a ti o ns pr o du ced by ,

th es e f a ct o rs o f th e temp er ature due t o l a tit u d e Bu t whe n we .

try t o rea liz e t h e a m o u nt o f h ea t receive d in a ny regi o n thr o ugh

o u t th e ye ar o r at cert a i n s e a s o ns o f
gr o wth in o r d er t o estim a te ,

th e infl ue nce o f cli m a te o n s ettlem e nt a nd cultiva ti o n we are ,

o blige d to c o ns i d er t h e a ctu a l te m er a ture It w o uld be t o o

p .

c o m p lic a ted t o sh o w a l arge num b er o f is o th erm a l li nes o f a ctu a l

tem p er at u re or t o a ttemp t t o o m u ch d et a il ; i nd ee d such a map
, , ,

t o b e a t a ll a ccur a te w o ul d m u ch res em b le a n o r o gr a ph ic a l
,

m ap A few critic a l tem p er a tu re s h ave th ere f o re b ee n s electe d

.

° ° °
6 8 F 50 F a nd 3 2 F — a nd h a ve b ee n sh o wn fo r Ja nu a ry a nd
.
, .
, .

Jul y In a ddi ti o n t o a s s ist ref ere nce th e num b er o f m o nth s

.
, ,

a t wh ich t h e
p la ce s in t h e t ab le s a re a b o ve o r b el o w th e s e temp er a
tures h as b ee n give n In Fig 8 p 47 th is h as b ee n pa rtly . .
, .
,

repres ented in m ap f o rm .

Th e te m p er a tures give n in th e t a b le s a re in a ll c a s es mea n

tem p er a tures th a t is t o sa y th e a ver a ges o f o bs erv a tio ns t aken
—
,

every da y during ea ch m o nth fo r a nu m b er o f ye ars B u t as th e .

temp er ature is us u ally rec or ded in t h e m o r ni ng early after no o n , ,

a nd a t nigh t o r every h o ur it is cle ar th a t wh ere th ere a re c o n

, ,

s idera bl e da i l
y r a nges o f tem p er a ture t h e a ver a ge o f t h e rec o r ds
is i ns u ffi cie nt t o sh o w wh eth er a regi o n is h o t e no u gh duri ng t he
da y t o a ll o w t h e rip e ni ng o f cert a i n gr a i ns or frui ts In m a ny c as e s .

a d d iti o na l i nf o r m a ti o n is give n in t h e t a b le s o n d a ily r a nge s o f

temp er at ure m i nim um temp er a tures etc (cf Fl orida p 5 29

, ,
. .
, .
,

fros t a nd o r a n ges) .

Latitu de and S un Forc e

-
.

Th e tem p er a tur e dep ends in th e first i ns ta nce o n i nso la tion

a ir

th e i nte ns ity o f t h e su n f o rce a cting o n t h e s ur fa ce o f t he -

e a rth No w i nso lati o n is g o ver ne d by t h e a ng le of inci dence

.
,
’
i e th e a ngle a t wh ic h t h e s u n s r a ys f a ll o n t h e s ur fa ce
. .
,
Th e .

m idd a y a ngle o f i ncid e nce f o r a ny pl a ce a nd a ny da y c a n b e

rea dily f ou nd if t he la ti tude of vertica l su n dec lin a ti on
°
is k n o w n f o r a ngle o f i nci d e nce = 90 — di s ta nce fro m V S
,
. .

°
Th us f o r la tit u d e 50 no rth o n t he f o ur critic a l d a ys
,

1 On Ju ne 21 the su n i s vertica l a t mi dda y o n 23 § north

. .

Dist a nce fr o m V S is 50 or . .

°
Angle o f inci d e nce is 9 0 265
38 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

so u th
°
2 . On Decemb er 21 the su n i s vertica l a t midday o n 23 5 .

o
Distance from V S is . . o r 73 §

Angle o f inci d e nce is 90

°
7 3 7} 1 6 5 .

3 . On M arch 2 1 a nd S ep tem b er 23 the sun i s vertic a l at

mi dda y o n the Equa tor .

Dist ance fro m V S is . .

Angle o f i ncid e nce is 90

°
50
°
= 40
°

Thu s t o a n obs erver o n l atit u d e 50 n orth o n the s e d a ys

°
four
th e a lti tude of the su n a bove the horizon a t m i dd a y is
Ou M a rch 21 ,
On J u n e 21 ,
On S ep te mb er 23 ,
On Decemb er 21 ,
T AB L E Ia .T H E LAT IT UD E o r TH E VERT I C AL S U N
-

( AT N OO N )
D ECLIN AT IO N A T T H E B E G IN N IN G o r EAC H M O N TE , THE E Q U IN O X ES ,

AN D TH E S U M M ER AN D W IN TER S o ns 'ri c ns .

°
S ep tem b er 23
°
23 S . Ju l i e 1 22 N .

Jun e 2 1 O cto b er 1
° °
17 S . 23 5 N .

N o v em ber 1
° °
7 S . Ju ly 1 23 N .

Au g ust 1 Dec em b er 1
° °
0 13 N .

S ep tem ber 1 D ec em b er 2 1
° °
5 N . 8 N .

°
15 N

Th e gre a t difl erenc e in th e m idday a ltitu d e or a ngle of i nci

d e nce a t d iff ere nt p eri o d s o f the ye ar is very s ig nific a n t bu t t he ,

impressi o n b ec om es m o re vivid if we express t h e d iff erences in

ter ms of th e m idda y i nso l a ti o n u nd er vertic a l s u n Th e pri ncip le .

we a pply is that the i ntens ity of insola tion va ries with sine of the
a ng l e of i nc i dence This i nte nsity c a n be appro xim a tely e sti
.

m ated by a geom etric al m eth o d .

It c a nno t be t o o cle a rly sta te d tha t t h e p erce nta ges o f i ns ol a

ti o n repres e nt th e m a xim um su n f o rce for the l a titud e wh ich
-

w ould rea ch the s urfa ce if there were no a tmosphere and o nly ,

refer to m i dda y .A furth er c a lcula tio n m igh t b e m a d e t o find

the a verag e hourly a ltitude of the su n du ring the da y ( excep t with i n
th e Arctic a nd Ant arctic Circle s it is a ppr o xi m ately two th ir d s -

t h e m i dd a y a ltitu d e ) Lo o k u p in t h e Ta b le of Na tura l S i ne s
.

th e c orresp o ndi ng p erce nt a ge o f i ns o l a ti o n a nd m ultip ly b y th e ,

nu mb er o f h o ur s o f s unligh t ( Ta b le III p .
, .
 CLIMATE 39

T A BL E II — ~M ID D AY AL T IT U D E
. or S U N — T H EO R ET IC AL S U N FO RC E -
.

M arc h 2 1 . J u ne 21 . S ep tem be r 23 . D ec e m b er 21 .

t
La i tu d e .

NO T E — T his t a b l e is f o r t h e N o rt h ern H em isp h ere Fo r t h e S o u t h ern

.

H em isp h ere t h e a n g l es a n d p er c en t a g es m u s t b e rev ers ed rem em b ering ,

th a t t ho s e f o r D ec em ber 2 1 o f t h e N o rt h ern H em isp h ere a re t h e reverse

o f J u n e 2 1 f o r t h e S o u t h ern H em is p h ere a n d vi c e versa
, .

The res ults a re s u r pris i ng a nd m ost i ns tr u ctive Th ey a re dis .

cus s ed a t length in War d s tr a nsl a ti o n o f Ha nn s Ha ndbo o k

’ ’

o f Cli m a t o l o gy .

An e x a m i na ti o n o f T a b le s II a nd III le a ds t o t h e fo ll o wi ng
. .

imp orta nt c o nclus i o ns :

1 Five z o n e s o f i ns o l a ti o n are cle a rly d efine d :
.

( a ) Th e Fri g id Z one s fr o m 66 5 no rth t o th e N o rth Po le

°
,

a nd fr o m s o u t h t o t h e S o uth Po le w h ere f o r a t le a s t ,

twe nty—f o ur h o urs t h e s u n in wi nter d o es not ris e a b o ve

t h e h o ri z o n a nd wh ere in s u m mer f o r a t le a st twe nty f o u r
,
-

h o ur s t h e su n d o e s no t set a nd wh ere th e h igh s u mm er

,

su n f o rce a nd th e l o ng su m m e r d a y c o m p a re d wit h t h e
-

S u n no t visib le .
T Equ a to r .
40 TEXT B OO K OF GEO GRAPHY -

T AB LE III .
— L EN G T H or D AY .

M id s u m mer M id w int er
Da y . Da y .

N o rth an d S o u th Po l e

Trom so N o rth C o ast o f Am erica a n d As ia

, .

No rth Co a s t o f Ic el an d B eh rin g S tra it s

Ar ch ang el etc . .

Sh etland s ; S t P et ers b u rg .

N ewca s tl e ; M o s c o w ; Ca p e H o rn
S cilly Isl a nd s N o rth M a n c h uria W in m p eg
, ,

M ila n Astra k
, h a n H a lif a x ,

M a drid Pek in g N ew Y o rk
, ,

T a ng ier Ad el a id e B u en o s Air es
, ,

Cairo Q u ett a N ew O rl ea n s
, ,

Pret o ria Ka ra c hi N a ssa u

, ,

Asw an M a s ca t H a v a na
, ,

M a uritiu s B o m b a y M ex ico , ,

Kh art u m Co o kT o w n D o m inic a
, ,

Fa sh o d a Ca p e Y orkT rin id a d
, ,

Go l d Coa st Pen a n g B o g o t a , ,

Equ a t orvill e Vi ct o ria N y a n z a Q u it o

, ,

It m us t n o t b e f orgo tt en th a t ev ery wh ere , on M a r ch 2 1 a nd S ep t em b er 23 ,

th e d a y is a ppro x im a t el y 12 h o u rs .

Th e f o llo w ing a d di tio nal r

inf o m a tio n is im p o rt a n t :

Th e S un i s co n ti n u ou sl y

b
A o ve th e H ori z o n , N . of Eq . B el o w th e H o rizon N . . of Eq .

B el o w S . o f Eq . b
A o ve 8 . o f Eq
.

Da y s .

90
°
M ar 2 1 t o Sep t 2 3
. . 1 86 S ep t 2 4 t o M a r 2 0
. .

85
°
Ap ril 3 t o S ep t 1 1 . 1 61 Oct 6 to M a r 9
. .

80
°
April 1 7 t o Aug 28 . 1 33 O c t 2 0 t o Feb 24
. .

7 5
°
M a y 2 t o Au g 1 3 . 1 03 N o v 4 t o Feb 9
. .

70
°
M a y 2 1 t o J ul y 2 4 64 N o v 2 3 t o J an 2 1
. .

( Appro x im a t ely ) 22 ( Appro x im a t ely )

°
005
42 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
no t m o re than 25 per ce nt re a ch i ng th e s urfa ce ) , its cu m l a ti ve
.
u
eff ect is c o nsid er able bec aus e th ere is little less by r a di a ti o n .

He nce t he a ir te mpe ra tures vary little a s b etwee n d a y a n d ni gh t

a nd b etwee n sum m er a nd wi nter Th e c o nditio ns a re th eref o re
.

equable, a nd c ha r a cteris tic o f o ce a nic , i ns ul ar, or c o a s t cli m a t s

e .

As t h e humidity decreases a nd the a ir gets drier th e p r o p o rti o n

o f di rec t s un — orce tha t
f p e n etra tes t o t he s urfa ce i ncrea ses , but a t
th e s a m e tim e ra di ati o n is grea ter , e sp ecia lly duri n g th e ni gh t .

H e nce t h e furth er we go fr om a s o urce o f w a ter v ap o u r t h e

gre ater is th e difference b etween day and night temp er a t ures , a nd,
in th e tem p er ate zones , th e gre a ter th e differe nce b etwee n
s um m er a nd wi nter , or in o th er w o r ds , th e m ore ex treme o r
,

c o nti ne nta l the climate .

No te th e in creas e o f ra d ia tio n o n m ou n ta ins o r eleva te d

pla tea us, es p ecia ll y in dry regio ns In t h e va ll eys o f th e
.

T ibeta n Pla tea u, wh ere gra in is gro wn a t o ver feet , th e

su n gives wh e n vertic a l o n e a nd a h a lf tim e s a s m uch s u nligh t a s
, ,

on th e
p la ins o f Ind ia , a nd twice a s m uc h wh en it s a ltitu d e is
This s u ggests t h e re aso n o f t h e h a bita b ility o f th e An d es th e ,

d irect su n sh in e being p o wer fu l en o u gh t o rip e n m a ize (s ee p .

No te a lso t h e increas ed da ily ra nge o f te m pera ture in In d ia in

th e h o t wea th er ( Ta ble VI ,
p 3 20
. .

Vary i ng Distanc e of th e Sum— Th e a ctu a l d ista nc e o f t h e su n

fro m th e ea rth is o f less i mpo rt a n ce than t h e a ngle a t wh ich it s
ra ys rea ch t h e ea rth but t h e fa ct th a t t h e S outh ern H e m is ph ere
is n ea rer t h e su n in su mm er th a n t h e N o rth ern a t t h e c o rre
sp o n d in
g p erio d ha s a n undo u bte d in flu ence o n t h e h igh su m m er
t em p era t u rc s o f Austra lia s ee
( p .

T e mp erature and Slop e — T h e p rin ciple wh ic h g o vern s th e

.

in tens ity o f inso lation o n any given surfa ce is that t h e a m o u nt

o f i ns o l a ti o n is i nver s ely
pr o p o rti o na l to th e a re a o f t h e s u r fa ce
a ffecte d . Th a t is to say , tha t th e s la nting r a ys give le ss su n f o rce-

than mo re vertic a l r ays b ec a us e m o re distri buted A hill s l ope ,

.

therefo re —
, receive s gre a ter su n f o rce th a n level
gro u nd if it fa ces
the s u n s r a ys
’
To this is du e t h e a d va nt a ge s of s ou th s l o es in
p
.

th e No rth er n , a nd no rth s lop es in t h e S o uth er n, Hem is h ere In

p .

th e Alps c o r n a nd vines flourish o n s o u th er n s lo es , wh ere eve n a

p
low sun is s ufficie nt to bri ng w a rm th ; wh ile th e no rth er n s l o p es
a re o fte n c o vere d w ith f o re sts— c g , in t h e Ta nar o V a lley b etwee n
,

h igh m o unt a i ns , the sl o p e f a ci ng no rth is cloth e d with c h est nu t s

,

while th a t fa ci ng s o uth is terr a ced with vines In the Cote d ’ Or

.

in Fr a nce th e e aster n slop es are fa m ous for vines .

 CLIMAT E 43

Tw o in terestin g exa m ples o f th e influence o f lo w a ltitu d es o f

t h e sun are— (a ) t h e c o m lete a bs en ce o f s unsh in e du rin g s evera l
p
winter mo nths in pa rts o f t h e Va l Ga u dem a r in th e French Alps ,

wh ere th e lo w sun is cu t o ff by m o u nta in wa lls (b) t he eff ect o f

a l m o st c o ntin u o u s su nsh ine a t a l o w a n gle o n creva ss es in No r

weg ia n gla ciers . In t h e Al ps th e e d ge o f a crevass e is u su a ll y

firm a s t h e wa ll d es cends vertic a lly wh ile in No rwa y the li is
, ,
p
so m etim es u nd ercut f o r a c o ns id er a ble d i s ta nce .

Te mp erature and Alti tude — Dry a ir expa n ds a nd is c o o le d

.

°
a bo u t 1 F fo r e a c h 183 feet M o ist a ir exp a nds a lso o n rising ,
. .

bu t h a s t o ris e t o n e arly 3 50 f eet t o b e c o o le d 1 ° F a s h e a t is set

.
,

free by a c o nd e ns a ti o n o f m o is ture Co ns equ e ntly , t h e r a te o f

.

d ecre a s e o f tem p er a t ure with a ltit u d e is n o t c o nst a nt , bu t va ries

with th e h u m idity a nd temp er a ture o f the a ir Th es e fa ct or s h a ve
.

b ee n c o ns id ere d a s fa r a s p r a ctic a b le in t h e m aps o f a ctu a l is o

th erm s give n in t he text .

No te tha t , in sp ite o f t h e d ecrea s e o f tem p era tu re du e t o a lti

tu de, pla teau s a nd m o u nt a in s l o p es m a y be a t certa in s ea so ns
wa rm er tha n t h e l o wla nd pla ins, o w ing t o t h e a bs ence o f t h e c o ld
st a gna nt a ir, wh ic h c o llects in va lley bo tt o m s a nd in sh eltere d

p la ins a n d d ep re ss io ns ( s ee p 629 , T h e Dis tri butio n o f Co ff ee in

.

B ra zil ; a nd p 3 4 1 , T h e Ha bita b ility o f Lo fty Va lleys in th e

.

Pa mi rs in Winter ) An a dd itio na l rea so n fo r th is invers ion of tem

.

pera tu re is tha t t h e sun c a n p en etra te t h e drier a ir o f eleva ted

regio ns a nd t he less d ens e a t m osph ere (s ee p 3 94) with grea ter
.

fo rce . Th is a bno r m a l d is tri bu tio n o f tem p era tu re is m o st

ma rked in wi nter (s ee p 42, Ti b et )
. .

Tem p erature and S urfac e — Th e a ir is wa r m e d t o a certa i n d egree

.

by direct i ns o la ti o n bu t m o stly by r a di a ti o n fr o m t h e e a rth s

’

su r fa ce .Th e l o wer levels o f t h e a ir a re a ls o w a rm e d b y c o ndu e

’
tio n Co ns equ ently , the extent t o wh ich th e ea rth s s urfa ce is
.

wa rm ed, a nd the r a p idity or s l o wness with wh ic h it gives o ff h eat ,

are o f
p rim e im p o rt a nce in the c o ns id er a ti o n o f temp er a ture .

La nd a bso r bs a nd r a d ia tes h e a t m uch m o re r ap i dly th a n wa ter .

In a dd itio n , la nd t o a very s light d ep th is wa rm e d t o a hi gh er

temp era tu re tha n wa ter , o win g t o t h e fa ct t ha t o nly t h e .

su rfa ce o f t h e l a nd is a ff ecte d, wh ile t h e wa ter is a

pp rec ia bly
wa rm ed fo r s o m e d is t a nce belo w th e s urfa ce Th e ex pa nsmn .

c a u s ed by th e wa r m in g o f th e u pp er la yers o f th e wa ter c a u ses

cu rrents o r m o vem ents wh ic h brin g c o o ler la yers t o th e s u rfa ce ,
wh ile th e wa ter is furth er c o o led by evapo ratio n .

Imp o rta nt cli m a tic resul ts o f t h e un equ a l wa r m in g a nd c o o l i n g

 44 TEX T B OOK
-

OF GEO GRAPHY
of wa ter a re sho wn in— (a ) th e m o re rap id changes o f te mp era ture
in c o nt inenta l tha n in o ce anic clim a tes ( b) la nd a n d s ea breeze s
( c) t he m arked del a y in th e c om m encem ent o f spri ng a nd the ,

r l n g tio n f utum in t h r xim ity o f t h e no rth er n o ce a ns

p o o a o a n e
p o ,

or eve n o f l arge sheets o f wa ter s uch as th e Gre at Lakes o f N orth

,

Am eric a .

Th e cha ra cter of a ny l and su rfa ce is s el do m u nifo rm o ver an y

— o o ling of t h e sur
co idera ble a rea Hu m idity ( ev p r ti ec
n s . a o a o n
fa ce) c o l o ur a nd p res en ce o r a bs ence o f vegeta tio n ex erc is e a n
, , ,
G

impo rtant influence o n temp era ture Th e existen ce o f very h i gh .

temp era tures o ver t h e d es erts o f Iran in su mm er a nd l o wer t em ,

p era t u res tha n th e no r m a l o ver t h e Ama z o n fo res ts h el p to illus ,

tra te th es e c o ntra sts o f m o is t a nd dry regio ns .

It sh o ul d b e no tice d th a t in a dd itio n t o ra d ia tio n th e a m ou nt

, ,

o f h ea t re ected fro m a s u ita ble s u r fa ce is o ften c ons i d e ra ble

fl S n ow .

a t S wis s m o u n ta in reso rts in w inter is o n e o f t h e c a us es o f t h e

h igh te mpera tu re exp erienced Th e da rk h ea t f ro m t h e La ke

.

o f Ge n eva a nd t he Rh in e in flu e n ces th e ri en in g o f gra p e s ( s ee

p
p 55 1 The Fru it Z o n e in t h e La ke Penins ula o f No rth Am erica )
.
, .

One impo rta nt excep tio n t o th e l a ck o f un ifo rmi ty of s u rfa ce

a llu d e d t o a b o ve is f ou n d in t h e winte r c o n d itio ns o f a c o ns id er a ble

pa rt o f th e no rth ern te mp era te regio ns T h es e a re snow c o vered

.
-

in win ter broa dly o ver th e a rea sho wn as belo w 3 2 F in Ja nua ry

,
°
.

o n the a ctua l is o th er m m a s o f t h e c o ntin e nts

p Wh ere the sno w.

c o vered la nd a dj o ins a fro z en sea t h e a rea o f s urfa ce wh ere n eith er

,

t he wa ter no r t h e l a nd c a n ra d ia te h ea t in t o t h e a ir is gre atly

widened It is fo r thi s rea so n th a t t h e po le o f grea test c o ld o ccurs
.

in th e centre o f t h e fro zen su rfa ce f o rm e d by Asi a a n d t h e

Arctic Ocea n D eep sno w grea tly reta rds t h e a dva nce o f sp r ing
.
.

A rem a rka ble exa mple is a fford e d by th e ea rlier d a te a t wh ich

a gricul tu ra l o era tio ns c a n be c o mm ence d a t h igh er l a tit ud es
p
in th e n o rth wes t o f Can a da wh ere th ere is little s now th a n a t
-

, ,

l o wer la titu des in th e so u th e ast (see p -

.

Eff ects of O c e an Currents — Th e inf lu ence o f curren ts o n

.

clima te is d ea lt with in d eta il in th e a cc o u nt s o f th e va riou s

c ontin ents Th e f o ll o wing poin ts sh oul d be no ted
.

( a ) B o d ies o f wa rm o r co o l wa ter c an o nly in flu ence t h e te m

p era ture o f surr o un din g la nds wh en wind s blo w fr o m th e m t o
wards th e l ands Clea rly, a s any bo dy o f wa ter tends t o m o d ify
.

the te m p era ture o f la nd in its proxim ity wh en s ea breezes o r

oth er win ds a re blowin g fro m it, an in crea s e o r d ecreas e in t h e
tempera ture of th e water m ust h a ve so m e influence o n its wa r m in g
 CLIMAT E 45

or c o o l ing po wer Bu t c a re mu st be ta ken no t to a ttri bu te t o o

.

grea t a n in flu ence t o t h e a ctio n o f wa rm o r c o ld c u rrents even

where th e d iff erence o f tem per a tu re between t h e la nd a nd sea is
ma rke d . On th e e a st c oa st o f N o rth Am eric a th e Gul f S trea m
a n d t h e La bra d o r Cu rre nt c a n ha ve very little i nflu e n ce o n clim a te
,

wh e n th e p reva lent win ds a re fro m th e la nd Th e wa rm th o f th e .

British Is les is qu ite s u fficien tly exp la in ed by t h e fa ct th a t t h e

winds blo w o ver a rela tively wa r m er sea (s ee p a n d drive .

th e surfa ce wa ter e a stw a r ds .

On th e o th er h a nd t h ere are cert a i n c o a sts wh ere t h e i nflu e nce

,

o f c o ld curre nt s is m a rke d— c
g p arts o f t h e We st Co asts o f S o u th
,

Am eric a a n d o f S o uth Afric a La g os a nd S o m a lila nd ( s ee pp 6 06

, , .
,

4 1 7 41 9
, , Esp eci a lly no tice a ble a re t h e sea f o gs f or m e d o ff
th es e c o a sts which m o di fy tem pera tu re t o a c o ns id er a ble d egree
, .

(b) An i m po rta nt bu t m o re ind irect in flu ence o f c o l d a nd wa r m

, ,

cu rrents is tha t th ey s trengt h en o r wea ken cycl o n ic o r a nti

cycl o nic s ys tems f or m e d a b o ve th em ch iefly by c a us ing c o nd e ns a ,

ti o n o f mo i sture d uri ng wh ich m u ch h e a t is set free a nd undou bt

, ,

edly i ncre a s e s th e d e p th o f t h e Arctic lo w p re ssu re .

Rang e of T emp erature — It is n ecessa ry in c o m p a rin g t h e ,

clima te o f o ne region with th a t o f a no th er t o n ote t h e da il y an d ,

m o nthl y ra nges o f tem p era tu re a s t w o clim a tes o f a n entirely

,

d iff erent cha ra cter m a y h a ve m u ch t h e s a m e m ea n m o nth ly

tem p eratu re Gen era lly it will be fo un d th a t th e lea st va ria tio ns
.

o cc u r in regio ns wh ich a re h o t a t a ll s ea so n s ( o ver 68

°
a nd

m ost in th o s e wh ich ha ve c o l d winters (b elo w 3 2 F ) a nd h o t

°
.

s u mm ers Fig 7 (M ea n Ra nge o f T em p era tu re ) illu stra tes th e

. .

diff eren ce b etween t h e c o ld e st a n d wa r m est m o nth s Th is sh o u l d .

be c o mpa re d with t h e figures sh o win g t h e a ctu a l iso th erm s o f

th e c o ntin en ts N o te in th e ta bles o f tem p era tur e t h e p la ces
.

wh ich ha ve a grea t o r s m a ll ra nge .

With in th e tro p ic s th e ra nge is gen era lly less than 1 0 o n th e °

in e qu a to ria l regio ns T h e r a nge increa s es

°
o ce a ns a nd even 5
,
.

ra p idly inland o n th e m a rgin o f th e tr op ics esp ecia lly in regio ns ,

wh ich ha ve little r a in a t a ny s ea so n ( Centra l Aus tra lia and th e

S aha ra ) . An increa s ing a m o un t o f wa ter va po ur in th e a ir
d im in ish es extre m es o f tem p era tu re a n d th ere is in c o ns equ ence , , ,

a clo s e c o nn ectio n between ra nge o f te mp era t u re a nd cl o u d in e ss .

Alla ha ba d ha s a da ily ra n ge o f 3 2 F in t h e h o t dry s ea so n 1 2 F

° °
.
.
,

in th e ra in s Th e da ily ra n ge o f te m p era ture in crea s es in t h e

. ,

sa m e w a a s t h e a nnu a l wit h d is ta nce fro m th e o ce a n— c g

y ,
°
,

Lisbo n in sum m er ha s a da ily ra n ge o f 1 2 F M a drid o f 2 6 F

°
.
.
,

Grea t ra nges o f te m p era ture ha ve been o bs erve d in d es erts— c g ,

TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPH Y
48 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
in Al geria , fro m freezing po in t in t h e m o rn ing t o 6 7 F a t 2 p m
-
°
. .

Suc h ra p id a lterna tions m a t eria lly ass is t th e d is integra tio n O f

ro cks in d es erts .

Th e grea ter un iform ity exp erienced in tro p ic a l clim a te s, wh ere

th e da ily a nd a nnua l r a nges a re s m a ll, is du e to t h e less er va ria tio n
o f su n fo rce in th e tro ics t h e sh o rtes t da
-

p y is t en a n d a h a l f h o u rs ,
a s a t Lo nd o n o n April 1
°
a n d t h e l o we st a ltitud e o f th e su n 4 3 -

t h e abs en ce o f c o l d win ds , wh ich , o w ing t o th e ea rth s r o ta tio n ,

’

d o n ot bl o w d irectly no rth o r s o u th, a nd th e grea ter p ro p o rtio n

O f m o is ture in th e a ir .

T e mp erature Z ones — With t h e d e scription of th e clim a te o f

.

t h e c o ntin ents will be f oun d m a p s illustra t in g t he s ea level a nd -

a ct u a l tem era tures and ta bles givin g s ta tis tics fo r a nu m b er

p ,

o f typ ic a l p la ces To fa cil ita te ref eren ce th es e are nu m b ere d

.
,

in th e ta bles a nd on key m a p s a n d a rra nge d in o rd er o f la titu d e ,

a cc o r d in g t o te m era ture z o n es T h es e ha ve been d eterm in ed

p .

by th e s electio n of th ree tem p era tu res— 6 8 F 50 F a n d 3 2 F °

.
,
°
.
,
°
.

—wh ich m a rk
o ff t h e fo ll o w ing regio ns

HOT ALL SEAS O N S ( o ver 68 °

AT
Co n fin e d to t he tr opic s .

Exc eptions — Eleva ted a rea s a n d th o s e a bnor m a lly c o o led

by c u rrent s, such as pa rts o f t h e wes t co a s t of S o ut h Am eric a
a n d S o u th Afric a .

H O T S U M M ERS ( o ver 68 F ) a nd WARM WINT ERS ( 50 ° 68 °

°
-
.

T ra ns itio n regions exten din g b eyo nd th e tro ic s , a n d

p
in clu din g pa rt Of th e Argentin e, S o uth Afric a , Aus tra lia ,
N o rth Ind ia , th e Saha ra , a n d t h e Gu lf Co a s t of t h e U n ite d
S ta tes Typic a l Excepti ons — Th e Pla tea u o f M exic o , t h e
.

An d es , a nd th e west c o as ts o f S o uth Am eric a a n d S o uth

Africa .

H O T SU M M ERS ( ove r 68 ° F ) a nd CO O L WIN T ERS ( 32° 5 0° . -

The S o ut hern United S ta tes, th e M e diterra n ea n , Centra l

Ch ina etc , .

H O T S U M M ERS ( o ver 68 ° F ) and CO LD WIN T ERS b elo w 3 2°

( .

Th e No rth ern United S ta tes , S o uth ern Ru ss ia , No rth ern

China , a nd Ma nc huria , etc H ere th e contin enta l c o nd itio ns .

ca us e ma rked diff erences o f temp era ture in su mm er a nd

W inter .

WARM ( 50 68 F ) AT ALL SEAS O N S

°
-
°
. .

Eleva ted a rea s in t h e tro p ic s s u ch a s th e No rt h ern An d es ,

,
Abyss in ia etc a nd a bno r m a ll y cooled coa stla nds such a s
, .
,
,
S o uth Afr ic a (west c o ast ) .
50 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

p oi nt . Dry cold air has little wa ter va po ur Mo is t cold air c an .

not h a ve much w ater v a p o ur Dry wa rm a ir ma y co nt ai n m uc h

.

water v ap our M o ist w a rm a ir m u s t c o nt a i n m uch wa ter vap o ur

.
.

In co ns id ering r a infa ll m a p s c o n sta nt ref ere nce m ust be m a d e

,

to temp erature esp ecia lly a ctu a l tem p era ture T o t ake a n
,
.

illus tra tion a sma ll ra in fa ll in S o u th Aus tra lia in su m m er is o nly

,

su fficient t o wet t h e lea ves a n d is p ra ctica lly us eless f o r cr o ps

, ,

o win t o t h e grea t h ea t wh ich c a us e s r a p id eva p o ra tio n

g ,
H e nce .

th e p revalence of t h e M e d iterr a n ea n typ e o f vegeta tio n d ep end e nt

on win ter r a in s .

Water Vap our — Evapo ra tio n is c onstan tly ta kin g pla ce fr o m

.

all m o is t surfa ce s esp ecia lly f r o m l a rge bo d ies o f wa ter s uch a s

,

th e s ea a nd wa ter va po u r is b ein g fo r m e d
, At every tem p era .

ture th ere is a sa tu rati on limit o r dew point a t wh ich th e wa ter -

vapo ur beg ins t o be c o nd ens ed Th e first vis ible exp ress ion o f .

th e c o ndensa tio n o f wa ter va p o u r o ccu r s a s clo u ds The pre .

c ipit at ion o f r a in sno w o r h a il d e p e nd s o n th e tem p era ture a t

, , ,

t h e clou d level a nd o f t h e a ir b etween t h e cl o u ds a nd t h e ea rth

-

wh ich m ust not be su ffi ciently dry a nd wa rm to evap o r ate th e

mo istu re befo re it c a n rea c h t h e gro u n d .

Prop ortion of W ater Vap our in th e Air — As b ef o re st a te d the .

,

a ir c a n h o l d m uch m ore w a ter v a p o ur in s um m er wh e n th e t em ,

perature is h igh th a n in wi nter wh e n it is low

, Co ns eque ntly
, .
,

th ere is gre ater pr o ba bility o f r a i nfa ll o ver the l and in su mm er

whe n th e s urfa ce air is ri si n g a nd wi nds tend to bl o w from sea
,

t o l and . In t h e tr o p ic s t h e r a i n b elt f o ll o ws t h e s u n a lter na ti ng ,

with the dry s easo n ( the res ti ng p erio d of tr op ic a l veget ati o n) .

Th e Condens ati on of W ater Vap our : Rainf al l —It will be f o un d .

thro ugh o ut tha t c o o lin g o f th e a ir pro duces co nd e nsa tio n T he .

co o ling may be ca us ed in va rio u s wa ys

( a) CO OLING D U E T o LATIT U D E — Win ds bl ow in g fro m lower t o
h igh er l atitu d es are gra du a lly c o o led .

b
( ) R I S IN G O F A I R — Air c u rrent s m o ve t o wa r
ds th e centre o f
a cycl o n ic d ep re ss io n with a spira l up wa r d m ovem ent T he
, .

c ons equent co o lin g o f th e wa ter va p o u r is one o f th e m a in ca u s es

o f ra in fa ll in temp er a te regio ns In t h e tro p ics in th e Z o n e o f
.
,

Equa to ria l Ca lm s (t h e D o l drum s ) th e a ir is wa rm ed by th e su n ,

,
rises expands and c o o ls a nd da ily (a fterno o n) ra ins result Th is
, , .

z one sh ift s a few degrees no rth a nd sou th with th e su n On th e .

o th er hand in t h e Z o n e o f T r o p ic a l Ca l m s wh ere t h e a ir is d e
, ,

s cending in t he centre o f t h e s u btr o ic a l h igh

p pressure belt s
-

th ere c a n be no r ai n u nder no rm a l c o nditio ns for the air in de , ,

sce ndi ng is ri s i ng in te m p er at ur e p a rtly b ec au s e o f c o m ressi o n

,
p
,
,
 CLIMAT E 51

p artly b ec a us e it p ass e s i nt o the war m er l o wer l a yers In t h e

.

tr ad e wind b elt s , r ai nf all ( except relief rai n) o cc urs m ai nly duri ng

-

c a lm we ath er , wh e n the no rma l c o urs e of the tra d es is interrupted

(see pp 43 0 , . The tra d es , blowi ng fro m h igh er to l o wer
la titud es— tha t is to sa y, fro m s ligh tly co o ler t o warm er regio ns ,
a nd from h igh er t o lower elev ati o ns— are dr wi nds , a nd t ake u
y p
m oisture with a vidity . H e nce t h e m a i n de s erts a nd the gre ate st
sa li nity of th e s ea are fou nd in tr a d e wi nd are a s
-
.

Th e insta n ces so fa r given o f t he c a uses o f r a infa ll ta ke n o

a ccount of c o n fi ura tion
g .

(0 ) CO OLIN G D U E T o CO N T RAS T OF T EMP ERAT U RE O F LAND AN D

WAT ER — If th e co ntras t o f tem p era ture between la nd a nd s ea
a nd b etween u la n d a nd l o wl a nd is suffi cien t , c o nd ensa tio n o f
p
wa ter va p ou r wil l ta ke p la ce wh en a wind is blo win g fro m sea t o
la nd The f o r m a nd a mo u nt o f th is c o ndensa tio n na tura lly
.

d ep ends o n th e rela tive temp era tures a nd t h e a m o un t o f m o istu re

in th e a ir In m a ny c as es t h e c o ntras t o f te m p era ture is n o t
.

sufficient to p ro du ce ra i n .

An exa mp le o f th is is a ffo rd ed by l and and sea breez es , wh ich

s el do m brin g m u ch r a in, a s b o th in t h e regio n s ( m i dd le la titu d es )

a nd a t t he s e a s o ns ( dr
y su mm er s o f Mediterra n ea n clim a tes ) ,
wh en th ey a re m o st ma rked, th ere is c o mpa ra tively little co ntras t
b etween land a nd sea . That th e a ir cont ai ns m u ch wa ter va po ur is
sh ow n by th e m is ts for m e d o ver th e sh ores o f l a kes s uch as La ke,

M ichiga n a t th e c o mm e ncem ent of wi nter , wh e n th e wind is

b lo wi ng from wa rm er wa ter t o c o o ler la nd , a nd b y th e p erio di c
thu nderst orms a t t h e h e ad o f v alleys which extend i nl and fro m
th e sea co as t , a nd th ereb y f a vo ur th e pa ssa ge o f m oist air duri ng
th e da y from t h e s ea to consi d er a b le elev ati o ns .

S im ila rly th e u p wa r d vall ey breez es wh ic h occ u r in m o u nt aino u s

regi o ns do no t us u a lly c ause a regul a r rai nf a ll , th o u gh th e m is ts
'

a nd th e dew d ep os ite d pro ve t h e e x is te nce of a b unda nt m ois ture .

On th e oth er h a nd , o n a coa s t lo wla nd ra i n will o ccur wh e n th e

p rev alent wi nds are blowi ng b o th b y da y a nd n igh t fro m sea t o
l and, and the l a nd , a t a ny r ate at night , is co nsid er a b ly c o l der tha n
the sea It m us t b e rem e mb ere d th a t it is o ften d ifficult t o disti n
.

guish between th e influence of a c o ld c o astla nd o n th e pro du ctio n

o f ra in fall a nd th a t o f a scend in g currents A rem a rka ble ex
.

a m le o f t he a bs en ce o f ra in wh ere winds a re bl o w ing s trongly

p
fro m sea t o la n d is a fio rded by t h e tr ad es Th e l o wla nds in t h e
.

la tit udes in wh ich th ey blo w a re u s ua lly as wa r m a s, o r wa r m er

th a n, th e sea , a nd ra infa ll only o ccurs wh en th ey a re c oo led by
fo rced ascent a ga inst m o u nta in sl o p es .
52 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

d C — A n y o f t he s e a so n a l ra i nfa ll
( ) O OLI N G D UE T o RE L IEF .

m a ps, wh en c o m pa re d with o ro gra ph ic a l m a ps , will sh o w t h e

c o nnectio n between r a infa ll a nd relief It will be f o u nd gen era lly
.

tha t th e win dwa r d s id e o f m o u nta in s ha s a c o m p a ra tively h ea vy

ra infa ll, wh ere t he wind is bl o wing fro m t h e sea , wh ile t h e leewa rd
s id e , wh ere t h e a ir is d e s cen d in g , is c o m a r a tively d r
p y .

e) CO O LIN G D U E T O CU RRE N T s — An o t h er i m o rt a n t i nst a n ce

( .
p
o f co o lin g wh ic h in flu e nces r a infa ll in certa in li m ite d a re a s is

th a t a ff o r d ed b y c o l d o ce a n curre nts ( see pp 4 1 9 , . Th e

o
pp os ite resu lt ( i ncre as e d r a i nfa ll ) m a y b e p r o duce d b y w a r m
c urre nts if th e wi nds are bl o wi ng o ff th em o n t o th e l a n d .

( f ) D U S T — It m u st a l so be re m e m b ere d t ha t du st pa rticle s
.

s erve as nu clei a b o u t wh ic h wa ter v a o ur c o nd e ns e s S triki ng

p .

ex am ples o f th is are aff o r d ed by the white f o gs o f Lo ndo n a nd

Pa ris .

Ch aracter o f Rainf all — It is a m a tter o f c o ns id era ble ec o no m ic

.

im p o rta n ce t o k no w wh eth er t h e r a in o cc u r s th ro u gh o ut t h e yea r

o r if it is m a in ly
precip ita ted a t o n e s ea s o n , a n d if t h e fa ll is s m a ll
bu t c o n tin u o u s , o r c o n centr a te d in sh o wer s In t h e ta b les give n
.

in t h e d es criptio n o f t h e cli m a te o f ea ch c o ntinen t , o n ly t h e

a nnu a l r a infa ll is given , bu t in d ic a tio n s a re a ff o r d e d o f t h e s e a s o n s

in wh ich t h e bu lk o f t h e ra in fa lls .

Th e Di stributio n Rainf all — T h e d is tributio n o f ra in fa ll is

of .

s ho w n o n m a s b
p y lin e s ( iso h yets ) wh ich c o nnect p la ces in wh ich
s i m ila r ra in fa ll s ha ve b een O b s erve d o r i n ferre d f ro m veget a tio n .

Wh ere po ss ible a n a vera ge o f a nu m ber o f yea rs is t a ke n

, .

S no wf a ll is u s u a lly i nclu d e d with r a infa ll , bu t , o wi ng pa rtly t o

it s li a b ility t o dri ft , a ccura te m e as urem e nts are m o re di ffi cult .

The d e ns ity o f a given m a ss o f sno w v a rie s gre a tly with it s

c h ara cter h en ce it c a n only be m e a su red in a ra in—ga u ge wh en
,

it ha s m elted .

III . PRESSURE AND W INDS .

In a dditio n t o tem p era tu re a n d hu m id ity, it is n ecessa ry t o

s tu d y
pre ssu re a nd win ds in o rd er t o u nd er sta nd t h e c a u s es o f
clim ate T he gen era l th eo ry, h ere d ea lt with, is a pplied in t h e
.

c a s e o f ea ch c o ntin ent .

Th e dis c o very o f t h e b a r o m eter e nab le d o bs erver s t o m e asure

t h e weight o f th e c o l u m n o f a ir a b o ve a ny la ce It w a s s o o n
p .

f o u nd th a t even a t th e sa m e p l a ce t he c o lum n o f m ercury su p

p o rte d b y th e a ir th e press ure o f th e a ir— v a rie d c o ns i d er
a b ly , no t o nly at d i ff ere nt ti m e s in t h e ye a r b ut eve n in t h e
,
 CLIMAT E 53

twe nty f o u r h o urs It w a s also o bs erve d tha t o n ta ki ng a

-

b a r o m eter u p a h ill th e le ngt h o f th e c o lum n o f m erc u ry d e

creas ed sh o wi ng th a t t h e p ressu re f ell by a bo ut 1 i nch f or the
,

fir st 900 f eet o f a sce nt Wh e n it b ec a m e p o ssible t o c o mpare

.

th e pre ss ures a t sea —level o f p la ces in m a n y p a rt s o f t h e w orld ,

m a rke d d iff ere nce s were no te d ; a t s o m e p la ces the press ure w a s

con sistently h igh er th a n a t o th er s In tim e a c o nn ecti o n w a s .

est ab lish ed b etween th e pressure and th e d irecti o n o f wi nds .

Th e gre a test s trid e in es t a b lish i ng th es e c o nn ecti o ns w a s m a d e

wh en v a s t nu mb ers O f o bs ervers in a ll p a rts of t h e gl o b e h a d
c o llecte d c o u ntless rec or ds a ll redu ced t o sea level th us
,
—
,

elim i n a ti ng the i nflue nce o f eleva tio n and h a d c a lcula ted th e ,

a ver a ge pr e ss ure s f o r th e m o nth s ea s o n a n d ye a r Th e n it

, , .

b ec a m e p oss ible by ch a rti ng th e c o rrected rec o r ds o n a m ap a nd

,

by j o i ni ng b y li nes ( i so bar s ) th e pla ces with th e sa m e m e a n

,

press u re t o p r o du ce i s o b a r m ap s fro m which a ge nera l c o nsp ect u s

, ,

c o u l d b e ob t a i ned o f th e dis tri buti on of a t m o sph eric pressure

o ver t h e gl o b e It w as th e n f o u nd tha t cert a in regi o ns h a d
.

pressure s a b o ve t h e m ea n s ea level a nd o th ers h a d

pres
-

s ures b el o w t h is m e a n va l u e Th e f o rm er regi o ns f o r m e d th e
.

High Pre ssure a re a s t h e l a tter t he Lo w Press ure a re a s Cert a i n

, .

regi ons chiefly grea t l a nd areas were s ee n t o u nd erg o rem a rk able

, ,

d i ff ere nces b etwee n s u mm er a nd wi nter l o w pre ssure ch a r a cter ,

’
zing summ er c o nditi o ns high pressure wi nter c o nditi o ns Th e
, .

cha rts sh o wed clea rly tha t withi n a wide b elt o n eith er s id e o f
th e Equa t or t h e va ri a ti o ns in pres su re were sm a ll a n d regula r ,

wh ereas o utsid e this b elt the va ria ti o ns were irregula r a nd the ,

d e p a rt u res fro m th e a vera ge c o nd iti o ns c o ns i d er a ble a nd th a t ,

o n th e e dge s a nd with i n th is l a tter a re a th e gre a t st o r m s o rigi na te d .

Th e da ily W ea th er Rep o rts iss ued by th e M ete o r o lo gic a l

O ffice give a fa ith fu l repres enta ti o n o f th e a c tu a l ba r o m etric
c o nditi o ns in Wes ter n Eu r o p e a t 7 a m a nd a t 7 a m a nd . .
,
.

6 p m o n t h e p revi o us da y
. N o b et ter exercis e c a n b e give n t o
.

stu d e nt s tha n t o w ork o u t t h e l a ws o f wi n ds in th e s e c h a rts ,

a nd t o c o m pa re t h e d a ily v a ri a ti o ns o f W e a th er with th e
Clim a te c h a rt s in wh ich a ver a ge c o nditio ns ba s e d o n t h e
,

O b s erv ati o ns o f m a n y ye a rs a re rec o r d e d .

The la ws o f th e m o vem e nt o f th e a ir were es ta b lish e d by

obs erva ti o n l o ng b ef o re t h e c a u s e s o f t h e m o vem e nts were in

vest iga t ed a nd p r o p erly u nd er st o o d a n d eve n n o w t h e ex a ct ,

c auses are t o a certa i n exte nt m a tter s o f c o ntr o vers y

, ,
.
54 TEXT B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

Laws of W ind .

1 Fro m areas of high pres s ur e a ir flo ws downwards t o wa rds

.

th e s u r fa ce a nd ou twa rds t o wa r ds a re a s o f lo w p re ssure .

2 Into a re as of lo w p re ss ure a ir fl o ws i nwards a nd fi na lly

.
,

u wa r ds a wa y fro m the su r fa ce
p .

3 Th e cour se of the fl o w is su ch t h a t if a n o bs erver s t a nds

.

with h is ba ck to th e wind
( a ) In th e North er n H em isph ere higher pre ssure is o n his
right l o wer pres s ure o n h is left ;
,

( b) In the S outh er n H em is ph ere higher pre ssure is o n h is

le ft l o wer press ure o n his right
,
.

( This law was firs t sta ted b y B uys B allo t ) -

.

4 The fo rce o f th e fl o w d ep ends o n t he b a ro m etric gra dient

.

i e t h e r a te o f ch ange o f p ress ure a s m e a s ure d b y t he ba r o m eter

. .
,
.

Th e u ni t of gra dient is a fa ll o f 0 0 1 i n ch of pressure in fi ftee n

g eog rap hica l m iles Thu s : .

1 unit inc h in 1 5 g o g a p h ic a l m il s e r e .

‘
5 unit = 0 00 5 15 '

i a , 0 02
. . 60
i a, . . 1 d eg o f l a tit u d ree e .

2 unit s = 0~02 1 5 g o g aphic al mil s e r e .

i e , 0 08. .60 -

i a , 0 08. . 1 d g-
o f la t i t u d e ree e
.

10 u nits = 0 1 1 5 g o gra phi cal mil s

-
e e .

i s . . 1 d g
, o f la t it u d e ree e.

Th e rela tion b etwee n th e gr a di e nt a nd the force of t h e wind

wa s firs t o f all st ate d in ter m s o f t h e num b er o f sa il s wh ich
c o ul d b e us ed by saili ng sh ips with s a fety, a nd , l ater , in ter m s o f
-

p re ssur e exerte d by th e wi nd o n a p ressure g a uge or a n em o m eter .

Th e f o llo wi ng ro ugh st atem e nt is su fficie nt for our p u rp o s es :

B elo w 1 u nit Very reez es

ligh t b .

Fro m 1 t o 3 u nit s Lig h t t o s tro ng breez es .

W in d s in creasing in f o rc e .

5 8 M o d era t e t o str o ng gal es .

8 10 Vio lent ga l es .

O ver 10 H u rric a nes in creasin g with t he g ra dien t

, .

5 Th e direction o f the fl o w c a n b e d educe d fro m B u ys B all o t ’ s

.
~

la w , b u t th e flow do es n ot f o ll o w a circul a r p ath , nor is it ge n er a lly

p a r a llel with th e is ob ar s The winds us u a lly f o r m a n a n gle with
.

the isob ar s and b ec o m e sp ir a l , esp eci a lly a s th ey fl o w i nt o l o w

’

pre ssur e To use B uys B a ll o t s la w , it is m os t conve nien t t o

.
-
 CLIM ATE 55

t te it a s fo ll o ws : If a n obs erver in th e N orthern Hemi sph ere

s a

st a n ds with t h e hig h
pressu re t o his rig ht a nd th e low p re ssure
t o his lef t th e w inds b l o w o n h is b a ck ; wh ile in th e S o uthern
H e m isph ere if h e st a nds with the hig h pre ssure o n his lef t a nd the
,

low pressure o n his rig ht t h e wi nd is a t h is b a ck , .

Anticy c lonic and Cy c lonic Conditions — Th ere is n o ess e ntia l

d i ff ere nce excep t in d egree b etwee n th e fl o w o f wi nds fr o m a h igh
, ,
”
p ress u re s ys tem a s sh o w n o n a Clim a te
, ch art a nd a n a nti ,

cycl o ne a s sho wn in a W e ath er ch art or between th e fl o w

, ,

i nt o a low pressu re system a s sh o wn o n a Clim ate c ha rt and

-

, ,

a cycl o n e in a W ea th er cha rt One illustr a tes th e o th er . .

In c o m p arin g th e di a gra m fo r th e N o rth er n H e m isph ere ( Fig 9 a ) .

, ,

it will b e s ee n th a t th e fl o w ou twards fr o m th e h igh pressure is

in th e s a m e directi o n a s th e h a nds o f a cl o ck in t h e s a m e
d irecti o n a s th e app are nt m o ti o n o f t h e s u n) c lo ck
wise wh ere a s ,

th e fl o w into l o w p re ssu re is in th e o pp o s ite directi o n

cou nter—c loc k wi se It will a ls o b e s ee n tha t in e a ch qu a dr a nt
.

r o und the p ressure ce ntres th ere c a n o nly b e a definite s eries of

wi nds— thu s :
N O RT H ERN H E M IS PH E RE .

H igh P ress u re . L o w P res s u re .

N . W Q u a dran t
. S . S W
. W.
-
. E . N E . . N .

W . N W
. . S . S E . . E .

N . N E —1) E
. . . W . SW . . S .

E . S E —>S
. . . N .

T a king t h e di a gr a m f o r t he S ou thern Hem isph ere ( Fig 9 b) , .

,

it will b e s een th a t th e fl o w o u twa rds fr o m th e high pressures

is c ou nter c lo c wi se (
-
N B k
— Th i s in t h e S o uth er n H e m i s h ere
.
p .

is th e d irecti o n o f t h e a pp a re nt m o ti o n o f th e su n— viz , e a st .

thr o u gh no rth t o wes t ) Into lo w p ressure th e m o vem e nt is

.

k
c loc wi se, a nd t he wi n d s erie s in e a c h q u a dr a nt is :

S O U T H E RN H E M IS PH ER E .

H igh P ressur e . Lo w P res su re .

N W . .
Q r t
ua d a n E . NE N . . S . SW . .
—
> W .

N E . . N fi . N W — ?W
. . . NW . . N .

S E . . W . SW S . . N . NE .
-

>E .

SW . S . S E E . . E . SE . . S .

Ex a mp l es o f th e eff ect o n t h e directio n o f w in d s o f t h e h igh a n d l o w

pressu res b eing o n o pp o sit e s id es o f t h e E qu a t o r a re sh o w n n t h e J u y
i l a nd
Ja nu a ry Iso b ar Charts a nd sh o u l d b e c o m par ed w ith Fig 9 c a n d d
,
.
, .
56 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

T he Atm osphere .

t o ere f r e velo e rou d t h e rth ext ndi n g

Th e a m sph o ms a n n p n e a
e ,

upwa rds f or som e 200 m iles It is pr ob ab le th at th e h i gh es t

.

rt s of th e a t m o s
p h ere d i ff er from t h e lower p a rts very l argely
pa

Q uad ran

Q uad ra nt

Qua d rant

Q uad ran t
(ANTI CLONE)
NORT HERN REM IS PBS RB

Q “a d ram Q nad ran t l N W

E . { Q uad rant

Qua drant

Q ua d rant
(ANTIC LONE) ( CYCLONE)
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE

Fro . 9 . a, b .
— CY C L O N E S AN D AN T IC Y CL ON ES .

in co m po s ition and c o nditi o n, a nd it h a s b ee n as cert a ine d tha t

eff ects due t o the s urfa ce o f t he e a rth do not extend f arth er
th an five, or at m ost six , m iles H e nce in the f o ll o wi ng pa ges.

it m ust be u nd ersto o d tha t , in sp eaki ng o f the l a yers o f t he

 58 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

D IFF EREN CE or ELEV AT IO N F O R D E C REAS E or O N E IN C H

o r PR ES S U R E .

24 in ch es

Th e s e va lues are c a lcul ate d b y u sing a for m ul a wh ich a ss um e s

that th e d ecre as e in temp er a t ure is no r mal It sh o uld b e no ted
.

in this c o nnecti o n that elev a ti o ns es tim ate d fro m b a r o m etr i c

re a di ngs mu st i nevit ably be o nly a pproxim a te : up t o feet
th e e stim a te d h eight m a y b e c o rrect t o with in 4 o r 5 feet ; a b ove
feet th e last two digits are o f d oubtful a ccura cy .

If th ere were no r o t ati o n a n d no difierential h e a tin g o f the

s urf a ce it w o ul d b e f air t o ass u m e th at t he a t m o s h ere w o ul d b e
, p
in s tatic equilibrium u nd er th e i nf lu e nce o f gr avity a n d t h e ,

dist a nce b etwee n e ac h 1 i nch i s o b aric surf a ce w o u ld i ncre as e

regul arly t o the c onfines o f t h e a t m osph ere If th e e ff ect o f th e
’
.

earth s r o t a ti o n fro m west t o e as t were c o nsid ered , still with o ut

d i ff ere nti a l h e ati ng , there w o u ld n ecessarily b e a re a rr a n gem e nt
o f t he a tm os h eric e nvel o e Th ere w o uld b e a fl o w o f p a rticle s
p p .

fro m th e p o les t owar ds the Equa t o r wh ere the ea stwa rd vel o city
is grea tes t a nd th is flow w o u l d cea s e a s s oo n as d yna m ic a l equili
,

brium ha d b een set up Th e fina l res ult , pre sum a b ly w o u l d

.
,

be th a t t h e a tm osph ere w o ul d b e s o m ewh a t d ee per a t th e E qu a t o r

a nd d im i nish o lew ar ds , f o ll o wi ng , m ore o r le ss th e c u rv a ture
p ,

of the e arth s surfa ce (of Val u es o f La titud es , p

’
. . Th e s u r fa ce
press u re a t the Equ at or w o u ld b e h igh est , it wo u l d d ecre as e
s l o wly t o a b o u t l atitu de 3 0 , t h e n d ecre as e m o re r a i dly t o a b o ut
p
l atitud e 65 a nd from th ere t o th e p o les the d ecrea s e w o ul d
,

a g a i n be sm a ll It is im p o rt a nt t o no tice th a t r o t a ti o n , t o geth er
.

with the sh ap e o f t he earth , its el f a n eff ect o f r o t atio n, necessa rily

divid es th e surfa ce int o five z o n es :
1 Th e equ atori a l ( fro m 0° t o 3 0° n orth a nd 0° t o 3 0°
.

s o u th) , wh ere t he e a stw ar d vel o city is gre a te st

, bu t th e
devia tio n— i s , th e ra te of decrea se of ea stwa rd veloci t o le
y p
w a r ds— is sm all .

2 a nd 3 The p o l ar ( fro m 65 no rth t o Nort h Po le a nd fr o m

°
.

°
6 5 s o uth to So uth Pole ) , wh ere th e e astw ar d vel o cit is le a st
y ,
and the devi ation sm all t o zero a t th e o les
p .
 CLIMATE 59

4 a nd 5 The i nter m edi a te ( 3 0 n orth t o 6 5 no rth a nd

.
° °
,
° °
3 0 s o u th t o 65 s o u th ) wh ere th e d evi a ti o n i s rea t
g , .

S i nce r o t ati o n a cti ng a l o n e m u st n ece ss arily pr o duce equili

brium th ere w o ul d b e n o te nd e ncy fo r t h e a ir t o m o ve rela tively
,

to the s urf a c e but th e wh o le a t m os h ere w o ul d tr a vel e a stw a r d

, p
with th e vel o city o f its l a titu de a nd of its dist a nce p er p end ic u l ar
t o t h e a xis o f r o t a ti o n Th e c o m p lic a te d d istribu ti o n o f pre ssu re
.

’
o n t h e e arth s surfa ce ( a nd o f th e su r fa ce wi nds wh ich
p .

resul t fro m th is d istrib u ti o n a re su fficient evi de nce t h a t th e ,

a t m osph ere is not in d yna m ic a l equ ili brium a nd th ere c a n b e n o ,

d o ub t th a t th e f o rce wh ich up s ets th i s equilibriu m o wes it s o rigi n

t o th e diff ere nti a l h e a ti ng o f t h e surfa ce b y th e su n s r a di a nt
’

e nergy .

T h e rm al Eff e c ts —
Air like
th er gas wh e n h ea t is a dd ed
, a ny o ,

warm s exp a nds a nd b ec o m es less de ns e ; wh en h e at is a bs tr a cted

, , ,

c o o ls c o ntra cts a nd b ec om es m o re d e ns e Wa ter v ap o ur

, , .
-

b eha ve s in a sim ila r m a nn er u ntil it re a ch es c o nd e nsa ti o n p o int -

Wh erever a s urfa ce is h eated m o re str o ngly th a n a dj a cent

surfa ce s t h e s u p eri ncum b e nt a ir ga i ns h e a t
, wa rm s expa nds , , ,

ris es a nd pus h es u p w ar ds t he a ir a bo ve it On th e s u r fa ce th e
, .

e ff ect o f th e r is in g a ir is sh o wn by a d ecreas ed press u re but a s ,

th e le n gth o f t he c o lu m n a s a whole c a nn o t b e a ffecte d it is evid e nt ,

th a t th ere m us t be a redi stribu ti o n o f press ure c aus ing so m e , ,

wh ere in th e m i ddle la yers a rela tively h igh er press u re tha n in ,

a dj a ce nt p a rt s o n the sa me level wh ere th e s u r fa ce a ir is ri s i ng

w ith le ss f orce In o th er w o r ds o wi ng t o th e re distribu ti o n o f

.
,

p re ss ure t he is o b a ric s urfa ce s are s o m ewh a t r ais e d in t h e m i ddle

,

a nd s o m ewh a t d e re s s e d in t h e l o wer l a yer s B u t t h e w a ter

p .

vap o ur wh ich i nv a ri a b ly a cc o m pa nies th e air m u st a l so be

, ,

reck oned with As t he a ir ris es it mus t necessa rily l os e h ea t to

.

t he s urr o u ndi ng a ir a nd c o o l a nd in tim e t h e temp er a ture m u st

, ,

rea ch a nd fa ll b el o w th e sa tura ti o n p o i nt fo r th e am o unt o f

, ,
-

wa ter vap o ur pres ent Co nd e nsa ti o n m ust t a ke p la ce a c c o m

-

.
,

p a ni ed b y a lib er a ti o n o f l a te nt h e a t a f urth er l oss o f d e ns ity ,

a nd a furt h er te nd e n cy t o ri s e s o th a t t h e di s tu r b a nce in th e ,

iso baric s u rfa ces m u st be c arried t o a gre ater eleva ti o n .

’
Thu s t he w arm er p a rt s o f th e e arth s su r fa ce are a s s o ci a te d
with ris i ng a ir a nd as a ge ner a l r u le with c onde ns a ti o n a nd
, , , ,

th erefore ( 1 ) low surf a ce p ressu re a nd a bar o m etric gr a die nt

to wa rds t h e h e a te d s ur fa ce a nd ( 2) in th e m i ddle a nd p oss i bly
, ,

th e u pp er la yer s a rel a tively hig h p ressu re with a b ar o m e tric

,

gr a die nt a wa yf rom the so urce of dis turba nce .

 60 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

T h e f ollo wing diagram is int end ed t o S ho w t h e d ire ction of t he surfa c e

w inds blowing t o wards th e equ a to ria l lo w press ure a nd als o t he directio n .

o f the upp er c urrent b l o w ing p o l ew a rd s f ro m t h e rel a tiv ely hig h pressu re

o f the mid dl e la y ers o f t he a t m o sp h ere o v er t h e Eq u a t or

E q u ato r

a r 900
l I

FI G . 10 .
— D IRE CT I O N or W IN D S .

T h e lines 700 800 9 0 0 rep res en t l a ti t u d es w h ere the ea stwa rd v elo c it

y
, , ,

is 700 , 800, 9 00 m il es p er h o u r resp ectiv ely ( a p p ro xim a t ely and ,

Alo ng each o f th ese lin es p o in ts a re m ark ed o ff a t dista n c es rep t e

s enting o ne h o ur o f ea stw a r d m o tio n T h e lines o ining t h es e
.

p o in t s j
therefo re represen t m eridia n s— t a grea t circl es— t a th e n o rth a nd s ou th
, ,

direc tio n a t ea ch h o ur Ca refu lly c o m p a re th e c o ndi tio ns o n eith er sid e

.

o f t h e Equ a to r
.

Let us consider in t h e No rth er n s erie s :

1 A m ass o f a ir m o ving d o wn a ba r o m etric gra d ie nt p olewa rds
.

Wh e n it st arts , it has the e a stwa r d vel o city of its la titu de and th e

.

northwar d vel o city du e t o t h e gr a d ie nt ; bo th t h e s e it ret a i ns .

H e nce in o ne ho ur its no rthwa r d fl o w c a rries it i nt o a ir wit h le ss

astward velocity , a nd it s d irecti o n is s o m ewhat e a st of t h e
 CLIMATE 61

no rth a nd
uth li ne ; t his e as tw a r d tre nd b ec o m es m o re pro
so
n o un c ed a s tim e g o e s o n N o w we na m e winds b y t h e directio n
.
,

fro m wh ich th ey fl o w h e nce th e wind b ec o m e s m o re a nd m o re

,

sou th—westerly .

2 . A m ass o f a ir m o vi ng d o w n ba r o m etric gr a die nt equ a tor a

wa rds Wh e n it st art s it h as t he ea stwar d vel o city o f it s l a titu d e
.

a nd t h e s o uthw a r d vel o city du e t o t h e

gra die nt ; b o th th e s e it
ret a i ns H ence in o ne h o ur its s o uthwar d fl o w c a rries it i nt o
.

a ir with a gre ater e a stw a r d vel o city , a nd it s d irecti o n b ec o m e s

s o m ewh a t we st o f t h e n o rth a nd s o u th li ne a nd t h i s we sterly ,

trend b ec o m es m o re pr ono unced as tim e g o es o n t h e wind

b ec o m e s m o re a nd m o re a n orth ea sterly wi nd o n t h e su r fa ce -

( No rth East Tra de ) -

S im il a rly in t h e s eries s o u th o f th e Equa t or :

( 1 ) A m a ss o f a ir m o ving p olewards bec o m es a north westerly -

wi nd in th e m i ddle l a yer s .

( 2) A m a ss o f a ir m o ving equ a torwa rds b ec o m es a sou th

ea sterly wi nd o n th e s urfa ce ( S o u th Ea s t T r a d e ) -

It is evi d e nt th a t if t h e cycle b e c o mp leted r ou n d a ce ntre o f

h igh p re ss u re in t h e N o rth er n H e m isp h ere , t h e m o tio n is c lock
wi se ; b u t in t h e S o u th er n H em isph ere it is c o u nter cloc k wise -

Cf B u ys B a ll o t s la w ( p
’
-
. .

T o t h e n o rth o f t he equ at oria l b elt th e s o u th west upp er -

c urrent ( th e Anti Tr ad e) m a kes its w a y north eastwa r d , a nd ,

- -

u nd er t he a cti o n o f gr a vity gr a dua lly des cends t o w a r ds t h e

,

s urfa ce whi c h it re a ch es b etwee n 3 0 a nd 40 north , a nd in

,
° °

d es ce ndi ng necess a rily p r o du ces a s urf a ce h igh p ress ure with a

b a r o m etric gr a di e nt eq u a t o rwa r ds a nd a lso p o lewa r ds d o w n ,
’
wh ich wi nds fl o w o u twa r ds and are deflected b y t h e ea rth s
r o t ati o n, a nd b ec o m e no rth ea st t o war ds t h e Equ a t or ( Tr a de s)
-

s o uth we st t o w a r ds t h e p o le
-
.

S im il a rly , t o th e s o u th o f t he e qua t o ria l b elt , t h e no rth we s t -

upp er air c urrent m a kes its w a y so u th eas tw ar ds a nd u nd er th e

- -

, ,

a cti o n o f gr a vity , gr a du a lly d e s ce nd s t o w a r ds t h e s u r fa ce , wh ich

it re a ch es b etween 3 0 a nd 40 s o uth a nd in des cend i ng pr oduce s

° °
,

a s u rfa ce h igh
press ure with a b a r o m etric gra die nt eq u a t o rw a r ds ,

a nd a ls o
p o lew a r ds d’ o w n wh ic h wi nds fl o w o utwar ds a nd a re
, ,

d eflecte d b y t h e e a rth s r o t a ti o n a nd b ec o m e s o uth e a s t t o w a r ds ,

-

th e Equa t o r ( Tr a d es ) , no rth wes t t o w ar ds th e p o le -

.

N B — In th e s u m m
. . of a ch h m isp h er e e ere re re
t h e h igh p ss u ris n o m a ll y ,

r
f a th es t a w a y f o m t h e E qu a t o r Th r ere
is th ere re
fo e
a t t ha t s a s o n
.
.

e s p e cia ll y in t h e N o rt h rn H m isp h e e ere e e

a t nd n cy f o r t h e T a d W in d
r e ,

to p t e er
o u t t o w a n a n d fe ke
a il — b fo e re r
t h e indra u g h t t o w a d s
e
t h e q u a t o ia l l o w p essu r is f l t -
r re e
T he re r e
s u lt is a b o a d b lt o f c a lm s a nd
.

irre r r e re
g u la win ds , which p o v d a g a t d iffi c u l ty in th e o ld sailin g d a y
s .
62 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e p o lewar d fl o wing a ir fr o m t h e s urfa ce h igh pressure b eing

-

n ecess arily a dr
y wi nd , t a kes u p w a ter v ap our fro m t h e o ce a n ,
-

a nd c arrie s m uch m o ist ur e i nt o h igh er l a titu de s O n re a ch i ng a .

c o ld l and, the edge of the ice dri ft or even c o ld air o ver a p o l a r

-

curre nt o f water , the war m , m o is t air r ap idly los es h eat to th e

s u rro u nding air, a nd f a lls in te m er a ture b el o w th e sa tura ti o n
p
p o i nt fo r the a m ou nt o f w a ter v a p o ur it co nt a i ns ; su dd e n c o n
-

d e ns ati o n e nsue s a nd m u ch l a te nt h e at is lib er a te d Th e a ir .

wa rms, expands , a nd ris es , a nd f o r m s a surf ace lo w pressure ,

t o war ds which air is dr awn in fr o m th e p o lar area , a nd th e gr a d ient

fr om m i ddle l atitudes is i ncrea s ed Als o , as in th e cas e o f t h e .

equa t oria l low pressure , a red istribu ti o n of pressure neces sarily

ta kes pl a ce in th e c o lum n a b o ve th e ris ing air, with a h igh pres s ure
in t he m iddle l a yers Th us a b a r om etric gr a d ie nt is form e d
.
,

t o wards the po l ar b elt , as well a s to wa r ds m iddle latitud es , a nd

a s erie s o f upp er curre n ts in eith er directio n, whic h f o ll o w th e

la ws o f deflecti o n ( Fig .

The t able o n p 6 3 will b e f o u nd us eful as a summ a ry of t h e

.

f o reg o i ng .

Iso bar Ch arts — Th is i de a l s ch e m e o f s uccess ive h igh a nd lo w

.

pres sure ce ntre s o r b elts with n o rm a l gr a die nt s a nd re s ult a n t

,

wi nds gives a fairly true picture o f t h e c o nditio ns repres e nte d

,

o n i s o bar ch arts B u t j u st a s t h e m o nt hly is o th er m c h a rt s

.
, ,

whic h are based o n the aver a ge temp era ture of t he twent v f o ur -

h o u r s th e gre at da ily r a nge b etwee n da y a nd nigh t in c o nti n

, e nt a l
a re a s is e ntirely m aske d s o in th e is o b a r c ha rts wh ich are b a s e d
, , .

o n t h e a ver a ge s o f obs erva ti o ns exte nd ing o ver m a n y ye a r s

,

th ere is little or no indi c ati o n o f a b n o rm a l c o nditio ns .

In m a ny s ch o o l a tla s es a nd es p ecia lly in A S ch o o l Ec o no m ic

,

Atlas ( Cl are ndo n Press) th ere a re is o ba r ch arts for Ja nu arv

,

a nd f or July givi ng the ex trem e win ter a nd s um m er dis tribut io ii

,

of
p ressure a nd winds Here a n d th ere a rrows ha ve b ee n ins erte d
.

t o i ndic ate wi nds wh ich o b vi o us ly d o not o b ey B uys B a ll et s -

’

l aw . In stu dyi ng s uch ch arts t h es e irregula ritie s sh o ul d b e ,

c a refully noted and expl a i ne d s i nce th ey give th e hi nt of th e ,

d irection in wh ic h stor m wi nds in th o s e regio ns m o st freque ntly

tr a vel It h as b een a lrea d y m e n ti o n ed ( p 6 1 ) that abnor m a l
.
.

c o nd iti ons are m o stly f ou nd o n t h e p o leward m argi ns of t he

h igh pre ss ure b elts o f m iddle l atitu de s b ut th ey are a ls o c o m m o n
-

a t t h e ch a nge s of th e s e a s o ns o n t h e c o a st s of l arge c o nti n e nt s .

_

Meteor o l o gic a l Atl as with its m o nthly c h a rts

”
’
B a rth olom ew s ,

o f a ll the f a ct ors of clim a te is a bs o lutely i ndi s e nsab le t o t h e

,
p
tea ch er a nd to the advance d s tud ent o f cli ma te .
 CLIMATE 63

Interf e re nc e oi Land — Th e is o ba r ch arts a ff o r d num berless .

illus tra ti o ns o f th e princip le tha t a nticyclonic c o nd itio ns with

ou tflo wing winds are cha ra cteris tic of t he wi nter s eas o n over
great land a rea s, cyclonic c o ndi tio ns with i nfl owi ng wi nds o f the
s u m m er s e a s o n N owh ere is th is pri nciple b etter sh o wn th a n
.

o n th e e aster n a nd so uth ern c o a s t s of As i a , wh ere , o wi ng to th e

vast ness o f th e c o nti nent al are a , th e s easo na l c h a nges of te mp er a

ture , a nd th eref ore the s eas o na l changes o f pressure a nd wi nd,
are of regul a r o ccurre nce The na m e M o nsoo n winds , firs t applie d.

t o th os e o f the c o a s ts o f India , is us e d for a ny s eries of wi nds

wh ich are du e t o s im il ar c aus es .

P ressure a nd Wi nd s of the M iddl e

Pres sure a nd Winds of the S urf a c e
Atm osp here
.

N Po lar H P ( rel a tive)

. . . D es cend i ng ro u nd N P ol e .

S W Up p er Cu rrent
N . E P lar W ind
. o s
. .

Ar ctic Cir cl e L P . HP. . a bo ve Arctic C ircl e

71
S . W . w inds N E . . Up p er Current

Middl e La titu d e H P . D es cend i ng o n M i ddl e La titudes

S . W Up p er Current
.

N E T . . ra d e win d ( Ant i tra de) -

.

Eq ua t orial L P . . H P. . a bove Equa torial B el t

N W Up p er C urrent
S E T ra d e wind
. .

(An ti tra de)

.

M iddl e La t it u d e H P . . D es cend ing on M iddl e Latitu des

N . W w inds .
S E Upp er Current
.

Ant ar ct ic Cir cl e L P . . HP . . a bo ve Anta rc ti c Circle

S E Po lar wind s
. . N . W . Up p er Current

S Po l ar H P (rel ative)
. . .
D es cend i ng ro u nd S P ol e
.

Th e M ons oons o f As i a D u rin g th e fo ur w int er mo nths,

No ve m ber t o Feb rua ry, th e a bs en ce o f m o isture a nd th e length en
 64 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

ing n ight induces grea t radia tio n Th e h eat pa sses int o spa ce .

unch ecked and very lo w temp era tures a re rea ch ed Th us i n

, .
,

c o ns e qu ence o f the d ryness a nd o f th e low temp era ture a ,

high pressure centre of grea t in tens ity fo r m s t o th e no rth ea st

- -

of the centre The gra d ients a re steep esp ecia lly t o wa r ds the
.
,

ea st a nd so uth co asts a nd th e wh o le o f th e land a rea is und er

,

fa r h igh er pressure tha n th e su rro u nd ing s ea s Hence win ds .

fl o w sp ira lly s e a wa r ds fo llo wing d irectio ns d e d uce d fro m B uys

,

Ba llo t s la w O n th e Pa cific Co ast th ey are n orth n orth

’
. ,

west o r west and in th e north ern pa rt of th e Indi a n Ocean

, ,

t h ey are north east a n aug mented tra de wind

-

Duri ng .

t he f o u r s umm er m o nths ( Ma y t o Augus t) the h igh a n gle o f th e

su n give s a high
p erce nta ge o f s un force a nd wh ere t h e m o isture
-

o f t h e a ir is sm a ll a l a rge pr op o rtio n o f th e s u n force re a ch e s -

the surfa ce a nd i nd uce s h igh a ir te m p er a ture s

, Co ns eq u e ntly a .
,

lo w p ress ure o f gre a t i ntens ity fo rm s t o t he so u th wes t of t h e -

ce ntre The gra die nts are esp eci ally steep near the s outh co as t
. .

The a ir is dr a wn in th eref o re from t h e N orth Indi a n Oce a n

, , ,

where t he equa t o ria l lo w pressure disapp ea rs and t h e air is d erived ,

fro m th e high pressure in the S o uth India n Ocea n (cf Fig 9 d) . .

, .

Thus t h e wi nds s tart s o uth e ast b ecom e s o uth a nd ne ar t h e c o as t

-

, ,

of Indi a s outh west bu t in th e e ast q ua d r a nt o f th e low p ressure

-

th ey b ec om e so uth so u th east a nd east ( Ga nges Va lley) Ca re

- -
.

fully c o ntrast th e north ea st m o ns o o n ra infa ll (cf Figs 44 a nd

-

. .

In o th er c o ntin ents m o nso o n eff ects c a n a lso be tra ce d m o stly ,

in th e su mm er Thus th e s um m er lo w p ress ure in th e s o u th wes t

.
-

of No rth Am erica caus es the no rth east tra d e t o beco m e m o re a nd -

m ore ea st a nd fin a lly s o u th ea st in th e Gu lf o f Flo rida S i m ila rly

,
-

.
,

th e n o rth east tra des o f th e Pa cific bec o m e n o rth a nd north

-

west o n th e Pa c ific c oa s t o f Centra l Am erica In the sa m e w a y .

,

during th e s outh ern summ er ( No vem ber t o Ja nu ary ) th e cen tre s o f ,

low pressure in S outh Am eric a S outh Afric a (cf Fig 9 c) and , . .

, ,

North Austra lia dra w in o ce a n wi nds to th e north wes t a nd to th e -

s o uth —e a st a nd e as t of th e lo w
press ure .

Land and Sea Breez e s — La nd a nd sea ( o r l a ke ) breezes a re m o s t

.

s tro ngly d evel o p e d o n s ea co asts a nd o n th e sh o re s of l a rge l a ke s

wh ere the diff erences b etween da y a nd ni gh t temp er atures are

consid erable At night th e air o ver th e la nd co o ls and c o ntr a cts
.

and t h e pre ssure at s o m e h eigh t ab ove th e s urf a ce b ec om es le ss

tha n o ver the sea Air th eref o re flows in fro m the s ea t o the la nd
.

a t a n u pp er level and i n cre a se s th e re ss ure over th e l a nd a t th e

,p ,

sam e tim e d ecre asi ng th at over th e s urf a ce o f th e s ea Th e .

res ulta nt air curre nt is the l a nd breeze .

66 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

a n d na rro w va lleys a nd lea s t o n gentle slo p es wh ile th e reg u

, ,

la rit y a nd velo city o f th e win ds d ep ends o n t h e tem p era tu re c o n

ditio ns a nd o n th e h u m idity As in t he c as e o f sea a nd l a n d
.

breezes th es e wi nds a re m o s t p er sis tent wh e n t h e ge n er a l a tm o

,

sph eric c o nditi o ns re m a i n c o nst a nt In 1 9 06 in D a u ph i ne in .

, ,

th e Fre nch Alp s th e a lm os t r a i nles s m o nth o f Augu s t w a s m a rke d

,

by wa rm va lley breeze s o f gre at regula rity a nd stre ngth The .

wea th er wa s u nusua lly s ettled even th e u su a l th u nder st o r ms b ei ng

,

a lm o st e ntir ely a bs e nt .

It is im p o rta nt t o n o tice o n a n o ro gra ph ic a l m a p t h e directio n

a nd c ha ra cter o f va lleys wh ich le a d in l a nd fr o m t h e c o a st In .

t h e M ed iterra n ea n Ca lifo r n ia Ch ile t h e Ca p e W e s t Aus tr a lia

, , , , ,

a n d Vict o ria t h e va lleys wh ich le a d in la nd a nd p ro l o n g t h e sea

,

breezes receive m o st d ew a nd a re fa v o ura b le f o r cultiva ti o n eve n

,

du ri ng t he dr o ugh t o f s umm er .

It m a y b e sa id gen era lly tha t wh erever m o ist a ir is c a rrie d

inla nd in t o th e u pp er a ir th e c o nditio ns exist fo r th e d epo s it o f
,

mo istu re The po int o f sa tu r a tio n m a y be r ea c h ed a t a n y tim e

.

wh en th e tem p era tu re ha s fa llen su fficiently th ro ugh ra d ia tio n .

Co ns equ ently in such regio n s h ea vy thu n d ers to r m s o ccur frs

,

qu ently in su m m er .

M ountai ns and Lo c al W i nds — Ordin a ry m o u nta in a nd va lley .

wi nds are du e t o th e diff ere nces o f temp er a t u re , h um idity o f up

la nd a nd l o w l a nd a nd u nless th o se diff ere nces a re extrem e th ey
, ,

a re n o t us u a lly o f gre a t stre ngth Us ua lly t h ey c o i nci d e wit h t he .

a lterna tio n s o f te m p er a tu re by da y a n d n igh t It h a pp en s .

,

ho wever , th a t wh en a bno r m a l d iff erences o f tem p er a ture a n d

pressu re exist between u pl a n ds a nd l o wl a n ds d o wn fl o w in g a ir
-

curre nt s a re d evelo p ed wh ich p ersist f or s ever a l da ys t o geth er .

Th es e are k n o w n b y l o c a l na m e s— th e F o eh n Chi no o k , B o r a , ,

Mistr a l etc, Th es e bl o w duri n g th e da y , a nd esp eci ally in wi nter

.

o r s pri ng wh e n th e c o ntr a st o f tem er a t ure is

, p gre a test b etwee n
th e s n o w c o vere d up la nds a nd th e l o wl a nds
-

Th e Foeh n ge n er a lly o ccur s wh e n th e a ir is b ei ng dr a w n n o rth

war ds fr om t h e N o rth er n Alp ine v a lleys t o wa r ds a Cycl o ni c
lo w pressure ) st o rm , m o vi ng e a s twa r ds a cr o ss th e No rth Ger m a n
-

Pla i n . As th ere is usu a lly a h igh pressure o n t he m o u nt a i ns t h e ,

air is dr a wn d o w n t h e fu nnel s f o r m e d b
y th e m o u nt a i n v a lleys
with c o nsid er ab le vel o city , a nd is gre atly w a rm ed by c o mpress i o n
in d es ce nt If , as usua lly h a pp ens th e a ir a t t h e s u mm it o f t h e
.
,

Alps is m o ist , th e c u rre nt war m s still m o re r a p i dly .

An ex am p le will sh o w the c o ur s e o f a s o uth er n f o eh n wi nd At .

 CLIMATE 67

B ellinzo na ( a ltitu de 75 1 feet ) the tem p era ture was 3 7° F , and the .

wi nd ( not foeh n) wa s fr o m the no rth a nd br o ught ra i n ; at the St .

Gothard
°
feet ) 24 F with a wi nd blowi ng fro m the s o uth ;
, .
,

at Alt do rf
°
feet ) 58 F The rela tive hu midities at B ellin
, .

z o na and Alt dorf were 8 0 p er ce nt and 28 per ce nt resp ectively

. .

tha t is t o say , t he wind b ec am e m uch wa rm er , a nd th erefo re much

drier, o wing to r ap id c o mp re ss io n in blo wing down th e va lley t o
Altd o rf on t he no rth Wh e n t h e a ir is dra wn fro m the pla i n o f
.

th e P0 , or eve n fro m the M ed iterr a n ea n , the wind a t B ellinz o na

wo ul d be governed by th e va lley Th e fo ehn wi nds m elt the snow
.

very r ap idly and h asten the spring and in so m e va lleys, such as ,

that wh ich d escends t o Innsbru ck fro m th e B renner Pass , make

a c o ns id er ab le d iff ere nce t o t h e cli ma te The rip e ni ng of grap es
.

a nd c o r n are c o ns id er a b ly h as te n ed a nd t he wo o d e n fra m ework

,

o f h o us e s is re nd ere d so dry by t h e wi nd th at it b ec o m e s a l mo st

like tinder , ready to c atch fire wh en a ny spark fa lls o n it The .

foeh n may occ asi o na lly o cc u r o n th e s o uth si de o f the Alps with

opp osite c o nditio ns o f pressure F o eh n eff ects occur in m any
.

o th er p a rt s of th e w o rl d u nd er si m il a r c o n ditio ns .

The Chino okW inds (s ee p 555 ) a re, like th e fo ehn, irregula r

.

wi ds w ich blo w n t e t o f th Ro ckies fro m a bo ut 55 to 60

n h o h e a s e
° °

no rth la titu d e . Th ey m y r is e th e tem p era ture fro m

a a — °
20 to
°
40 F in a few h o ur s
. . Th ey rem o ve t h e ligh t sno wfa ll, a nd all o w
ca ttle to fin d gras s in winter Th eir dep end ence o n the wa r m
.

a nd m oist wi nds wh ich b l o w fro m th e we st th e Pa cific ) to

the Rockie s is cle a r fr o m th e f a ct tha t th e ch ino o k wi nds bl o w
f arth er no rth in s om e s ea s o ns th an o th ers a nd that this c o rre ,

sp o nds to v a ri a ti o ns in t he p os iti o n a nd vel o city o f the c o ast

Th e B ora , de scending fro m the D a lm a tia n Alps , is i ntens ely

c o ld, b eca us e the ini tia l tem p era tu re o f the a ir in th e uplands is
very lo w , a nd the h ea t o f c om press io n ga i ned by d es cent do es
not r a i s e it s tem p er a t ur e su ffi ciently t o p reve nt it rea ch in g th e
lo wlands as a cold wind The Mistral blo ws to t he c o asts o f the
.

M ed iterra n e a n h o m th e m o u th o f th e Ebro t o t he Gulf o f Ge no a .

It is m os t m arked a t Avigno n a nd M a rs eilles ( a ver a ge = l 7 6 da ys

in a ye ar) a ft er d e s ce ndin g t h e tre nch o f th e Rh o ne Va lley It .

blo ws fro m the Cevennes o r th e Pyre n ee s or Alps a t a tim e wh e n

the c o ntra st is gre ates t b et wee n t h e c o l d s no w cl ad upl a nds a nd -

th e rel atively w ar m l o wl a n ds a nd t h e M e diterr a ne a n Anti .

cyclonic c o nditio ns (high pressure) o n the m o u nt ai ns a nd uplands ,

a nd m arke d cycl o nic c o nd iti o ns ( lo w pre ssure ) in the Medit er

ra nea n , p ro d uce a vi o le nt wi nd in a d o w nwa rd d irecti o n to the

68 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

lowland . wind wa rm s in desce nt bu t the co ntrasts of te m

The ,

pera ture c aus e it t o be still c o ld wh e n it re ach e s the c oast .

Th e war m i ng a nd dr yi ng i nfl ue nce o f d es ce ndi ng wi nds a nd its

imp ortance in the c o ns id er ati o n o f r a infa ll is referred to const antly
thro ugho ut the text ( see pp 3 73 .
,

BIO GEO GRAPHY .

THE DISTRIB UTIO N OF PLANTS .

Th e c o nd itio ns n eces sa ry fo r th e gro wt h of p la nt life m a y be

d ivid ed into ( a ) e da ph ic a nd (b) clim a tic
, The clima tic c o nd i
.

tio ns are, d irectly, light, h ea t, a nd m o is tu re a nd m ore ind irectly,

winds The ma in eda ph ic c o nd itio ns a re m echanica l textu re a nd
.

th e ch em ic a l c o mp os itio n o f th e so il in wh ich th e p la n t grow s .

( )
a Th e Ed aph ic F a ctors —
Th es e, th ou gh o f grea t im po rta nce in
.

deter minin g th e exis ten ce o f p la n t a ss o cia t io ns in a rea s esp ecia lly

suite d t o th e m (h e a th , m o o r , s wa m p , c anno t be dealt with
in d eta il h ere .

If th e p a rticles o f s o il a re fin ely d ivid ed a n d cl o s e t o geth er, a s

in the c as e of stiff cl ays a nd l oam s, th e s o il will ret a in m o is ture
longer th an it wo uld if it c ont a i n ed a la rge prop o rtio n o f s and .

On the oth er ha nd , s uch a s o il m a y no t a dm it sufficie nt oxyge n,

wh ich is ess ential for th e devel opm e nt o f ba cteri a , and the
m iner a ls ( lim e , sa lt , a nd th e h um us
( d ec a yed a ni m a l a nd
veget able matter ) , necess ary f o r p la nt lif e m a y not b e well en ough
m ixed with it The need o f tur ni n g o ver s o il is illustra te d b
y
.

the effects pr o duced b y e arth wo r m s , p lo ugh i ng , etc

-
Dry
.

fa rmi ng (see p 55 4) pra ctis ed in a ri d regi o ns d ep ends o n sp eci a l

.

tilla ge of s oil , whi ch enables it t o c o ns erve m o is ture A s o il is .

sa id t o be p hysiolog ica lly dry, eve n if it h as a b u nda nce of m ois ture

wh en a p la nt cannot absorb wa ter fro m it ( o n a cc o unt of exc es s

of sa lts, low temp er a ture , It m us t be re m e m b ered tha t
pla nts va ry th eir c ap a city o f ext ra cting m o is ture fro m diff ere nt,
s oils , s o th a t a s oil which is ph ys i o l o gic a lly dr to o ne l t may
y p a n
s uit a noth er a m a n gr o ve wi ll gr o w in a s a lt s wa m t h c oco
p , e
nut p al m fl o uris h es o n a s alin e s o il , a nd b o th are c o ns eque ntly
found growing naturally o n c oastla nds For oth er p l ants a .

sm all a dditio na l a m ou nt o f sa lt is f a t a l Other m iner a ls than

.

co mm o n sa lt ac t as p o is ons Cert ai n p ines and chest nut s die o n

.

a s oil rich in li m e , wh ile th e b eech fl o uri sh e s .

 BIO GEO GRAPH Y 69

Th e t erm ed a phic is al so a p pl ied t o fo rm ations which d ep end o n the

existenc e o f lo c al m oistu re— i s th e frin ging fo rest o f river bank s in d ry

stepp e s— sem i d es erts a nd d es erts

-
t he Lla no s o f So u th Am eri c a a nd
th e tund ra . M ou n ta in a sso cia tio ns o ccu rring in the c entre o f mo re o r
,

l ess c on tinu ou s a rea s of a gen erally unif o rm typ e o f vegeta tio n a re m ainly
,

d u e to cl im a t ic c o nditio n s
.

T h e exis ten ce o f d ifferent kinds o f so il in a rea s wh ich a re

clim a tic a lly u nifo rm is respo nsible fo r t h e grea t va riety o f typ es
o fte n fou nd Th e c o mp etitio n o f p la nt a sso cia tio n s h el ps t o
.

expla in t h e predo m in a n ce o f certa in typ es in dry so ils a nd c o l d

clim a tes fo r wh ich th ey a re sp ecia lly a dapted Su ch t yp es a re .

by n o m ea ns exclu de d fro m m o ister a n d wa r m er z o n es , bu t th ey

u su a lly m o d ify th eir s ecia l ch a r a cteri stic s in th e So u th ern
p
Un ited S ta tes d ecidu o u s trees bec o m e evergreen ( s ee p .

Typ es o f vegeta tio n wh ich d ep end o n eda ph ic c o n d itio n s h a ve

u s u a ll y m uch le ss m a rke d tra ns itio na l a re a s th a n tho s e th a t

d ep end o n clim a te, excep t wh ere c o n figura tio n c a us es a su dd en

ch a nge o f clima te ( fo r so il s, see a lso p .

b Th C li m i F o L — Tw o o int s sh o ul d be n o tice d
( ) e at c ac t rs—
IG H T .
p
— t h e du ra tio n o f ligh t a n d its in te ns ity . Th e c o nt inu o u s su m m er
ligh t in Po lar regi o ns c a us es the assimil ati o n o f c a r bo n a nd c on ,

s eque n tly n utriti o n , t o p r o cee d wi th o u t i nterr u pti o n ( see Table

H e nce th e l o nger dura ti o n o f ligh t t o s o m e exte nt c o m

p ens a t es fo r t h e sh o rt veget a tive s e aso n In Fi nla nd a nd t h e
.

N o rth o f No rwa y b a rley rip e ns in eighty ni n e da ys fr o m th e da te

-

°
o f s o wi n g wh ile in S we d e n at 55 no rth , it require s o ne h u ndred
, ,
.

Th e influ ence o f in tens ity o f ligh t is well m a rke d in fo rests ,

so m e o f th e ch a ra cter istics o f wh ich m a y be a ttri bu te d t o th is

c a us e b eech —f o re sts h a ve n o u nd erw o o d m a inly o n a cc o unt

,

o f th e ex u da ti o n fro m t h e le a ve s , bu t p artly b ec a u s e t h e ligh t

wh ich rea ch es th e gr ou nd is subdued ; wh ile oak ,

a nd t o a gre a ter

exte nt birch , w o o ds are rich in th is resp ect Tr o pic a l f o rests

.

well illus tra te the imp ort a nce o f ligh t in th e d evel opm ent o f
fl o wer s a nd frui ts in the upp er p o rti o n, t o wh ich a lo ne the full
su nl igh t c a n p e n etr a te . In h igh a ltitu d es inte ns ity o f ligh t by
da y a nd c o l d a t nigh t c o o p er ate t o ret a r d gr o wth
-
Th e e ff ect
.

is a na l o go us t o th a t p r o duce d by a t o o e a rly spring o n veget ati o n .

H EAT AN D MO IS T U RE — A d is t inctio n m u st be m a d e betwee n

t he c o nditi o ns wh ic h pr o duce w o o dla nd , gr as s la nd , a n d d es ert
vegeta ti o n, with t h e tr ansiti o na l fo r ms th a t us ua lly c o m e b etwee n
ea ch group ( see b el o w und er Z o nes o f Veget ati o n) , and the c o n
dit io ns ess e ntia l fo r t he gr o wth o f i nd ividua l p la nts a nd gr o u p s
70 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

of pla nts . A bro a d cl assifi c ati o nuch p lants m ay be m a de of s

by following the divi sio n i nt o ( a ) p l a nt s wh ich nee d a h i gh t em

p erature througho ut t h e ye ar a nd a bu nd a nt m oi sture
ca cao p epp er sa go s uga r ca n e ba nana s ( b) plants wh l ch n eed
_

, , , ,

h igh te mp era tu res and a l o n g dry s easo n th e da te ( 0 ) th o s e

that n eed m o d era te h ea t a nd a m o d era te a m o unt of mo isture .

To so m e o f th es e lo w win ter tem p era tures a re fa ta l— c o tton ( s ee

5 t h er d w r m mm er a re n ecessa ry— th e o l l ve
p . 2 9 ) t o o s r
y a s u s ,

(see p . o th ers ( wh ea t ) m us t h a ve su fli c ient wa rm th i n

sum m er to rip e n a nd fo r m o s t va rieties o f th e gra m no t t o o
,

m uch ra i n o n account of lia b ility t o r us t ( a dis eas e ca us ed by th e

gro wth of fungi) ( d) Oth er typ es o f veget a tio n s uch as c o n
.
,

if erous a nd d eciduous fo re sts c a n e ndure c o o ler summ ers a nd ,

c o l der winters In all c as es th ere is a cl os e relati o nsh ip

.

b etwee n th e h e a t a nd m o is ture n ecessa ry fo r t he m os t f a vourab le

gr o wth o f any sp eci a l typ e o f pla nt Ge n er a lly th e p o wer of .
,

endura nce to cold is i nvers ely p r op o rti o n a l to t he am ou nt of

water ava ilable for p l ant life .

WIN D — Win d exercis es a n i m p o rt a nt influen ce o n bo th th e

.

chara cter a nd d istri butio n o f vegeta tio n Th is is tw o fo l d .

B i l — A c o m a ris o n
( )
a e n efic a p o f t h e d ia gr a m s sh o win g m e a n
annu a l r a in fa ll ( Fig 1 1 ) with th a t o f t h e d istri butio n of veget a
.

tio n (Fig 1 2) sh ows th e direct rela tio nsh ip between transp orted
.

m o is ture a nd pl ant li fe ( no te th e tr o p ic a l fo rests o f Eas t Ma da

ga sea r S outh East B ra zil etc a nd th e tem p erate fo rest s of So uth
,
-

, .
,

Ch ile British Co lu m b ia No rwa y a n d W es t N ew Z ea l a nd d irectly

, , , ,

expo sed t o p reva lent wet wind s ) Fresh supplies o f c a r bo n .

d io xid e a re bro ugh t by winds s ee ds a re d is p ers e d a nd trees , ,

fertilized by th e tra nspo rt o f po ll en .

A m ore lim ited fu n ctio n o f winds is th e ra is ing o f temp era ture

by tho s e o f th e fo ehn typ e wh ich a re sa id a ctu a lly to a ss ist t h e ,

ripening o f gra in a nd fruits n ea r Inns bruck An ind irect .

eff ect of such winds is o f grea t im po rta nce in th e m eltin g of th e

sno w in spring ( o f th e Ch ino o k Win ds etc p
.
, .
, .

b
( ) I nfa mo u s — In aeo a n
li ero s io n th e win d a cts m o st s tro ngly
n ea r th e gro u nd wh ere it c a n ca rry with it sa nd a nd oth er fine
,

m ateria ls On the o th er h a nd exp eri m e nts sh ow tha t the

.
,

velocity of th e wi nd at a b o u t 25 feet u p is nearly do ub le tha t at

the s urf ace Y et th e m ec ha n ic a l a cti o n of wind in bre a kin g
.

bra nch es a nd re ndi ng f o lia ge is in m a n y c a s es by no m e a ns re u

p j
dicial t o the pl a nt ; by c u tti ng o ff we a k a nd rotte n br a nch e s it
a ct s as a pru ni ng k nife a nd in the c a s e of th e ba na na th e torn
-

leaves com e i nto co nt act with l arger quantities o f air Th e .

 BIO GEO GRAPHY 71

m o st import ant i nflue nce o f m o ving a ir is in tr a nspi rati o n and

evap oratio n which has b ee n p r o ve d t o b e pro p ortio na l to th e
,

s qu are root of th e wi nd vel o city c o ns equ e ntly trees are m ore

,

aff ecte d t h an gr a ss e s Indee d th e i ncrea s e in tra ns p iratio n

.
,

pro duced by t h e d ryin g a ctio n o f win d a lters th e c ha ra cter a n d

lim its the dis tri butio n o f vegeta tio n ; h ence th e a ctio n o f win d
is clo s ely co nn ecte d with th e d is tribu tio n o f m ois ture Cold dry .
,

winds a nd t o a less d egree ho t dry winds are in im ica l to a ll

, , ,

for ms o f p lant life owin g to d es icca tio n a nd in regio ns o f little

,

precip ita tion wh ere th ere is a f roz en s u bso il during winter a s in

, ,

th e Russ ia n S tepp es fo res ts c a nn o t exis t a s th e ro o ts of trees

, ,

ha ve ins uffi cient mo is ture to dra w o n t o m a ke up fo r t h e strong

transp ira tion Such s tepp es a re th erefo re ba rren durin g th e
.

win ter bu t are suita ble fo r gra ss la nd a sso cia tio ns if ra in fa ll occurs
,

in sprin g durin g th e vegeta tive p erio d In th e regio n o f th e North .

Russ ian fo res t the so il c o nta in s m o re m o is tu re th a n in t h e stepp es ,

owi ng to th e l arger qua ntity o f m o is ture br o ught by the west

wi nds .

As ev ap or ati o n is str o nger a t h igh tem p er atures war m dry ,

winds h ave a st ill m o re d esicc a ti ng e ff ect In the Llanos o f S outh .

Am eric a th e tra de wi nd whic h bl o ws str o ngly during the dry,

s e aso n is i nim ic a l t o th e gr o wt h o f tree s exce p t wh ere m o isture is

, ,

supp lie d by river s o r u nd ergr o u nd w a ter ; yet o wi ng t o the a b ,

s e nce o f fro st trees o f t h e s a v a nna typ e are p rev a le nt

,
In th e .

regio ns o f c o l d winters th e l a ck o f m o isture m ay be su fli c ient t o

c o mp letely preve nt t h eir gr o wth .

Excepti o na lly c o l d wi nters o ccur in t h e Sib eria n forests but ,

the snow pr o tects t h e vegeta tio n a nd o wing t o the fro ze n sub , ,

so il the m ois ture o b t a i ne d b y t h e m elti ng o f th e s now is utilize d

,

with little waste by t he r o o ts o f th e trees On the oth er hand . ,

to the no rth of the f o rest regio n a nd in d istricts wh ere little s no w

falls dry wi nds during fros ty weath er d eterm ine the lim it of tree
,

gro wth In va lleys sh eltered from wind fores t growth exte nds
.
,

farth er to the n orth .

Z ones Veg etati on — Th e clos e rela tionsh ip b etwee n r a inf all

of .

a nd veget a tio n is we ll ill us tr a te d b y a c o m p ari so n of Figs 1 1 a nd .

12 . It m ust be rem em b ere d th a t o wing to evap ora ti o n, a larger ,

ra infa ll is require d in tr o p ic a l th a n in tem p er a te re gi o ns .

The tundra is th e typ ic a l Po l a r veget a ti o n ( o f col d d es ert low

lands) Th e li m it o f th e tu ndra is appr o xim ately sh own by
.

Figs 86 and 40 , whic h ill u str a te th e July temp er ature s of North

.

Am eric a a nd Asia In t h e war m est m o nth this are a is b elo w

.
72 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
74 TEX T B OO K OF GEO GRAPHY
-

50 F The co nditions are al m o st c o nti nuous sunsh i n e in s um m er

°
. ,

excep t wh ere the gr o u nd is c o vered wi th fo g a lo w a ver a ge t em ,

pera t ure in sp ite o f the c o nti nu ity o f da yligh t but a fa i rly hi gh ,

temp er a ture in the middle o f th e d a y ( no te tha t the a lti tu d e of t h e

_

su n a nd su n—f o rce o n Jun e 21 a re a bo ut equa l to th o s e a t Gree n

wich a t th e equi no xes ) wa nt o f da yligh t in wi nter c o m bi n ed Wi th

, ,

c o ld and grea t dryness The s o il h a s a very low temp er a ture. ,

only a few inch es o f t he u pp er la yer tha wi ng in s um m er wh e n ,

s wa m p c o n ditio ns p rev a il The typ ic a l p la nt s are m osses a nd

.

lich ens a nd tree growth is rep l a ce d by stu nted bush es o r i s alt o

, ,

geth er a bs e nt ( see pp 3 27 .
,

Th ere a re c o ol and w ar m Tem perate Forests Th es e a re dis ti n .

gu is h ed in t he vegeta t i zn m a p s o f t h e co nt inents ( s ee Fi g 4 7 .
,

As ia a n d Fig 93 No rth Am erica )

. The Cool Tem p erate For
, ests .

incl ud e bo th c on ifero us a nd d ecidu o us fo rests Bo th fo rma ti o ns .

o ccu r in regio ns with c o l d winters wh ere t h e cl ima te n ecess ita te s ,

a res ti n
g s ea s o n On th e wh o le t h e c o n ifers a re fo un d in th e
.
,

co ldest regio ns tho ugh in m a ny ca s es a ltitu d e a nd so il c a us e a

,

m ixtu re o f typ es .

Th e Co nif erous Forest o cc u p ies a c o ntinu o u s belt fro m ea s t t o

west in th e North ern Tempera te Zo n e and flo urish e s o n th e h igh ,

lands a nd m ou nta ins o f mo re so u th ern regions Centra l

Euro p e th e Un ited Sta tes
, It is a l so t h e pre do m ina n t typ e in
.

regio ns with po ro u s dry sand y so il s uch as th e ea s tern m a rgin

, , ,

o f th e Un ite d S ta tes The wid e extens io n o f th is a sso cia ti o n is

.

du e to it s c a pa city fo r existin g in clim a tes wh ere t h e c o l d win ter

ma kes p ro tectio n n ecessa ry a ga inst excess ive tra nsp ira tio n a nd a
so il wh ich is
ph ys io lo gica lly dry (a f ro zen so il is dry in th is s ens e
to a ll pl a nts ) The p er ma n ent lea ves are a da pted t o a vo id
.

transpira tio n wh ile th e you ng sho o t s o f Spr ing ta ke in all th e

,

m o ist u re p o ss i ble Like m o st o th er fo r ms o f vegeta tio n wh ich

.

c an live in c o l d or dry cli m a te s o n a ccou nt o f th eir

p o wer s o f
a da pt a tio n c o n ifer s will gr o w u nd er le ss rigo r o us c o nd itio n s
, On .

th e wes t c oa s t o f No rth Am erica wh ere t h e winters a re m ild er , ,

th ey rea ch eno rmo u s s izes (see p In S iberia wh ere th e .

,

winters a re extrem ely co l d a nd th ere is little precip ita tio n th e ,

wo o dla nd is th in a nd ofte n stunted except in the tai ga ( see ,

p .

The D ec i duou s Forest is rep res en ted in th e no rth ern f o res t a rea
o f c o l d , d ry winters by th e birch l a rch , a nd ash s ee
( p 3 29 , As ia ) , . .

The la rch (a c o nifer ) is extre m ely h a r d y, and th e birc h c a n grow

on wet bo ggy s oil s u nfa vo u ra ble t o mo st c o n ifer s a nd e n d u re
,

grea t extrem es o f la titu d e and a ltitu d e D eciduo u s fo res ts pro .

 B IOGE O GRAPHY 75

teet th em s elves a ga inst excess ive tra nsp ira tio n by sh edd in g th eir
lea ves ; c o ns equently th ey a re p res ent in a rea s wh ich h a ve a
,

distin ct typ e o f clim a te (m a rke d dry s ea s o ns eith er c o l d o r ,

wa r m ) Th ey a re th erefo re no t c o nfin ed t o tem p era te regio ns

.

(of th e tea k f o rest s o f th e D ecca n a nd Bu r m a

.
-

A typ ic a l
,

tree o f th e Euro p ean d ecidu ou s fo res t is t h e o a k Gen era lly a

,

m o d era te ra in fa ll is n ecessa ry (of Fig 1 1 a nd t h e d eciduo u s . .

fo res t sh o wn in th e vegeta tio n m a ps ) wh ich is fa irly well dis ,

tribu ted th ro ugh o u t th e yea r In M editerra nea n clim a tes de .

c idu o u s tree s te n d t o b ec o m e evergreen th e o a k .

T he W arm T em p erate Forests a re m o s tly evergreen T w o typ e s .

m a y b e d istinguish ed— th o s e th a t flo u rish ( a ) wh ere t he su m m er s

a re wet a nd wa r m a n d t h e w inter s c o o l a n d d r
y ( So u th Ch in a ,

Ja pa n S o u th Ea s t Au stra lia So u th Eas t Afric a Flo rida a n d t h e

,
-

,
-

, ,

Gul f S ta tes cf th e M a gn o lia ) . To t h e no rth in m a ny o f th es e

.

regio ns th e typ e is decidu ou s ( in th e United Sta tes d ecidu o us

bro a d lea ve d trees s uch a s th e o a k h icko ry elm m a ple a nd
-

, , , , ,

ch estnu t lie in a tra ns itio n regio n between th e wa r m temp erate

,

a nd c o o l tem er a te f o res ts )
p ( b) Th e M e d iterra n ean typ e o f
.

regio ns wh ich h a ve d ry h o t su m m er s a nd c o o l m o is t w inter s

, , ,

durin g wh ich gro wth m a in ly ta kes p la ce (th e M ed iterra n ea n ,

Ca lifo rn ia Ch ile So u th W es t Aus tra lia a n d S o u th W es t Af rica )

- -

T yp ic a l tree s a re th e h o lm o ak t h e o live a nd t h e m yrtle ( bu sh

.
, , ,

typ es ) ; a nd th e c o rk o a ko f Po rt u ga l a nd M a r o cc o ( tree t yp es )
, , ,

Th e s e m erge i nt o tr u e f o res t o n r a in y m o u nta i n s l o p e s a nd in d eep

gul lies t h e l a urel o f t h e Ca naries a nd M a d eir a o f t h e cl ou d
b elt . In Aus tr a lia typ ic a l f o rm s a re the euc a lyp tus a nd
a c a 0 1a .

Th e T emp erate Grassl ands or Stepp es — Th e winters a re extrem e .

a n d dry ( th ere is u su a lly o n ly a s m a ll a m o un t o f sno w ) Th e .

s u mm er s a re wa r m o r ho t , a n d a l so dry Ra in o ccu rs u su a lly in .

s rin g o r e a rly s u m m er , a n d o ft e n f a lls in th und ers to rm s wh ich

p
do no t th o r o ughl y sa tu ra te th e so il ; c o n s equently, c o n d itio n s
a re u nsui te d t o tree s Th e m a i n circum s t a nces th a t ch eck
.

tree gro wt h a re : wa nt o f sufficient wa ter t o pr ovid e m o isture

for r o o ts thr o ugh o u t t h e ye a r , wa nt o f pr o tecti o n su c h a s is
c a us ed by a la rge sno wf all in wi nter , dr yi ng winds ( c o l d or wa r m ;
see pp 3 28 , 60 5 , N o rth Ea st Chi na a nd th e L l a no s) , l o os e ne ss o f
-

so il c a u si ng t o o r ap i d p erc o l a ti o n o f m o i st u re , a nd c o m p etiti o n
from th e qui ck gr o wi ng grass es , which c a n obt a i n s ufli c ient
-

m o ist ur e fr o m th e th a wi ng o f t h e fr o ze n s o il a s well a s fro m t h e

sh o wer s .
76 TEX T B OOK
-

OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e Hot Grassl ands, or Savannas —Th e m ea n tem p era tu re .

s el do m f a lls b el o w 50
°
F in th e co l d est m o n th (s ee th e Ja nu a ry
.

temp era tu re maps o f th e c o ntin ents ) Th ere is no t eno u gh ra m .

fall fo r fo rest, a nd th e ra in u sua lly fa lls in sum m er (s ee S o u th

Africa , p . Th es e pa ss into sa va nn a fo rest, wh ere trees a pp ea r
in gr o u ps , fo r m in g a kin d o f p a rk la n d, su ch a s 18 typ i c a l o f cer
-

t a i n regio ns wh ich bo r der th e tr u e stepp es Th e b a o ba b i s a typ i c a l .

tree in Afric a Its tr u nk a nd b r a nch es a re pr o tected a g ai ns t

.

tra nsp ira tio n, wh ile it s lea ves, wh ich it sh eds in th e dry s easo n, '

a re a da te d t o get a ll t h e m o is tu re p o s s i ble in t h e ra in s
p I n .

th es e z o n es winds (s ee pp 509 , 63 0, Pa m pa s a nd th e Ca nterbu ry

.

Pla ins ) o r c o l d, dry win ter s ( s ee p 4 67 , T r a ns va a l ) m a y b e u n

.

fa vo u ra ble t o trees , o r t h e ra infa ll m a y be insu fficient As in .

co l d er regio ns, l o ca l wa ter fa vo u rs fo res t .

Sa va nna s pa ss in to S emi deserts and D eserts in m u c h th e sa m e

w a y a s th e tem p era te fo res t p a ss e s in to s tepp e ( s ee Afric a ,
pp 4 3 3 ,
. D es ert vegeta tio n h a s a sp ecia l a da p ta tio n a ga in s t
dro u ght wh ere it is p ere nn ia l t h e c a ctu s s t o res u p w a ter in
it s flesh y stem s , a nd p la nts suc h a s t h e Welwits c hi a mim bi lis s e nd
'

d o w n l o ng r o o ts wh ic h t a p u nd er gr o und wa ter Owing t o the .

m o re fa v o ura b le c o nditio ns o f h ea t a nd m o isture th a n in Arctic

regi o ns , gr ass es d evel o p r api dly wh en o cc a si o na l r a i ns o cc u r in
the sh o rt a nd irreg u la r veget a tive s ea s o ns .

Trop i c al Forests — The clim a tic c o n d itio ns o f equ a to ria l fo rest

.

a re a un ifo r m a n d h igh tem era tu re a n d a mu ch grea ter a ctivity

p
o f t h e r a ys o f h e a t a n d ligh t Gro wth is very r a p id ( a ba m bo o
.

will gro w 3 f eet in five da ys ) Des icca tio n is a l so r a p id, .

esp ecia lly o n a dry sun ny a fterno o n , a nd th ere is grea t tra nsp ira
tio n ; c o ns equ ently, th e tru e ra in fo res t is o nly fo u nd in
“

regio ns o f grea t ra in fa ll Where th e ra infa ll is less o r th ere is

.

no t e no u gh a va ila ble m o is tu re in t h e gro u nd ( a nd with s e a s o na l

dro u gh t) , th is o ften pa ss es in to m o nso o n fo rest (s ee W est Afric a ,
p .

Owing to th e in tens ity o f tro p ic a l light th e u pp er pa rts o f ,

trees a re well d evelo p ed a nd h a ve a th ick c o ver ing o f lea ves

, ,

wh ich o nly a ll o ws t h e gro wt h o f a sp ecial typ e o f sh a d e fl o r a in

th e po o r ligh t n ea r t h e gro u n d A tro p ic a l fo res t is m a rke d by
.

lia n as a nd clim bing pl ant s wh ich press u p wa r ds to wa rds th e

-

ligh t It sh ou l d be no ted th a t c o ffee a nd c a ca o (s ee pp 9 1 9 2)

. .
,

requ ire sh a d e fro m th e tro p ic a l su n Th e pred o m inance o f .

c o c o nu t p a lm s a nd ba m bo o s in m a ny p ictu res o f tro p ic a l la nd

-

s c a e s is la rgely d u e t o c ultiva tio n

p .

Th e restin g p erio d in tem p er a te clim a te s is o nly pa rtia l so m e ,

 B IO GE O GRAPHY 77

pr o ce ss es b ein g c o ntin uo us d uri ng e a c h p eri o d . M o s t o f the tree s

in a tr o p ic a l f o re st sh ed th eir le ave s a t som e p eri o d , b ut a s th ey do
th is at diff erent s ea so ns , or eve n irresp ective o f s ea so n, th ere is
never th e s a m e u n if o r m a
pp e ar a n ce a s in a tem p er ate f o rest .

Th er em a y eve n b e di ff ere nt st a ge s o n twigs o f the sam e tree , s o m e

p a rts b ein g le a fless , a nd som etim es b l osso m s a nd fruit a re f o u nd
t o geth er A s im ilar a da pt a ti o n o ccur s wh e n temp er a te trees are
.

l a nte d o n u l a nds in t h e tr o ic s— c
p p p g , a pp les in th e w arm t em
p er a te h igh l a nds o f B riti sh Eas t Afric a , which flo wer a nd frui t a t
the s a m e tim e .

M ountain Asso ci ations — Alp i n e pl a nt s are f o und a t high eleva

.

ti o ns b o th in temp er a te regio ns a nd in the tr o pics Th e dwar f .

sh r u bs a nd cus h i o n
p l a nt s wh ic h b el o ng t o th is cl ass in m a ny wa ys
res em b le th e typ ic a l Po la r veget ati o n o f th e t u ndr a , but th ere a re
m a rke d diff ere n ce s du e t o t h e i nte ns ity o f i ns o la ti o n exp erie nce d
in tem p er a te a nd , a b o ve a ll in tr op ic a l z o n es , a nd t o th e fl u c t u a
,

ti o ns o f tem p er a ture b y da y a nd nigh t Th es e o ccur in temp era te

.

regio ns du ri ng th e gr o wing s ea so n, a nd in t h e tr opics during

t h e wh o le yea r In as ce nd in g m o u nt a ins in t h e tr op ic s s o m e
.
,

wh a t th e sa m e su ccessio n o f vegeta ti o n is f o u nd a s in pas sing

'

fro m l o wer t o h igh er la titu d es , bu t it m u s t be rem em bered tha t

th e ch a nges o f tem p era tu re rep res ented by h o t a nd c o l d sea sons
in tem p era te z o n es a re o n ly sh o wn n ea r t h e Equ a to r by d ifi er
emees o f day a nd nig ht tem p era tu r es ; c o ns equ ently, th e s ea so ns
a re th o s e o f ra in a ll , n o t te m era ture , a nd t h e Vegeta tio n o f
f p
trop ica l u pla nds h a s o f ten a n evergreen cha ra cter a s th ere is no t
,

t h e sa m e n eed o f p ro tectio n a ga ins t p ro l o nged p erio ds o f c o l d a s

in te m p era te la nds . Gen era lly t h e fo rest z o n e o f u pla nds n ea r
th e Equ a t o r is o f m u ch t h e sa m e ch a r a cter a s tha t o f t h e lo w
la nds— tr o pic a l f o res t pass ing i nt o sub tr opic a l a nd sa va nna f orest .

O nly in th e Alpi ne z o ne o n Ru we nz o ri wh ic h lies a t a bo ut

,

f eet a re m o ss es a nd lic h e ns f o u nd s im ila r t o th o s e o f t h e

,

tundr a or th e Alps B el o w th a t eleva ti o n th e i ntens ity of light

.

c a uses a n extr a o rd ina ry d evel o pm ent o f fl o wers , a nd th e ge ner a l

c o nd iti o ns o f m o is ture a nd tem p er a ture pr oduce gia nt h eaths a nd
l o b eli as wh ich give a fa nt as tic ch a r a cter t o th e s ce nery As m o re
,
.

m o is ture is nee d e d in t h e tr o p ic s o n a cc o unt o f t h e gre at tr a nsp ira

ti o n ( du e t o h ea t a nd dryi ng wi nds ) m a ny u pl a nd a re as in the
,

tr op ic s a re ba re o f trees (of B ur ma B or ne o ,
.
,
wh ich w o ul d
pr o ba bly b e c o vere d with f o res ts in te mp er a te la nds .

On t h e m a rgin o f th e tro p ic s th e s uccess io n o f vegeta ti o n o n

a ltitu d e is m uc h cl o s er t o th a t o f l a titu d e ( d .t h e d e o da r s a n d

p in es o f t h e H im a la ya s ) .
78 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

THE DISTRIB UTION OF ANIM ALS .

A bro a d d ivis io n ool o g ic al provinc es w a s m a d e

of z by Scla ter
fo r bir ds a nd a do te d by W a ll a ce a n d o th er s f o r ma m m a l s
p
.

T h es e a re
x clu d ing S o uth Ira n , In d ia , a nd
( 1 ) Pa l aea rctic
( Eu r a s i a ,
e
Cen tra l a n d S o u th Ch ina a n d Afric a n o rth o f th e no rth ern
tro p ic ) ( 2) N ea rctic ( No rth Am eric a , in clu din g th e M exica n
Pla tea u ) ( 3 ) N eo tro p ic a l ( So uth Am eric a , in clu din g th e lo w
la nds o f M exic o , Centr a l Am erica a nd th e West Indies) ;
( 4) Orienta l (S o u th Ira n , India , Ch ina so’ u th o f th e Ya ngts e ,
a n d t h e Ma l a y Arch ip el a go t o Wa ll a ce s lin e ; s ee p .

( 5 ) Eth io p ia n (Africa so uth o f th e S aha ra a nd Ara bia ) ;

Austra lia n ( Au stra lia , New Gu in ea , p a rt o f th e M a la y
.

Arc h ip ela go , a nd New Z ea la n d ) .

T h es e d ivis io n s to so m e ext ent repres en t ph ys ic a l a nd clim a tic

ba rriers wh ich h a ve tend e d to iso la te a rea s o f d evelo pm en t , a n d
ha ve c a u s e d th e s prea d o f a na tive fa u na , with m a rked ch a r a c
t erist ic s with in th es e lim its M a ny o th er m o re m in u te su bd i
.

vis io ns a re empl o yed by z o o l o gists Th e Au stra lian pr o vin ce is

.

m o re sh a rply d e fin ed tha n a ny o th er , o win g t o t h e le n gth o f it s

s e p a r a tio n f ro m t h e o th er l a nd a rea s ( s ee p .

Fo r th e geo gra ph er , th e m o st sa tis fa cto ry d ivis io n s wo u l d be

tho s e wh ich wo u l d a llo w c o m pa ris o n with th e regi o ns o f vegeta
tio n, bu t th es e h ave not yet b ee n system a tic a lly d efi ne d .

Clim ati c Control o f Di stribution — As th e d istribu tio n o f a n im a l s

.

d ep ends o n th a t o f wa ter a n d fo o d , we c a n , h o wever , a sso cia te

certa in typ es with cli ma te and vegeta tio n In th e Arcti c th e .

rein deer , m u s k c x , a nd c a ribo u a re h er bivo ro u s ; c o ns equ ently,

-

th ey m igr a te Th e lem m i ng h ib er nates , o r at a ny r a te lives u nd er

.

gr o und , d uri ng th e wi nter Th e Arctic fo x la rgely d ep e nds on th e

.

lem m i ng a nd o th er sim ila r r o d ents for f o o d , a s well a s o n birds ;

while th e Po l ar b ea r feeds o n t he s e a l .

No n e o f th es e wa r m blo o d ed a n im a l s hiberna te ( a s th e m a rm o t
-

d o es in th e Alps ) in t h e strict s ens e , bec a u s e o f th e in tens e c o ld .

Th ere is a grea t d evel o p m en t o f p ro tective m etho ds, such a s

th ick fu r a nd fa t a ga in st c o l d, a nd ch a nges o f c o lo ur Th e .

a bu nda nce o f fu r bea rin g a n im a l s o n t h e m a rgin s o f t h e no rth ern

-

tem p er a te fo rests l a rgely enc ou ra ged ea rly expl o ra tio n o f Arctic

la nds, a nd still is o f ec o no m ic im po rta nce (see p S im ila rly,
.

fo o d su pplies d eter m in ed th e lif e o f Eskim o a n d o th er Arctic

-

inha bita nts Co ld blo o ded l a nd a nima ls, such a s reptiles , a re

.
-
 BIOGEOGRAPHY 79

no t fo u nd Innu m era ble m o s quito es and bu tterflies a pp ea r ea ch

.

yea r in s prin g a nd su mm er a nd die t he sa m e s ea so n (of th e Gro wth

, .

o f An n ua l s in Ho t a nd D ry Des erts
) Th e Arctic sh o res a re visited .

in sp ring by l a rge nu m ber s o f m igra t o ry b irds wh ich c o m e t o ,

fish o r s ea rch fo r b erries (s ee p

, o r t o n es t In t h e north ern . .

temperate f orests c o n s id era ble a rea s a re uninh a bited exce pt by ,

bir ds a nd in s ects In th e d ens er tropi c al f ore sts th ere is a s im il a r

.

d ea rth o f la rge a n i m a l s o win g t o t h e th ickn ess o f th e u nd er

,

gro wth (th ere is pra ctica lly no ga m e in t he rubber a rea s o f So u th

Am eric a ) th o ugh m o nke ys b irds a nd sna kes a bo und a n d th ere
, , , ,

is a s grea t a d evel o pm ent o f ins ect lif e th a t so m e regio ns a re

a l m o s t in a ccess ible t o m a n o r b e a s t
p a r ts o f th e Am a z o n
fo res ts ( of th e ts ets e fly o f Afric a pp 4 36
.
, .
,

Owin g t o t h e a dva nce o f s ettlem ent o ver th e tem p era te gra ss

la nds a nd t o a cert ai n exte nt i nt o th e f o rest th e l arger gr assl and
, , , ,

a nim a l s s uch a s th e bis o n a re exti nct a nd th e elk m o o s e w o l f

, , , , , ,

fo x wi l d c a t a nd b ea ver a re b ec om i ng r a re
, , Th e m a i n h o m e s o f .

t h e larger wild a nim a ls a re n o w in a nd o n the m a r gi ns o f t h e

savanna re gi o ns esp ecia lly in Afric a , H ere th ere a re still m a ny .

la rge m am m a ls— eleph a nts girafi es a ntel op es z ebr as buff a l o es , , , , ,

et a — a nd c a r ni v o r o us a nim a ls su ch a s t h e li o n a nd th e le o p a r d,

( see p .

Th e D o m estic at io n of Ani m als — Th e influ ence o f clim a te o n t h e .

d is tri bu tio n o f do m estic a nim a l s, a nd t h e u s es t o wh ic h th ey a re

put , is d ea lt with gen era lly in th e text A f ew p o ints m a y be .

ref erred to h ere .

Th e us e o f a nim a l s t o m o ve h ea vy weights o r to wo rk u nd er
eci a l clim a tic c o nd itio ns is well illu s tra te d— b
s
p y th e eleph a n t
(of B u rm a tea k p
. t h e bu ff a l o in t h e m o ns o o n l a nds ( in
, , .

flo o ded pa dd y fiel ds ) th e o x (cf S o uth Africa no te it s p o wer o f

, .

dra win g h ea vy wa gg o n s th ro u gh drifts a n d a cro ss sa n d y pl a in s ) ,

th e c a m el th e reind eer t h e y a k T he m ilk o bta in ed fro m

, ,
.

a n i m a ls— c a m el s m a res sh eep g oa t s re ind eer— h a s been a n d

, , , , ,

s till is t h e m a in fo o d o f p astora l n oma ds

,
Th e wid esp rea d ext en .

s io n o f c ert a i n a nima ls su ch a s th e do g a n d t h e fo wl fro m th e

, ,

Arctic t o th e tro p ic s illu stra tes a rem a rka b le a da pta bility t o

clim a te .

Th e typ es o f do m es tic a n im a ls ha ve in m an y c a s es b een grea tly

m o d ifi ed by t h e im p ro ve m ent o f so m e sp ecia l f ea tu re Sh eep a re .

bre d fo r s ize o f bo d y ( fo r m u tt o n ) o r fo r qua lity o f wo o l (th e

weigh t o f fleece ha s been in crea s ed 1 40 p er cent in fifty yea rs ) .

th e ho rs e is bred fo r m ass iven e ss o r sp eed c a ttle fo r lea th er o r

80 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
m ilk (a n im pro ved c o w m a y give twenty tim es a s m uch m ilk a s
th e na tive c o w o f So uth Afric a ) th e do m e stic du ck l a ys t en t i m e s
a s m a nv egg s a s t h e wil d d u ck .

THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAN .

Occup ati ons at th e B eg inning of th e Sixteenth Century — Fig 1 3

'

. .

sho ws th e o ccu a tio ns o f m ank ind in A D

p 1 500 It sh o ul d be. . .

c o m pa red with a ny ma p sh o win g mo d ern develo pm ent— c g ,

d ens ity o f p o pula tio n .

Pri mitive Co nditi o ns existe d at th a t d a te over pra ctic a lly th e

wh o le world , except in As ia in th e m o ns o o n la nds , Ir an, Mes op o
tam ia , Asia M ino r , a nd Pa les tine ; in Ar a b ia , O ma n a nd Y em en ;
a nd th e O as es ; in Afric a , th e L o wer Nile a nd th e N o rth W es t , -

a nd in Europ e . Th o ugh Euro p e a nd As i a were co nn ecte d b y a

m o re o r les s c o ntinuo u s ba nd o f s ettle d a gricultu ra l p e o p le s , la n d
co m munica tion was d ifficu lt , bo th o n a cco unt o f ph ys ica l o h
st a c l es, a n d b ec a u s e o f t h e u ns ettle d sta te o f t h e bri d ge l a n ds

( Ira n, M eso po ta m ia , a nd As ia M ino r) , th ro ugh th e in c u rs ions o f

pa sto ra l no ma ds . A few o f th e p ro du cts o f t h e East (sp ices,
pepper , etc ) re a ch e d Eu ro p e by s ea th ro ugh th e Ara bs
. Th e .

Ca p e h a d been ro u nded a nd Ind ia rea ch e d by th e Po rtugues e ,

an d the m a rgin o f A m erica t o u ch ed, bu t as yet Euro p e ha d t o
d ep end fo r ra w m a teria l s , fo o d pro duct s , etc , a l m o st en tirely o n .

it s o wnreso urces .

In t h e New Wo rld th e o nly s ettled a gricultu r a l civiliza tio ns

were th o s e o f Mex ic o Central Am eric a a nd th e Inc a kingdo m s
, .
,

o f Peru a n d th e And e s
.
In Peru a n intensive a gric u lture w a s
.

ca rried o n with terra ced fi elds a nd ela bo ra te irriga tio n s im ila r t o

th e ga r d en c ultiva tio n of Ch ina Th e reind eer wa s never d o m est i
.

c a t ed by th e Es kim o th o ugh l o n g u s e d in No rth er n Eura sia

, or ,

t h e buffa lo by t h e Ind ia ns Only in t h e l o fty interm o nta n e

.

va lleys o f Peru were th e llama and a lpa ca kep t in h er ds a s a n

a d junct t o s e d ent ary a gricultu re Th is was fa cilita te d by th e
.

gro wt h o f a sp ecia l gra ss wh ich f o rm ed their na tura l f o o d .

T h o ugh th ere wa s no pa sto r a l d evel o pm ent in No rth Am erica ,

o wing t o t h e ge ner a l a bs e n ce o f do m e s tic a ni m a l s m a n y Ind ia n ,

tribes co m bined h untin g w ith a s em i nom ad ic a gricu lture Fo r

-

th is ma ize was esp ecia lly well a dapted owin g to t h e ea s e with ,

wh ich it c o ul d be plante d reap ed and ro asted fo r fo o d a nd th e

, , ,

ra p idity with wh ic h it rip en ed in a warm clma t e .

In the grassla nds o f t h e Old World th ere were m a n y a n im a ls

t ha t c oul d be ea s ily do mesticat ed (c am el s ya ks h o r s es a ss e s
'

, , , ,
82 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
cattle , sh eep go ats ) Th e necess ity o f ma kin g sea sona l
, an d .

migrati ons t o fo llo w th e grass a nd to u s e t h e s c a ttered wells a nd

sprin gs natu ra lly ca u s ed n oma di s m In mo s t c a s es a gri c u lture .

wa s c o m b ined with so m e kind o f pasto ra l wo rk A rem a rka ble .

excep tion wa s aff o rded by Ja pa n wh ere th ere were no W i ld ,

lants suita ble fo r fodd er Even t o da y t h e luxuria nce o f the

bam bo o gra ss prevents th e gro wt h o f fo reign grass es
-

In Austra lia th ere were neith er a nim a ls tha t coul d be do m e st i

c at ed n or cerea l s S im ila rly in th e Pa cific Isl a nds th o ugh p ri mi

.
, ,

tive a gricultu re wa s c a rried on th ere w a s an a bs ence o f do m es ti c

,

a nima l s .Th ere w a s p ro ba bly little a griculture i n So uth Am er i c a

a wa y f r o m t h e Pa cific sl o p e o w ing t o t h e l a rge exte n t of tro pi c a l
fo rest but th ere m u st ha ve been a certa in a moun t o f lim ited
,

cultiva tion in th e sa vann a s o f what is no w B ra zil a nd in th e ,

north e a st
-

Mo d ern expl o r a tio n p roves t he existe nce of na tive

.

cultiva tion a mo ng th e most prim itive p eo ples except in th e ,

dens es t fo res ts— c g th e gro wt h o f t he m a nio c o n t h e tributa ries

,

o f th e Orino co .

In Afric a th e grea ter extens io n of sa va nna la nds insure d t h e

predo m i na nce of p rim itive a griculture The k nowle dge o f t he .

sm elti ng of ir o n a nd st o ck kee i ng s eem s to ha ve spre a d pr o b a b ly

p
-

from Egypt even t o the Ho ttento ts in th e far s outh

,
.

Nom adism — Th e growt h of civiliza tio n is l a rgely d ep end ent

.

o n th e eli m in a tio n o f no m a d ic c o n d itio ns, wh ich

pro d u ce a wa s te
ful ec o no m y o f na tura l reso urc es Th e fertility a nd co ns equent
.

d ens ity of p op ul ati on o f a gricultura l l a nds d iif ers eno r m o u sly

a cc o r d ing t o na tur a l a dva nta ges , suc h a s fa cility o f cultiva tion
,

clima te, a nd s o il Th e Lo wer Ga nges B as in o f B enga l will suppo rt

.

a bo ut 500 t o th e s ua re m ile in th e jute d istrict o f D a cc a ,

q (
wh ere intens ive cu lti va tio n is ca rried o n , th is figu re ris es t o
n ea rly a typ ica l W iltsh ire a gricu ltura l villa ge h as a bo ut

100 t o th e s qu a re m ile In new la nds , such a s th e interio r p l ain s

.

of New So uth Wa les , a typ ica l a gricultu ra l d istrict h as s el do m a s

many a s t en , a nd a p asto ra l regio n m a y ha ve less th an o n e t o
each s qua re m ile Prim itive a gricul ture in Af rica may ha ve
.

fro m less tha n one in fo res t clea rin gs o n th e Co n go to twenty five -

in th e sa vanna l ands o f Nigeria Pa sto ra l no m a ds, such a s the

.

rein d eer tribes o f No rth ern S iberia , require a bo ut 4 s qua re m iles

o f tund ra pa sture to fee d fifty reind eer
( p o pul a tion = o ne t o t h e
s qu a re m ile ) Th e no ma d ic h er dsm en o f Turkesta n s el do m
.

exceed five, and are often less than o ne t o a s quare m ile ( es p ec i

a lly in the sa lt d e res s io n o f th e Cas ian s te
p p pp es ) Purely .
 BIO GEO GRAPHY 83

huntin g a nd fis h ing tribes , such a s t h e Eskim o o r the Bush m en

of So uth Afric a, m ay be less tha n o ne in s qua re m ile s

Co nse uently , no ma d ism no w o nly exis ts in area s wh ere clima tic

co nd it io ns a re o ppo s ed to the extens io n o f intens ive a griculture,
farm ing conditio ns o r s ys tem a tic pas tu re of sh eep o r c attle .

Tha t th e re a re still la rge a rea s wh ere th e po pula tio n is l a rgely

no m a d ic in cha ra cter ill us tra tes th e p er ma n ent c o ntro l o f s ettle
m ent by cl ima te, s in ce in S p it e o f m o d ern s cientific m etho ds , a
,

lim it is eventua lly rea ch ed wh ere co ld o r dro ught fo rb id a dva nce .

Hunting and Fishing combined wi th So me Pastoral Lita — Ia

regio ns wh ere the p o pul a tio n ma inl y d ep end s o n th e cha s e , l ife is
na tura lly no ma d ic , a s it is n ecess a ry to fo llow th e mo ve m ent of
fis h (s ea ls, etc ) o r ga m e ( th e m us k o x ,
. This is well sh own
in t he Arctic by th e im p o rtance a tta ch e d to ea s e of m ove m ent
by th e Eskim o— c g , by h igh ly efficient c o nveniences fo r a
wand erin g life, su ch a s s ledges , kya c k s a nd ea s ily re m ova ble o r
,

renewa ble for ms o f h o us es, f ro m tem po ra ry skin tents to sno w

huts (cf th e felt tent o f th e Kirgh iz o r th e tent wa ggo n of th e
.

B oer)
In No rthern Eura s ia grea t h erds o f reind eer are kept, a nd th e
t ribes are partly pa sto ra l no m a ds S ca nty supplies of lich en
.

a nd re ind eer m oss co mp el r a ng ing o ver gre a t d is ta nces . S easo na l

m ovem ent is fro m th e fo rest, wh ich fo rm s a winter shelter, t o the
tundra a nd th e c o ast, th e su mm er feedin g a nd fish ing g ro u nds .

In S iberia th e tribes wh ich a re n ea rest to t h e s ettlem ent a c t as

th e p edl a r s of Russ ia n go o ds, wh ich th ey exc ha nge fo r fu r s o n the
less a ccess ible Arctic c oa st, a nd es pecia lly in the no rth ea st -
.

Th ey a ls o a ss ist in tra ns po rt a t t h e p o s t s ta tio ns, and are, like the

na tives of No rth ern Ca na da , th e p rin cipa l c o llector s o f fur s a nd
k
s in s . But the res trictio n o f t h e fis h in g g ro un ds th ro ugh th e
d es truction of th e s ea l , a n d th e cuttin g do wn o f th e fores t a nd
c o nse n ent d epletion o f fo res t a nima l s , ha s resulted in a c o n
s id er a le d ecreas e of th es e n o rth ern p e o p les . Th is ha s bo rne
m o st ha rdly o n th e Es kim o , wh o h a ve n o reindeer h erd s, tho ugh
n u m erous reind eer exis t o n t h e ea s t . Attem p ts ha ve been ma d e
to cop e with th is by th e intro ductio n o f rein d eer into Alas ka
Where co mmun ities live m o re o r less o n th e m argin o f fam ine,
rel a tively s ma ll chan ges turn th e s c a le .

No ma dic sta tes o f so ciety, d ep end ent a l m os t entirely o n the

chas e, may be of a rela tively h igh typ e, a s in the cas e o f the
Iroquo is tribes of No rth Am eric a , wh o pra ctis e d so m e a gricul ture,
o r it ma
y be entirely d egra d ed in less f avo u ra ble cl ima tic regions
84 TEXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

— refu ges o f th e d erelicts o f ra ce typ es such a s th e B u sh m en o f

th e
So u th Afric a o r th e na tives o f Centra l Aus tra lia An exa m p l eo f .

a very l o w d evel o m e nt is a ff o r d e d by th e ra p i dly d win dl in g

p
Ca no e Ind ia ns o f t h e Ho rn a n d B ea gle Cha nn els in t h e so u th o f
Tierra del F u ego who live a no m a d ic lif e in c a no e s c o a s t ing a l o n g
, ,

th e sho res o f th e win d s wept s o u n ds Th ey p o ss ess d o gs wh ich

-
.

run a l o ng t h e sh o res a nd hu n t fo r s ea o tter s a n d b ir ds bu t h a ve -

no h o o ks fo r fis h in g a n d live m a inly o n m u s s el s
,
A ra th er m o re .

a dva nced tri be lives in t h e in terio r a nd h u nts th e gua n a c o,

.

Primitive Agric ul ture c ombi ned with H unting , Fish i ng , and

Colle cting — Prim itive a gricultu re is o ften c o m bin ed with so m e
.

fo r m o f no m a d is m .

On th e m iddl e c o u rse o f th e Ogo w e Riv er in the Fren ch Co n go th e na tives

l ive in a vil l ag e with k itch en g a rd en s cl o s e by At th e end o f th e l o n g d ry
.

sea so n ( m id Au g u s t t o S ep tem b er ) wh en t h e riv ers a re l o w th ey all m ig ra t e

-

, ,

to a fishin g vil l a g e nea r so m e su ita bl e s trea m o r l a k e T h i s i s t h e l ea s t .

su ita bl e tim e f o r a g ric u l tu re a s t he sk ies a re cl ou d c o vered d u rin g the d ry

-

sea so n f ro m Ju ne t o S ep tem b er so th a t th ere i s o nl y a b o u t o ne h o u r o f

,

su n shin e ea c h d ay . T em p e ra tu re is c o n se qu en tl y l o w er .

D urin g th e ra in s fro m O cto ber t o No vem b er wh en th e rivers a re fl o o d ed ,

a n d tra v elli n g i s l east co n v en ient t h e inh a b it a n ts rem a in in t h e vill a g e

, In .

t h e sho rt er dry s ea s o n ( Febru ary t o M a r c h ) whi ch is a l s o t h e h o tt es t p erio d

, ,

th ey m igra te to the f o rest a t so m e d istanc e fro m th e vill a g e and cl ea r the ,

gro u nd f o r a pl anta tion in w h ic h th ey pl an t bana na s m a n io c etc

, T h es e
, , .

cro p s gro w ra p id ly wh en t he s eco nd ra in y p erio d b egins in t h e m idd le o f

Ma rch .

As the m etho d o f prepa rin g the g ro und f o r c ul tiva tio n is by cl ea rin g and
burning th e pl an ta tio n o nl y l a s ts f o r t wo y ea rs
, Co nse qu en tly th e d e crea se
.
,

in f ertil ity o f regio ns a cc essibl e fro m the vill age g ra du ally l ea d s t o th e

n ec essity o f m o ving al to g e th er t o a diff erent lo c al it O th er m igra tio n s
y .

o ccu r a t t im es su ita b l e f o r hun ting o r g a th erin g f rui ts A n ew typ e o f .

no m a dic m o vem en t is no w sp rin g in g u p th ro u g h t h e c o ll e ctio n o f eb o n

y
a nd ru bb er .

Th is a ffo rds a g o o d exa m ple o f s ea so na l m igr a tio ns wh ich d e

p en d o n clima te, a n d a ls o illustra tes th e fa ct tha t even in t h e
tro p ics wasteful , and c o ns equ ently no mad ic , a griculture will
o n ly s upp o rt a sm a ll p o pul a tio n .

A c o mpa ris o n m a y be m a d e with th e s ea s o na l m igr a tio ns in

S witzerla nd fro m th e va lley t o th e Alp s (s ee p wh ere th e .

c a ttle are pas tured a nd ch ees e is ma de, o r in No rwa y t o th e

s aeter s ( see p . o r th e regula r fish in g m igra tio ns fro m New

fo undla nd t o La bra do r (see p .

 BIO GEO GRAPHY 85

Pastoral No m ads —Th e n ecess ity o f s e a so na l m igra tio ns w hic h

d eter m ine s th e m o vem ents o f p a sto ra l n o m a ds i s well illustra ted
i n Turkes ta n , wh ere t h e sh e h er ds fo llo w t h e r a in fa ll wh en it
p
o cc u r s a t d ifferen t s ea so n s in t h e ste
pp es. T h e Mo ngo l s i n Mo n
g o lia c o llect in grou ps in p ro tected va lleys i n winter , bu t disp er s e
in su m m er t o u tilize every po ss ible wa ter ho le o r gra ss a tch
p
T h e B edo u in s o f Ar a b ia pa stu re th eir flo cks in th e d es ert in t h e
ra in y s easo n, a nd m igra te t o M eso po ta m ia i n th e drou gh t Pa s .

to ra l no m a d ism is o ften c o m bin ed with th e c o ntro l o f c ases wh ich

fo r m t h e s ettled ba s e (see p 3 48 , Ara bia ) Th e intro ductio n o f
. .

h o rs es a n d c a ttle by t h e Sp a n ia r ds in to S o u th Am eric a c o nverte d

th e Ind ia ns a nd h a l f bree ds o f t h e lla no s a nd pa m pa s into pa s
-

to ra l no m a ds ( ll a n ero s a nd gau ch o s ) Th ey u s ed j a velin s, l a sso s,

.

a n d bo l a s , a n d live d o n m ea t a nd h o r s e fl esh like t h e a ncie nt

-

Hun s . L ike th e m o d ern Kirgh i z a n d m ed ieva l Ta rt a r s, th ey

ca rried leath er tents o n a c a n e fra m ewo rk, a n d wo re clo a ks o f
h o rs eh id e .L ike o th er pa sto ra l n o m a ds, th ey ra id ed th e s ettled
pa s to r a l d istricts fo r h o r s es , sh eep , a nd c a ttle Th o u gh so m e o f
.

t h e ch a ra cteristic s p r o du ce d by th is life a re p erp etu a ted th ro u gh

t h e d evo tio n o f l a rge a rea s su ch a s Urug ua y t o t h e breed in g a n d
s la u gh ter o f c a ttle , th e ext ens io n o f a gric u ltu re a nd s ettle d c o n

d it io n s in t h e p a m pa s is r a p idly ext inguish in g th e typ e ( of th e .

d is a pp ea r a n ce o f t h e c o w bo y typ e o f W ester n Am eric a ) A typ e

.

m a y b e a ltere d by ch a n ge o f en viro nm ent Th e c o nd itio n s o f

.

veld lif e c o n verted the H o ll a n d er , o nce a t o wn dweller o r a s m a ll

fa rm er with a res tricted gra zing range, a nd th e H ugueno t a rtisa n
in to a pa storal no ma d Th e Great Trek wa s m erely a m o re
.

s ys tem a tic sea s ona l mi ra ti on t o

‘‘

g pa stu res n ew .

Pastoral S oc ieties — T h e clima tic c o nd itio n s o f t h e grea t stepp e

.

la nds o f Asia c o m p elled, and at th e sa m e tim e a llo wed , m o bility

a n d c o nce ntra tio n o f l a rge h o r d e s fo r s elf d efence
-

Pa tria rc h a l
.

a uth o rity, t h e o rigina l fo r m o f g o vern m e nt , b ec a m e rea dily s u b

o r d in a te t o tha t o f th e cla n . Co n s equ ently, Gengh is Kha n,

”
Ta m erla n e , a n d o th er grea t lea d ers o f t h e rid ers o f th e stepp es ,
‘‘

ha d m a teria l rea d y t o th eir h a nd i n th e fo r m a tio n o f m a r a u d ing

a r m i es . Thro u gh o ut t h e h is to ry o f th e wh o le belt o f stepp e
la nds fro m Mo n go lia to t he Atla s th ere ha s b een a c o nsta nt
struggle b etwee n s ettle d a gric u lt u ra l c o m m u n itie s a nd p a s t o r a l

n o m a ds .T h e Ru ss ia n S la vs h a d t o gua r d th eir fro n tier s a g a i ns t

th e Ta rt a rs a nd Kirgh iz , a nd in m o re a n cient h is to ry Egypt
a ga in s t th e Ara bs, Ca rtha ge a g a inst th e m a ra u di n g Nu m id ia ns o f

t h e d es ert, Assyria a ga i ns t t h e d es ert Me d es (a wa ll w as bu ilt

86 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

o t of Babylo n) Per sia a ga in st th e Huns (a ga in a wall wa s

n rh ,

built o n th e north ern bo rd er fo r 1 50 m ile s fro m the Ca spia n to

th e mo unta ins cg“ Ch ina p , .
, .

As th e d es ert o r th e stepp e is n ever quite s elf su pportmg a -

tra de springs u p in d esert o r stepp e p ro ducts— c g sa lt fro m th e ,

Sa ha ra gu m s a nd frankin cens e fro m t h e d es ert wh i ch are ex

, ,

changed fo r gra in s fo o d fo r h o r s es c a m p supplies and wea po ns

, , ,
.

Ma rket to wns a rise like T im bu kt u a n d D a ma scus wh i ch beco m e

, ,

th e centres of excha nge between a gricul tura l p eo ples a nd p as to r a l

no ma ds In S p ite of th e a d va n ce o f a griculture a nd s ettled c o n
.

dit io ns into ma ny regio ns o n ce en tirely o ccup ied by no ma ds o f

th is typ e (cf the Egyp tia n Su da n p
. yet p asto ra l no ma ds , .

still c o ver l arger a rea s th a n a n y o th er typ e except tha t o f p r i m i ti ve ,

a griculture This is du e to t h e p er ma n ent unsuita bil i ty o f ma ny

.

a rea s o f dry s te
pp e fo r s ettlem en t a n d a ls o to th e res is tance to ,

cha nge wh ich c o m es fro m is o l a tio n Oth er ca u s es are rel i gi ous .

fervo ur and th e d es ire to m a in ta in pu rity o f ra ce .

M o dern Occupatio ns — Ii we exa m in e th e changes that ha ve

taken pla ce sin ce A D 1 500 in wha t m a y be c alled t h e occupatio n
. .

gro ups of mankind we shall fin d th a t th e influence o f clima tic

,

c ontrol on m o dern tra de is a s clea rly ma rked as o n th e dis tribu

tion of prim itive o ccupa tio ns Th e regio ns o ccu p ied by na tives .

enga ged in huntin g fish in g o r th e c o llectio n o f forest pro duce fo r

, ,

fo o d ha ve been invaded by fur tra d er s s ea lers and ru bber col , ,

lecto rs Clima te fo r bids a ny extens io n o f a griculture int o th e

.

tundra but lum berin g indu s tries h a ve l o ng pass ed th e s outh ern

,

m a rgin of t h e no rth ern c o n if ero u s fo rest both in Ca na da a nd ,

S iberia Th e no rth ern lim it o f wh ea t c ul tiva tio n h a s no t yet

.

been re a ch ed (see p Th e m ild er winters o f t h e ex trem e

.

so uth of So uth Am erica a llo w th e extens io n of sh ee

p runs in to
T ierra del Fuego ( see p S ys tem a tic pa sture (sh eep c a ttle
.
, ,

etc ) o n a la rge s ca le is c o n fin ed to th e n ewly d evelo p ed l ands

.

No rth Am eric a Au stra lia N ew Z ea l a nd th e Argentin e— wh ile

, , ,

th e o ld er la nds o ccup ied by pa s to r a l no mads in A D 1 5 00 still . .

m a inta in th e prim itive typ e H ere th e in va s ion is a g ricul tura l

.
,

not pasto ra l— c g th e ext ens io n o f o a s is cul tiva tio n th rough

,

ir rigation by the French in th e Algerian d es ert (see p 445) th e .

s im il a r Russ ia n d evel o p m en t o f T u rke s t a n s ee

( p 3 3 9) a nd th e .

in cursio n of a griculturis ts fro m Ch ina Prop er into Mo ngolia Prim i .

tive a griculture wh ich m ea ns tr o p ica l or su btro pic al a gricultu re

,

( in th e Sudan and Ma l ays ia o rigina lly ho e culture h a s been in

vad ed by planta tio n indus tries wh ich involve th e intens ive gard en ,
 B IO GEO GRAPH Y 87

cultiva tio n of tro pica l pro ducts under sk illed s cientific super
V is i o n l n rela tively s ma ll a re as wh ere cli ma te s il
o a nd l a bour, , ,

c ondi ti o ns a re exceptio na lly fa vo ura ble (see p 51 6 Ha wa ii su ga r ;

.

.
, ,

p 3 76 Ceyl o n t ea p 3 8 3 the Mala y Peninsul a ru bb er p 3 8 2

.
, , .
, , .
,
3m m] Highlands co ff ee
1 Ma ny o f th es e pro du cts h a ve been
, .

in tro duce d fro m regio n s wh ere th ey a re na tive

to th e pla nta tio ns ,

where th ey are no w grown— c g Cinchona fro m t he And es t o , ,

Indi a a nd th e Ea st Ind ies c o ffee p ro ba bly fro m Y em en in ,

Ara bia ; c a c ao c o ca a nd va n illa fro m S o uth Am e rica to ba cc o

.

, , , ,

fro m Am erica .

SOM E IM PORTANT ECONOM IC PRODUCTS .

Temp erate Cere als .

Wa nn a— Th ere a re many va rieties o f wh eat a da pte d t o d iff er

in g so il a nd clim a tic c o nd itio ns Th e ide a l c o nd itio ns are a lo ng
.

a nd ra t h er wet win ter a c o o l a n d r a th er wet s r ing a nd a wa r m

, p ,

t o h o t sum m er with little ra in es ecia lly in th e ri en in g erio d

, p p p
, .

Th e so il sh o uld be rich in m in era l sa lts esp ecia lly li m e a nd pho s ,

pha tes a n d no t t o o p o r o us
, T he bes t so il is a ligh t c a lca reo us
.

o r a lluvia l cla y e a stern so uth ea stern and sou th er n , ,

c o un ties o f Engla nd) Th e s eed germ ina tes in th e c o o l mo is t

.

s eas o n a n d rip ens in va rio us ti m es a cc o r din g to t he c o nd itio ns

,

in t h e gro win g s ea so n .

Th e s evere winters o f no rth ern wh ea t la nds ha ve led to t h e -

u s e o f two va rieties— win ter a nd sp ri ng ( s o wn ) wh e a t If th ere .

is little sn o w in tens e fro s t ma y kill t he gra in

, Alterna te fro st .

a nd tha w br ings th e s ee d t o th e s u rfa ce Irriga tio n in ho t .

,

dry clima tes will do m uc h Pun j a b a nd Egyp t) bu t grea t ,

m ois ture a nd great h ea t o r m ois ture a n d c o ld in su mm er ,

durin g th e rip en in g p erio d prevent sa tis fa ct o ry results , Th e .

lim its a re h owever very wid e fro m co o l temp era te to dry sub
, ,

trop ic al In c o ntin en ta l a reas the lim it o f gro wth go es fa rth er

.

north tha n n ea r th e c o ast o n a cco u nt o f th e ho tter summ er da ys

,

S i beria a n d Ca na da (no te t h e eff ect o f th e length ene d da y ) .

Th e vertic a l d is tribu tio n o f tem p era ture p erm its wh ea t t o grow

at c o ns i d era ble eleva tio n s in th e tro p ic s— c g Ecua do r (see ,

In t h e c o l d tem era te belt s m a ll eleva tio ns p reve nt

p .
p
growth l a rgely o win g t o sprin g fro sts In Engla nd the l im i t i s
,
.

800 f eet ; in S o u th S cotlan d wh ea t will o nly gro w sa tisfa cto rily

in sh e ltered va lle ys .

A prolo nged h o t su mm er di m in ish es th e yiel d but ha rde ns and ,

88 TEX T BOO K OF GEOGRAPHY
-

i m pro ves th e gra in Hu nga ry Th e ha r d wh ea t m a kes .

excellent flo u r Th e ch ief centres o f wh ea t pro du ct i o n are

.

I h N o rth ern H e m is ph ere with a ha rve st fro

m Ma rch
( )
a n t e ,

i e te m b er S ib eri a) E a s t Engla nd S ou th
( I n d a ) t o S p ( , ,

Centra l a n d S o uth Ea st Euro p e So uth Ru ss1a a n d

.

S o uth S iberia th e Pu nj a b a nd th e No rth Cen tra l

,

Pro vinces o f Ind ia Egyp t th e No rth Cen tra l Un l t ed, ,

Sta tes o f Am eric a Cen tra l Ca na da a n d Ca lifo rn ia

, ,
.

b I h S th er H e m is ph ere with a h a rves t fro m N o vem

( ) n t e o u n ,

ber ( S o uth Afric a ) t o Fe bru a ry (Argen t in e ) So u th ,

Au s tra lia Victo ria th e Argentin e a n d So u th Afr i c a

, , ,
.

O AT s — Th e s e a re c o n fin ed t o c o o l tem p era te c o n d itio n s

.
Th e .

r a i n is m u ch h a rd ier a n d rip ens m o re quickly bu t requ i res

g ,

m o is ter a nd c o o ler su m m er s th a n wh e a t It ext en ds fa rth er .

no rt h a nd will gro w at a m uch gre a ter eleva tio n th a n w h ea t

,
.

It is gro wn ch iefly in th e No rth Eu ro p ea n c o u ntries a n d o n th e

ea st o f No rth Am eric a .

B AR LE Y Th is ha s th e widest ra n ge o f t h e th ree cere a l s

.
-

w h t b rl y d t I ri e r a p i dl y a nd gro w s in a
( ea ,
a e a n o
,
a s ) t p n s .
,

light s o il . So m e va rieties (in th e S o uth M ed iterra n ea n ) a re

h a rves ted befo re th e su mm er h ea t b egin s o th er va rieties ripe n
gra dua lly in pro l o nged su mm er da ys t o 8 0 n o rth l a titud e °
.

Ba rley gro ws with c a ts in th e n o rth a nd with wh ea t in th e ,

so u th . It h a s a wi d e ra n ge o f vertic a l d istributio n .

RY E — Thi s is very ha r d y a nd p ref ers a p o o r sa nd y so il

.
,
It .

is th erefo re gr o wn esp ecia lly in th e bro a d s trip o f s a n d y l a nd

wh ich extends fro m Ho lla nd th ro ugh No rth Germ an y t o Cen tra l
Russ ia wh ere it is th e sta p le fo o d
,
It is so wn in sp rin g a n d .
,

rip ens in s u m m er It h a s c o ns id era ble vertica l ra nge— c g S wit

.
,

zerla nd a n d th e Alp in e va lleys It is l a rgely gro wn o n po o r so ils

.

o n th e Central Pl a te au o f Fra nce a n d in B ritta n y , .

BU CKW HE AT ( Fren ch sa rra sin ) is s im ila r in a pp ea ra n ce t o th e

,

co mm o n so rrel It gro ws o n po o r sa ndy so il between Ma y a nd

.
,

th e end o f Au gus t a n d o f ten repla ces a cro p wh ich h a s fa ile d

, .

It is l a rgely gro wn in No rth Ru ss ia in B ritta n y a nd th e n o rth ern , ,

sl o p e s o f th e Centr a l Pla tea u o f Fra nce a nd a l s o in th e e a st o f ,

th e U nited S ta te s o f Am eric a It fo r m s t h e f o o d o f t h e p o o re st
.

classes in Euro pe bu t is a lu xury in Am eric a

, .

Trop ic al and Subtropi c al Cere als and Foo d Products .

Ri os — Th is fo r m s th e st a p le fo o d o f th e Chin es e a nd Ja p a nes e ,
th e s o uth ern r a ces o f India , th e Ma la y a n d Ja va n es e , a n d o th er
r ac es o f the m o ns o o n regio n o f So u th Ea st As ia Th e t w o m a in -

.
90 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
of th e p opul a tio n wo rld a nd co nsis t principally o f va r i et i es
of th e ,

of m illets wh ich gro w r a p idly in ea rly su m m er a nd requ i re so m e

, ,

ra in or irrigatio n a nd grea t h eat In th e dr i er pa rt s o f In dia (th e

,
.

Deccan) a nd in th e sa va nna regio ns o f Afri ca wh ere th ey a re ,

kno wn as Guin ea corn (du rrah ) th es e repla c e r i ce Th ey ,

.

a re so wn n ea r th e end o f th e ra in y s e a so n an d h a rve s te d befo re ,

th e dro ugh t is es ta blish e d .

MAI Z E o f wh ich th ere a re ma n y va rieties d ep end ent o n clima te

, ,

is gro wn fo r f o dd er ( even in th e B ritish Isles ) a s well a s for f o o d .

It rip ens bo th in tro p ica l a nd wa r m tem pera te regi o ns suc h a s ,

Venezuela in tro p ica l S o u th Am eric a a nd th e Argent in e a nd

.

, ,

So uth ern Unite d S ta tes It is la rgely c u ltiva ted o n th e m o unta in s

.

o f Centra l a nd S o uth Am erica w ith in t h e tro p ic s And es ) .

Th e id ea l clim a te is a wa r m a nd fa irly m ois t S p rin g a lo ng h o t ,

su mm er ( five to s eve n m o nths ) with a sm a ll a m u nt o f am a t

o r ,

interva ls o r plentiful irriga tio n H ence it is es p ec ia lly s u i ted fo r

, .

su btrop ic a l a nd wa r m te m era te regio ns with a sma ll s u mm er

p ,

ra in fa ll Centra l Un ite d Sta tes o f Am erica ( ma i ze = c o rn ,

ca ttle fa ttenin g ) No rth ern Ita ly Piedm o nt Lo m ba r dy a nd th e

, , , ,

Alp in e Va lleys ( po lenta ) S o uth Rus s ia No rth Ind ia Qu eensla n d

, , , ,

a nd New So uth W a le s a w a y fr o m th e c o a st
( ) and th e dr i er pa r ts ,

o f Africa ( Rho d es ia ) (s ee 8 — wh ile Ca lifo rn ia a nd Ch i le

p 4 5 ) . ,

wh ich ha ve very dry summ ers a re more suited t o wh ea t , .

Other trop ica l fo o d cro ps are ya ms tu b ers wh ich s o m ewh a t , ,

res em ble po ta t o es ta p io ca th e staple fo o d o f tr op ic a l parts o f

,

B ra zil ( c a ssa va ) a nd la rgely gr o wn in th e Ma la y Arch ip ela g o a nd

,

th e West Ind ies fo r expo rt ; a nd a rr o wro o t Sa go th e p ith o f a pa lm .

,

wh ich is rich in s ta rch ma tures r ap idly in th e eastern h a lf of the

,

Ea s tern Arch ip ela go ( B o rne o Cele bes etc ) t en d a ys la bour ’

, , .

su p lie s o n e ma n fo r a ye a r a nd o ne fa m il y ca n a tte nd to a
p ,

pla nt atio n of 400 trees Of gre a t imp o rt ance are c o c o nu ts th e

.
-

brea dfruit of wh ich th ree trees p rovid e fo o d fo r o ne m a n a nd

, ,

th e ba na na .

Tropical and Subtropi cal Plantation Pro ducts .

RUBB ER — Co mm ercia l ra w ru bber is the m ilky j u ice ( l a tex ) -

in th e sap o f th e gr o wing pa rts o f m a ny pl a nts o f diff ere nt fa m ilies,

m os tly b etween t h e ha rd woo d a nd th e ba rk, but in s o m e fa m ilies
a l s o in th e ro o ts a nd le a ve s In the fo r m er c a s e it is p rocure d
.

by cutting a s eries o f gro o ves thro ugh th e ba rk , fro m wh ich th e

k
m il exu d es, and is caught in recepta cles of va rio us sha pes a nd
kinds In som e trees it is all o we d to dry in th e gro o ves, and is
.
 BIO GEO GRAPHY 91

th en cut o ff The liqu id la tex c o a gul a tes u nder th e a ction o f

.

h ea t certa in wea k a cids a n d a lka lis a nd a fter tho ro u gh wa sh ing

,

o m pre ss io n fo r m s a c urdl ik
, ,

a nd e m a ss Th e trea tm ent va ries

c .

i n d i ff ere nt regio ns a cc o r din g t o th e ch a ra cter o f th e so urce

, .

So m e ru bber p la nts a re l o fty tree s o th er s vin es a nd lia n a s bu t

-

, ,

a ll a re c o nfin e d to th e tro ic s a nd with th e exceptio n o f th e

p , ,

Cea ra o f Ea st B ra zil t o th e m o ist h o t pa rts T h e b e st k

, no wn .
,

a nd tha t wh ich s till yiel ds t h e be s t ru bb er is th e Pa ra r u bber o f

,

t h e Am a z o n Va lley W ild ru bber is th at wh ich is o bta in ed fro m

.

V i rgin fo res ts a s O
p po s ed t o pl a nta tio n ru bb er Th e d es tru ctive .

eff ects o f o verta pp in g a nd reckless cutt ing ha s led t o restrictive

m ea su res a nd s trict sup ervis io n esp ecia lly in Am a z o na s a nd in , ,

th e Co n go a n d So u th S uda n th us lea d ing to a gre a t increas e in ,

c o st a nd in t im e wil d ru bb er is bo u nd t o be gra du ally dis pla ced

,

by p la nta tio n ru bber .

T EA — Th e t ea p la nt will gro w in a wid e ra n ge o f clima te even

.
-

h a rd fro s ts su ch a s m ay o cc u r eve n in S o uth Ch ina f a il ing t o kill

, ,

t h e p la nt bu t a s its c o m m ercia l va lu e lies in t h e lea f it is b est

,

s uite d t o a wa r m m o is t clim a te with r a in y s u mm ers wh ere th ere , ,

a re f ew ext re m es o f tem era ture T h ere m ust be a regula r r a in

p .

fa ll in su m m er bu t th e ro o ts m us t be well dra in ed H ence h ill

. .

s lo es in m o n so o n regio ns a re m os t fa vo ura ble fo r it s gr o wth

p .

Abo ve feet in Ceylo n tea is a l mo st th e o nly c u ltiva tio n .

T h e fla vo ur o f t ea d ep ends o n p ec u lia rities o f so il va riety a nd , ,

po s itio n a n d o n a n exten s ive exp erie nce in its cul tiva tio n
, .

H ence tho u gh exp erim en ts h a ve b een m a d e in gro win g t ea in

,

Ja va a n d o th er tro p ic a l a nd su btro p ic a l regio n s n o grea t s u ccess ,

ha s a s yet been o bta ine d C hea pness o f ha nd la bo ur es p ecia lly

.
,

fo r pa ckin g th e lea ves ( s ee p 3 56 Ceylo n) is a n im p o rta nt fa ct o r .

, , .

CO FFEE Co ff ee like t ea a nd c a c a o is a l m o st entirely gro wn

—
, ,

in lim ite d a rea s fo r expo rt a n d requ ires m u ch ch ea p la bo u r (cf

,
.

p. In th e upla n ds o f S o u th Ea st B ra zil wh ich p ro du ce -

80 p er cent o f th e t o ta l c o ff ee cro p Ita lia n la bo ur is la rgely

.
,

empl o yed The su ccess o f Bra z il in t h e pro du ct io n o f c o ff ee is

.

due t o s pec ia liza tion a l m o st a s mu ch a s t o f a vo u ra ble clima te a n d

s o il. Th e m os t s uita ble clima te is wa r m a n d mo is t with o u t ,

excess ive h ea t Ba nana s a nd in B ra zil p ea s a re pl a nte d t o

.
, ,

a c t as sha d e t o th e
p l a n ts It is esp ecia lly su scepti ble t o fro st
.

(see p 629 Bra zil ) The Ara bia n co ff ee is gro wn o n el eva te d

.
, .

gro und but at a l o wer eleva tio n than t ea ( fro m 600 t o

,
f eet
in B ra zil) It gro ws best o n up la n ds o n t h e m a rgin o f th e tro p ic s
. ,

wh ere c o o ler winters but no t fro st h elp to keep do wn ins ect

, ,
92 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

e t B zil T h L i b eri c ffee is gro wn in lowl a nds b el o w

p s s ( r a ) e a n .o
feet and will flo uri sh in th e tro p ic s Th e best 3 0 11 i s tha t of
,
.

a virgin fo res t l a nd rich in veget a ble re m a ins .

CACAo — Ca c a o like c o ff ee is gr o w n f o r its s ee ds o r b ea ns

.
, ,
.

It requires mo re m o is tu re a n d d ep th o f s o il ( wh ich m u st ho w ,

ever be well dra in ed) th a n co ff ee a nd gro ws usua lly o n the

, ,

lo wer h ill sl o p es in t he tro p ic s In Ceylo n th es e ra n ge f ro m 200.

to feet and a re belo w th e t ea belt In Uga nda ca ca o W i ll

,
.

gro w at feet a nd in Ecu a do r u p t o ,

feet It is the .
.

typ ica l pla nta tion pro duct o f th e h o t la n ds tierra ca l i ente

— in Ecu a do r Co l o m b ia a n d Centra l Am eric a
,
Like c o ff ee it
,
.
,

requires sha de a nd pro tectio n f ro m win d a nd o th er trees a re ,

l nte d n e r it e eci lly v a rieties o f r u bb er C h e a p l a bo u r i s

p a a sp a ,
.

ess entia l o wing t o the wo rk n ecessa ry in o p en in g th e po ds and

, ,

fer m enting wa sh ing and dryin g th e s eeds

, , .

CIN CHON A — Th is drug t h e ba s is o f quin in e is a na tive of t h e

.
, ,

Eastern Andea n slo p es o f Peru It wa s intro duced i nto Ceyl o n by

.

Sir Cle m ents Ma rkha m a n d it s cul tiva ti o n resu lted in a re ductio n

,

o f the price fro m twelve sh ill in g s t o o n e sh illin g p er o u nce .

Eventua lly t ea t o o k its pla ce in Ceylo n It is no w gro wn m o stly .

in Ja va on the wet sl o p es a t a bo u t
, fe et Th e cultiva tio n
, .

o f cinch o na is a strik ing exa m le o f th e sp ecia liza tio n o f t ro ic a l

p p
industries in the cas e o f pro du ct s which tho ugh valu a ble h a ve a , ,

lim ited d emand .

T oB Acc o —Th is c an b e gro wn und er diver s e c o n ditio ns of

.
,

climate fro m th e tro p ics t o wa rm tem p era te z o nes but t h e best

, ,

v arieties d emand specia l conditio ns o f clim ate and so il Th e value .

o f the cr o p in so h igh ly sp ecia lize d a n ind us try d e e nds l a rgely

p
o n th e a bility o f th e gro wer s t o p ro d uce ty e s s uite d fo r a rticula r
p p
m a rkets In B ritis h Co lu m b ia wh ere Cuban lea f h a s b een
.
,

exp erim enta lly cul tiva ted pro tectio n is a ff o rd ed to th e leaf in ,

sp ring a ga in st f ros t by th e u s e o f c a n va s c o vers .

Textil e Products .

COTTO N — The c o tto n m a nu fa ctu rin g indus try of th e Unite d

.

Kingdom is worth mo re tha n 1 00 m illio ns p er annum , a nd a bo ut

th ree quart ers of the ra w m a teria l is o bta in ed fro m th e United
-

Sta tes Th ere has been a s tea d y in crea s e in the Am eric a n su ly,
pp
.

but o wing to th e increa s ed m a nufa cture a t h o m e a nd in Eu ro e

p
and Ja pa n, it is b ec o m ing m o re a nd m ore necessary t o find
a dditio na l source s of su
pp ly fo r th is c o u ntry Cott o n ca n be .

gro wn in any l atitu d e between 3 7° no rth a nd 3 5° south— th at is

94 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY
a re Austra lia (o n th e d ry pla ins to th e wes t o f th e d ivid ing r a n ge ) ,

Ca p e Co lo n y a nd tem p erate Sou th Africa ( o n th e dry ta blela n ds

a nd in th e m o unta in o us a re as ) a nd th e Argent in e
, ( Sh eep c a n
.

o n ly be sh or n wh e n t h e fleece is dry He nce th u nd erstorm s o r

.

d ew will d ela y o pera ti o ns unle ss th e sh eep are kept u nd er c over ) .

As o nly a bou t 5 po un ds o f wo o l c a n be o bta in ed to a n a cre in c o n

tras t to 3 00 po unds in th e cas e o f cotto n, sh eep c an o nl y be pro fit
a bly ke t o n th e undevel o e d grassla nds o f th e wo rl d It sho ul d
p p .

be no ted tha t no wo o l is o bta in ed fro m tro p ica l a rea s except i n th e

cas e o f mo u nta in regio ns with in th e tro p ics, such a s th e And es,
o r to a ny grea t extent fro m regio ns wh ich ha ve a c o l d W in ter ,

d u ring wh ich the sh eep requ ire a rtificia l feedi ng Th ere a re

.

m a ny regio n s in th e Alps wh ere th e h igh er p a stures a re p ra cti c a lly

u nu tilized, a n d wh ere gre a t nu m b ers of sh eep c o ul d be kep t if a

m igra tio n were no t necessa ry in winter A cons id era bl e ra i nfa ll

.

with m ild winter s is a s favo ura ble fo r th e growth o f wool a s a

dry clima te— c g , th e British Isles, New Z e aland, a nd pa rts o f
S o u th Ch ile a nd th e Argentin e (s ee p . It sh o ul d be no ted
tha t Euro p e, in cluding th e Britis h Isles , s till p ro duces m ore wo o l
tha n Austra la s ia a nd So uth Afric a togeth er , a fa ct wh ich illus
k
tra t es in a m ost stri ing ma nn er th e s uitability o f much o f
Eu ro pe fo r pa st o ra l c o nditio ns a nd th eir p ers istence , in spite o f
th e gro wt h o f p o pula tio n a nd o f in tens ive a griculture .

FLAx — Th e inventio n o f the c o tto n g in in 1 794 wa s foll owed

.

by th e intro ductio n o f ch eap c o tto n, wh ich s o o n supp la nte d lin en .

The best clim ate for th e s eed is tha t o f wa r m c o untries, such a s

Ind ia o r t h e Argentin e, wh ere th e re a re lo ng dry s um m er s .

S uch cli mates are less su ita ble fo r th e fi bre wh ich grows b es t in
,

c o l d er regio ns, such a s th e no rth o f Ireland, Ru ssia, a nd B elgiu m .

Ec o no m ic nee ds m a ke th e i mpo rt a nce of th e s eed in Russia ( o il

t o s upply vegeta ble fo o d during th e fa sts o f t h e Ch urch ) a nd in
t h e Un ited S ta tes ( m o re p ro fit fro m c o tton , a nd wa nt of ch ea p
l a bo ur) grea ter tha n tha t of th e fibre .

HE M P is gro wn for o il a nd certa in stim ula nt s in wa r m c o unt rie s ,

a nd fo r fibre in col d c o untrie s . O th er fibres, mo stly grown in
wa rm countries , a re jute ( B enga l ) , s is a l h emp (Yu ca ta n, o n a
p oo r dry so il ) , Ma nilla h e mp ( t h e Ph ilipp in es ) , ram ie or Ch ina
gra ss ( Eastern Asia a nd t he Mediterranean) espart o ( Spa in and
,

Algeria ) , and P hormiu m teno r s , o r New Z e a l a nd fl a x The s e a re

.

u sed fo r rop es and c oa rs e fa bric s .

VEGETAB LE O ILS Tll e O LIVE flo urish es in a M ed iterranean

.
-

”
cl i mate, wa rm , temp era te, W i th dry sum m ers, especially o n well
 BIO GEO GRAPH Y 95

sh eltered s lo p es with a lim esto n e so il Tho u gh th e o live is .

ma inly gro wn in th e M e d iterra n ea n a rea s i m il a r clim a tes a llo w ,

i ts s uccessful cultiva tio n in Ca lifo rn ia a nd S o u t h Au stra li a T he .

n eed o f sh elter is well sh o wn in t h e d istribu tio n o f th e o live in

t he so uth o f th e Crim ea wh ere it is sh eltere d b m ou nta in s fro m
, y
th e c o l d win ds o f th e n o rt h Th e c o n figu ra tio n o f th e M ed it er
.

ra nea n c o a s t is es ecia lly fa vo u r a ble fo r t h e gro wth o f t h e o live

p ,

a s m a ny d ee
p va lleys lea d into a m o unta ino us interio r Owing .

t o th e regul a rity o f th e l a n d a nd s ea breezes in su m m er ( th e erio d

p
o f d ro ugh t
) dew is la rgely d ep o sited in su ch va lleys a nd su pplies
, ,

th e m o is tu re fo r th e pl a nt witho u t a rtificia l irriga tio n .

In a dd itio n t o c o tt o n s eed o il lin s eed o il fro m fl a x a nd o th er

-

, ,

s ee d o ils su ch a s ra e s ee d c o l z a popp y s eed s esa m e etc

p
- -

, , , , , .
,

m entio n sh o u ld b e m a d e o f PAL M O IL m os tly f ro m W est Afric a , ,

wh ich is us ed fo r so a p a nd c a nd le ma kin g an d fo r th e t in pla te ,

-

tra de t h e sh eets being dip p ed in a h o t ba th t o prevent o xid iz atio n

, .

Co c o nut o il a n d t h e d ried kern el ( c o pra ) a re a l so o f c o m m ercia l

-

i m po rta nce .

T IMB E R — Mu ch o f t h e tim ber im po rted in to th e United

.

Kin gdo m is fro m t h e no rth ern c o n ifero u s fo r es ts o f Rus s ia ,

”
S wed en nd Ca na da tim ber c o n
“
a , T h is .so ft o r bu il d in g , , ,

s istin g la rgely o f fir a nd
p in e is pa rtly d ep en d ent o n sno wfa ll
, ,

th is a ff o r ding ( 1 ) p ro tectio n a ga ins t transp ira tio n in win ter a nd

mo is ture very necessa ry in regio ns o f sm a ll r a in fa ll a n d lo w
,

temp era tures a nd ( 2) ro a ds o n wh ich th e timb er c an be dra wn in

,

s ring t o t h e n ea res t wa terwa y S pr u ce is u s e d ext ens ively f o r

p .

wo o d pul p ( fo r p a p er ; see pp 202 .

Am o n g th e m o st im p o rta nt ha rd tim ber s a re ma h o ga ny

( fro m Africa a nd Centra l Am eric a ) tea k (fro m t h e m o nso o n a rea , ,

B u rm a u s e d fo r bu ild in g in tro p ica l clima tes o w ing t o its im

, ,

m u n ity fro m t h e a tta cks o f wh ite a nts a n d fo r sh ip bu ild ing a s , ,

its o il p ro tects iro n fro m rus t ) ka rri a nd j a rrah ( f ro m W est , ,

Au stra lia ) this la tt er wo o d is very us efu l fo r p iles a s it is du ra ble ,

in sa lt o r fresh wa ter Th ere is n o tro p ic a l

. so ft woo d tree
wh ich c an rep la ce th e no rth ern tim bers .

Tim ber is in th e cl a ss o f na tura l pro duct s wh ich like fur s , ,

gra du a ll y bec om e exh a usted a s th e d em a nd increa s es The .

p res erva tio n o f fo r ests h a s o n ly l a tely been s cientific a lly ta ken

u
p a n d tho u gh a f ew c o u ntries su ch a s th e United Sta tes a re
, , ,

m a king grea t eff o rt s t o p res erve th e f o rests th e a va ila ble su pply ,

is be in g us ed u p m o re ra p idly tha n it gro ws a nd fo r th is reck ,

l ess wa ste a nd fo res t fires du e t o th e sp rea d o f civiliz a tio n a re

, ,

m ain ly res po ns ible .

 PAR T II

R EGIO NAL GEO GRAPH Y

THE BRITISH ISLES .

Maps required for Practical Work Go o d t op ogra phi ca l a nd o ro gra p hic a l

—

m a ps a re essen tial fo r t he s tu dy o f th e B ritish Isl es Ref eren ces a re a l s o .

m ad e in t h e t ext to the Geo lo gic al Ma p o f the B ri tish Is les pu blish ed

!
by th e G eo lo g i ca l Su rvey It is no t ne cessa ry in o rd ina ry g eo gra p hi ca l
.

wo rkto m a k e use of all the d ivisio ns sho wn o n th a t m a p bu t in so m e ,

c as es fu r th er su bdivisio ns a re re qu ired T hese a re g iven b el o w . A .

co nven ien t a tla s fo r th e stu d y o f rel ief is B a rt h ol o m ew s T o u rin g Atla s

’

o f t h e B ri tish Isles ( 1 s Ne wnes) bu t m o re d eta il ed m a ps sho ul d be used

.
, ,

wh erever p o ssibl e .

Geolo gi c al Stru cture .

Th e Origin of Rock s — Ro cks m a y b e d ivid ed into th ree gro ups

.

1 IG N E O U S co nsis ting o f vo lc a n ic ro cks la va s a sh es etc

.
, , , , .
,

wh ich ha ve been co oled at th e surfa ce o f th e ea rth a n d p lu to nic

ro cks su ch a s granite wh ich h a ve b een fo rm ed und er co nd itions
, ,

o f d epth a nd p re ssure and c o o le d s l o wly , Ign e o us ro cks m a y be .

o f qu ite di ff erent a ges [ s ee Ge o l o gic a l Ma p Th e vo lca nic

r o cks o f S kye a re o f tertia ry a ge .

2 SED IM ENTARY or D E RIVAT IV E

.
(a ) fo r m ed mecha nically ,

fro m t h e a ttrition o r wea rin g a wa y of o l d er rocks Th es e vary .

fro m fin e cla ys (sha les) t o sands a nd c o a rs e sh ingle o r c o nglom ,

c ra tes with l a rge p e bbles

,
Th es e ro cks were fo r m e d by p ro cess es
.

of d is integra tio n such a s cha nges o f temp era tu re wa ter o r wind

, , ,

ero s io n etc and were tra nspo rted by wa ter a nd d epos ited in
,
.
,

l a yers eith er in la kes or seas ; (b) fo rm ed c hemica lly—c g s o m e ,

lim est o n es rock salt etc ; ( 0 ) fo rm ed organically

, , . c a lc a reous
ro cks ch a lk etc
, ,
a nd s ilice o u s r o cks such as fl int a n d c a r bo n
.
, .
,

a c eo u s r o ck s ( c o a l ,

T he fig ures in brack ets refer t o f o rmations shown o n the G eo lo g ic a l M a

p .

96
98 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

t e int o quartzites cla ys int o s la tes a nd s lates i nt o s chi s ts

sa nds o n s , ,

o r g n eiss .

In ge o lo gic a l m a p s r o cks a re cl ass ifie d a cc o r di ng t o the a g e

Co n s equ ently ro c k
-

s wh i ch d i f er
a t wh ich th ey were fo r m e d .
f ,

a lto geth er in ch a ra cter m a y be gro u p ed t o geth er

— a
f g
D ev on an
i ,

I c s id erin g th e fo rm a tio n o f so ls th e ch em i c a l
( see p. n o n
i
c o mpo siti o n o f r o cks is mo re imp o rt a nt tha n th ei r o ri g i n ; a nd i n
th e stud y o f l a nd f or m s a nd relief it is e ss e nti a l t o no te th e
relative ha rdn ess o f ro cks — i e th eir po wer o f res is tan ce t o f
,

d is integra tio n As ha s bee n po inted o u t ( p

.
rela ti vely .

s o ft r o cks if r ega r de d fro m th e p o int o f view o f r

,
es is t a nc e t o

re ss re c h a lk— m a y be m o re re s is t a nt t o di s m t egra t i o n
p u
th a n r o cks wh ich c ou l d res is t grea t p ress ures— cg gr a ni te ,
.

Relie f a nd la nd fo r m s a re o fte n d e p e nd e nt o n t h e inc lina t l o n

o f t h e r o ck l a yer s Th e a ngle w hic h t h e su r f a ce o f a r o ck l a yer
.

m a kes with a h o riz o nta l p la n e is c a lled th e clip In t h e e a st o f .

Engl a n d th ere a re a success i o n o f es c a r pm e nts steep s l o p es o n ,

the west a nd ge ntle dip s lo p es t o wa r ds t h e e a s t ( s ee pp 1 26 .

,

Fo r o th er tec h n ic a l term s u s e d in d es cribi ng t h e tiltin g a nd

be nd i ng o f r o cks see pp 3 5 ,
.
,
.

S oils — It
. re m em b ered th a t t h e fo rm a tio ns sh o wn
sh o u ld be
o n ge o lo gic a l m a ps re pre s e nt o nly th e so lid ge o l o gy ( t h e dis tribu
ti on o f t h e u pp erm o st l a yer o f r o cks ) excep t in th e c as e o f sp eci a l
drift m a p s W h ere su rf a ce fo r m a ti o ns a re i nd ic a te d Th e extre m e .

c omp lexity o f th e distrib u ti o n o f s o ils m a kes it imp o ss ib le t o

c o ns tru ct a ny gen era lized m ap wh ich c a n sh o w s u r fa ce d epo s its
o r exp l a i n t he c o nn ecti o n b etwee n s o ils a nd n a tur a l vegeta ti o n

a nd a gricult ure Ref ere nce m u s t b e m a d e wh erever p o ss ible t o

.

t h e drift m a ps o f t he Or d na nce S u rvey ( see Fig 1 4 Sh eet 29 8 .

, ,

Or dna nce Su rvey a nd p ,

.

It is clea r th a t wh ere tra nspo rted so ils co ver t h e gro u n d t o a

c o ns id era ble depth a s in t h e c a s e o f bo u ld er cla y a nd o th er gla cia l
,

d ep o s its o r in tha t o f th e a llu viu m o f river va lleys a n d p la in s o r

,

blo wn sa n d t h e in flu ence o f th e u nd erlying ro ck is re duced t o a

,

m ini mu m Except h o wever in very d ee p a ccu m ul a tio ns o f

.
, ,

transpo rt ed so il th e effect o f the d eca y o f th e u nderlyin g ro ck

,

is o ft en sh o wn In th e Ca r s e o f Go wrie t h e o ld red sa n dst o n e

.

is c o vere d by bo u l d er cl a y but th e regio n is s p ecia lly s u ite d fo r

,

o rch a r ds j us t a s in H ere fo r dsh ire W h ere th e dr

, y so ils a re d erived ,

fr o m th e d ec a y o f th e lo c a l r o ck s .

As a ru le t h e so il is f ertile in pro p o rtio n t o th e m ixtu re o f

i ngredients which it c o nta i ns A sa ndst o ne c o m p os ed a lmost .
,
 THE BRITISH ISLES 99

entirely of sil ic a ; nearly pure carbo na te of lim e— c g cha lk ; a nd ,

a p ure cla y s uch as ch i na cla y

’
, p otter s cl a y etc ch iefly s ilic a
, , .
, ,

a lu m i na a nd w ater are i nfertile

, , A m ixture o f th e se three in
.

various pr o po rtions togeth er with humus or o rga nic m atter

,

derive d fro m pla nts and a nim als is be st a dapte d for c u ltivatio n
, .

Th e Geolog ic al Formatio ns .

If a lin e is dra wn fro m the m o uth of the Tees r o u nd th e ba s e

of the Derb yshire Pe nnines , to the m outh of th e L un e , it will be
found to encircle a n are a of o ld er r o ck s ( Pa l aeozoic , 1 Dr awn
o n a n o r o gr aph ic a l ma , t h e li n e will be s een t o f o ll o w the e d ge
p
of t he h igh gro und form ing th e bo undary of the lo wlands o f the
Va le of Y o rk, Trent Va lley, Cheshire and Mo rec amb e Plains .

S im ilar lines c a n be dra wn fro m th e Dec Es tua ry, o n the north

east b or d er o f the Welsh upla nds , t o th e m outh o f the Severn,
a nd fro m B rid gw a te r B ay , no rth e as t of Exm o o r , t o the m outh
-

of the Ex e .

The Older Ro ck s o n the wes t o f th es e lin es a re gen era lly co m

p os ed of ign e o us a nd c rystallin e rocks, togeth er with a ltere d

sa nds to n e s a n d lim esto n e s wh ich fo r m t he h igh er tra cts o f grou nd ,

pa rtly bec a us e th ey ha ve o n t h e wh ole res iste d d enu da tio n mo re

than the yo un ger rocks t o the ea st, and partly o win g to dis
turbanc es a nd uph ea va ls . Wh ere yo unger roc k s a re fo un d with in
the a rea o f th e p al m zo ic ro cks th ey are usua lly a rea s o f lo wla nd,
,

as, fo r ins ta n ce , th e Va lley o f t h e Ed en a nd th e Va le o f Clwyd

and wh ere o ld er ro cks a re fo un d with in t h e are a o f yo u n ger ro ck
th ey a re usu ally mo re eleva ted th a n th e surro und in g la nd, a nd
s o m eti m es s ta n d o ut like isl a nds, as, for insta nce , Cha rnwoo d
Fo rest ( 1 6) a nd th e Mend ips
An exa m ina tio n o f th e geo lo gica l map sho ws tha t t h e ol der
rocks o ccur m o stly in pa tc h es, wh il e t h e yo u nger ro cks tend t o
be a rra nged in mo re continu o us ha nds Th is is pa rtly due to
.

th e fa ct tha t t h e o ld er ro cks ha ve been fo ld ed, c rum pled, a nd

s queezed by p ress ure, with th e res ul t tha t rocks o f diff erent
geolo gica l a ges a re irregul a rly exp o sed .

Genera lly th e Oldest Rock s lie a lo ng t h e western s ho res Am ong .

thes e th e gneiss ( 4) of Lewis and West Sc o tla nd repres ent the

o l d est ro cks kno wn . Thes e a re s im ila r t o tho s e of t h e La urentia n
Plateau in Ca na da . Oth er o ld ro cks a re th e sch is ts o f Angles ey ( 9)
a nd th e Ca rna rvo n or Lleyn Pe nins ul a , a nd th o s e o f t h e Lo ng mynd
in Shro psh ire a nd th e Ma lve rn Hill s It sho ul d be no te d
.

that the a reas co vered by o ld rocks are no t i nva ria bly regio ns
of rela ti vely h igh er ground or o f infertile s oil .
100 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Area s ry stalline ro ck
of c s a re o f ten infertil e b ec a u se th e so il c o nsis ts

ma inl y O f qu artz gra ins the val uabl e m ineral co ns titu ents w hic h t he ro c k
,

c ontained ha ving been d issol ved and wa shed a wa y .

Angl es ey is la rgely lo wl a n d ha s in p ro p o rtion to a crea ge

,
a nd

m o re c u ltiva te d lan d a nd c a ttle tha n a ny o th er c o u nty in Wa les .

Its fertility is d ue to its bein g c o vere d by gla cia l drif t Th e l a rgest .

a rea s o f gn eis s a nd s ch is ts a re in t h e H ighl a n ds o f S co tl and, a n d

in t h e no rth a n d no rth wes t o f Irela nd -

Oth er ro cks o l d er th a n.

th e ca rbo nifero us a re t he Ca m bria n a nd S ilu ria n , wh ich c o ver t h e

so uth ern upl a nds a nd m o st o f Wa le s , a n d th e Old Red Sa n ds to n e
wh ich fo rms p rom in ent m o unt a in ra nges in th e Bla ck
Mo unta ins an d B recon B ea co ns in S o uth Wa les Th is la s t .

fo rma tio n ha s a rem arka bly fertile s o il in th e pla in o f H eref o r d,

wh ich, l ike tha t o f t he New Red Sands to ne ( 1 9) in th e S evern
Va lley, is well suite d for fruit The D evonia n ro cks ( 1 4) in th e
.

p enin sul a o f Devo n a nd Co r nwa ll, partly of th e sa m e a ge a s th e

Old Red Sa nds to ne a nd p a rtly e a rlier are la rgely com p os e d o f ,

sh a le s , s l ates , a nd li m est o ne s .

The Carbonif erous Ro ck s ( 1 5 1 7) ma y be d ivi d e d int o th ree

-

im p orta nt d ivis io ns, the Ca rbon if erous Limes to n e, th e M ills to n e

Grit, a n d th e Coa l The Ca r bo n iferous Li m es to ne ( 1 5) fo r m s t w o
.

typ es
( a) Upl ands such as th e Pennines Th ere a re few surfa ce
, .

s trea m s a nd th e dra ina ge is m o stly u nd ergro u n d

, wh ere po t ,

h o les a nd c a verns a re for m ed b y so lutio n Th e su rfa ce is eith er .

ba re o r covered with a th in so il suita ble o n ly fo r p asture Th e .

po ros ity a nd s o lu bility o f lim es to n e a rea s c o m b ine d with t h e ,

regularity o f th e j o in ts a nd th e h o rizo nta l ch a ra cter o f th e strata ,

o fte n c a us e s d istinct e sc a r m ent s o f wh ich m any insta nce s a re

p ,

fo un d o n t h e ma rgins of t h e Y o rksh ire d a les a nd in t he M endips

in So m er set .

( b) Lo wlands such a s t he centra l pla in o f Irel a nd H ere the

, .

lim esto n e is satura ted with wa ter and th ere a re num ero us s treams
,

a nd mu ch bo gl a nd A l a rge a m o u nt o f Irel and is covere d with

.

gla cia l d rift .

Th e Millsto ne Grit ( 16 ) is c o m po s ed o f h ard grits a nd sand

s to n es ,
a nd s o fter s ha le s a nd cl a ys Th e o n e fo r m s p l a tea us
.

K in d er S co u t in D erbysh ire ; t he o th er valleys The .

s urfa ce o f t h e u l a nds is o fte n c o vere d with e t T h e e

p p a r are .

ma ny runni ng s trea ms in c o ntra s t to the l im es to n e a rea s The .

Cul m ( 1 6) in Devo n tho ugh o f th e sa m e a ge is of a d iff erent ty e

,
p ,

( see p .
1 02 T EX T—B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY

ris es a bo ve 700 feet n ea r Leicester The O olite do wns were .

fo rm erly entirely pa st o ra l bu t a re no w very la rgely cultiva te d ,

.

The Oxfo r d Cla y Va le lies t o t h e wes t a nd no rth west o f th e -

cha lk In th is a l so th ere a re many ridges o f m o re res is tant

.

s a ndsto n e a n d li m est o n e .

Th e regio n m a rked Cretaceous in th e ge o lo gica l m a p c o nta ins

s evera l fo r m a tio ns wh ich
pro du ce a qu ite d iff ere nt typ e o f s cen ery
,

t o th a t o f th e ch a lk In So uth Ea st Engla nd t h e Wea l d Cla y

.
-

fo r m s the Cla y Va le o f th e Wea l d a nd th e Wea l d en sa nds fo r m ,

th e centra l upla nds Ash do wn F o res t Pa rt o f th is is .

co vered with g orse cla d h ea ths Th e Lo wer Greensa nd ( 23 )

-

o ften fo rm s upl a n ds with ba rren h e a ths ( L eith H ill ) a n d gro wth s

,

o f b ro o m g ors e a nd p in e th o ugh a c o ns idera ble po rtio n o f th e

, , ,

Greensa nd is rea lly cla y Th e Ga ul t ( 24 ) fo r m s a stiff cla y va le

.
,

wh ich is usu a lly wet u nless c o vered by drift a nd a llu viu m .

Th e Ch alkis la rgely c o vered with gla cia l d rift t o th e no rth o f

th e Tha m e s esp ecia lly in th e east o f H ertfo r dsh ire Ess ex a nd
, , ,

Su ff o lk In t h e n o n gla cia ted a rea s t h e f ertility o f th e cha lk

.
-

d ep e nds o n t he s u rfa ce s o il d erive d fr o m t h e d ec a y o f t h e c ha lk

its elf the res iduu m o f la ter f o rmati ons a bo ve th e ch a lk wind
, ,

tra nspo rted d us t etc ( s ee p ,a nd o f c o ur s e l a rgely o n the

. .
, ,

vegeta ble m a tter pr o duced by th e d ec a y o f tur f To t a ke t wo .

i nst a nces la rge area s o f the Ch ilter ns a nd No rth D o wns are no w

,

und er cultiva ti o n .

In th e T ertiary beds ( 26 28 ) no te sh o ul d be m a d e o f th e Lo ndo n -

cla y l a rgely c o vered by drift a nd th e B agsho t S ands o f W indso r ,

Fo res t a nd th e New Fo rest with a vegeta tio n l a rgely res e m bl ing

, ,

tha t o f th e greensand .

Cli m ate .

T e mp erature — References t o th e excep tio na l clima tic c o n

.

d it io ns o f t h e B ritish Is les a s c o m pa red with o th er l a nds o n t h e

sa m e la titu d e s a n d e s ecia lly a s t o th e d iff ere n ce s b etwee n the
p ,

m a rin e typ e a nd th e c o ntin enta l typ e sh o wn a l o n g th e s a me ,

lines o f la titu de t o th e ea s t will be fo u nd b el o w Th e o nly , .

regio n in th e sa m e l a titu d e wh ich a t a ll re sem b le s th e B ritish

Isles is tha t o f t h e west c o a st o f No rth Am eric a a nd we ,

find th ere tha t th e p reva ilin g so uth wes t win ds a re less er s istent
p
-

in winter a nd tha t tem p era tu re s a re l o wer tha n in th e B ritish

,

Is les ( see Ta ble X a nd Fig . .

In Ja nu a ry Victo ria o n Va nc o uver Isl a nd ( 48 no rth l a titude °

,
)
is 1 4 c o ld er th a n Va le ntia ( 52 no rth la t itu d e
° °

) S itka ( 5 7 no rth
°
.

la titud e ) is 7 c o l d er tha n Aber deen in th e sa m e l a titu d e As we

°
.

go inla nd the c o ntra sts a re m o re m a rke d Ka m lo o ps beh ind the .

,
 T HE BRITIS H ISLES 1 03
°
c oa st ra nges ( 50 no rth la titu d e) is in Ja nua ry 1 7 c o l d er tha n ,
°

Va lentia a nd Win n ip eg ( 50 no rth la tit ud e )

,
°
In Ju ly th e
co a st temp era tu res o f B ritish Co lu m bia a re no t very different
fr o m th o s e of th e c o asts o f th e B ritish Is les but the i nl a nd tem ,

p era t ures a re m uch h igh er Kam lo o ps is 1 0 h otter tha n Va le ntia

.
°
.

Th e we st winds c a n p en etra te o ver th e wh o le o f t h e B ritish

Isles o w ing t o th e a bs en ce o f l o fty m o u nta in ra n ges Even n ea r .

Edinbu rgh t h e preva ilin g ea s t win ds o f sp rin g wh ich Stevenso n ,

”
d es crib es a s a m ete o r o lo gic a l purga t o ry do no t interfere ,

with th e te nd ency o f th e trees t o gro w t o war ds the east a ma rked ,

cha ra cteris tic o f tree gr o wth in regi o ns wh ere west winds preva il
( see pp 6 1 173 sq for the c aus es of th es e preva le nt wi nds )
.
,
.
, .

Th e is o th er m s in Ja nu a ry ru n gen era lly fro m no rth t o

so u th . Th ere is little d iff erence between Ed inburgh a n d Lon do n ,

Ca p e W ra th a nd th e Is le o f W igh t a nd Va lentia a n d th e ,
’
La nd s End (see Fig Inla nd d is tricts are c o ld er th a n
.

° °
the c o a s t ( n o te th e li n e o f 40 in Ja n uary in Irela nd a nd o f 3 8 ,

in th e no rth o f S c o tl a nd a nd in t h e so uth er n upla nds ) In th e .

Irish S ea a nd St Ge o rge s Cha nn el th ere is a no rth wa r d b e nd

’
.

o f th e iso th er m s w h ich is du e t o t h e d iff ere n ce in te mp era tu re o f

la n d a n d wa ter . S im ila rly d ifferen ces a m o u nt ing t o

,
wh ich
o cc u r betwee n th e ea s t a n d wes t o f the B ritish Is les c a n be ,

exp la in ed by th e grea ter pro xim ity o f th e t w o c o a s ts to o cea nic

a n d c o ntin e nta l in flu e nces re sp ectively If win ter a nd s u m m er .

tem p era tu res a re co m pa red it will be fou nd tha t th e lea st s ea so nal

,

ra nge o f tem p era tu re ( between Ja nua ry a nd Jul y) is a nd

o cc u r s in t h e so u th we s t o f Irel a n d a nd Engl a nd a nd th e m o s t
-

, ,

in t h e ea stern a nd centra l po rtio n s It m u st be rem e m bered .

tha t mea n tem p er a tures a re the a verag e o f o bs erva ti o ns t a ken

a t d i ff ere nt ti m e s o f t h e da y Pla ces s u c h a s Lo ndo n wh ich
.
,

a p pr o a c h t h e c o nti n e nta l t yp e ha ve h igh er m a xim u m a nd l o wer

,

m inimum tem p er a tu re th a n th e Orkn eys a nd Va le ntia wh ich ,

are m o re s u bj ect t o o ce a nic i nflue nce s .

A ma p o f tem p era ture redu c ed to sea l evel is o nl y sufli cient fo r very -

g enera l c o m pa riso ns Details o f actu al t em p era tures c anno t ho wever

. , .

be sho wn o n t he m a p o f Euro p e ( see Fig s 1 7 If a m a p o f a ctu a l

. ,

tem pera tures were s h o wn fo r the B ri tish Isl es it wo ul d so m ewha t resem bl e ,

a n o ro g ra p hi c a l m a p a nd it wo u ld be f o u nd tha t el eva tio ns ex erci se a n

,

im po rt a nt in flu en c e o n bo t h W inter a nd su m m er t em p era tures a nd c o nse ,

q u ently o n veg eta tio n T h e a m ou n t o f la n d u n su ited fo r cro p s o n a cc o unt

.

o f l o w s um m er t e mp era t ures is g rea t er th a n w o u l d a pp ea r f ro m m a p s o f

t he iso t h erm s redu c ed t o sea lev el esp ec ia lly in t h e H ighl a n d s o f S c o tla n d

-
,

a nd W ales .
 10 4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Sunsh i ne —La titu d e c a n o n ly give t h e nu m ber o f ho urs du rin g

.

wh ich th e su n is a b o ve th e h o riz o n a nd its a ltitud e, fro m wh ich

th e sun f o rce a t th e u p p er lim it o f th e a tm o sph ere c a n b e c a l
-

c ul a t ed a n d th e a
pp r o xim a te a m o u nt o f su n fo rce d e du ce d a t
-

th e surfa ce o f t h e e a rth ( see p For m a rke d di ff ere nce s o f

.

l atitu de th is m eth o d is i nva lu a b le , bu t wh erever p o ss i ble t he

a m o u nt o f a ct u a l s u nsh i n e sh o u l d b e t a ke n i nt o a cc o u nt Th is .

is usu a lly s h o w n o n m a p s in tw o w a ys : ( 1 ) h o ur s o f su nsh in e ;

( 2) a m ou nt o f sk y c o vere d with clo u d As th e a m o u nt o f cl o u d e d
s k d e e nds o n t h e rel a ti o n b etwee n tem er a t ur e a nd t h e mo i stu re
.

y p p
in t he a ir ( p 4 1 ) a nd t h e num b er o f h o u rs o f su nsh i ne o n th e
.

a s ec t in a ll h illy a nd m o u nt a i no u s regi o ns (
p p it is clea r .

that l o c a l c o nditi o ns m us t b e s tudied .

A g o o d exa m p le is a ff o rd e d by th e d iff erenc c s betwee n D eern ess

°
( 5 9 ° no rth la titu d e ) , in t h e no rth o f t h e Orkn eys , a nd J ers ey
( 49 n o rth la titu d e ) Ta ble III sh o ws tha t th e su n is a bo ve
. .

t he h o riz o n in su m m er fo r 18 h o u r s 44 m inu tes o n la titu d e

a n d 1 6 h o urs 18 m inu te s o n l a titu d e wh ile in winter th ere a re
8 ho u rs o n la titud e 50 a nd 5 h o u r s 44 m inu tes o n la titu d e
°

D eern ess , h o wever , ha s o nly 27 h o u r s su ns hin e in Ja nu a ry ( 1 3 p er

’

cent o f th e po ss ible ) , wh ile Jer s ey ha s 6 7 h o u rs ( 25 p er cent o f

. .

th e p oss ible ) In July, D eern ess h a s 3 9 h o u r s s u nsh in e ( 26 p er

’
.

cent o f th e p oss ible ) , wh ile Jers ey h a s 250 h o ur s ( 52 p er cent

.
.

o f th e
p oss ible ) As t wo h o u rs m o re su nsh in e a re p o ss i ble in
’
.

“
Ju ly a t th e la titu d e o f Deern ess th a n a t tha t o f Jers ey,
th e influ en ce o f m o isture a n d cl o u d br inging win ds is well
ma rked .

Ano th er exa m ple o f l o c a l c o n d itio ns m a y be t a ke n fro m t h e

d iff eren ce o f sunsh in e between t h e drier ea st a n d wetter we st
c o a sts o f Sc o tla nd Th e fo rm er lie in th e r a in sh a d o w o f t h e
.

Sc o ttish H igh l a nds Th is ha s a m a rked effect o n t h e d is t ribu

.

tio n o f fru it a nd wh ea t, wh ich will no t rip en wh ere th ere is a .

d efi cien cy o f su nsh in e Wh ea t in S c o tla n d is so m etim es s een

.

u nrip en ed in No vem b er Gen era lly any c o ns id er a ble gro wth o f

.

wh ea t is c o n fin ed to the sou th east o f Engla n d, wh ere th e -

su m m er s a re a lw a ys rel a tively w a r m a nd dr
y .

Rem a rk
a bl e co ntras ts o f sunshine w ith th ei r a ttenda n t influ enc e o n the
,

rip enin g o f fru it a re seen in d i stricts o nl y a sho rt d ista nc e a pa rt — fo r

,

ins ta nc e a t Pe n za n c e in a sh el tered va l l ey f a c in sou t h m ul berries ri en

, ,
g p ,

o u t o f d oo rs w h ile o n t h e no rth c o a s t ei h t m il es a wa
,
g y t he g rea t er c l o u d i
,
,

ness a nd hu m id ity p ro du c ed by m is t s erio u s l

y d im in is h t h e a m o u n t o f
su n sh in e Even o n t he no rth c o a st there a re lo c a l d iff erenc es be twee
n t he
.

cliffs a nd the upla nd m o o rs Ripe bla c k berries h a v e been fo und in 5 11 1130 1 9

.

9 9
1 06 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

British Isles returns o f th e B oa r d o f Agriculture a re o nly

. The
pu blish e d in c o unties ; c o ns equ ently except in cas es wh ere ,

sp ecia l m a s h a ve b ee n p u b lis h e d it is i m p o ss i b le to stu dy th e

p ,

c o nnectio n b etween veget a ti o n a nd s o il at all clo s ely but certai n ,

genera l co nclus io ns c an be dra w n from the Geolo gic a l Map of

t he B ritis h Is les s upplem ented b y sp ecia l m a ps
,
Clim a te ( as .
.

t h e resul t of bo th relief a nd lat itud e ) m us t a lwa ys b e take n i nto

a cc o u nt Ce rta in p la nt a sso cia tio ns a re fa voured by s p ec ia l
.

so ils g o rs e a nd h ea th er will gr o w l u x uria ntly o n sa ndy

so ils a nd firs a ls o fl o uris h
, o n L eith H ill ( 24 Geologic a l ,

Ma p) On the gra nite m o o rla nd o f t h e La nd s End ( see p 1 5 6)

’
. .

o nly go rs e h eath er a nd bra mb les o f va rio us typ es will grow

, ,
.

Owing to th e p oorer so il s o f m uch o f S co tla nd a nd Wa les a nd ,

t h e blea ker cli ma te du e t o eleva tio n a la rger p ro p o rtio n o f ea ch ,

c o untry ( Scotland o ne ha l f Wa les o ne qua rter) is cla ss ified as -

,
-

m oo rla nd h ill pa sture a n d o th er u ncul tiva te d la nd

, ,
Ma ps .

sho w ing th e s e a nd o th er d is tri bu tio ns c a n b e fo u nd in a l m o st a ny

a tla s It will be seen tha t gen era lly h ill regio n s a nd ge o logic a l
.
, ,

fo rma tio ns wh ich are c o vered with a p o o r a nd th in soil are devoted

t o sh eep wh ich th rive o n a well d ra in ed sl o p e with sh ort grass
,
-

eg
. . Wa les the So uth ern Upla nds th e No rth D o wns in Kent a nd
, , , ,

Ro mney Mar sh In S c o tla n d o n ly o n e th irteenth is p a sture

.
-

pa rt ly o win g to th e blea kness o f so m e o f t h e No rth ern H ighl an ds ,

wh ich c omp el s hou s in g a nd feedin g in winter and pa rtly t o th e ,

greater pro fit o bta in ed fro m grou s e m o o r s a nd d eer forests In .

Wa les th e sh eep a re no t bro u gh t in a s a r u le in t h e winter .

Ca ttle are m os t im p o rta nt in Irela nd Angle s ey P e m broke , , ,

a nd Co rnwa ll Rich pa stu res a re n ecessa ry a nd th es e a re

.
,

fo u nd usua lly o n well wa tered lo wla nd s esp ec ia lly in th e regio ns

-

wh ich have a wetter clim ate In the h igh er m o unta in va lleys .

of Wa les the c attle ha ve t o be ho us ed a nd fed d uri ng the winter .

Whea t gro ws ma inly in th e ea stern co un ties la rgely b ecaus e ,

th e summ er is wa r m a nd d ry Th e s tiff cla y so ils a re a lso .

fa vo ura ble ( see p .

Oa ts and barley will gro w mu ch fa rth er north a t a gre ater ,

eleva tion a nd o n po o rer so ils (s ee p .

S c otl and and th e B order .

Three natura l d ivi s i o ns c a n be m a d e in Sc o tla nd : The S outhern

Uplands, the Ce ntra l Lo wl a n ds a n d t h e High l a nds , .

Th e So uth ern Up l ands — Th e S o uth ern Upl a nds fo rm a pl a teau .

o f rou nd t o pp e d h ill s , tren ch e d by d ee

p va lleys, wh ich ha ve a n
-

a vera ge eleva tio n o f feet , and no wh ere exceed feet .

 THE BRITIS H ISLES 1 07

Th es e h ills a re gen era lly gra ss c o vered , a nd a re m a in ly o ccu ie d

p
-

by sh eep fa r m s Except in t he no rth wes t , wh ere th ey fo rm

.
-

a n e sca r m e nt , th ey ris e gra dua lly f ro m th e l o wla nds o f t h e

p
r1ver va lleys t o u ndu l a t ing u l a n ds On t he e a st a s eries o f
p .

a lterna te ri dge s a n d furro ws c a n be d istin guish e d fro m so uth

west t o no rth ea st — the Ch evio t Ra nge, t he va lleys o f th e T evio t

-

a nd T wee d, t h e La m m erm u ir a n d Mo o rfo o t H ill s n o tch e d b

y th e
k
,

ga p o f t h e Ga la Wa ter , th e va lleys o f the Es a nd T yn e, a nd

th e Pentla nds .

Th e main li nes of comm unic ation sh o w the im po rta nce o f river

va lleys a nd lo w c o ast pl a ins The Ea s t Co ast Ro u te fo llo ws th e
.

lo wla nd o f No rthu m berla nd n ea r th e c o ast t o B erwick o n T weed, - -

a nd a vo ids th e u la nds wh ic h end in t h e cliff s o f St Abb s H e a d

’

p .

by fo ll o win g river va lleys m a rki ng a lo wer d epress i o n The .

c o a st lo wla nd is a ga in fo llo wed t o Dunba r , a nd t h e fertile pla in s

o f H a dd ingto n tra ver s ed a lo ng t h e Firth o f Fo rth t o Ed inbu rgh .

Ma ny na m s , e
espec ially in t he neighbo u rhoo d o f th e T weed whic h ,

tra vers es t h e c en tre o f th is bro a d p a ss between England a nd S co tla nd ,

illus tra t e its his to ri c a l im po rta n c e Flo dd en l ies t o th e so u th o f the j unctio n

.

o f t he T il l a nd T weed a nd B am b oro u gh Ca s tl e t h e c en tre o f No rth u m bria n

, ,

p o wer o n a ba sal tic p ro mo n to ry w a s o n e o f the nu m ero u s stron gho l d s o f th e

, ,

B o rd er La nd .

Th e o nly l a rge is la nd o n t h e c o a st is Ho ly Is la nd, with its o ld

Ca th edra l o f Lin d is fa rne .

T o t h e no rth o f t h e T yn e t w o c o m pa ra tively sh o rt river s, th e

B lyt h a n d t h e Wa n s beck, ris e in t h e u pla nds t o t h e e a st o f th e
No rth T yne , t h e Co quet a nd t h e Al n ris e in t h e Ch evio t Ra n ge,
bu t th e Twee d fo r m s a bro a d ba s in rea ch i ng h a l f wa y a cro ss t o -

t h e wes t c o a s t b etwee n t h e Ch evio t a n d th e p l a tea u o f t h e

So u th ern Up la nds Tho u gh t h e p o p ula ti o n is rel a tively s m a ll
.

a s c o m a re d to th a t o f t h e d e ns e m a nu fa cturing regio n b etwee n

p
th e Fo rth a n d t h e Clyd e , t h e T weed Va lley ha s a n a gricu ltu ra l
po pul a tio n a bo u t equ a l t o tha t o f S tra th m o re a nd Buch a n o n t h e
ea st s ide o f S c o tla nd, o r t o th a t o f t h e lo wer va lleys o f th e
N ith Ann a n , Esk
, ,
a n d L id del wh ich d ra in in to t h e So lwa y
,

Firth Peebles , Ga la sh iel s, S elkirk, an d Ha wick a re o ld wo o llen

.

to wn s wh ich derived th eir i mpo rta nce fro m water po wer a nd th e -

sh ee
p o f th e u n inh a bited u pla n ds It will be no ted , o n referen ce
.

t o t h e a tla s o f t h e Britis h Isles th a t t h e T wee d a nd it s u pp er

,

tributa ries out c o m pletely th ro ugh th e es c a rpm ent o f th e S o uth ern

Upla nd s, a n d a ff o r d ea s y ro u tes fo r r a il a nd ro a d to Ed in bu rgh a n d
the Clyd e .
 1 08 TEX T -
BOOK or GE O GRAPH Y

Fro m the vall ey o f the T e vio t the m o s t im p o rtant hi s to rica l pa s s l ead s

to En gla nd o ver Ca rt er B a r On the English sid e is th e ba ttlefield o f
.

Otterbum T h e ra il wa y so u th f ro m H a wi c kp a sses the w es tern end o f th e

.

Chevio ts by a sho rt tu nn el to Liddisd al e .

Th e western p ortion o f th e S outh ern Up l ands is d ivid e d int o

iso la ted gro ups by river va lleys, wh ich ru n gen era lly fro m no rth
west t o sou th east -
Eva n Wa ter, a tributa ry o f th e Anna n,
.

ris es cl o s e t o t he Clyde, t h e N ith c u ts c o m pletely th ro u gh th e

h ills a n d ris es cl o s e t o a tribu ta ry o f th e Ayr, a n d th e Ken va lley
c a n be fo llo we d t o with in a sh o rt d ista nce o f Lo ch D o o n e a n d t h e
D o o n e River , wh ich rea ch es the s ea so uth o f Ayr o n th e Firth
o f Clyd e .Th e t wo fo r m er lines o f d ep ress io n a re fo llo wed by t h e
ra ilwa ys f ro m Ca rlisle t o Gla s go w and th e m a nufa cturin g a rea
wh ich centres rou nd Ayr a nd Kil ma rno ck T h e P en insula o f .

Ga llo wa y in th e so uth west is, o win g t o it s wetter clim a te , a

-

cattle ra is in g and da iry fa r m in g regio n Stra nr a er a nd Po rt

- -
.

Pa trick a re po r ts fo r Irela n d .

Central Lowl ands Th e Ce ntra l Lo wl a nds f o r m a ge ntly u n

.
—

d ula t ing p la in gen er a lly b el o w 500 feet wh ere r o cks o f Ca r

, ,

b o nifero u s a nd Old Red S a nds to n e a ge — m o re rece nt th a n t h e

r o cks o f the High la nds a nd So u th er n Up l ands— ha ve su nk
b etwee n t wo pa r a llel lin es o f f a u lt wh ich ru n fro m no rth e as t ( 57
°
-

no rth l a titu d e no rth o f St o n eha ve n a nd Du nb a r ) t o so u th wes t

,
-

(the m o uth o f th e Clyd e a nd Lo ch Rya n ) In th is rif t va lley th e .

-

s o il s a re fo r m e d f ro m a va riety o f r o cks ( s ee Ge o l o gic a l Ma

p) ,
a n d th es e ha ve b een th o r o ugh ly in ter m ingle d by gla cia l a n d river

a ctio n . Co ns equ ently, th e l and is esp ecia lly fertile Th e regio n .

sho ws s ig ns o f ha vin g u nd erg o n e grea t vo lc a n ic d is tur ba nce ,

sh eets o f ign e ou s ro ck lying o n t h e s urfa ce , wh ich h a ve b ee n

u fo l d e d in t o rel a tively re s is ta nt h il l cha ins T h es e a re rep re

p .

s e nted o n t he so u th b
y th e Renfrew H eights, wh ich lie so uth o f
Greeno ck o n t h e Lo wer Clyd e , a n d th e Lana rk Mo o r s t o th e
so uth we s t
-
wh ich fo rm the so uth ern wa tersh ed o f th e Clyde
,

so uth o f Gl a sg o w .

No rt h o f th e Clyd e a re th e Ca m psies, between Dum ba rt o n a nd

Stirlin g, th e Oc h ils, between Stirling a n d Perth , a n d th e S idl a w
Hills, betwee n Perth a nd Fo rfa r , wh ich s epa ra te t h e Ca rs e o f
Go wrie a nd t h e c o a st regio n no rth o f th e Firth o f Ta y, in wh ich
Dund ee is s itua ted, fro m S tra thmo re Many iso l ate d cra g s, s uch .

as t he B ass Ro ck a nd Edi nburgh a nd S tirling a nd Dum ba rt o n

Ca stles, a re th e n ecks o f o ld vo lc a no es .

Du ndee is the ce ntre fo r j ute ma nufa cture a nd fo r ja m m aking -

1 10 T EX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e Clyd e has been d eep en ed by t h e re m o va l o f t h e o ld gla cia l

d ep osits a nd a lluvium wh ich f o r m erly fi lle d it s ch a nn el , a nd sh ip
build ing t o wns— Re nfrew , Dum b a rt o n, Greeno ck— no w lin e it s
ba n ks In a dd iti o n t o sh ipbuild ing , Glasg o w h a s la rge c o tto n
.

fa ct o ries a nd iro n a nd steel a nd m a c h i nery w o rks Th e Lanark .

sh ire c o a lfield, the we ster n

po rti o n o f th e F o rth a nd Clyd e c o a l
a re a , ha s va rie d i ndus tries— c h em ic a ls ,
po tterie s , a nd s u ga r
refinin
g Pa is ley is no te d fo r c o tt o n thre a d a nd m a c h in ery
.

c o nnected with c o tt o n The Ayrsh ire c o alfield im p o rts ir o n a nd

.

c opp er fo r sm elting a nd s e nds c o a l t o B elfa st The e as ter n o u t

,
.

let o f th e Fo rth a nd Clyd e c oa lfield is Gr a n gem o uth .

Th e imp o rta nce o f Edinburg h wa s o rig ina lly du e t o t h e

str o ng
po s itio n o f its c a stle, c o m m a nd ing th e ea st a n d wes t
ro utes .

Note , on r
M a p ( Sheet
t h e O dn a n c e t h e s t eep esc arp m en t o f t h e
P en tl ands o n th e so u th t he m o dera t ely el evat ed ridges ro u nd w hic h t h e
'

o l d t o wn w a s b u il t a nd t he m o re l o f t
, y vo l c a nic c ra g s o f t he c a st l e Ca l t o n ,

H ill a n d Art hu r s S ea t
,
’
Con tra s t th e lo wland w h ic h b o rd ers t he Firth o f
.

Fo rth .

As th e c apita l of
S c o tla nd , Ed i nburgh h as c o n ce n tra te d in it
th e a dm inis tr a tive o ffi ces , la w c o u rts p rin ti ng i nd us tries , a nd ,

o th er tr a d e s su c h a s m o t o r wo rks j ewellery etc , wh ic h na tura lly

, , , .

b el o ng t o a la rge o ffi cia l a nd res id e ntia l t o w n ( see Lo n d o n, p .

but it ha s in a dditi o n num er o u s i ndu s tries wh ich d ep e n d o n

na tura l reso urce s Su c h a re brewing a nd pa p er m a ki ng , b o th
.
-

d e p e nd e nt o n q ua litie s o f wa ter , b uild in g , a ss iste d b y t h e p r o x

im it y o f a ha rd d o lerite r o ck a nd a bu nd a nt lim e , fl o ur a nd m e a l
m ills , a nd t h e r u bb er i ndus try wh ic h w as h elp e d b y t he a bu n
,

d a nce o f na ph tha o bt a ine d fr o m t h e o il sh a le fi elds -

Leith with it s grea t do cks a nd t h e ha r bo u r o f Gra n to n im o rt

p
la rge qu a ntities o f fo o dstu ff s esp ecia lly gra in fo r m illing a nd
,

ba rley a nd m a iz e fo r th e breweries a nd d is til leries Pa p er .

m a k ing m a teria l s a re im p o rted , inclu d ing e s a rto fro m Algeria

p
a nd S a in , ra gs f ro m th e Co ntin ent a nd wo o d u l fr m S c
p , p p o an -

d ina via Th e m a in exp o rts a re th e pro du ct s o f t h e Lo th ia n

.

o il sha le fiel ds, d is c o vere d in 1 8 5 7 sul ha te o f a m mo nia o il a

p nd
-

,, ,

pa ra ffin wa x , la rgely s ent t o S wed en fo r u se in m a tch m a kin g -

Next t o th e s e c o m e m a ch in ery a nd c o a l .

Tw o im po rta nt bridges sh o rte n th e route to th e north— th e

Fo rt h Bridge, wh ere th e estu a ry na rro ws t o a m ile in width , a nd
t h e Ta y Brid ge t o Du nd ee A gre a t na va l d o ckya rd is b ein
g
.

c o nstructe d a t Rosyt h o n t he Fo rth .

 THE B RITIS H ISLES 111

Th e Hig h l ands — Th e Highl a n ds fo r m a n o ld plateau of crysta l

.

l ine ro ck wh ich has b een d eeply er o d ed by rivers The genera l .

asp ect fro m a bo ve is th a t o f u ndul a tin g m o o rla nds c o vere d with

h ea th er, wh ich , wh en s een f ro m t h e Centra l Valley, ha ve the
e
a pp a ran ce of a mo unt a in ra nge .

The H ighla nds a re d ivid ed in to t wo pa rts by Glenm o re a r ift ,

va lley o ccup ied by l ong na rro w la kes— Lo ch N ess Lo ch Oich and

, ,

Loch Loch y .

The Cal edonian Canal was co n s tructed t o c o nn ect the la kes

of Glenm ore in 1 8 23 in o rd er to ch eck th e d epopul a tio n o f t he
H ighla nds bu t little us e ha s b een ma d e o f it except as a to uris t
,

route owing to th e a bs en ce o f a ny im po rta nt industria l centres

,

o n th e so uth An a lum in iu m fa cto ry h a s b een esta blish e d at

.

t h e Fa lls o f Fo yer s o n Lo ch N ess ( c o m pa re th e u se of wa ter

po we r a t Loch Leven a n d t h e p ro p o s ed res ervo ir of Lo ch
Ranno ch ) but little us e h a s yet bee n ma d e o f the Highl a nd
,

fa lls for the purpo s e .

Th e South Eas t and S outh W e st Hig hl ank— A lin e of gran ite

- -
.

m asses m a rks th e ridge o f t h e o ld pla teau . On th es e a re th e

h igh est su mm its in t h e B ritish Isles, B en Nevis feet ) and
th e Ca irngo rm s, with s evera l po ints a bo ve feet In th is
.

la tter gro up ris es th e Dec , with wh ich th e Do n u nites at Aberd een .

S evera l o f the tribu ta ries o f th e Ta y B ruar Wa ter in B en

D ea rg ) ris e in gran ite u pla nds Th e T ay receives the dra ina ge
.

o f ma n y l o ng la kes — Lo chs Eric ht , Ra nno ch, Ta y, and Ea rn .

Th e Spey ris es clo s e t o t h e s m a ll Lo ch Spey, wh ich is s itua ted

a l so o n a n is o la te d m a ss o f gra n ite, bu t t h e gra n ite h ere lies in a

rela tive d ep ress io n between h igh er su m m its Th e va lleys o f

.

thes e rivers sh oul d be ca refully no ted o n th e Atla s o f the British

Isles , a s th ey are fo ll o wed by t h e ro u tes a cro ss t he H ighla nds .

The co a stla nds a nd th e lo wer river va l leys o f Na irn, Elgin,

Ba nfi, a nd Aberd een, c o n ta in a n a g ricul tura l po pul a tio n a bout
as d ens e as t h e a vera ge o f t h e ea s t c o a s t fa rth er s outh Aberdeen
.

has i mpo rta nt gra n ite qua rries, a nd is th e centre of t h e stea m

tra wling indus try o f th e ea st co a st, wh ich has concentra ted the
tra d e of th e sma ll fis h in g to wn s in a few centres The d istrict .

of B uchan, b etween th e Sp ey a nd Dee , is fa vo ura ble for c a ttle ,

wh ich are largely tra ns p o rted fo r fa ttenin g from North Am eric a
a nd Irel a nd .Co rn is gro w n, a nd th ere are num erous da iry
farms A har bour of refuge is b ei ng m a d e at Peterh ea d, which
.

lo ng p oss essed a n Arctic wha li ng fleet The narro w lowland

.

pla in a lo ng t he c oa s t fr o m B a nfl t o Inve rne ss has a s de ns e a

112 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPH Y

p o pul a tio n a s tha t o f the Ed en V a lley in Fife It s f ertile s o il .

is l a rgely d erive d fr o m t h e Old Red Sa ndst o n e The we s ter n .

po rtionLis sh eltere d fr o m c o ld w inds a nd h as a dry a nd m i l d

clima te .

Th e th western p o rtio n o f th is d ivis io n o f th e H igh la n ds is

so u -

o ccu p ie d b l o ng p en in sul a s a n d is la n ds s e pa ra te d by na rro w s ea

y ,

lo ch s a nd so u nds Th e m a in in la nd la kes are Lo ch Lo m ond

.
,

pa rtly a l o wla n d a nd pa rtly a h igh la nd l a ke a nd Lo c h Aw e in ,

Argyll Except th e Isle o f B ute cl o s e to th e m o uth o f t h e Clyd e

.
, ,

a nd t o so m e exte nt o n t h e e a s t o f Arra n th es e is la nds a nd ,

p r o m o n t o rie s — Ju ra Isla y a n d K in tyre d ivid e d fro m No rth ern

, ,
—

Argyll by th e Crina n Ca na l ha ve a s c a n ty p o pu la tio n a lo n g t h e,

co a st a nd in th e river va lleys As in t h e res t o f t he H igh la nds .

,

t h e upla nd a rea s a re un inha b ite d Argyll h a s o n ly o n e fo rtieth o f .

-

its a rea o ccu p ied by c u ltiva ted la nd th o u gh sh eep r u ns c o ver ,

-

ne a rly h a l f th e su r fa ce The a r a ble la nd is la rgely o n a llu via l

.

fl a ts a t th e river m o u th s a n d o ld ra is ed b ea ch es Ow ing to the .

gen era l a bs ence o f d eer fo rest s and gro us e mo o rs th is a rea has ,

t h e la rges t p r o p o rtio n o f sh eep o f a ny d istrict o f S c o tla n d excep t

th e S h etla ndsl wh ich sligh tly exceed it Th e o nl y im po rta nt .

to wns a re O ba n on Lo ch L innh e a stea m er centre fo r th e western

, ,

isles a nd Ca m pbelto wn at th e so u th o f the Mull o f Kintyre

, , ,

no t ed fo r wh is ky d is tilling a n d c o nn ected by ra ilwa y with Ma cri

h a nish o n t h e wes t c o a s t .

Th e North W e st Hig h l ands — T o t h e n o rth we st o f Glenm o re,

-
.
-

a s in t h e so uth we s t regi o n j us t d e s crib e d, win d in g so u nds o f

-

th e fj o rd typ e p e n etra te in t o t h e p la te a u , a t th e h e a ds o f wh ich

a re na rro w l o wla nd va lleys in ma ny c a s es o ccu p ie d by la kes ,

e.
g Lo ch Ma ree Lo ch Sh iel a nd Lo ch Mo r a r
.
, , f eet ) t h e
, ,

d eep est la ke in th e British Isles Th es e va lleys lea d to c o m .

pa ra t ively l o w wa tersh eds by a gra dua l sl o p e S im ila r river .

va lleys o ccu p ied by lo ng l a kes lea d t o Glenm o re a nd t h e M o r a y

Firth Th es e d epress io ns wh ich d ivide th e No rth W est H igh
.
,
-

l a nds int o a s eries o f s eg m ents are fo llo wed by th e t wo l ines o f ,

r a il wh ich rea ch th e o uter western c o a st — th a t fro m th e Cro ma rty

Firth to t h e Kyle o f Lo ch a l sh cl o s e t o t h e no rth ea st o f S kye ,
-

a n d th a t fr o m Fo rt W ill ia m a t t h e so u th o f t h e Ca le d o n ia n Ca na l
, ,

t o Arisa ig a nd Ma lla ig a t t h e so uth o f t h e So u nd o f S lea t

, .

Num ero u s ro a ds fo llo w th es e va lley lin es ( s ee Atla s o f Britis h

Isl es ) .

Tw o typ es o f isla n ds lie o ff t h e c o a s t ( 1 ) Th e Outer H ebri des ,

co ns isting o f Lewis with S to rna wa y a h errin g fishin g centre

, ,
-

,
1 14 TEXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

3 . Dra w the rail w ay s whi ch fo ll o w th e co a s t m ost closely fro m I n vem es s

to Newc a stl e a nd Oba n to Ca rl isl e
,
Ex pl a in whe re y ou c an why th e
. , ,

ra il wa ys run considera bl e distanc es inl and a t so m e poin ts .

4 D esc rib e two regio ns in S c o tl a n d w h ere so il a nd relief ha ve influ enc ed

.

t h e o c cupatio ns o f t he inha bita nt s .

5 Give geo gra phica l rea so ns

. f o r t h e ind u s tries of Ed in burg h a nd
Gla sgo w .

North Eng l and .

Th e T ees and Tyne — The Durh a m a nd No rth um b erla nd c o a l

.

field exte nds fro m t h e m o u th o f t h e T yne to t h e Coquet It .

o nly re a c h es t he s ea o n t h e s urfa ce b etwee n t he T y ne a nd t h e

Co quet , bu t m in i ng is c a rrie d o n b el o w t h e li m e sto n es a nd sa nd

s t o n e s a t Ha rtlepo o k
Th e m a n u fa ctu rin g towns a re ma inly , a s
in S o uth Wa les , o n t h e c o as t or n ea r river m ouths In t he s outh , .

n ea r th e Clevela nd iro n m i n e s , S t o ckt o n a nd th e Ha rtlep o o ls

a re sm elti ng towns The pre s e n ce o f sa lt in t h e red sa ndsto n es
.

gives pr om i ne nce t o the gla ss a nd ch em ic a l i nd ustries nea r the

c oa st D arlingt o n, o n t he T ees , th o u gh a wa y fro m th e co as t ,
.

b u ilds l o c o m o tive s Ship bu ilding is c a rrie d o n at th e Ha rtle

.
-

p o o ls , Su nd erla nd o n t h e W ea r , a nd esp ecia lly o n th e Tyne .

Newc astle st a nds a t the l o we s t p o int w h ere th e T yn e c o ul d be

ea s ily bridged An al m ost c o nti nu o us s eries of i ndustria l t o w ns
.
,

Wa llsend N orth Shields Tynem o uth and Ga tesh ead ( opp osite
, ,

t o N ewc a stle wh ere th e river f o r m s a lo o p rou nd h igh er gr o u nd)

, ,

Ja rrow S outh Shi elds ext e nd a l o n g bo th ba nks of t he river

, ,

t o th e sea B es id es sh ip bu ilding a nd t he exp ort of coa l oth er

.
,

i ndus tries a re the pro du ctio n o f gri ndsto nes fro m the m ills to ne
grit lea d m a nufa ctures d ep end en t o n th e Penni ne m i nes a nd
, , ,

ch em ic a l w orks The Ma gn es ia n lim es to ne is i mpo rtant f or

.

sm elting a nd f o r us e in ch e m ic a l i nd us trie s ,.

Th e natura l ro ute no rth fro m t h e Pla in o f Yo rk rea ch es t he

Tees by a lo w watersh e d ( b elo w 200 f eet ) and pa ss es over a na rro w ,

upla nd ( 400 t o 600 feet ) t o th e Va lley o f th e W ea r Bis hop .

Au ckl a nd is at th e po int wh ere th e Ro m a n ro a d rea ch e d t h e bend

o f t h e river Durh a m fa rth er do wn th e valley o we d its pos itio n
.
, ,

t o th e pro tectio n a ffo rd ed by a river l o o p a nd a suita ble cra g fo r

th e build i ng o f a f o rtifie d c a s tle a nd c o mm a nds th e eas iest r o u te .

To the wes t o f Newc astle t h e Ty ne Gap a ff o r ds i m po rt a nt c o m

m u nication fro m e as t to we st t o t h e n o rth of t he Pe nnines To .

t h e n orth of it is th e o ld Ro m a n w a ll fr o m Wa lls e nd to Ca rlis le .

Th e s tr ategic va lue of th is w a s th a t it p rotecte d two ro utes

tha t north a nd s outh by the ea s t c o a s t l o wlands a nd the east ,

t o wes t ga p .
 THE BRIT IS H ISLE S 1 15

York shire Y o rksh ire m a y be d ivid ed in to t h e Penn in e S 10 p es,

.

th e Pla in o f Y o rk, Ho l d erness, t h e Wo l ds, a nd th e Ea stern M o o r s .

No rth o f t he Va lley o f t h e Wha rfe th e Pennines h a ve a c o mpa r a

t ively s m a ll po pul a tio n , even in t h e da les Th e h igh est pa rts fo r m
.

un inh a bited m o o rland devo ted t o gro us e, a s in th e so uth ern

po rtio n b etween Ma nch es ter a n d Sh effi eld The o nly impo rta nt .

to wns a re m a rket to wn s, su ch as Rich m o nd in S wa leda le, and

Rip o n ( with a ca th e dra l ) , o n th e Ure Exceptio n mu st be m a d e
.

fo r th e wa terin g reso rt o f Ha rro ga te .

No t e tha t th e grea test h eigh ts o f th e Pennines a re o n th e west — W hern

s id e a n d In l e b o ro u h in t h e Lu n e b a sin a n d Penyg h ent b etw een t h e
g g ,

b a sins o f t h e Ribb l e a nd t h e W ha rf e M a ny p arall el vall ey s wind d eep ly

.

in t o th e Pennines ( a ff o rding ro u t es t o eas t a n d s o uth ea s t ) t o t h e P l a in o f

-

Y o rk .

Th e m o st p o pul a ted a rea o f th e W est Ri ding is o n th e Pen nin e

S lo p es a nd in t h e va ll eys so uth o f th e Wh a rf e Owin g t o th e .

a d va nta ges o f wo o l f ro m th e Pe nnin es a n d wa ter

p o wer, th e wo o llen
-

i ndus try in ea rly da ys w a s c on centra ted o n th e e a ster n s id e o f

-

t h e Pe nn in e s Th is o we d m uch t o t he s ettlem e n t o f Fle m ish

.

wea vers T o wn s sp ra n g u p a t t h e m o u th s o f t h e Penn in e

Va lleys— Leeds a nd B ra df o r d in th e Aire Ba s in , Ha lifa x and
Wa kefiel d in th a t o f th e Cal d er .

T he d evelo p m ent of es f or p o wer a t the end o f t he eig hteenth

t h e co a l m in
c en tury l ed to t h e g ro wth o f la rg e to wn s sp ecia l izin g in every cla ss o f wo oll en
p ro du cts . The bu l ko f t he w oo l no w c o m es by ra il via Lo nd o n f ro m
Aus tral ia a nd N ew Zeal a nd w hil e t h e res t is m o stly im po rted by H ul l a nd
,

Li v erp o o l .

Leeds, like Ma n ch es ter , is th e m a rket fo r fin ish ed p ro du cts ,

a nd h a s a grea t m a nuf a ctu re o f rea d y m a d e cl o t h es, a s well as
-

sm elt in g a n d en g in eering wo rks Th e excellen ce o f th e m illsto n e

.

grit fo r grindsto nes, and th e pres en ce o f a bu nda nt wa ter po wer, -

led t o t h e esta blis h m en t o f th e c u tlery in du stry a t Sh effi eld Oth er .

t o wns are D o nc aster ( l o c om o tives) , B urnley, m a nufa ctu ring

linen as well a s wo o llen g o o ds , a nd Ca stlefo rd ( gla ss) Th e .

c o a lfield ( th e Y o rk, Der b y, a nd No ttingh a m ) extends so uth t o

th e Trent Va lley, j us t a s o n t h e wes tern s id e th a t o f La nc a sh ire

rea ch es t o th e Po tteries .

Th e Pl ain of Yorkis c o vered with fertile bo ul d er cla y a nd -

a ll u viu m lyin g a bo ve t h e New Red S an dsto n e Th ere is excellent .

a gricultu ra l a nd gra z ing l a n d, grea t ca ttle fa irs b e ing h el d a t Y o rk ,

wh ich lies n ea r th e h ea d o f t h e ti da l Ous e, a nd c o ntro ls th e ro utes

116 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

t o no rth uth thro ugh the Va le of Yo rk Its ma ss ive wa lls

a nd so .

a nd a rch e d ga tewa ys a re a re m in d er of its i mpo rta nce a s a c en tre

of Rom an p o wer An exa m inatio n of t h e or o graph ic al ma p of

.

No rth Engla nd will sh o w t he la rge exte nt o f l o wla nd ( b elow

1 00 feet ) for wh ich Y ork is th e m a rket t o wn .

Th e ch a lk do wns wh ich for m th e W olds extend fro m the h igh

cliffs o f Fla m bo ro ugh Hea d t o the Hum ber west o f Hul l A s teep .

esca rpm ent fa ces th e Va le of Pickerin g and th e Pla in of Y o rk ,

wh ile gentle sl op es d escend t o th e so u th eas t Th e to wns are -

.

pa s to ra l m a rket to wn s such as Bri dlingto n o n t h e c o a s t a nd Grea t

, ,

Driffield an d B everley in t h e va lley o f th e Hull River a bo ve th e ,

lo wla nd c o vered with allu vium Ma rket Weigh to n lies at a gap .

in th e Wo l ds between t he Pla in o f Y o rk a nd t h e eastern lo wla n ds .

Th e va lleys in t he Wo l ds a re no ted fo r ho rs es Hull on the .

,

Hu m ber is impo rta nt a s a p o rt fo r t h e Pennin e m a nu fa ctu r ing

,

a re a a nd a s a fishin g ce ntre f o r t he D o gger B a nk

, T imb er is .

impo rted fr o m No rwa y No part of Ho ld erness excee ds 1 00 feet

. .

T h e c o a st f ro m Fl a m b o ro u g h H ea d to t h e H um ber is fo rm ed o f l ow
cl iffs o f f ria bl e b o uld er cla y su b j ec t to ra p id w a ste f ro ml and slip s
, Ra ven .

spur , w here B ol ingbro k e afterwa rd s Henry IV l and ed in 1 3 99 is no w

, ,

well o ut a t sea T h e reg ul a rity o f this wa s te is sh o wn by t h e rem a rk

. a ble

stra ig h tness o f t h e c o a st w hi c h ha s p ra c tic a ll y no in d ent a tio ns o f a ny siz e

,

o r ha rbo u rs Spu rn Po int il lu stra t es the p ro c es s o f reco nst ru c t io n the

.
,

m a t erials o f which it is c omp os ed ha ving been c a rried so u th by t he c urrent s .

T h e Eastern M oors or North York , M oors a re s ep a ra te d fro m the

,

Wo lds by t he Va le of Pickering a fertile a gricultura l regio n ,

wa tered by t he Derwent wh ich rises n ea r t h e c o a st a nd flo ws

, ,

into t he Ou s e fo rm ing a go rge so uth west of New Ma lto n Th ese

,
-
.

u pla nds (ris in g t o nearly feet ) gener ally rese m ble th e Pen
nin es .The Clevela nd H ills o n t he no rth fo rm a n es c arpm ent
fa ci ng the T ees Here im po rt a nt d epo s its o f iro n h a ve b een a
.

fa ct o r in the m o der n growth o f M idd lesbr o ugh no w a l arge ,

ma nuf acturing t o wn with bl ast fur na ces In 1 8 51 this was .

o nly a s ma ll vill a ge ( no te t h e gro wt h o f Ba rrow in Furn e ss for - -

s i m ila r re a so ns) Th e m o o rs fo r m l o fty cliff s o n th e No rth Sea

.

Wh it by is a fish ing p ort a t t he m o uth o f t he Eska nd S carbo ro ugh

.

a wa tering pl a ce .

k
Th e La e Distri c t — Th is d is trict is s o c a lled fro m t h e nu m erous
la kes wh ich lie in a s erie s o f d eep na rro w va lleys Th eir great .

d epths (Wast wat er = 200 feet ) sho w th a t th e regio n m ust have

been s u bj ecte d to long co ntinue d -
eros io n . The la kes were
pro ba bly du e t o th e dam m ing o f the rivers by m o ra in es or gla cial
11 8 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
Va lley the co a stla nds o f th e La ke D istrict t h e T yn e Gap a nd
, , ,

th e va lleys o f th e So uth ern Up la n ds (Liddis dale Ann a nda le a nd , ,

Niths da le ) .

The Ed en Va lley ha s a fl a t fl o o r c o mp o s e d o f you nger a nd

s ofter rocks [ see t he Ge o logic a l M a p ( 1 8 No te t h e steep ,

esca rpm ent o f th e Penni nes ( 15) fa ci ng west Cr o ss Fell rea ches .

a p roxi m a tely feet

p .

Lancash ire La nc a sh ire c o ns ists pa rtly of t h e u p la nds o f the

.

Western Penn in es and pa rtly o f th e western lo wlands The

,
.

centra l and ea s tern po rtio ns o f S o uth Lancash ire a re occupi ed

by m oorla nds rea ch in g t o o ver feet in Pend le H ill Th ese .

extend in th e d irectio n o f Liverpo o l na tura l ga ps b eing ma rked ,

by th e p os itio n o f St Helens a nd Wiga n a nd s ep a r a te the lo w

.
,

pla in of th e M ers ey with its m a r sh es a nd m o ss es ( Cha t Moss ,

Ca rringto n M o ss etc ) fro m t h e western c o ast pla in wh ich has

,
.
, ,

in a dd itio n t o m a n y m a rsh es a lin e o f sa nd du n es a lo n g th e co ast

,
-
.

T he l o wla nds a s in Ch esh ire a re fo r m ed o f t h e N ew Red S and

, ,

sto n e a nd a re not infe rtile th o ugh m o re s uite d fo r c a ttle than

, ,

a gricul ture o wing to th e rela tively wet clima te T h e c a r bo n ifero us .

uplands a re gen erally ba rren a n d na tura lly suited o n ly fo r sh eep

runs . H e nce in ea rly da ys La nc a sh ire co nta in e d a s ca nty
p o pula tio n Th e d evelo pm e nt o f t h e c otton towns da tes fro m
.

the in ventio ns a t the end o f the s eventeenth centu ry wh en co al ,

bec a m e imp o rt a nt as a so urce o f p o wer .

T he l o cal ity o f th e co tto n ind u st ry wa s d efinite ly fixed by th e necessity

fo r a da m p cl im a te and its gro wth in Lanc a shire w a s d u e to th e p resence
,

o f c oal a nd t h e f a cil it ies with w h ich c o tt o n c o ul d b e o b ta i n ed f ro m the

United S ta tes w h ic h then m ad e no l o c a l u se o f th e ra w m a t erial

, In .

a dd itio n t he wa ter f ro m the lim es to ne w a s s ec ia ll

, p y su ita bl e fo r d y eing .

B u t the l ink s o f t h e geo gra hic a l c h a in e x tend s till f a rt h er

p Th e wooll en .

i nd u stry had g rad ual ly beco m e c o n c en t ra ted o n th e ea st ern slo pes and in
the Y o rk s hire va ll ey s o f the Penn in es o w ing to t h e a b u nd a n c e o f wa ter
,

p o wer a nd t he p ro x im ity o f la rge sheep runs At a s till ea rl ier da te than

-
.

in Y o rk shire ( see p 1 1 5 ) Fl em ish wea vers h ad esta bl is h ed t h em sel ves in

.

La nca shire (M a nch es t er 1 3 2 8 ) o n a sm all sc al e

, Tho u gh M a n ch est er was .

k no wn fo r c o tto ns in the m idd le o f t h e f o urteen th c entu ry wo ol a nd linen ,

were mixed w ith t he co tton until m etho d s were d is c o vered o f spinning

t he c o tto n th rea d s with o u t th eir brea k ing Th e e x t en sio n o f wha t was
.

prac ticall y a fo rm o f th e wo oll en indu s try a c ro ss th e Pennin es w a s fa cilita ted

by rela ti ve ea s e of c o mmunica tio n ( see b elo w ) Co n se qu en tly a t th e time .
,

o f the esta blishm ent o f the c o tto n ind us t ry tra ined sk ill al rea dy e xisted
,

in La ncashire which rend ered the transitio n to spec ial i z a tio n in a new
,

material c o mp a ra tivel y sim pl e .

 T HE B RITISH ISLES 11 9

Th e co tto n in dustry is d is tribute d o ver a la rge nu mb er o f to wns ,

th e
Pennmes
m
a i n s p inn ing regio ns b ein g o n th e wette r slo es o f t h e

M anch ester its elf is t h e wa reh ou s e

p
. Round it lie a .

circle of cotto n t o wns ( m o stly sp in nin g ) , Stockp o rt, Oldham ,

Bu ry, Rochdale , a nd B o lto n, a t th e e dge of the Pennin es with in
rea ch o f wa ter po wer The wea vin g towns lie ma in ly in th e
-
.

Va lley o f the Ri bble B urnley, B la ck burn, a nd Prest o n .

As the pro cess es n ece ssa ry t o m a ke c o tto n fa bric s are nu m er o u s

(sp innin g, wea v ing, d ye in g, a nd print ing ) , much ma ch inery
is nee de d, wh ich is m a d e lo c a lly in Ol dha m , Bury, a n d
Ma nch ester .

Th e lines of communicati on across th e Pennines sh o ul d be

stu d ie d on a n o rogra h ica l m a It will be s een that o rigina lly
p p .

pa ck ho rs e tra ils, fo cus s ing o n Man ch ester, th en roa ds, a nd la s tly

-

ra ilwa ys , fo llowed th e lines o f lea s t res istance .

T he ma in ro u tes follo wing pa sses m a y be su mma rized a s fo ll o ws

Fro m wes t to ea st :
1 So uth wa rd to Ma c cles fie l d
. a nd th e Po tt eries , follo wing the west ern
a rgin o f the Penn ines ( see p .

2 Fro m Sto c k
.
po rt a nd th e Upp er M ersey to Buxto n a nd the Do ve a nd
W y e Va ll ey s Road and ra il. .

3 Fro m the Eth ero w Val l ey to Penisto ne the Do n Valley and Ba rnsl ey
.
, ,
.

Roa d a nd rail ( Woodh ea d T unnel ) .

4 Fro m Ashto n a nd S taly brid ge by the T a m e Vall ey to the Co ln e Vall ey

.

a nd Hudd ersfield Roa d , ra il , and ca n al ( S ta ndedge tunn el s o ver Clo s e

.

M oo r ) .

5 Fro m Ro chd al e by T o dm ord en to the Vall ey o f the Cal d er a nd H alifa x

. .

Roa d , ra il a nd ca nal
, .

Fro m no rt h to so uth
1 m . B ury to Acc ringto n Ro ad a nd ra il . .

2 Fro m Bo lto n t o B lac k

. bu rn Ro a d a nd ra il . .

A grea t d ea l tra ffic ta kes pl a ce between La nca sh ire a nd

of

Y o rks h ire s o m e of the w o o l bein g expo rted fro m Liverpo o l

,
.

T o t h e n o rt h of t h e routes m entio n ed t h e br o a d Aire Gap (b elo w ,

600 feet ) aff o rds a n e as y pa ssa ge fr o m B ra d fo r d and th e Aire t o

th e Ri bble Va lley An equa lly lo w pa ss lea ds fr o m th e Ribble
.

to th e Lune Th e direct lin e o f t h e M idl a nd t o Carlisle f o llo ws

.

a c o m lic ate d s eries o f h igh va lleys m o s tly tra vers e d by no ro a ds

p , ,

fro m S ettle t o the Upp er Ed en Va lley It is joined o n th e ea s t .

by two routes fro m th e No rth Ea stern s ys tem on e c o m ing thr -

o u gh ,

Wensleydale to Hawes a nd th e o th er m eeting it a t Ki rkby

,

S teph e n .
 120 TEXT B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

T he co nstruc tio n o f the ca nals in t he Ia n ca shire lo wla nd s wa s co m pl ete

in t he eigh teenth c entu ry a nd in th e ea rly pa rt o f th e nine teen th they
,

were ma d e o ver t he Pennines In 1 8 94 th e M a nc hest er Ship Ca n a l turned

.

M a n ches ter into a seapo rt .

Li verp ool , like Bristo l , de p en d e d a t first o n tra d e with th e

W est 1ndies It is no w th e grea t ce ntre fo r th e expo rt o f c o tto n ,
.

iro n a nd steel manufa ctures , indu stria l ma ch inery, wo o l ( la rgely

fro m Y o rksh ire ) , a nd ch em ic a l s B es i d e s ra w c o tto n 1t im p o rts
.

fo o d pro ducts, and raw m a teria l , inclu din g wo o l (Argent in e ) ,

c o pp er (La ke Su perio r) tim ber ( Ca na da ) t o ba cco
,
etc , .

Th ere is a lso a la rge tra de in p a l m o il a nd o th er pr o duct s fro m

th e wes t c o ast of Afric a Th e M er s ey with its na rrow b o ttle
.
, ,

sh a p e d m o uth h as b ee n kep t p a rtly o p e n by th e s c o ur o f t h e

,

tid es th ou gh dredging h as b een n ecessa ry to ma inta in a ch a nn el

,

thr o u gh the bar B irkenh ea d o pp o s ite Liverp o o l o n t h e W irra l

.
, ,

Pe n in su la with its wid e na tur a l d o cks ( Gre a t Floa t ) has s p ecia l

,

a d va nt a ge s for sh ipbuil di ng .

T h e gr o wth o f watering pla ces o n t h e La nc a sh ire co a st su c h a s

-

So u thpo rt a nd Bla ckpo o l is th e n a tu ra l result o f th e n eigh bo u r

,

h o o d o f la rge industria l to w ns Owin g t o th e p reva lence o f sa nd

.

du nes bl o wn inla nd by th e so uth west w inds th ere a re no na tu r a l -

h a r bo u r s no rth o f th e M er s ey except th e Ri bble Estua ry wh ere

, ,

Presto n is a n i mpo rta nt m a rket cent re fo r th e fa rm in g d is tricts

o f th e No rth La n c ash ire c o a s tl a nd s Artificia l do cks h a ve bee n .

co nstru cted a t Fleetwo o d Gla sso n o n th e Lun e and B a rro w

, .

Th e o ld p o rt of La nc aster h a s su fi ered fro m t he s ilt ing u p o f t h e

Lun e . To th e n o rth Mo reca m be Ba y like th e So lwa y h a s been , ,

n ea rly fil led u
p by river d ep o s its Th e o n ly indus tria l regio n in
.

No rth La nca sh ire is a t B a rro w in Fu rn ess a to wn o f m o d ern - -

r o wth wh ich owe s it s i m po rt a nce t o th e roxi m ity of excelle nt

g , p
i r o n o re .

Th e Ch e shire Pl ain B etwee n t h e S evern Bas in o n t h e so u th

.
-

a nd th e l o wl a nds o f East La n c a sh ire , th e lo w er bas in o f t h e Dee

a nd th e bas in o f the We a ver f o r m a l o wla nd l a in Th is is

p .

d ivid ed into two pa rts by a m o re eleva ted regio n o f ha r der sa nd

s t o n e o f o ver 3 00 feet , exce t a t t h e
, p g a p th r o ugh which ru ns th e
l in e f ro m Crewe th e ra ilwa y cen tre o f t h e Lo ndo n a nd N o rth
,

Western Ra ilwa y, t o Ch es ter Th e a queduct wh ich supplies .

Liverp o o l with wa ter fro m La ke Vyrn wy f o llo ws th e ea s tern

s lo e s o f th e wa te rsh ed Th e p la in is c o vere d bv a fertile d rif t
p .

in th e fo r m o f ma rl, wh ich lies o n t h e New Red Sands to n e , a nd is

d e vo te d to ca ttle rea rin g a nd a gric u ltu re
-

A go o d d ea l o f m a rket .
122 T EX T B OOK-
OF GEO GRAPHY
valleys lea d t o ga ps wh ich co nn ect with th e Ch es h ire Pla in a nd ,

are f o ll o we d b r o ds c a na ls a n d ra ilwa ys T h e a bunda n ce of

y a , ,
.

re adil y m i n e d c oa l fro m th e N orth S ta fi ordshire c oa fi eld

-

l 1n ,

c o nn ectio n with cla y s uitable f or e arth enwa re d etermi ned the ,

loca l i ndus try The finer cl a y required is impo rted fr o m Devo n

.

a nd Co r nwa ll a nd a ls o fro m Po o le by c a na l f ro m th e M s
, er ey
, -
.

Newc a stle is o n t he e dge of a c o a l a nd ir o nst o ne regl o n a nd ,

was o n e of th e c h ief ce ntres of t h e iro n tr a d e Its la rge M a rket .

”
S qua re is c a lle d th e Ir o n Market .

Th is industria l regio n is s epa ra ted f ro m th e D erbysh 1re a nd

S ou th Yo rksh ire coa lfield by t h e Sou th ern Pennines T h es e .

upla nds wh ich a re c om po sed o f carbo n iferous l im es to n e a nd

,

m ill stone grit are tra ver s ed by th e va ll eys o f th e D o ve and

,

Derwent wh ich rise in th e Pea k Dis trict a nd fl o w south so u th

,
-

ea s t Much o f th is co ns is ts o f infertile m o o rla nd d evo ted to

.

grou s e Bu xto n a nd Ma tlo ck a re impo rta nt wa terin g pla ces in

.
-

th e Wye a nd Derwent Va lleys .

To th e so uth o f th e Penn in es th e Tre nt tr a vers es th e pa sto ra l

a nd a gricult u ra l p l ain o f th e New Red Sandston e Th e a bun da nce .

o f gra z ing l a n d h el s t o a cco un t fo r so m e o f t h e in dus tries s uch

p ,

as t h e bo o ts o f S ta ff o r d a nd Leice s ter wh ile th e ba rley field s a nd ,

-

th e g ypsu m o f t h e Burto n wa ter fa vo ur brew ing Lich field with .

,

a n o ld ca th ed ra l sta n ds n ea r th e cro ss in g o f t w o Ro ma n r o a ds

Wa tli ng Street a nd the Ryk

, ,

nield Way Its p os itio n o n h igh er .

grou nd t o th e west o f the Tam e w as pr ob ab ly due t o th e f orest

a n d m a rsh es wh ich e x is te d in ea rly da ys in th e va lley l o wl a nds .

Der by is s itu a ted nea r t h e mo uth o f t h e Derwent wh ere it issues ,

fro m th e Pennine Valleys in t o th e lo w pl a in o f th e Trent It s .

p ositio n has c a us ed it t o b ec o m e a r a ilw a y j u ncti o n fo r the

Midl a n d Like Crewe it is enga ge d in t h e m a nufa ctu re o f ra il w
.
, ay
sto ck No ttin gha m o n the T rent a little to t h e ea s t a nd
.
, , ,

Ma nsfiel d wes t o f Sh erwo o d Fo res t m a nufa cture c o tto n h o s iery

, ,

a nd c o tto n la ce .

T h e s tronger y a rn us ed f o r th ese p ro d ucts d o es no t re quire so d a m p a

clima te a s tha t u sed f o r M a nch este r f a bri c s A good d ea l o f ho use co al is .

sent t o Lo nd o n fro m th e c o a lfi eld in this district a s w ell a s fro m Ath erstone

(
in the Wa rw i ck s h ire c o a l fiel d ) .

Th e T rent bel o w No tt ingha m ru ns no rth thro ugh a n a g ricul

, ,

tura l d istrict t o th e H um ber B etween th is a nd th e c o a lfield .

is a le ss fertile regio n o f ha r der sandst o n es m ingled with e bbles

p ,

wh ich includ es Sh erwo o d Fo res t Leices ter o n th e S oa r a t the .

, ,

po int wh ere th e Ro m a n ro a d fro m Exeter to Lin co ln cro ss es t he

riv er is th e cent re o f th e wo o l h o s iery in du st ry
, Th e So a r Va lley .
 T HE B RITISH ISLES 1 23

is a fert ile pl a in o f red sa ndst o n e la rgely d evo te d t o c a ttle , betwee n ,

Cha rn wo o d F o rest a n d t h e o o lite es c a rpm ent Th is l a tter regio n .

is n o ted fo r it s sh eep To th e we st o f Cha rnwo o d F o res t is t h e

.

Leicestersh ire c oa lfield o n wh ic h sta nds th e m a rket to wn o f

,

Ash by de la Z o uch
- -
T o th e so uth o f th is is the Wa rwicks h ire
-
.

c oa lfield betwee n Ta m w o rth a n d Nu n e a t o n Th e e a stern p o rtio n .

o f Leice ster sh ire is e nt irely a gricultura l a nd

pa s t o r a l .

Wha t is c alled th e B l ackCou ntry lies o n th e eleva ted upla nd

exceeding, o n th e a ver a ge 400 feet between the m a in valleys o f ,

th e Tren t Avo n, a nd S ever n

, T h e h igh est p o rtio ns o f th is a re
.

Ca nn o ck Cha s e a nd th e we stern m a rgin o f th e u pla nds , wh ic h

extends a s a m o re elevated rid ge fro m n ea r Wo lverh a m pto n t o
west o f Alcester Pa rt o f th is is o ver 8 00 a nd 900 f eet in th e
.

Clen t a n d Lickey H ills Th e h igh er gr o und is gen er a lly a ccess ible

.

by ea s y gra d ien ts wh ich o ff er little o bs ta cles t o t h e c o nstru ctio n

,

o f ca na l s a nd r a ilwa ys .

Th e fa m o u s bl a ck ba n d iro n so ca lled fro m its o ccu rrence

-

in la yer s in t h e c o a l m ea su res, wa s o rigin a lly sm elte d with ch a r

-

coa l o bta ined fro m th e Fo rest o f Ar d en a nd Canno ck Cha s e .

Little iro n is n o w o bta in ed , but th e co a l m in es h a ve s ecure d t h e

cont inua n ce o f t h e o l d esta blish ed iro n s m eltin g indu stries o f
- -

Wo lverha m pto n , W a l sa ll W e st B ro m wich a nd Du dley , ,

.

T he c o al c oul d no t be us ed gen era lly fo r s m el ting in t h e se ven teen th

c entury befo re th e d is co veries wh ic h f a c ilita t ed the u se o f th is fu el bu t i t
, ,

wa s l a rgely us ed f o r t h e m a k in g o f s m a ll iro n goo d s At t h a t tim e t h e .

l o c al iro n wa s u sed m a inly fo r m a k

i ng na ils whil e t h e so f ter iro n o f t h e Fo res t ,

of D ean w a s em plo y ed fo r w ro u gh t iro n w o rk

-
.

It is t o th e o rigina l d irectio n give n t o t h e iro n in du stry th a t

we m a y a ttri bu te th e pres ent sp ecia liza tio n o f th e distr i ct in n o n
m a nu fa ctu res W o lverha mp to n ( l o cks) , Re ddi tch (n ee dles
a nd fis h h o o ks
) W
-
a l s a ll ( b e ds tea ds ) , a nd B ro m s gr o ve ( na i l s )
,
'

Th e existen ce o f go o d fire cla y s u ita b le f o r furn a ces a cc o u nts fo r

-

th e i mp orta n ce o f S to urbridge , wh ic h ha s a ls o glass m a nu fa ctures .

Bir ming h am its elf h a s n eith er c o a l n o r iro n, t h e n ea re st c o a l bemg

at W e st B ro m wich Co ns equ ently t h e industry o f th e t o wn
.

ha s been esp ecia lly c o n cen tra te d o n s killed wo rk m m eta ls .

S wo rd m a k in g wa s intro d u c ed in 1 6 5 1 a n d gun m a k
- ing in 1 68 7 T here ,
-
.

a re sa id to h a ve b een er so n s em pl o y ed in h a rd wa re ma nu fa c t u re
p
in 1 72 7 .In t h e firs t c en s u s ( 1 8 0 1 ) B irmin gh am w a s o ne o f t h e three inl a n d
to wns with a bo ve inha bitants It h a s b een an imp or ta nt in du strial
.

c entre sin c e t h e M id dl e Ag es O wing t o it s pro du ctio n o f a rti cl es o f sm a ll

.

b ul kit h a s n o t s u ff ered fro m its dis t a n c e fro m t he sea

,
.
 124 T EXT B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

Like Ma nch es ter an d Liver po o l , B ir m in gha m o bta ins it s wa ter

fro m mo unta in reservo irs in a regio n o f l a rge ra in fa ll (th e El an
a nd Cla erw en tributa ries o f t h e Upp er Wy e) It is d iffic u lt t o .

find a ny geo gra ph ica l rea s o n wh ich fully e x p la ins wh y B ir m in g h a m

g ai ned this ea rly p r o m i nence It is true th a t i ts po s1t i o n o n th e
.

Upp er Ta m e, a nd with in ea s y a ccess to th e Avo n by the Upp er

B lyth e, wa s o ne o f c o n s id era ble na tura l a d va n ta ge, but th is i s
h a rdly s ufli c ient t o a cc o u nt f or t h e concen tra tio n o f p o p ul a ti o n
at t h is pa rtic u l ar sp o t Na tur a lly t h e c o nstructi o n of c a na ls
.

a t t h e end o f t h e eig htee nt h ce nt u ry , of wh ic h B irm i ngh a m b ec a m e

the ce ntre , a nd the c o ns tructio n o f r a ilwa ys , ha ve c o ntri bute d

in n o sm a ll d egree t o th e m o d er n p l a ce h eld b y t h e city .

Th e S eve rn B a sin — T h e S ever n ris es in Plynlim m o n

. f eet ) ,
with in a bout fi fteen m iles o f th e west c o a s t , and fo ll o ws a bro a d
va lley fro m Lla n idl o es t o a little no rth o f W elsh p o o l , wh ere it
issu es o n t h e broa d er pla in o f No rth Shro psh ire, m u ch o f wh ich
is o nly 100 feet a bo ve th e s ea Th is is d ivid e d fro m t h e Ch esh ire
.

lo wl a nds by a lo w wa ter sh ed, t he T ern, a tribu t a ry o f th e S evern,

ris ing cl os e t o t h e Wea ver , wh ich flo ws into th e M ers ey The .

d is trict is en tirely gricu ltura l a nd pas to ra l with m a rket to wns

a , ,

suc h a s O swe s try, Wh itch urch a nd Ma rket Dra yt o n

, .

Shrewsbury a n old B rit ish s tro ngh o ld o n a sa ndsto ne ro c ksurro un d ed

,

by a l o o p o f the S evern ( s ee Du rh a m p o wes its im p o r ta n c e to its

, .

c o m m a nd o f t he S e vern Vall ey an d o f c ro ss ro u t es Nea r it W ro xeter .

( Uric o nium ) to t he west o f th e W rek

, in wa s a Ro m an f o rtres s a t th e p o int
, ,

where Wa tling S treet rea ch ed t he S e vern f ro m the ea st T h e co n tinu a tio n .

o f th is Ro m a n roa d p a ssed S hre w s bury a nd l ed t o Ch es ter o n t h e no rth

, .

T o th e so u th o f Shrewsbu ry a Ro m a n ro ad tra vers ed t he lo wer W elsh hil l s

between t he Lo n gmynd a nd the esc a rpm ent o f W enl o c kEd g e t o Herefo rd
a nd Aber a ve nny in t he so u th Mo d er n ra il wa y s f rom Ches t er B irm ing
g .
,

ha m a nd H ere fo rd c on v erg e o n Shrewsbury f o r s im il a r rea so ns th o u h

,
g ,

they d o no t exa ctl y follo w the c o u rse o f the o ld ro a d s .

After a win d ing c o u rs e with m a ny m ea nd er s in t h e lo w N o rth

, ,

Shro p sh ire Pla in th e S evern en ters a na rrow go rge n ea r Co a l

‘

b r o o kda le b etwee n t h e Wrekin a nd W e n l o ck Ed ge

, Th e o h .

str u cti o n c au s e d b y t h e gorge h a s c a u s e d t h e a cc u m ul a ti o n o f

s e dim e nt o n t h e Shrews b ury Pl a i ns .

In t he Co a l b ro o k da le c o alfiel d no w alm o s t w o rk
, ed ou t coal wa s first ,

u sed f o r s m el t ing iro n i n 1 709 a nd th e firs t u se o f iro n wa s m ad e f o r brid es

,
g
a t Iro nbrid ge So m e ha rd wa re manufa ct ures a re s till ca rried o n
here a nd a t Welling to n a nd M u ch W en lo c k Fa rt her so u th B rid gno rth ha s
.

a c a rpet ind us try .

1 26 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

tides of th e S evern i
h ea p ed
n t h e n a rro w ch a nn el , f o r m in g
u
a re p
a bo re, a n d m a kin g n a viga tio n d iffi cult Co ns equen tl y, th e
.

bul ky p ro duct s o f tim b er a n d gra in fo r wh ich Gl o ucester i s t h e

o rt o f t h e B la ck Cou ntry, h a ve t o b e c o n veye d by t h e S evern
p “

Ca na l f ro m Sh a rpn ess t o Glo ucester , su bs equ ently rea ch i ng t h e

M idl a n d m a nu fa cturin g t o wns, p a rtly by r a il, a n d pa rtly by t h e
S evern, wh ich is c a n a lized a bo ve Glou cester Ow in g t o th e h i gh
.

tides th e l o wla nds o f th e S evern Estu a ry h a ve to be em ba nked

t o p reven t flo o ds .

On th e e a st o f th e S evern is th e oolite esc arp m e nt of th e Cots

wol ds, wh ich slo p e steeply t o t h e wes t O n ly o ne river va lley,
.

th a t wh ich pass es by S tro u d, cu ts far in t o th e h ill s Th is IS .

fo llo wed by a ra ilwa y a nd ca na l t o th e Tha m es B a s in wh ich cro ss es

,

a d e ress io n in t h e wa ter sh e d by tun n els f ro m 1 t o 2 m ile s in

p
le ngth n ea r Sapp erto n Th e w o o l f o r clo th wea ving , o n ce a
.

very im po rta nt i nd u stry in t h e W es t o f Engla nd , wh ich is still

c a rried o n a t Str o u d, w a s o bta i ned lo c a lly fr o m the sh eep o n t h e
Co ts w o l ds Th e wa ter o f t h e Fr o m e Va lley is excellent fo r
.

dyein g .

On t h e o pp o s ite s id e o f t h e S evern t he a llu via l fla t s a re less

ext ens ive Th e wo o ded u pla nds o f t h e Forest of D ean, wh ich h a s
.

a s m a ll c o alfield , ris e n e a r t h e river Iro n w a s wo rked h ere in

.

Ro m a n tim es a nd sm elted, a s in th e W ea l d , with ch a rc o a l, bu t

th e o a ka n d b eech wo o ds ha ve e sc a p ed t h e d estru ctio n wh ich
o verto o k th e tree s o f th e W ea l d, po ss ibly o w in g t o th eir va lue fo r

th e build in g o f wo o d en sh ips To t h e so uth wes t o f t h e F o rest

.
-

o f De a n th e Wy e has c u t a d eep a nd win d in g ch a nn el th ro ugh t h e

lim esto ne Ch epsto w a t th e m o u th o f th e Wy e is an a n cient

.
, ,

m a rket to wn o n th e bo r d er o f Engl a nd a nd Wa le s H ere t h e

.

tid es ris e 60 f eet The Ro ma n roa d t o Ca erleo n (Isc a Silu ru m ) ,

o n t h e Us ka bo ve N ewp o rt, fo llo we d t h e l o wer s o u th er n sl o p e s
.

o f th e lim est o n e u p la n ds Th e Grea t W e stern Ra ilwa y line

.

fo llo ws a d irect ro ute to N ewp o rt fr o m t h e S evern tun n el th ro u gh ,

th e m a r sh y lo wla nds, wh ich a re no w d r a in e d a n d e m ba n ked .

Th e S o uth W al es Coalfi el d — Th e so u th ern wa tersh e d o f th e

.

UskBa sin is fo rm e d by h igh m o o rl a nd ( Old Red Sa n dsto n e ) , wh ich

ris es in th e Breco n B ea c o ns t o n ea rly feet , a nd f a rth er t o th e
s o uth ea s t ha s a gen era l a vera ge o f a bo ut
-
feet t o th e no rth
o f a lin e fro m M erth yr Tyd fil in t h e d irectio n o f Ab erga ve nn
y .

A s eries of m o re o r less p a ra llel river s ( th e E bbw, th e Rh ymn y,

etc ) ha ve cut d eep a nd steep s id ed va lleys in th e c o a l m easu res
.
-
-

wh ich lie a bo ve th e m illst o ne grit a nd c a r bo n if ero us lim esto ne

 THE B RIT ISH ISLES 127

the no n co al bea ring m em bers o f t he Ca rbo niferous age The

- -
.

c oal lies in a bas in a nd h a s been pr o tected fro m d enu da ti on

, .

Th e va lleys a re l in e d with m in in g vill a ge s the u pl a nds between ,

ea ch valley being uninha b ited A s im ila r a rea lies to th e so uth

.

west (the Rho ndda and Avo n Va lleys ) .

Three g rea t a d va n ta g es a re po ss essed by th e S o u th Wales coal mines -

(a ) Surf ac e m ining by ad its in th e vall ey sid es is o f ten p ossible besides ,

d eep m ining ( b) Ra il wa y s c a n ca rry t he c oal d o wnhill t o Ne wpo rt a nd

.

Ca rd ifi re tu rning em p ty o r wi th tim b er a nd m a chin ery fo r the mines a nd

,

iro n fo r the m el ting wo rk s ( c ) M u ch o f th e coal esp ecia lly in the west

.
, ,

is anthra c ite giving a m a xim u m o f hea t a n d a m in imum o f smo k

, e while ,

th e stea m c o al i s su ita bl e fo r s tea m ship s a nd l o co m o t ives .

Owing t o th e d is covery o f iro n n ea r th e upp er edge o f th e co al

field a l ine of sm elti ng to wn s S p ra n g u p fro m Ebbw Va le t o
,

Merth yr wh ich ha ve m a inta in ed th e ir imp o rta n ce tho ugh the iro n

, ,

is no w mostly im ported fro m B il ba o in Spa in The m a in sh ipp ing .

po rts a re N ewp o rt Ca r d iff B a rry a n d Po rt Ta l bo t wh ere la rge

do ck
, , , ,

s ha ve b ee n c o ns tr u cte d Ca rd iff m a nu fa ctures t in pla te an

.
,

industry generall y ca rried o n th r o u ghou t th e district ; Swansea

is enga ged in co pp er sm eltin g B o th t in a n d c o pp er o rigina lly
.

ca m e fro m Cor nwa ll .

The ma in l ine o f t h e Grea t W estern Ra ilwa y a vo ids the deep

pa ra llel va lleys n ecess ita ting la rge via ducts and follows th e
, ,

agricultura l l o wl a nd o f the Pla in o f Gwent passing Newp ort , ,

Cardiff Swans e a and Lla nell y

, , To t h e west o f th is industria l
.

regio n S outh Wa les c o n ta ins t w o m a rke d p en insul a s that o f ,

Go wer ( ca rbo n ifero us lim es to n e) a n d Pe m brokesh ire B etween .

thes e lies Ca rma rth en la rgely pa stora l but with g oo d a gricultura l

, ,

la nd in the fertil e va l leys o f t h e To wy and the Ta f wh ich fo rm ,

a c o m bin e d es tuary in t h e centre o f Ca rma rth en Ba y The Ta f .

Va lley is fol lo wed to th e west by t h e Grea t Western Ra ilwa y ro u te

t o Go o dwick a little to th e wes t o f Fish gua rd wh ere a brea k
, ,

wa ter ha s been buil t to pro vid e sh elter fo r th e Irish pass enger

bo ats a nd to sh orten t h e s ea pa s sa ge fo r Am erican lin ers
,
.

Pembrok eshire — P em bro kesh ire, wh ich lies in th e so uth west

.
-

peninsula o f Wa les, d iff ers fro m t h e res t o f th e c o untry o wing to

the fa ct tha t m a rke d d iff eren ces o f r a ce a nd la nguage a re fo und
’

’
with in it s bord ers So uth o f a lin e from th e no rth o f St Bride s
.
.

Bay to Na r berth Englis h is sp o ken a lm o st e ntirely, a nd th e ra ce

typ e ha s no th ing in c o mmo n with th e W elsh This i s a ccounted .

for by th e num erou s No r m a n a n d Flem ish s ettlem ents tha t were

ma de th ere a fter th e Co n quest A still ea rlier i mm igrat i on was .
1 28 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

tha t o f th e Nor sem en who s ettled o n th e bra nch ing ba ys a nd

,

inlets o f M ilfo r d Ha ven Ma ny na m es testify to th eir o cc u pa tio n

.
.

Ha verfo rdwes t ( Ha ver fj o r d we s t) Ha rol dsto n Hu bb er sto n - -

, , ,

Sk o m er I Sk ok.ho lm I etc
,
.
, .

It is tic ea bl e tha t no rth of th e lin e m en tio ned t he l ess fertil e upla nd s

no , ,

o f o ld er ro c k o f whi c h M yn y dd Presc ell y wi th its und ula tin g d o wnla nd

, , ,

is t he cul m in a t in g ra nge and t he S t Da vid s Pen insula with it s ha rbo url ess
,
. ,

co a s t
, a re en tirely Wel sh T he Ca t hed ra l o f S t Da vi d s t he hi sto ric al
. . ,

c entre o f t his no rthern portion is sa id t o h ave b een b uilt in a h o llo w in

,

o rd er th a t it m ig ht no t be v isible t o m ara u d ing ships a t sea .

To th e th is lin e th e Old Red Sandsto ne th e Co al

so u th of ,

Mea s ures a n d t h e Ca rbo nifero u s Lim est o ne a ff o r d a so il well

,

suited t o a gricul ture a nd c a ttle gr a zin g bu t litt le c o a l is m in e d , .

Ca stle m a rtin is fa m o us fo r it s bla ck Irish c a ttle T en by is a

Pem bro ke D o ck a Governm e nt do c k
.

s ea s id e res o rt ,
ya rd a nd ,

Ha verfo rd wes t is th e centre o f t h e wes tern a gricultura l a rea .

Th e li m es to n e a nd sa ndsto n e p en in sula wh ich lies so uth o f a

l ine fro m T enby t o Pembro ke m a rked by a low range o n wh ich ,

runs a ridgewa y ro ad is rem a rka bly isola ted es p ecia lly the , ,

lim es to n e u pla nd wh ich lies b etween St Go wa n s H ea d and .

’

Linn ey H ea d Th ere a re no eleva tio ns of o ver 200 f eet but t he

.
,

d eep a n d steep s id ed va lleys m a ke c o m mu n ic atio n d ifficult

-
.

Th ere a re no ha rbo urs a nd no runn ing s trea m s a n d p astora l ,

c ond itions p reva il with a s ca n ty popul a tio n d is tribu ted in

,

sca ttered fa r m s Th e up la nd ends a bru p tly in th e s ea in steep

.

cliffs wh ere th e lim esto ne is d ispo s ed in h o rizo nta l la yers

, .

Ce ntral W al es — B etween Pem bro kesh ire a nd th e Lleyn Pe nin

.

sula bo th u pl a nds and m o u nta ins c o m e cl o s e to Ca r d ig a n B a ,

y
a n d lea ve little r o o m fo r c o a s t l o wla n ds If t h e h ills wh ich fo rm .

th e wa ter sh ed o f the river s wh ich fl o w into Ca r d iga n Ba y are

fo llo wed ea st a nd no rth fro m M ynydd Presc elly , it will be seen
tha t th ey rise to th e mo st extens ive a rea (a bo ve feet ) of
h igh gro u nd in Wa les , culm in a ting in Plynl im m o n Th es e .

m o u n ta ins o f Centra l Wa le s fo r m a n undula ting m o o rla n d, wh ich

ris es gra dua lly t o a centra l wa tersh ed, and c o nta in s few esc arp
m ents o r dis tinctive h ill typ es Th e Sil uria n ro c s wh ich co ver . k
th e wh o le regio n c o ns is t o f h a r d grits a nd sl ates , wh ich a re not
eas ily dec o mpos ed Co nsequ en tly, the h igh er eleva tio ns ha ve
.

little so il , a nd a re suita ble fo r no th ing but pasture Th e ext ensive .

sha ll o w d ep re ss io ns of th e u p la nds fa vo ur t h e for m a tio n o f much

m o u nta in bo gla nd (c D a rt m o o r ) .
13 0 TEX T BOO K OF GEO GRAPHY
-

a tributa ry o f th e Co nwa y wh ich it fo llo ws t o it s j u nctio n with

,

the North Wa les c oa st lin e fro m Ch ester t o B a ngo r a nd Ho lyh ea d

- .

North W al es — It will be no te d o n th e ge o logic a l m a p th a t the

no rth west p o rtion o f Wa le s ( no rth o f t h e D o vey River a nd west
-

o f t h e Co n wa y) is ma rked by n u m ero us vo lca nic o u tc rops .

Owin g t o th e h a rd ro cks, esp ec ia lly in the Sn owdo n gro up , true

m o unta in s a re f ound with na rro w bra nch in g ridges bo u nd e d by
s teep p recip ices B etween th e pa rtly iso la te d g ro u ps c o m
.

mun ic a t io n is rela tively ea s y, a s th ey a re a l most d ivid ed by r i ver

valleys, wh ich ris e gra dually to c o m pa ra tively level wa tersh eds .

Fro m B ettws y Co ed to Ba ngo r th e ro a d f oll o ws t he Ll u g wy Vall ey

- -
,

a nd c ro s ses a n a l m o st im p erc ep tibl e wa t ersh ed a t a b ou t f eet b etween

the ro c kp ea ko f T ryf an a nd t he Ca rnedd s t o Lly n n en a nd t h e Na nt
Fra nc o n Vall ey w h ic h it f ollo ws by t h e sl a t e qua rries o f B e th esd a An o ther
,
.

ro u te to Ca rna rvo n cro sses t h e Pa ss o f Lla n b eris f ee t ) b etween the,

Gly ders a n d S no wd o n and d es c end s t o t he la k

,
es a nd sla te qua rri es o f Llan
beris . Fro m Pen y Gwry d a ro a d run s so u th by th e l a k
- - es o f t he Val e of
Gwyna n t t o Po rtm ad o c branc hin g a ga in a t Bed d gel ert to pa ss
,
so u th of

S no wd o n by Ll y n Cwellyn t o Ca rna rvo n ( see Fig .

The Lleyn Pen insula , wh i ch term ina tes in B ra ic h y Pwll, - -

s e a ra te d f r o m Ba rds ey Isl a n d b y Ba rds ey S o u n d ha s a bo ld

p ,

co ast lin e with nu m ero us p ro m o nto ries Th e l o wla nds wh ich

-

, .

fo rm th e grea ter pa rt o f its s u rfa ce a re s epa ra ted fro m t h e co astal

pla in , wh ich fa ces th e M ena i S tra it, by th e c o ntinu a tio n o f th e
Sno wdo n M o un ta in s ys tem wh ich cul m ina tes in t h e lo wer p ea ks
,

(bel ow feet ) o f th e Rival s Angles ey, wh ich is gen era lly

.

lo w a nd c o vere d by gl aci a l d ri ft h a s a m ore equ a b le clim a te ,

,

a nd th ere f ore a l arger pro p o rti o n o f cultiva te d l a nd th a n any

cou nty in Wa les ( a little m o re th a n 3 3 p er
The e a stern po rtio n o f No rth Wa les is s im ila rly d ivid e d into a
nu m ber o f u p la nd gr o ups by river va lleys T o th e s o u th of the .

Dee th e B erwyn Ra nge fo rm s t h e wa tersh ed between t ha t river

a nd t h e Upp er S evern .

T he m ain ro a d to H o l y h ea d
g o e s up the Dee Vall ey by Lla ngoll en and
Co rwen , a nd rea c hes Bettws y Co ed by a t ribu ta ry of t he Co nwa y
- -
Fro m .

Co rwen a road a nd ra il wa y f o llo ws th e f ert il e Clwy d Vall ey by D enbigh to

Rhyl .

The m
li e t e pr
s o n o m o nt ry ending in Great Orm e s H ea d has
o
’

pro ve d a f a voura ble s ite fo r t h e wa terin g pl a ce o f Lla ndudno -

.

Th e m o u n ta in s genera lly a pp ro a ch the N o rth Wa les co ast,

esp ecia lly a t Penm aenmawr, wh ere the h igh est c o n tin uo u s upland
 THE B RITISH ISLES 13 1

in Wales stretch es fro m th e Ca rnedds t o th e sea but there is ,

su fficie nt lo w co ast p la in t o a llo w t h e c o n s tructio n o f t h e Lo ndo n

-

a nd No rth We stern Ra ilwa y lin e

-
T h e lo wer h ills between the
.

Co nwa y and th e D ee a re ge n era lly c u ltiva ted excep t in t he

h igh es t p ortions wh ich a re en tirely pa storal
, In th e loftier
.

Sno wdo n ra nge a nd it s n o rth ea st co n tinua tion o nly iso la ted

-

fa rms o ccur in th e u pp er va lleys m a in ly d evo ted to cattle wh ile ,

th e m o u nta in slo p e s a re entirely u ninh a bited a nd uno ccu ied

p
except by a few sca ttered sh eep .

Th e Bristol Avon — Th e B ris tol Avo n ris es in t he Co ts wo lds

.

n ea r th e h ea d strea m s o f t h e T h a m es, a nd flo ws through t he

Oxford cla y lowla nds , in wh ich it is s ep a ra ted by a lo w watershed
fro m th e Tham es Bas in On t h e east it is d ivided fro m th e
.

Kenn et by the Wh ite Ho rs e H ills N ea r T ro wbridge, wh ere it is

.

j o in ed by tri buta ries fro m t h e lo w wa ter sh ed west of the Va le of

Pewsey ( in which va lley t h e W iltsh ire Avo n ta kes its ris e ) , it turns
west, and passes th ro u gh t h e o o lite rid ge by a na rro w go rge to
Bath . B efo re rea ch in g B ris tol it c u ts a sm a ller g o rg e thro ugh
the co a l m ea sures, a n d tra vers e s th e lim esto n e h ills at Clift o n by
-

a deep a nd na rro w g o rge t o t h e a lluvia l fla t s wh ich bo rder the

Bristo l Chann el .

Bristol o we s its i m po rta nce t o t h e na viga ble wa terwa y fo rm ed

by th e Avo n, a nd t h e a dva n ta ges o f t h e tides in its deep a nd
narrow ch a nnel Owing t o the i ncreas ed s ize of m oder n vessels
.

great docks ha ve b ee n c o ns tru cted a t Av o nm outh At Portis .

he a d, so uth of th e Avo n , wh ere t h e tid e ris es 4 5 feet at spring a nd

3 0 feet at n e ap tid e s , a re s m a ller do cks .

The ea rly trade o f B risto l with t he Ne w Wo rld w a s in to ba cco a nd suga r ,

and co co a and to ba c co a re s till t he m a in ma nuf a ctu res Owing to its fa vo ur

.

a bl e po sitio n it ha s a c o ns id era bl e f rui t trade wi th t he West In di es , a nd

impo rts much d a iry p rod u c e fi o m Ireland f o r whic h it wa s o nce th e ma in

,

po rt of trad e .

Both Ba th B ris to l o w e m uch o f th eir imp o rtance to ea s e

a nd

o f co mmun ica tio n with t h e Pl a in o f S o m ers et a nd th e S evern

Lo wlands, a nd esp ecia l ly with t h e e a st by t h e a rea of rel ative

d epress io n wh ich is fo llo wed by th e Grea t W es tern Ra il wa y through
Wo ott on Bassett a nd S win do n t o t h e Va le o f Wh ite Hors e .

Th e Eastern Co astlands of B etween the

th e Bri stol Ch ann el .
—

broken upl a nds of the so u th wes t p e ni ns ula a nd the Men dips lies
-

the wi de Pl ain of S om e rset This is c o nn ected with th e Va lley

k
.

of the Exe by the Vale o f Ta unto n, b etween the Qua ntoc s and
13 2 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

the B la ckdow n H ills, th r o ugh which the Grea t Wester n Ra ilwa y

runs fro m Tau nto n to Exeter The expre ss es fro m Padd i ngt o n
.

to Exeter a nd Cornwa ll a void t he circuit by B ris t o l a nd p ass ,

through Readi ng th e Kennet Va lley t he Va le of Pews ey

, , ,

Westbury a nd t he eas t of the Pl a in of S o m ers et by Ta u nto n

,
.

Muc h o f the pl a i n lie s a t a low level ( b el o w 100 feet ) a nd in s o m e ,

a rts S e d ge m o or a nd the B rue Levels — th e la nd is a ct u a lly

p
b elow the level o f th e sea a t h igh wa ter a n d wo uld b e flo o d e d a t ,

spri ng ti de s if it were no t protecte d by s ea w a lls a nd s a nd h ill s - -

In p a st tim es d isa str o u s fl o o ds h a ve occurre d a s fa r i nla nd as

Glasto nbury .

In this l o w f enla nd the fiel d s a re d i vid ed by di tches rhino s which

tak e t h e pl ac e o f h edg e s M any o f t hese a re b o rd ered by will o ws fro m
.
,

whic h o s iers a re o bta ined fo r ba s et m a k king -

T h e p oo rly d ra ined al lu vi al
.

so il is co v ered wi th p ea t , w hi c h is c u t o u t f o r f u el .

Th ewho le o f the Pla in o f So m er set is m o re suited genera lly fo r

c attle gra z ing than a gricul ture At t h e bas e o f t h e M endips
.

th ere a re num erous da iry fa rm s Here Ch edda r ch ees e w as .

o rig ina lly m a d e th o ugh t h e na m e is no w a

, pplied t o t h e pro ducts
o f o th er d istrict s Apple orch a rds are l a rgely cultiva ted for
.

0 1d er .

Ma n y islands a nd rid ges o f ha rd er ro cks sta nd o u t fro m th e

lo wla nd Th es e a re u sua lly o ccu p ied by th e villa ges a nd t o wns
. .

Am o ng th e ridgewa y ro ads m ay be m entio n ed that which

fo llo ws the Po ld e n Hills b etwee n the Brue a nd Pa rret l o wla nds .

The m os t no ticea ble is la nds a re B re nt Kno ll ( 4 5 7 feet) e a s t o f ,

Burnha m a nd t h e Isle o f Ava lo n n ea r Gla sto n bu ry wh ich ris e s

, , ,

t o 500 feet in Gla stonbu ry To r .

T he Isl e of Ath elney in S ed gem o o r

whi ch sta nd s o nly a few f eet
, a bove
the g en eral level is suppo sed to ha ve b een the s c en e o f King Alfred s
,
’
refu ge
f rom t h e Da nes It wa s t h en surround ed by a n im passa bl e s wam Mon
p
.
.

mo nth s a rm y wa s invol ved in th e m a rsh o f S ed gem o o r in 1 6 85

’

Am o ng th e f ew indus tries m a nufa ctures in S o m ers et m av

a nd
be m entione d ba th bricks (fo r k n i f e clean in g , a nd tiles a nd d ra in
-

)
p ip e s, ma de n ea r B ri dgwa ter La ce is m anufa ctured at Cha r d
.

and gl o ves a t Y eo vil ( wh ich is t h e ce ntre o f t he crea m eries a nd

ch ees e fa ctories of th e d is trict ) So m e wo o llen cloth is still .

woven at Ta u nton a nd Wellingt o n in t h e south west B oot -

.

making is c a rried o n a t S treet, n ea r Gla st o nbury In ea ch c ase .

it will be no ted tha t th e raw m ateria l cla y, wo o l , and lea ther , ,

is o r wa s, l o c a lly a bu nd a nt
, .
13 4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

7 On t he o ro gra ph ical ma p o f W a l es ma r th e sh o rtes t l ine o f

. k ra il wa y s
f ro m Ches ter to Ca rdiff via Ca rn a rvo n a nd Abery stwith
,
W hy . wo uld it
be d iffi cul t in so m e pla c es to fo l l o w the co a st m o re c lo sely
8 . Ma rko n the r r m a p o f W a l es a l a k
o o g a p hic a l e used fo r wa t er po wer -

a res r o i ev r , a co a s t with steep cl ifi s (indic a te , if y o u c a n the g eo lo gical ,

fo rm a tio n ) a l in e o f sand dun es a sh a ll o w o p en est ua ry a la nd lo ck

,
-
,
ed a nd ,
-

d eep ha rb o ur a wind ing ri ver

, .

9 Ma rko n the sa m e m a p Cad er Id ris My nz dd Pres celly the B erwyn

.
, ,

M o u n ta in s t he Rivals t h e Bla ckM o u nta ins the T eifi Ra il wa y Go wer

, , , , ,

Ply nl im m o n B ala La k, e, Co n wa y W y e a n d Severn Rivers th e Mal vern , ,

Hills the Lo n g Mynd the Clee H ills

, , D is tinguish exa ctl y t he a rea occu .

p ied by t h e sk etch of the Ordnanc e Ma p sho wn in Fig 5 .

10 Sno wd o n ha s five prec ipito u s sid ed rid ges ra dia t ing fro m th e su m mit
. -
.

In th e cwm s bet ween ea ch a re gla c ia l la k es , m o re tha n f ee t b elo w .

The f o rm is tha t o f a true m ou n ta in T he summ it o f Pl y nl im m o n is the .

culm ina t in g
p o int o f g en tly u nd ul a tin g u pla nd s whic h fo rm the c o ll ec tin g ,

gro u nd f o r t he wa ters o f the S evern Wy e, a nd th e d ra ina g e o f Ca rdig an ,

Ba y H o w f a r c o ul d y o u rec o gniz e th es e c o nd it io ns by th e rea d in g of

.

co n to ured m aps 7

East Eng l and (South of th e H umber) and S outh East Eng l and
-
.

Linc olnshi re — On th e west a n o o lite ridge , th e Linc oln Edg e ,

.

runs fro m th e Hu mber t o th e so u th o f Grantham Its western .

ma rgin is m a rke d by a lin e o f villa ges built in a fa vo ura b le p os ition

fo r o bta inin g wa ter a t th e ba s e o f t h e p erm ea ble lim es t o n e The .

Witha m , wh ich rises in th e o o lite ridge so uth o f Gra ntha m , has

cut a ga p th ro ugh th e ridge at Linc oln .

T he site to wn was d eterm in ed by t he im porta nce o f the cro ssing

of t he
pla ce o n t he Ro m an ro ad f ro m Lo nd o n to Y o rk wh ic h p a ssed al o ng the ,

o o lit e ridg e a rid g ewa

y ro a d a n d a v o id ed t he m arsh
y lo wla n d s o n ea ch
s ide T h e F o s s D yk
. e which pro b ab ly d a tes b a ckt o Ro m a n tim es c on
, ,

nec t ed t h e W it h a m and T rent a n d p a ss ed t hro ugh th e Lin c o ln g a p Lin c o ln

, . ,

with B ost o n a s it s p ort was o ne o f t he w o o l st apl e to wn s

, T h e m o d ern .

gro wt h o f t h e t o wn sin c e 1 8 51 fro m t o o v er is d u e t o its p o s itio n

as t he m a rk et to wn of the farm l a n ds o n ea ch sid e o f th e o olite ridg e It-
.

m anu fa ct ures a gricul t ura l m ac hines .

Th e Linc oln W olds f o rm p a sto ra l upla nds between th e o o lite

esca rpm ent a nd t he co ast Th ere a re o nly sma ll ma rket to wn s, .

such a s Lo uth , a t t h e e a stern ba s e o f th e ch alk T h e rest of .

Lin c o lnsh ire is gen era lly a lo w pla in , with a co ns id era ble a rea
of fenla nd Wh en dra in e d, th is is suita ble fo r gra zin g , r o o t and
.

fo ra ge cr o ps , p otato es, etc .

 T HE B RITIS H IS LES 13 5

Grims by is a fish ing p o rt d evel o p ed by a ra il way ( the M an c h est er, S heffield

a n d Lin c o l n sh ire n o w t h e Grea t Cen tra l
, ) The va lu e o f the fish (l ines a nd
.

tra wling ) bro u g h t in to Grim s by m a inl y fro m t he Do gger B ank is nea rly
, ,

e qu al t o tha t o f t he whol e ea st c o ast fro m B erwic kto Do ver and three

times tha t of H ul l T he g ro wth o f Grim sby is d ue to the o rganiza tio n o f
.

stea m tra wlin

g o n a l arg e sc al e c o m bined with sp ec ial ra il way fa c ilities
,

f o r the c a rria g e o f fis h t o Lo nd o n H ul l with its m o re va ried trad e h a s l ess

.
, ,

o pp ort un ity o f c o m etin T h e freed o m o f Grims b y fro m s ilt is o w ing t o

p g .

the s c o u ring o f t he t id es A new d eep sea p o rt Im m ing ha m h a s recentl y

.
-

, ,

been c o ns tru ct ed so m ewha t no rth o f Grim sby o n t h e H um b er E s t ua ry , .

Th e Fens — If t he c o nt o ur lin e o f 20 f eet is fo llo wed fro m th e

.

Hu m ber o pp os ite Hu ll to th e so u th en d o f t he Wa sh , it will be

s ee n th a t t h e l o wl a n d , wh ich a
pp ro xim a tely c o rresp o nds to t h e
fenla nds, is a bo u t 2 m iles wid e n ea r Grim s by, a nd in crea s es in
the so u th t o a p la in f ro m 1 0 t o 3 5 m iles wid e in t h e lo w ba sin s o f
th e W itha m , W ella n d, N en, a n d Ous e .

T he fen l an d wa s f o rm ed by t h e sil t ing u p o f t h e sh allo w c o a s tland s a nd

t h e g u l f wes t o f t h e W a sh f o rm ed by t h e brea k in g thro ugh o f t h e c ha l k
rim . T h e m a t eria l w a s c a rried b y t id a l c u rren t s fro m th e Y o rks h ire cl iff s ,

a nd to l ess d eg ree bro u g h t d o wn by t h e ri vers

a Th e p ea t wa s d epo sited .

a t t h e t im e wh en t he re io n w a s flo o d ed w ith f res h w a ter T h e fo res ts

g .
,

w hich fro m t h e rem a in s f o und m u s t ha ve been o f c o nsidera bl e ext ent

, , .

e tha t the a rea wa s o rigina lly d ry la nd T h ese m a rshla nd s ha ve

indic a t .

been g ra d u a ll y d ra ined s in c e Ro m a n tim es by d y k es a nd em ba n k

m ents ,

a nd a e n o w f ert il e a ri c ul tu ra l a nd
r
g g ra z in g l a n d s
-
.

Ma n y of th e t o wn s insta n ce Ely Ra m s ey Cro wland

,
a s, fo r , , , ,

Ma rch a n d , Spa l d in g o w e t h eir gro wt h t o t h e o cc u rre nce o f

,

gra vel isla nds in t h e fens Mo na steries a nd ca th ed ra ls a s a t

.
,

Peter bo ro u gh a nd Ely testify t o t h e va lu e a tta ch ed in t h e M iddle

,

Ages t o rich pa stu re fis h in g a nd wa ter co m m u n i c a tio n It sh o ul d

, ,
.

be n o ted tha t t h e d ra in ing o f t h e fens h a s b een o n a m uch s m a ller

s c a le th a n in H o ll a n d wh ere m u ch o f t h e l a n d is bel o w sea level
,
-

a nd wh ere fa r gre a ter e m ba n km e nt s h a ve bee n n ece ssa ry t o

r tect h f r t 2 8 d Fig T h e fe n la d
p o t e s e a o n-

( s ee
p 1 a n .
n .

p o r t s o f B o s t o n S p a
,
l d in g W i s b ec h a n,
d L yn n h a ve l o st th e i r
,

tra de o win g t o th e s ilt ing u p o f t h e Wa sh a nd th e m o d ern moreas e ,

in th e s ize o f sh ips .

East Ang l i a — N o rf o lk
. Su ff o lk a re c o vere d by a deep sh eet
a nd

o th er i di c at i o n o f
o

o f gla cia l d e o s its

p m o stly bo u l d er cl a y
, A n
n .

pa st ice a ctio n is a ff o r d e d by th e o ld m o ra in es t o wh i ch ma ny o f
the undula tio ns o f the ea stern po rtio n a re du e The cha lk o nly .
 13 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

c o m es to th e surfa ce o n th e wes t a nd in th e Ea s t Anglia n H eights .

Mu ch of th e cla y is well suite d fo r wh ea t wh ich requires a stiff ,

so il t o su o rt t h e weigh t o f th e ear T h e m o re s a ndy regio ns in

pp .

th e n orth o f No rfo lk a re go o d fo r ba rley ; 60 p er cent o f t he la nd .

in No rfo lk a nd Su ff o lk is a ra ble Th e so uth ern p o rtio n o f Ea s t .

An glia esp ecia lly Ess ex wa s o n ce c o vered with d ens e fo res t

, ,

( Epping Hainault ) wh ich pl a yed a n i mporta nt pa rt in th e h is to ry

, ,

o f Ea stern Engl a n d .

Grea t c ha ng es ha ve ta k en pla c e o n th e coast ga in in o ne pla c e bein g ,

c o u n terbal anced by l o ss in a no ther T he d é bris f ro m t h e d estruc tio n o f .

th e b o ul d er c la y cliffs ha s been carried so uth by c u rren ts a nd p il ed up o n

-

t h e c o as t Di m w ic h ha s been n ea rl y d estro y ed by t h e sea

. T h e Ald e .

River ha s been tu rned te n m il es to t he so u th by a shin gl e ba r Villa g es .

h a ve been buried by sa nd d un es d riven inl a nd by the ea s t wind s

-
N o rwic h .

wa s p ro ba bly o nc e a t th e h ea d o f n a vi g a tio n o f th e Y a re bu t t he es tu a ry ,

h as been sil ted u p B ro ad sha llo w l a g o ons (th e N o rfo l kBro ad s ) h a ve

.

b een f o rm ed by th e s il t ing up o f ri ver m o uths a nd t he c o l l ec tio n o f f re sh

wa ter .

The industries o f t h e ma in to wns illustra te th e influence o f

e nviro nm ent No rwich , o nce a n im portant wo o llen t o wn, h a s
.

ma nufa ctures o f bo o ts (no te lea th er a nd ca ttle d istricts ) , st arch,

a nd m usta r d Ipswich , a t th e h ea d o f th e Orwell Estuary, ma kes
.

a gricul tura l im p le m e nts Ya rm o uth is a fis h ing to wn , with a

.

go o d h a rbour , en ga ged, like Lo wes toft, in th e h erring net fis h ery -

.

Y a rm o uth Ro a ds , p ro tected by la rge sa ndba nks s o m e f o ur m il es

o u t t o s ea , wh ich ha ve b ee n fo r m e d fro m th e wa ste o f th e c o a s t ,

is th e o nly secure a nch o ra ge betwee n Lo ndo n a nd th e H um ber .

H a rwich is a p a cket sta tio n a n d Cro m er, Felixs towe a nd Hu n ,

s ta nto n are s ea s id e res orts, l a rgely d e e nd e nt o n g o lf c o u r s e s

p
a mo n g t h e sa n d du n es -
.

Th e Ch al kRidg es
Up l ands — Ii t h e o u ter ma rgin o f th e
and
ch a lk is fo llowed fro m th e Isle o f Pur beck to th e Chilt em s, it will
be fo un d tha t it generally fo r m s a n escarpment Fro m Ba lla rd .

Po int it runs a s a ridge, with steep no rth a nd so uth slo p es to

Wo rbarro w Ba y ( c o m pa re the Ho g s Ba ck between Guil dfor d a nd
’

Go dalm ing ) Co rfe Castle like Gu il dfo rd sta n ds at a a in

g p
.
, .

th e ridge To t h e west of Wes t Lul wo rth th e ch a lk c o m es do wn

.

t o th e coa st in steep cliffs a nd is co ntinue d a s h igh ground in t h e

,

D o r set Heights , west o f D o rch ester ; but at Ma i d en N ewto n, o n th e

Upp er Fro m e wh ere th e ra ilwa ys fro m Y eo vil , B rid o rt , a n d
p
'

D o rch ester m eet i t turns no rth a nd th en no rth ea st , till tra ver s ed -

k
, ,

by th e Va lley o f t h e S to ur, wh ich m a es a ga p th ro u h t he cha lk

g .
13 8 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

p ortio n of t he ch a lkrid ge between the Wy ly e a nd N a dd er Rivers ( Gro veley

Wo o d ) . rea s in the g eo l ogic a l m ap a re m a rked a s c la y wi th
Thes e a

flin t s ” T hi s surfa c e d ep o sit is c o nsidered t o h a v e b een p artly d eriv ed

.

f ro m th e d ec ay o f the ch alk ( M u ch o f t h e cl a y w hi ch is m ix ed wit h t he

.

p ure ch alkh a s b een wash ed a wa y a n d a n in so lu b l e res id u e o f u n wo rn

,

flint rem ains T h e stiff so il is d ue t o t h e fi lling o f t h e in t ers tic es b etw een

.

FI G . 14 .
— T HE VAL E OF W A RD O U R .

T he w hite represent s t h e Chalkt h e do tted a rea the Po rtlan d a n d Purb eck

,

( J ura ssic 20 an d 2 1 ) a n d the Gau lt an d Green sa n d ( Creta c eou s

t h e b l a ck
, ,

indi c a t es th e vall ey s with d ep osit s o f grav el bric kearth and , ,

a ll u vium .

r r
rt ed by wind ) T he clay is p artly
th e fl ints by a fin e d u s t , p o b a bly t a nsp o .

e e e
ro ba bly in river est u a ries ) formed
d u e t o th e d p osit s ( E o c n l a id d o wn p ,

e e er
in la t g olo gi c al p io d s , a fter kros e a bo ve the sea wh ich h ave
t h e ch a l ,

no t b een c o m pl et el y rem o v ed by d enu d a t io n Th e cha lku pla nd s are .

m o stly d evo ted t o th e keep ing of sheep a nd t he valley s t o c a ttl e a nd da iry

f arms A c o nsiderabl e po rtio n o f the chalkis pl o u gh ed and th e l and
.
 T H E B RITIS H ISLES 13 9

u tilized f or t h e gro wth o f winter f eed f o r sto ck( fo dd er t urnips L ittl e , ,

wheat is gro w n .

T he Val e of War dour thro u g h t h e ea s t o f w h ic h flo w s t h e Na d d er wh ic h

j oins the Avo n a t Sal isbu ry h a s qui te a d iff erent typ e o f s c enery to t he
,

chal k In pla c e o f th e ro u nded d o wns a re m a n y bo ld es ca rpm ents fl a t

.
,

to pped hill s a nd a rea s o f sa nd y h ea ths a nd cl ay fla ts T h e so il s a re m u ch

, .

more m ixed t ha n o n t h e chal k o win g to the d o wn wa sh f ro m the s ca rp s

,
,

a nd th ere i s v ery l ittl e l a nd w h ere t h e so il is t h e d ire ct p ro d u c e o f th e ro c k

o n whi c h it l ies T h ere is c o n se q u en tly g rea t va riety o f wo o dl a n d a nd o f

.

types o f plan t a sso cia tio n s T he bird life inclu d es . rem a rk a b ly l a rg e

-
a

number o f sp ec ies It is in s t ru cti ve t o no t ic e o n th e g eo l o g ical m a p th a t

.

many v illa ges a re situ a ted a t th e pl a c es w h ere s pring s i ssu e f ro m t he green

sa nd a t t h e j un ctio n o f t h e g a ul t Generally th e settl em ents a vo id allu via l
.

fla ts and a re m a d e o n g ra vel S al isb u ry Ca thed ral is a n ex c ep tio n to the

, .

a lm o st u ni versa l a b a nd o nm en t o f t h e allu v iu m t o w a ter m ea d o w s .

Severa l ind u stries ill u stra te th e va riety o f ro c kin this d istrict T he .

qua rries o f Purbe cka nd Po rt la nd s to ne — S al isbury Ca thed ra l a nd pa rt o f

Westm ins ter Abbey were buil t f ro m thi s m a terial At Rid ge cla y is o b ta ined .

fro m th e g aul t fo r th e m a k in g o f t il es b ri c ks a nd p ip es Lo cal wo o l f ro m

, , .

the d o wn s c o n tribu t ed to t h e g ro wth o f t h e W il to n ca rpet ind u s try .

Commun ic a tio n s in t hi s regio n a re generally d e term ined by p h y s ic a l c o n

di tio ns The m o d ern ro ad s and th e ra il wa y s fo ll o w the va ll ey s where the
.
,

to wns a nd villa g es a re situ a t ed o n t he river gra ve l ( c o mp o s ed la rg ely o f

brok en flin t li ke t h e a ll uvi u m b ut less finely divided a nd b ett er dra in ed
, , .

T he o ld R o ma n roa d s f o ll o w t h e c h alkrid ges a nd f o rm ridgewa y ro a d s

, ,

bu t o wing t o th eir s tra igh tn ess c u t a cro ss th e v all ey s into w hi ch t h ey ,

d es c end with s te ep gra di ent s T h es e a nd o th er o l d ro u t es a re o cc asio na l ly

.

f o llo wed by m o d ern hig hro a ds An d o v er to Wa rm in st er by S t o neh eng e ) .

O ld S a rum la y a t t h e co n v erg en c e o f Ro m a n ro a d s S a lis b ury is s it u a t ed .

a t th e c o nv er en c e o f ro a d a n d ra il w a
g y ro u tes w hi c h l a rg ely fo ll o w t h e ,

va ll ey trenches o f th e c h a lk W here g o o d s t o n e is a va ila bl e f o r ro a d

.

mak ing a s in t he Va l e o f W a rd o ur t h e r o a ds a re su p erio r t o th o se o n t h e

, ,

chalkwhere o nl y fii n t s c a n b e lo c ally pro c ured

, .

Th e Cl ay Val e — At t h e foo t o f t h e ch a lk es c a rpm e nt wh ich ru ns

.

no rth e a st fro m D o rs et , a n d is ma rke d by t h e Wh ite H o rs e H ills

-

a nd th e Ch ilt em s, a re so fte rbe ds , ge n era lly o f cl a y, wh ich f o r m

rela tively lo w gro und ( Ki m m eridge cla y, Oxfo rd cla y a nd Ga ul t )

k
.
,

Th is d epress io n b egin s in t h e Va le o f B la c m oo r , wh ich is fo rm ed

by tri bu ta ries o f t h e D o r s et Sto u r , a nd c o ntinu es th ro ugh t h e
Va lley o f th e B risto l Avo n t o t h e Va le o f Wh ite H o rs e Cro ss in g .

th e Th a m e s , it is kn o wn a s t h e Oxfo r d Cla y Va le , a nd fo ll o ws t h e
Tha m es Va lley, o r Va le o f Ayles bu ry, t o t h e Grea t O u s e a nd t h e
Fens .

Where s a nd s o n t e a nd lim est o ne o ccur in th is belt t h e , la n d is

 140 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY

su ita ble fo r wh ea t bu t m uch o f it c o nsist s o f a wet cla y l a id o u t

,

in p a stu re fo r c a ttle a s da iry fa rm s pa y b etter tha n a gricultu re ,

.

Th e p rincipa l to wns a re m a rket t o wns a s Stur m in ster N ewt o n , ,

Gillin gha m a n d W in c a nto n in t h e S to u r B a sin Fro m e o n th e

, ,

River Fr o m e Tro w bridge a n d Ch ipp enh a m o n t h e B rist o l Avo n

, , ,

Abingd o n a nd Wo o dsto ck o n t h e Tha m e s Ayl es bu ry o n t he ,

Tha m e a nd Hu ntin gdo n B edfo r d a nd B u ry St Edm unds o n

, , ,
.

th e O u s e a n d tri bu ta ries S w indo n l ike Crewe is a grea t ra ilwa y .

, ,

j u nctio n Oxfo r d wh ere th e ro utes th ro u gh th e m a rsh la nds

.
,

m eet o n firm er gro u nd a n d Ca m bridge a re Un iver s ities a nd , ,

cen tres o f edu ca tio n .

Th e Chilterns — Th e Ch ilt em s c o nt inue t h e ch a lk u p la nds , wh ich

.

ru n a t a n a vera ge l evel o f 4 00 f eet so fa r a s t h e Ca m , wh ere th ey

s in k in t o l o wer eleva tio ns , t h e ch a l k rid ge gra dua lly d is a

pp ea ring
t o th e no rth Tho u gh th e Lea Va lley is t h e o n ly river ga p th ere
.

a re nu m er o u s o p e n in g s , ca lle d in dis tin ctio n wind ga s , wh ere

p
th ere a re no rivers Th es e a re m a d e use o f fo r th e ra ilwa ys wh ich.

rad iate fro m Lo ndo n t o th e no rt h west a nd no rth -

Th e fo llo wing ta ble sh o ws t h e m a in r a ils wh ich pass no rth west -

a nd n o rth th ro u gh t h e ch a lk u la n ds fro m Lo nd o n
p

Ra il way . Fro m Ga p T o wns .

G . W E . . Pa d d ing o n t G oring O x f ord

R ead ing

G . W . E .
P a d d ing on t H ig h W y co mb e r
O xf o d W ind
R ea d i ng Princes Risb oroug h Ay les uryb
Grea t Centra l M ary l eb one H ig h W y c o mb e R ug yb W ind
P rin ces R isboro u g h
Grea t Central M ary l eb one Ay lesbury W ind

L . N . W R . . Eus on— t W at B erk

h amp s tea d Ru g by W ind
f or Tring

Mi dl and St . Pan cras Lu ton B edf o d r

S t Al
. b ans
G N R
. . .
King ’
s Cros s Stevenag e Peterb o ro u g h W ind
H itch in

G ER. . . S t P an.
cra s B ish o p s S
’
tortf ord Ca m brid g e W ind
N ewp or t

In the Chil t em s a c o nsid era bl e a m o un t of cla y a nd sa nd l ies o n the

c ha lka nd there a re ma ny w o o ds
, .
(T he s u rf a c e d e o sits h a v e b een w ell
p
1 42 T EX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

la rgely been dra in ed th e Lea Va lley a nd th e l o wla nds o f the,

e stu a ry c o nta in a s m a ll p o pu latio n tho u gh m uch o f t h e gro und ,

is o ccup ie d by do cks a n d f a cto ries Equ a lly im p o rt a n t w as t h e .

fa ct tha t th ere is rela tively h igh gro u nd with in a sh o rt d ist a n ce

of bo th s id es o f t h e river (th e flo o r o f St Pa u l s is 5 0 feet a bo ve .
’

t h e wa ter ) .

T he p o p ula tio n o f Greater London wa s in 1 9 1 1 o ver H m illio ns (Liverp oo l

a nd B irk en head t ogeth er a re l ess th an o ne m illio n ) Lo nd o n ’ s p o sition a s a .

busin ess c en tre a nd wo rld m a rk et fo r fo o d p r o d u cts su c h a s t ea a nd co ffee ,

a nd ra w m a teria l s wh i c h a re re ex po rt ed m i lita t es a ga in s t t he g ro wth o f

,
-

r r re
l a ge m a nuf a ctu in g ind u s t i s wh i c h d o no t m a inly d p nd o n su p ply ing e e
ee
t he n d s o f t he l o c a l p o p ul a tio n e er
S u c h a re l a th ( bo o t m a k r
in g ) t im b e.
-

(f u rniture ) so ap a nd ch em i c a l w o rk
, s g a s w o rks e tc Uno cc u p ied l a nd f o r ,
-

, .

m o re fa c to ries c o ul d b e f o u nd nea r t h e river bu t t h e ra tes an d o ther ,

expenses a re hea vy Lo nd on is th erefo re in this respect in a d isa d va nta geou s

.

p o sitio n c o m p ared w ith th ose o th er a rea s wh ere th ere is a sm al l er b u siness

a nd resid ential p o pula tio n W itho u t Go vernm ent su ppo rt Wo ol wich
.

Arsen al wo ul d p ro ba bly ha ve been c o m p el led t o m o v e its g un m a nu fa cture

elsewhere Ship building is c a rried o n u nd er sim ila r d iffi cul ties
. .

Th e North D owns .
—
To th e so u th o f t h e Lo wer Tha m es B a s in
t h e ch a lk fo r m s t w o rid ges— t h e No rth a nd S o u th D o wn s .

T ow ns AN D CO M M U N ICAT IO N S — At t h e ga p betwee n t h e Wey

a nd B l a ckwa ter River s n e a r F a r nh a m t h e c h a lk s in ks t o b el o w

h
3 00 f eet , nd t en ri e s o n t h e e a st t o o ver 400 f eet in t h e Ho g s ’
a s

Ba ck— a steep s id ed ridge betwee n Go da l m in g a n d Gu il d fo rd

-

At Gu il dfo rd t h e es c a rp m e nt is c u t th ro ugh by t h e Wey, but

c o ntinu ed ea stwa r d with a steep f ro nt fa cin g sou th a nd o ver
lo o kin g th e cla y lo wla nds ( gau lt ) At D o rking t h e M o le fo r ms .

a no th er lo w river
ga p belo w 1 50 f eet .

There is furth er wa ter g a p till t h e Va ll ey o f the D a renth is rea c hed

no

no rth o f S e veno a k s th o u g h a rel a tive d e re ssio n

,
p (a w ind g a p p ro b ably ,

d u e to so l u t io n is u sed by t h e ra il way between Red hil l a nd Cro d o n the

,
y
ra il pa sses thro ug h a tunnel T he ra il way fro m Ox ted t o W o ldingha m .

a l so p a sses th ro u g h a tu nn el t h e rid g e being a bo ve 700 f eet T h ere is

, .

a n o th er tunn el o n t h e d ire ct l in e f ro m S e v eno a ks t o Lo nd o n B rid e west

g
o f t he D a ren th Va ll ey Fro m t h e Da rent h to t h e M ed wa th e d o wn s a ain
y g
.

rise to o v er 700 feet Num ero u s ro ad s cro ss this l o ng rid g e o f t he North

.

D o wns so m e by n o tic eabl e wi nd g a p s fro m Go d s to n e t o Ca terh am

,
) .

T he B o u m e in the Ca t erha m Va ll ey is a s trik ing ex a m p l e o f a p erio d ic al

s trea m It o nly fl o w s w hen th e c ha l kis m o re o r l ess sa t ura t ed wit h wa ter
 THE BRITISH ISLES 143

Roch es ter is to t h e th o f t h e Med wa y water ga p and Maid

no r ,

sto ne to th e so u th Ea st of t h e M e d wa y t h e d o wns a ga in fo rm
.

a rid ge (o ver 6 00 feet ) to th e S to u r wa ter ga p to t h e no rth e as t ,

-

o f wh ich is Ca n ter bury a nd t o th e so uth Ash fo r d A lower ridge .

(a bove 500 f eet ) extends t o th e cliffs no rth o f Fo lkesto n e A .

wind gap is fo llo we d by a r a ilwa y fro m Fo lkesto n e t o Ca nter bury .

Fo lkesto ne and D o ver o w e th eir import ance to th eir c onvenient

s itua tio n fo r pa c k
et sta t io ns D o ver was at th e nea rest po int to
~
.

the Contin ent with ea s y a ccess t o Canter bury o ver a sh o rt ridge

,

o f 400 feet .

The Sto ut wa s na vi ga bl e to Cant erb ury in Ro m an tim es a nd navi ga tio n ,

to the T ha m es w a s fa cil ita ted b y t he channel o f the W a ntsum wh ich ,

isolated th e Isl e o f T h ane t Rich bo ro u gh , t he Rom an p o rt of Rutu piae

.
,

is no w t wo mil es inla nd o win g to t he sil ting up o f the S to u r

, T he Goo d win .

Sands o ff th e c oa s t il lu stra t e th e ext en t to w hi c h d epo sits a re buil t up by

the slack ening o f the tides in c o m pa ra tively shallo w wa ter wh ere mu ch ,

sediment is c a rri ed fro m the wa s te o f fria bl e cl ifi s .

O CCUPAT ION AN D POP ULAT IO N — Co ns idera ble a reas o f th e

No rth D o wns a re c o vere d with lo a m and cl a y with fl int s c o n
sequently th ere a re m a ny wo o ds e sp ecia lly of b eech a nd culti
, , ,

vat ed fields o f wh ea t barley o a t s a n d rye with r o o t cro ps such

, , , , ,

a s turn i s
p Th ere is m uch less pa sture a nd fewer sh eep than
.

o n the S outh D o wn s Da iry fa rms are impo rtant in co ns equence

.
,

of th e p roxim ity o f the Lo ndo n ma rket .

The s u bu r bs o f Grea ter Lo ndo n a re no w encro a ch ing o n the

no rth ern sl o p es o f th e do wn s m a n y regio ns su ch a s B a nstea d , , ,

wh ich o w ing to a th in o r sa nd y so il are u nsuita ble fo r farm ing

, , ,

being well fitte d f o r mo dern res id e nce The difficulty o f wa ter .

sup ly is so lve d by d eep wells

p .

If the a rea o f r
t he p a ish o f Littl Bo o h a m ( w s o f th e Do e
ing ga p ) is k et rk
no ted o n a , ee
ma p it will be s n tha t it f o rms a l ong s trip in cl ud ing t he .

Lo nd o n cla y (a gri cul tural la nd ) t he Wo o l wic h b ed s (t he site o f th e vill ag e

, ,

a s in the c a se o f Ep so m a nd Ash tead o n water b ea rin g ro c k s a t th e ba se

,
-

of the ch al k ) a nd th e c hal kd o wns t o th e to p of the c h al kesca rpm ent A

, .

simil ar arran gem ent o f p a rish bo u nd a ries to includ e d iff eren t ty e s of so i l

p
is fo und in num ero us dis tricts o f Englan d ( Ord na nc e S urve y 1 in c h , ,

Many o f th e towns o we th eir im po r tance to mo d ern c o nd itio ns .

Redh ill a nd Reiga te ha ve no m a rked na tura l a d va nta ges o ver

Dorking, wh ich is s itua ted at th e jun ctio n of S ta n e S treet a nd
Erm in e Street Th eir gro wt h h a s bee n la rgely du e t o th e fact
.

that th e ma in lin e fr o m Lo ndo n to B righ to n a nd th e S o ut h Co ast

1 44 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

runs th rou gh Redh ill In so m e ca s es s ettlem ent s were p ro ba bly

.

ma d e o n t h e greensa nd ridge so u th o f t he cla y va le o f t h e gaul t

B l h i l d N t fi ld ) o win g to the ma rsh y cha ra cter o f
( ec n g ye a n u e ,

th e l o wla n d t o t h e no rt h .

Th e W e al d ( see p Th e d e nud a tio n o f the c ha lk ha s ex

.
-

pos e d t h e Hasti ngs B eds (s a nds a nd cl a ys ) , wh ich f o rm t h e h ills

o f As hd o w n Forest in th e ce ntre a nd t h e lower s urr o u nd i ng

pla i ns o f t h e We a ld cl a y O u ts ide th e Wea l d clay t h e Lo wer

.

Gree nsa nd ge ner a lly f or m s eleva te d gro u nd— c g , H indh ea d,

Leith H ill Th e Ga ult for m s a narr o w cla y p l a in, a nd t h e Upp er
.

Gree nsa nd a strip a t t he b a s e o f t h e Chalk As th e Has ti ngs .

B eds a re fo r m ed o f bo th s a nd a nd cla y , u nequa lly re s is ta nt

m a teria ls , th ey c o nta in m a n y d iff ere n ces o f level A no ticea ble .

ridge , wh ich may be c a lled a spu r o f Ashdo w n Fo res t , runs fro m

H eat hfield to Has tings Th is is fo llo wed by a. r idgewa y
r oa d .

T he W eald w a s originally c o vered with n a tura l f orest which wa s c ut d o wn ,

fo r iro n smel tin g T he f ores t w a s p ro ba bly al w ay s m o re s ca nty in the

.

sa n d y a rea s th a n in t he c la y l a nd s T he d en sest fo rests st ill rem a in in g a re

.

to t h e so u th o f Leith Hill in the upp er v all ey o f th e Arun

, T he d iffic u l ty o f .

c ro ssin g by the cl ay ro ad s in wet wea ther l on g interpo sed a ba rrier between

no rth a nd so u th .

On eith er t he Has tings B eds no r t he W ea l d cla y a re th ere a ny

n
la rge to wn s except Tun bridge Wells a nd Hastings H a ilsh am
, .

is t he la rges t to wn o n t h e Wea ld cla y Th e Lower Greensa nd has .

a c o n s id era ble num ber o f to wns Fo lkesto ne Ash fo rd Ma id .

, ,

s to n e S eveno a ks Reiga te D o rkin g Go da l m in g fo r m a lin e fro m

, , , , ,

east t o west o n th e m argi n o f th e ga u lt d epressio n o n W ell dra ined -

s a nd y s o il .

An ex cell ent ill ustra tio n o f t he a ctio n o f t he tid es in d epo siting sed im ent is
affo rd ed b y th e sh ingl e fl a ts o f D ung en ess In Ro m an tim es Lym p ne was .

a p o rt . T h e ancient b ay ha s l ik e Peg wel l B ay nea r Sand wic h been fill ed

, ,

up by th e sil t o f the Ro th er w h ic h h a s f o rm ed Ro mne

, y ma rsh c o n sistin g ,

l a rg ely o f wa ter m ea do ws a nd l o w ly ing field s p a stured by c a ttl e -

T he .

co urse o f th e B o ther has no w bee n d efl ect ed to Ry e wh ic h l ik e Win ch elsea , ,

a n d P evensey w ere f orm erly

,
p orts b ut a re now iso la t ed fro m t h e sea by the
,

sil ting up o f th e river mo u th s .

Th e South Downs — Th e ch a lk fo r m s upla nds to th e west of

.

the W ea ld, but th ere is no d is tin ct e s ca rp m ent fo r a n d is tance

y
till th e So uth D o wns are rea ch ed, wh ich fo rm a n a l mo st c o n
t inuo u s ridge ( 400 to 600 feet ) from Sa lis bury t o B ea ch y H ea d
14 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

ba s in o f the Lo wer Tha m es It fo r m s gen e ra lly a n a rea o f lo w

.

la nd in t h e lo wer c o urs es o f t h e Itch en, T est, Avo n, S to u r, a nd

Fro m e Wh ere sand predo m in a tes , t h e typica l s cen ery is th a t
.

o f the New Fo rest H ere th e p ine wo o ds a n d h ea th er cla d c o m

.
- -

m o ns a re s im ila r t o th os e in t h e west o f Surrey between th e

Lo ddo n a nd th e Wey fro m Al d er sh o t t o t h e Tha m e s In t he .

west the shallow basin o f Po o le Ha r bou r has been for m ed by

th e flo o d in g o f t h e Lower Fr o m e An i mp o rta nt indus try is th e .

p ro du ctio n of wh ite cla y, wh ich is s ent to t h e Po tteri es T wo .

to wn s n ea r th e ma rgin o f th e tertia ry cla ys and sands whi ch i llu s

tra te t h e imp ortance of p o s itio n a re D o rch ester a nd Wmch est er .

D o rch es ter, o n the Fro m e, s ta n ds a t t h e m eetin g pla ce o f t wo -

Ro m a n ridgewa y ro a ds t o Exeter a nd Y eo vil Win ch ester, o n th e

Itch en , is a t t he j unctio n o f t h e Ro m a n ro a ds fro m Sa lis bu ry o n
th e west , fro m S il ch ester o n th e no rth , a nd fro m So utha m p to n
Wa ter o n th e so uth .

S outh amMon has it s f o ur h igh tid e s a da y— two thr o ugh the

S o le nt a nd two through Sp ith e a d Thu s th e di ff ere nces b etwee n .

h igh a nd lo w tid e are m i nim ize d , a nd th ere is a lwa ys s u ffic ie nt

wa ter for shipp ing to m o ve It h as b ec o m e t he grea test shipping .

po rt o n th e so uth c o a st , dr awin g it s expo rts eve n fro m Ma n

ch ester Po rt smo uth o wes m u ch o f its impo rtance a s a na val
.

s ta ti o n to th e Po rtsdo wn c ha lk ri dge to th e north o f t h e to wn,

wh ich h as been stro ngly f o rtified .

Th e Is le of W ig h t — Th e Is le o f Wigh t ha s a ce n tra l cha lk ridge ,

.

wh ich is a c ontin ua tio n o f th e D o rs et ridge tha t rea ch es the s ea

a t Ba lla rd Po int betwee n S wa na ge a nd Po o le Ha r bou r The .

fo rm er co ntin uity o f th e ch a lk o n th e m a in land a nd in the

Isle of W igh t is sh o wn by t h e co rrespo ndin g h ea dl ands a nd
iso la te d pinna cles o f wh ich t h e Need les a re th e bes t kno wn
,
-

exa m ple .

Th e m il d clim ate of th e Isle o f Wight ha s c a us e d t he gro wt h

o f wa terin g
p laces especia lly o n t h e so uth c o as t such a s Ve ntno r
-

.
, .

Co wes fa cing the So lent is a t t h e m o uth of t h e M e din a a river

, , ,

with a br oa d e stua ry extending five m iles inl and t o Newport .

Th is like Cowe s has b ec o m e a ya chting ce ntre owi ng t o the

, , ,
fa v o ura b le tid es .

Th e Ch annel Isl ands a re s itu a ted n ea r the c o a s t o f No r m a n dy .

Th ey co ns is t o f J ers ey Gu erns ey Al d ern ey a nd Sa rk a nd so me

, , , ,
sma ller is lands Like the S cilly Is les th ey h a ve a m ild winter
.
,

(s ee Jers ey Ta ble V , a nd
p a nd m o d era te ra in fa ll
. .

a t a ll s easo ns The cli ma te is su ita ble fo r gra ss— h ence th e im

.
 T H E B RITIS H ISLES 1 47

p rta nt da iry in du s try a n d fo r ea rly vegeta bles to m a to es

—
o , ,

flo wers a nd gra p es Fis h a re la rgely us ed fo r m anu re A

, . .

French pa tozs is s po ken

'

Q UEST ION S .

1 . On the r r
o o g a phi a l c m ap of En gl a nd a nd W ales , na m e t he Weald .

th e N o rth a nd Vale o f W hite H o rse the

S o u t h D o wn s , D un g eness , the ,

Clay Va le
t he Co ts wo ld s Lin c o l n Ed ge t he B ro a d s Ash d o wn Fo res t
, , , , ,

t he New Fo res t S a l isbury Pla in Hind head Leith H ill t he New Fo res t the
, , , , ,

Isle o f Purbec k .

2 Dra w t he wa tersh ed o f t he T ha m es B a s in a n d na m e th e c hi ef tribu

.
,

taries D ra w t he m a in ra il way s fro m Lo nd o n t o bey o nd t he rim o f the

.

Lo nd on Ba sin D is tingu ish be tween t h ose th a t f oll o w wa ter g a p s a nd tho se

.

tha t pa ss thro ug h wi nd g a p s.

3 Ind ic a te o n t h e o ro g ra p h ic a l m a p o f Eng la nd a nd Wal es t he a rea

.

o cc upied by t h e c h a l kt h e ga ul t a n d a ll u vium , . .

4 On t h e m a p o f t h e Lo nd o n Dis tri ct m a rkS ta ines T edd in gto n Lo nd o n

. , , ,

B rid ge Greenw ic h t h e Lea Vall ey S t Pa u l s S t Al bans Ch esha m W a t

’
. .
, , , , , ,

fo rd W end o ver H ertf o rd Epp in g Fo res t Gra vesend Ro c hes ter Cro y d o n
, , , , , , ,

Reig a te Gu ild fo rd D o rk in g Go d a l m in g t he Ho g s B a c k the p a rish o f

’
, , , , ,

Little B o o k ham S eveno a k s Al d ersh o t Na m e t he M o l e t he W ey t he

, . .
, ,

D a renth th e M ed wa y t he Co l n e a n d t he Ro d ing the No rt h Do wn s t h e

, , , ,

Ga ul t Va l e a nd th e Greensand Ridge, Ma rkt h e ra il wa y b rid g es a c ro ss .

the T ha m es .

5 . On thee m a p m a rka m a in ro a d fro m Lo nd o n t o B righto n fro m

sa m ,

Lo nd o n t o Oxfo rd a n d f ro m Lo nd o n t o Exet er a nd d escribe t he p a rt o f

, ,

the ro a d tha t l ies w ith in t he a rea o f t he m a p .

6 Ma rk
. o n t h e o ro g ra p hi ca l m a p o f Engl a nd a nd Wa l es t h e m a in sca rp ed

ridg es and cl y va le3 o f S o u th Ea s t Eng la nd

a Expl a in ho w f a r th e l in es o f
/ -
.

rela tive d epres sio n a re c o m po sed o f less resistan t ro c k s Ind ic a te c a re .

fully the esc a rpm en t s .

7 D es cr ibe a c hal kreg io n in t h e N o rt h o r S o u th D o w ns a nd a f en

.
,

co u ntry Illus tra te a s fa r a s y o u c a n t he c o nn ectio n be tween p hy sica l

.
, ,

co nditio ns and cc u p a t io ns o f t h e inha bitan ts

th e o .

8 Ma rko n th e o ro gra p h ic a l m a p o f Engla nd a n d W a les t h e a rea s ho wn

.

in Fig 1 4 H o w d o es th e Va l e o f Wa rd o ur d iff er f ro m t ha t pa rt o f S al is
. .

bury Pl ain ro u nd S to nehen ge

9 D es c ribe t he p o sitio n o f Lin c o ln Ely W i n c hes ter a nd S o u tha m p to n
.
, , , .

Th e S outh -
W est Peni nsul a .

An irregul a r lin e dra wn fro m th e Qua ntock H ills t o th e T eig n

Valley ma rks o ff th e a rea of ro ck
s wh ic h a re o ld er tha n th e c oa l
mea sures ( 1
1 48 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e Exe Lowl ands — To th e ea s t o f th is th e n ew red r o c s ( 1 8

. k
a nd 1 9 ) f o r m bro a d pl a in s with ge n tle u ndu l a tio ns in th e Lo wer

Ex e Va lley Th e red so il , wh ic h is esp ecia lly su ita ble fo r th e

.

gro wt h o f a pp les , is co nsp icu o u s t o a tra veller by th e Grea t

W estern Railwa y in th e fiel ds a nd a l o ng t h e Ex e Estua ry between
Exeter an d T eign m ou th .

Exeter in th e fertile . a l lu vial Valley of t he Exe is t he , n a u alt r fo cu s of

ro u t es . It is b uilt on th e ed g e of an iso l a t d e up l a n d t o th e ea st of th e
river . rea t W estern Rail wa y rea c h es it fro m t h e T a u nt o n Gap by
Th e G
t h e Cul m o Val l ey c o n t in u in g so u th o f D a rtm o o r to Plym o u th
, T he upp er .

valley o f th e Ex e is fo llo wed by t h ra il wa y w hi c h p a sse s T i verto n on c e e , ,

f a m o u s fo r cl o th til l it j o ins t h e ea s t t o we st l ine f ro m T a unto n t o B am

,

s ta ple sou th o f E xm o o r
. T h e Lo n d o n a nd S o u t h W est em Ra il wa y m a in
.
-

l ine t o Ply m o u t h rea c h es it f ro m H o nito n o n t h e ea s t a nd ru ns no rt h o f ,

D a rtm o o r by Ok eham pto n to Ply m o uth T his f o llo ws fo r so m e d istance .

t h e m a rgin o f a t o n gu e o f m o re f ertil e red m a rls a nd sa nd s to ne whi c h ,

ex tend s west fro m the Ex e Vall ey A bra nc h lin e fo l lo ws t h e T a w Vall ey .

thro ugh the Pl a in o f D e vo n to Ba rn s ta pl e a nd Hf ra c om be In t he thir .

teen t h c entury Ex eter wa s na v iga bl e from t he sea It is n o w j o ined t o the .

estua ry by a ca nal Exm o u th a t the m ou th o f t he river is a gro wing

.
, ,

wa terin g pla c e -
.

Th e Bl ack doWns — Fro m th e B la ckdo wn H ills wh ich bo un d

.
,

th e Va le o f Ta u nto n o n t h e so u th a c o m p lic a te d s erie s o f spurs , ,

with steep sl o p es n ea r th e su mm it s epa ra te d eep va lleys These , .

run ge n er a lly no rt h a n d so uth t o t h e s ea b etwee n t h e Otter a nd

th e Ax e Th e ro a ds fro m th e ea st m a in ly c o nverge o n Ho nit o n

.
,

wh ere th e fertil e u pp er va lley o f the Otter p enetra tes fa r to the

ea st in to t h e h ills Th ere a re few m a in ro a ds a nd o nly o ne lin e
.
,

a cro ss t h e ri dge s T h e u pla nds a re l a rgely u pp er gree nsa nd

.

a n d c o ns is t o f fl a t t o pp e d h ill s with a th in s t o ny so il cla d with

-

, ,

h ea th er firs a n d p in es
, , Cu ltiva tio n is m a inly c a rrie d o n in the
.

m o re fertil e va lleys Ho n ito n a n d Ottery St Ma ry a re fa m o us

.
.

fo r la ce Axm in ster in t h e Ax e Va lley wa s o nce no ted fo r

.
, ,

c a rp ets .

Th e m o uth o f t he Axe wh ere th e red s a ndsto ne rea ch es the ,

c oast h a s been s il te d u p by shin gle a nd sh ips c a nno t no w reach

, ,

Axm o u th o r S ea to n wh ich were o nce i m po rt a n t p o rts We st of

, .

th e Ax e is t h e ch a lk h ea d la n d o f B eer H ea d 4 26 feet
( ) Th e Sid .

a t S idm o uth h a s bee n s ilte d u

p by sa n d a nd sh in gle a n d bl o cked ,

by la n dslip s fr o m t h e sa n dsto n e c l iff s A s til l h igh er cliff than .

B eer H ea d is High Pea k west o f S id m o u th 5 1 1 f eet — the

( ,
) ~

h igh est cliff o n th e so u th co a st o f Devo n Th e m o u th o f the .

Otter wh ere th er e w a s o nce a ha r bo u r is no w clo s e d by sh ingle .

, ,
1 50 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
i ks ra p idly thro ugh th e j o ints o f t h e granite a nd th e so il is
s n ,

u s ua lly dr a nd f th irs ty exce t i h e bo gs F o g s te n d s eri

‘

y p n t .

o usly t o d im in i sh s u n fo rce a nd h in d er c ul tiva tio n

-
Th e win ters .

a nd s rin gs a re blea k
p th e upla n ds bein g o ften sn o w c o vered
,
-
.

Th e ea rliest t in wa s fo u nd o n D a rtm o o r in th e s trea m s but th e ,

d ep o sits h a ve been lo ng exh a u s ted .

The Weathering of Granite — A ch a ra cteristic scenery is p ro d u c ed by the

wea th erin g o f g ra nit e O w ing t o t h e so lu t io n o f t he fel sp a r by c a r b o n ic
.

a c id di sso l v ed o u t o f t h e a ir b
,
y t h e ra in t h e gra n it e d is in t egra t es ra p idl y
, .

Wh ere t h e netwo rko f j o int s is ex c eptio na lly w ell d evelo p ed w a t er and ,

c a rb o nic a cid p en etra te t o c o nsid era ble d ep th s a nd cl a y ( k a o lin ) is , a

f o rm ed As this f orm s a n o n p oro u s s ub stra t u m w a t er c a n no t drain a way

.
-

, ,

a n d t h e gro u n d b e c o m es sa t ura t ed l ik e a sp o ng e a n d pro d u c es bo gs T he , .

Chin a cl a y o bta ined fro m th es e d ep o sit s is o f g rea t ec o no m i c im p ort an c e .

It is f o u n d c hiefl y in t h e S t Au s tell d is trict in Cornw a ll a n d o n t h e edge

.

o f D a rtm oo r a nd is ex p o rted fro m Fo w ey a n d T eig nm o u t h t o t h e P o tt eries

,

a n d t h e c o tto n f a ct o ries o f La n c a sh ire O t h er cl ay s h a v e f a vo ured t h e

.

gro wt h o f p o tt eries o n t h e edg e o f t he mo o r c g B o vey T ra c y O win g t o

—
, .

t h e w id e sepa ra t io n o f t h e j o in t s in m a n y p la c es t h e g ra ni t e t end s t o sp lit ,

u p in t o la rg e bl o c ks T h es e f o rm
. t o rs o f whi ch th ere a re so m e 1 70 o n
,

Dartm o o r t he h ig h est b eing H ig h W il ha y s a n d Y es T or ( a b o v e

, f eet ) .

T hese a re o f t en o n t h e hig h est p o int s th o ug h o n ly a f ew f eet a b o ve t h e

,

g eneral l ev el It m a y b e no t ed t h a t no t ors o r iso l a t ed b lo c k

. s o f ro cko cc ur

i n reg io n s w h ere t h e gra nit e is es p e c ia ll y fin e g ra in ed (fi e so u th W es t S t - -

.

Ives ) .In gra nite reg io n s th e v a ll ey s a re u su a ll y bro ad a n d t h e g ra d ien t s

g entle Th e c lea r strea m s c a rry little sed im en t w h ic h c a n h el p t o a bra de th e
.

valley b o tto m a nd a s th ere is n o clo se fi tt ing c a p o f g ra ss lik

,
-
e t h a t o f t he ,

ch a lkd o wn s t o b in d t he so il t he p artic les t end t o creep g ra d u a ll y d o wn

, ,

wa rd s ( thro ugh gra vita tio n ) an d to fill up a nd o bli tera te ineq ua li t ies W here .

t he gra nit e c o m es t o t he c o a st ( as in Co rn w a ll ) c liff s a re f o r m e d o w ing t o ,

t h e rem o va l o f t he deb ris b y t h e sea .

Th e S outh H am s — To t h e so u th o f D a rt m o o r is t h e regio n
.

kno wn a s t h e So u th Ha m s , wh ich lies between th e Ta m a r a nd

th e Teign , a nd c o nta in s so m e o f t h e m o st fertile l a n d in Engl a nd .

Th i s fo rm s a n u ndu la ting c o u ntry tra vers e d by th e rela tively

bro a d va lleys o f m a ny river s wh ich ris e o n D a rt m o o r , a nd wh ich
ter m ina te o n th e c oa st in dro wn ed es tu a ries, so m e o f wh ich a re
pa rtly s ilted u p o r clo s e d by sa n d ba r s .

Th e Teig n flo ws th ro u g h a w o o d e d va lley o n t h e m a rgin o f

Da rtm o o r t o B o vey Tra cy, a nd wh ere a bro a d a nd fl at a lluvia l
lo wla nd extends t o N ewto n Abbo t , wh ich h a s an impo rt a nt l o cal
c a ttle ma rket, with wha rves fo r th e li m ited sh ipp ing tha t can
-

na viga te t h e e st ua ry T h e m o u th , o n wh ich sta n d s t h e wa ter ing

.
 TH E B RITISH ISLES 15 1

pla ce a nd m a rket to wn o f T eignm o uth, is a l m o s t blo cked by a

sa nd ba nk T he e stua ry is cro ss ed by o n e o f t h e l o n ge st wo o d e n
.

bridges in Engla nd No l a rg e rivers rea ch t h e sea between t h e

.

Teign and th e D a rt Th e m o st im p o rta nt t o wn s a re T o rqu a y, a

.

wa tering pla ce o n th e no rth, a nd Brixha m , a fis h in g po rt o n t h e

'

so uth o f To r B a — a re m a rka bly reg u l a r inc u rve fo r m e d betwee n

y
ha rder lim e sto n e pr o m o nt o ries o f m o re res ista nt ro ck .

The Dart is na viga ble f ro m To tnes (o nce fa m o u s fo r clo th ) a t

the he a d o f t h e w o o d e d e st u a ry .

In th e D a rt Es tu a ry beg in a r anc hing c reek e

s w hi c h c o n tra s t
se ri s o f b ,

with the stra igh t sid ed fu nnel s -

o f t h e T eign a nd Ex e Thes e a re typ ic a l .

o f th e so u th c o a s t t o M o u n t s B a y T hey ill u stra te th e su bm ergen c e o f

’
.

upla nd s d issect ed by ri vers w ith w ell d e velo ed bra n c hes An ex a m ina tio n
p
-
.

o f a n Ord na n c e M a p b e tween t he Da rt a n d t he T eig n w il l s ho w a co m

pl ic a ted series o f ridg es (follo wed by rid g e wa y ro a d s ) th e p a rtia l su bm erg en c e ,

o f whi c h w o u ld p ro d u c e e stu a rie s a nd c reek s s im ila r t o tho se o n t h e c o a s t

Co mm unic a tio n here is rend ered d ifli c u l t f ro m ea s t t o w es t by th e ne c essity

o f c o nsta nt a sc ent o n t o rid g e a nd d es c en t into va ll ey j u st a s o n t h e ,

coa st it is interr ap ted by estu a ries a nd so und s T he Grea t We stern Ra il wa y .

f ollo ws the m a rgin o f t he gran i te wh ere t he gro u nd is l ess bro k en to Ply

m ou th wh ere it rea ches t he c o a s t brid ges th e T am a r a nd a ga in runs inl a nd

, , ,

to B od m in ro a d o n t h e Fo wey River O n t he no rth c o a st s o f Dev o n a nd

.

Co rnwall a sim ila r c o m pl ica tio n o f d issected u pl and s th o ugh l es s m a rk ed ,

in t h e estua r ies e x c ep t in t he c a se o f t h e Ca m el a nd T a w rend er d irect

, ,

c ommunica tio n d ifficul t bo th by ro ad s a nd ra il w a y s alo ng lines pa rallel

to a nd nea r t h e c o a s t T o o verc o m e t h e diffic ul ty o f c ro ssin g th e nu m ero u s
.

steep sid ed vall e s w hi ch o cc u r es ec iall

y p y in t h e sla te fo rma tio ns o f Co m
-
,

wall the Grea t Western Ra il way had to bui ld exp ensiv e a nd lof ty viad u cts
, .

Dartm o u th a t th e m o uth o f th e D a rt wa s o nce o f grea t im

, ,

po rta nce ( cf Cha ucer s Sh ip m a n ) It is no w a ya ch tin g sta tio n

’
-
. .

a nd m a rket to wn To th e west o f th e D a rt is a lo ng s tretc h o f

.

lo w c oa st in S ta rt Ba y o n wh ich a s hingle bea ch cuts o ff the

,

la ke o f Slapto n Ley fro m t he sea To wa rds Sta rt Po in t wh ere .

,

th ere is a lightho us e th e c o a st a ga in bec o m es bo l d a nd it c o n

, ,

t inu es to ha ve th e sa m e ch a ra cter pa s t th e pro m in ent l a n dm a rks

o f Pra wle H e a d B o lt He a d a n d B o lt Ta il
, An a rea o f o ld m et a .
,

mo rph ic ro ck ( 8 a n d 9 ) fo rm s a ba n d a l o ng th e c o a st wh ic h is ,

cut thro ugh b

y th e Sa lc o m b e River ( na viga ble t o Kin gs bridge
when the tide is su ffi ciently h igh ) To th e west o f B o lt Ta il th e .

coast is lo wer H ere th e Avo n Y ea lm e a nd Erm e rea ch th e

.
, ,

sea .

The d eca y o f th e D evo n a nd Co rn is h p o rts is du e t o s iltin g u p ,

a nd a rticul a rly t o t h e in crea s e d s i z e o f sh ips T ra d e is c o nee n
p .
1 52 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
tra t ed t
on c h a s Pl ym ou th wh ic h is t h e na tura l f o cus o f
o r s su
p ,

r oads and ra ilwa ys as all traffic fr o m th e eas t b etween D art m o o r

,

and t h e ridge s of th e S outh Ha m s m us t co nverge o n 1t On th e .

no rth ro utes le ad to it r o und D a rtm o o r b y Tavis t o ck o n th e

,

Ta vy a nd fro m La unce st o n o n th e T a m ar; o n th e wes t routes

,
,

c o nverge o n th e Ta mar Estuary fro m B o dm in fo ll o wi ng th e e ast ,

to W est va lley of the Upp er Fo wey a nd o nly crossm g the north ,

to so uth ridges wh ich exte nd t o th e c o a st s o u th of B o dmi n Moor

a t th eir e as ter n a nd l o wer extre m ity Th ere is no sim il ar h a rb our .

a t a ny p oi nt wh ere na tu r a l e as t to wes t ro u te s re a ch th e co as t .

Fourtee n m iles t o the so uth so u th wes t of Plym o u th S o u nd IS - -

t he Eddystone Ligh th ous e .

Plym ou th c o n sist s o f three to wns : D ev onp o rt on th e ea st o f th e H a mo az e , ,

t he est u ary o f t he T a m ar ; S t o neh o us e a nd Ply m o u th n o rth west o f th e ,

-

Ca twater the estua ry o f the Plym

, Plym o u th S o un d which is three mil es
. ,

wide is protect ed by a break

, wa ter .

To th e wes t of th e Tam a r wh ich fo rms genera lly th e bo u ndary

,

between Devon a nd Cornwa ll a re fo u r m a in area s o f gra nite , ,

genera lly fo rm ing u plands wh ich a re mo re o r less barren and,

uninha bited owin g t o t h e p o o r soil a nd th e predo m inan ce o f

,

p e at. Little will grow exce p t h e a th er a nd furze T h e s e are .

B o dm in Mo o r ( Bro wn Willy rea ch es feet ) t h e St Austell , .

Mo o r the Redm th Moo rs a nd the Land s End The L iz ard

’
.
, ,

fo rms a pl a tfo r m o f s erp entine a nd basalt ( 2 a nd

East Cornwall —Ou th e s o uth west o f B o dm in Mo o r o n wh ich
.
-

, ,

l ike D a rtmo o r litt le ca n be gro wn is t h e bro a d va lley o f th e

, ,

Cam el fo llowe d by a bra n ch o f t h e Grea t We stern Ra ilwa y t o

,

Pa ds to w So uth ea s t of th is lies B o dm in b etween th e va lleys

.
-

o f th e Ca m el a nd F o wey wh ich alm o st u nite in a contin u ous

,

d epress io n a cro ss th e p en ins ula Fro m Bo dm in Roa d t h e Grea t .

W es tern Railwa y fo llows th e F o wey Valley a vo iding t h e St , .

Au stell Moo rs on th e west and rea ch es Truro o n th e Fal Na vi

, .

ga t io n extend ed in Ro ma n tim es a s fa r as Trego n ey o n th e Fa l ,

no w inla nd a n indica tio n o f th e s ilting u p o f rivers

, In th is c as e -

th e d é bris pro duced by strea m tinnin g un do u btedl y a ccelera ted -

t h e fil ling up o f th e o ld cha nn el Falm o uth a t th e h ea d o f the .

,

Fa] Estu a ry is a n im p orta nt sh ip pin g p o rt with ma rine e ngineer

ing wo rk
,

s Steam tra wlin g is ca rrie d o n

. .

h e Lizard — To th e so uth wes t o f Fa l m o u th is t he Lizard

T .
-
.

Thi s is less ba rren th a n th e gra nite regio ns Cultiva tio n is c a rried .

o n o ver a gre a t
pa rt of the upla nd, very h igh h e dges being ma de
1 54 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

er
T h e gla c i s o f t he Ic e a ge d id n o t re
a c h a s f a r so u th a s D vo n a nd Co rn e
ee ere
wall bu t the gro und wa s d ply c o v d with sno w in win t t he m l ting
, er , e
r
o f w h ic h p o d u ced floo d s . rr
It is to t he to ent ia l ro sio n p o d u c d by the s e r e e
ee e e
c o nd itio ns tha t the d pening o f m a ny vall y s b o th in sla t a nd g anite r
, ,

is a ttribu t ed An a ng u la r g ra v el d ep o sit k
. n o wn a s h ead is f o rm ed in
t he b o tt om s o f m a n y va ll ey s in w h ic h s trea m ti n h a s b e en l a rg el y fo un d
,
.

’
FrG . l5 .
— T H E LAN D S EN D .

N o t e t h e ha r d ening a nd b a k
ing o f t h e s edim en ta ry ro c k
s o n t h e n o rth w es t -

c o ast T h e h ea dla nds o f this t yp e o f ro c ka re m o re resista nt th a n t he

.

gra nit e.

T h is w a s s e t free by t h e sha tt erin g o f the ro c k

s by fro s t O wing to its .

weigh t the t in co ul d never h a ve been bro u gh t d o w n by the no rm al rivers

o f th e p resen t d a y .

Th e r o cks a re no n po ro u s a nd m o istu re eith er dra in s o ff

-

ra p idly o r lies in dep ress ions Th e so il is a pt t o be wet a nd the

.
,

regio n is la rgely d evo te d t o ca ttle a nd t o the c u ltiva tio n o f ba rley,

 THE B RITIS H ISLES 1 55

o ats, a nd p o ta t o e s O nly a li m ited a m o u nt o f wh ea t is gro wn

.
.

Th e river s brin g do wn a c o ns id era ble a m o u nt o f s e d im e nt , wh ic h

is depo sited in a lluvia l m u d fla ts, a s a t th e m o u th o f th e H a yle
River , wh ere th e estua ry is p a rtly blo cked A na rro w pa ssa ge h a s
.

been kept o p en by the s c o u r o f t h e tid es, wh ich a llo ws th e exis ten ce

o f a n i mpo rta nt , th o u gh sm a ll h a rbo u r .

Grani te — Th e s la te is appa ren tly less res ista nt tha n th e gra nite ,
.

o wing , pr o ba bly, t o th e fa ct tha t ba nd s o f gre is en qu a rtz

white m ica and to pa z— tend to o ccur in th e gra nite , a nd h o l d t h e
crags to geth er This is esp ecia lly no ticea ble in t h e ca s e o f St
. .

Mi ch ael ’s M ount, a n iso la ted gra n ite boss wh ic h sta nds o u t p ro m i

nent ly in M o u n s B a y , a nd is j o in ed t o t h e ma in la nd by a c a u s e
t ’

wa y dry a t l o w tid e Th is isla nd wa s p ro ba bly a n in la nd h ill

.

in h isto ric a l t im e s su rro u n d e d by t h e s wa m ps o f Ma ra z io n m a r sh .

Ano th er rea so n fo r th e res is ta nce o f th e gra n ite t o ero s io n o n

ma ny c oa st h ea dla nds is t h e fa ct th a t it is p ro tected by a ha r d
inner zo ne o f m eta m o rph ic ro cks, wh ich h a ve been ba ke d a nd
ha rdene d by c o nta ct with th e m o lten gra n ite ma ss es ( th e a w eo le
o f th e gra n ite ) . T h is is sh o wn in a m o s t striking m a nn er o n th e
coa st between Ca rn Na un a nd Po rthm eo r, a nd f ro m Pendeen t o
Cap e Co rnwa ll . S till m o re n o ticea ble is t he rela tive ha r dn e ss o r
resistant po wer o f the greens to n e o r tra p, a ba sa ltic ro ck wh ich
p enetra ted th e s la te p rio r to t h e rising o f t he gr a n ite Th is h a s ,
k
.

li e th e slate, been a ltered by th e gra n ite In so m e pla ces— c g ,

.

ne a r Levant— th e r o cks re s e m ble t h e sl a g o f a fu r na ce .

T hi s to ugh greens to ne m a k es ex cellen t m a teria l fo r ro ad s bu t is ha rd t o

,

break Run nin g th ro ugh bo th t he sla t e a nd t h e gran it e are l o ng dy k

. es
el vans o f ha rd qua rtz p o rp h yry o r fel site whic h h a ve been la rg el y
, , ,

quarried fo r build ing a nd ro a d m etal T he gra nite its lf is qu a rried es

. e ,

pecia lly the in l an d fine gra in e d va riety

-
. O w ing t o t he w a nt o f h a rbo u rs t h e ,

st o ne qu a rr ied o n t h e c o a s t h a s t o b e tra n s o rt ed m a in l
y b y la n d at —
p cg ,

Lamo rna— an d ca nn o t c o m p et e w ith N o rweg ia n gra n it e .

Fro m St Ives t o Ca p e Co rnwa ll th e c o a st c o nta ins a su ccess i o n

.

o f sm a ll o en ba ys d eep cut z aw ns o r fissu res a n d bo ld h ea d

p
-

, ,

lands so m e o f th e m o st striking o f wh ich— c g th e Gu rna r d s

, ,
’

Hea d a re tipp ed with greensto n e

—
Th e gre a t gra n ite bo ss wh ich
.

fo rm s t he La nd s En d Pen insu la is s u pp os ed t o ha ve b ee n fo r m e d
’

a s a m o lten m a ss b el o w th e su r fa ce wh ere it c o o le d a nd t o h a ve
, ,

been o rigina lly c o vered by sl a tes s i m ila r t o th o s e o n th e ea st .

The d enu da tio n o f th es e h a s le ft t h e p re s ent up la n d In rel a .

t ively recent geo lo gica l tim e ( Plio cen e see 2 7 Geo l o gica l Ma p o f,

British Isles ) th e sea pro ba bly s to o d a bo u t 4 20 f eet h igh er th a n

156 TEX T B OO K -

OF GEO GRAPH Y

it do es no w a nd in c o ns equ ence a sh el f ha s been c u t a ll ro und th e

, , ,

c oa s t endin g o n t h e l a nd s id e in a n old sea cliff still clea rl y ma rked

'

, ,

in so m e pla ces a nd o n t h e c o a st in m odern sea cl i ff s wh i ch begin

, ,

o n th e a vera ge a t a bo u t 200 feet Evid en ce o f m o re recent

_
.

chan ges o f level is a ff o r ded by th e ra is ed bea ch es a nd su b

m a rin e fo rests .

Farm i ng — On th is sh elf wh ich o n t h e no rth c o a st is re ,

m a rk
.

a bl level a re t h e m a in fa r m s m o s tly in l o n g s trip s f ro m

y , ,

th e m o o rla nd t o th e sea ( see p T h e la nd is sp li t u p in to .

s m a ll fi el d s s e a ra te d by s t o n e wa ll s m a in ly d evo te d t o t h e
p ,

a stu re o f ca ttle T h e u la n d m o o r s a re gen er a lly u n in h a bi te d

p p .

a nd a re c o vere d b h e a th er a nd fu rze sh eep pa sture be i ng 1 m

y ,

pra ctica ble

Fishing — Th e c o a stla n ds h a ve n o ha r bo u r s fr o m St Ives to
.
.

M o u nt s B a y a nd th ere a re o n ly a few iso la te d fish in g villa ges

’
, ,

a s at S e nnen Co ve wh ere th ere is a n extens ive bea ch o f blo wn

,

sa n d. B etween St Ive s a nd Pen d een th ere is no w n o bo a t except

. ,

a t t h e c o a st ua r d s st a tio n e a st o f t h e Gu rna r d s H ea d wh ere

’ ’

g ,

u s e is m a d e o f a s m a ll sh el f o n t h e cliff a bo ve h igh wa ter T h ere .

is no fish in g o f a n y kin d except wh ere boa ts fro m St Ives c a n ,

.

c o m e n ea r t he la nd (t o vis it lo bster p ots etc ) in very calm -

, .

wea th er Owin g t o th e r o cks a nd stro n g ga les the c oa st is

.
,

genera ll y da ngero us t o sh ipp ing a nd is given a wid e berth Th e ,

.

p ilcha r d a nd ma ckerel fish eries a re c a rried o n fr o m S t Ives a nd .

Newlyn .

M i ning and M ark et Gardeni ng — Ow ing to t in a nd c o pper .

m inin g th ere is a c o m pa ra tively la rge p o p u la tio n o n t h e n o rth

,

west c o as t o f wh ich St Ju s t is th e centre S o m e o f th e m ines

, . .

extend und er th e sea Ra d ium is o bta in ed fro m n ea r S t Ives fro m . .

p itch blend s On th e ea ster n m a rgin o f th e gr a n ite a nd esp ecia lly

-

.
,

ro und Penz a nce th e la nd is sh eltere d fro m th e p reva lent wes terly

,

win ds a nd th e so il esp ecia lly wh ere greenst o n e o ccu rs is suited

f o r mark
, , ,

et g ardening ( bro cc o li ea rly p o ta to es a spa r a gus ) a nd , , ,

t h e gro wth o f flo wer s (na rci ssu s lilie s etc cf S cilly b el o w a nd , , . .

, ,

th e Cha nn el Isla nds p 1 46 a nd no te in Ta ble VII Pe n z a nce )

, .
, . .

T h e cl im a te is excep tio na lly m ild in w inter .

Th e S cilly Isles — T h es e fo r m a bou t 140 gra n ite is la nds a nd

.

ro cks 25 m iles so u th wes t o f t h e Land s End O nly five a re in

’
-
.

ha bite d
’
T h e la rges t is S t Ma ry s , with Hu gh To wn
. T resc o is . .

n o te d fo r its ga r d ens o f su btr o ic a l

p p la nts, wh ic h will gro w o ut
o f do o r s o w ing t o th e a bs e nce o f c o l d w inters s ee Ta ble V ,
( .

The r a infa ll is m u ch le ss th a n tha t o f Co r nwa ll , being o nly a bo ut

158 TEX T B OO K -

or GEO GRAPH Y

lim esto n e (Lo u gh Roe a nd Lo u gh Derg o n t h e S ha nno n ) Th e .

h igh er p o rtio n is gra ssla n d wh ile th e lo wla nds fo r m bo g o wing

, ,

t o t h e sa tu ra t io n o f t h e lim es to n e with wa ter Pea t is cut fo r .

fu el a n d m o ss litter is p r o c u re d fo r c a ttle
, T h e lim esto n e so il is .

rich in lim e a nd ph o spha tes a nd being c o vered with drift in , , ,

m a ny pla ces f o rm s a goo d a gric u ltu ra l so il ; bu t th e co u ntry is

gen era lly mo re su ited fo r ca ttle ra is in g a nd p ig keep ing - -

Th e S h anno n ris es a little ea s t o f Lo ug h Allen ( 1 6 1 f eet ) in a n

u nd ergro u nd so u rce in t h e li m es t o n e a nd flo w s th r o u gh m a n y ,

la kes To th e so u th o f Lou gh Rea t h e river na rro ws a nd is

.
,

cro ss ed a t Ath l o n e by th e m a in lin e fro m D u b lin t o Ga lwa y .

S o u th o f Lo u gh D erg it c u t s it s w a y th r o ugh h ill s a t Killalo e .

As a c a na l h a s been m a d e ro u nd t h e r a p ids it is na viga ble fo r ,

200 m iles .

Lim eric ks ta nd s at this estua ry a t t he lo wes t brid g e p o in t

t he h ea d of .

It h a s ba c o n c u rin g a nd ta nn in g ind u s tries t he hid es being m o s tly p ro c u red

-
,

l o c a lly th o u g h so m e a re im po rted f ro m S o u th Am eri c a

, It ex p o rts d a irv .

pro d u c e t o Grea t B r ita in N um ero u s rou t es c o n v erge o n Lim eric k

.
— f ro m

t h e S ha nno n Va ll ey fro m Cla re a n d Ga l wa y in t h e n o rth w es t fro m Kerry

,
-

in th e sou th wes t f ro m M a ll o w a n d Co rkin t h e so u th a nd by th e Go ld en

-

, ,

Vale th e ric h a g ri cul tura l d epressio n o n the so u th ea st between t h e S lieve

,
-

f elim a nd Ga l ty Mo unt a in s .

T o th e we st o f t h e Sha nno n th e c o u ntry is wetter , a nd a s there

is less bo u ld er cl a y t h e so il is p o o rer T h ere a re m a n y ho gs a nd .

la kes , o f wh ich th e prin cipa l a re Lo u gh Co nn , a nd Lo u gh s Mask

a nd Co rrib c o nnecte d b
, y a n u nd ergrou nd river T h e lim e st o ne .

pl a in rea c h es t h e sea in Ga lwa y B a y .

Co nna u g h t h a s lo s t a r er ro po rtio n o f its in h a bita nt s by

g ea t p em ig a r tio n
than a ny o th er regio n r ex cep t Kerry and Co rk
o f I el a n d .

Wes tern Co nna u gh t is c o m po s e d o f o ld crys ta ll ine r o cks a nd ,

c o nta ins m a ny iso la te d u pla nds a nd mo unta in s Th ere is a la rge .

a re a o f m o u nta in wa s tel a nd Th ere a re grea t va rietie s o f m o un

.

ta in a nd c o a st fo r m in th es e W estern Hig hl ands wh ich ha ve th eir ,

o rigin in d iff ere nce s o f r o ck structu re In th e so uth o f Co nne .

ma ra a re iso la ted h ill s sta nding o n a p la in c o vere d with ho s a nd

g
s m a ll l a ke s The c oa st is in d ented by br oa d sha llo w ba ys
.

stu dde d with is la nds To t h e n o rth ext en d in g t o th e lo ng d eep

.
, , ,

a nd na rro w So u nd o f Kill a ry Ha r bo u r is a gro up o f do m e ,

sh a e d m o u nta in s — th e Twelve B ens s epa ra te d by na rro w

p —

va lleys a nd d eep l a kes Fa rther no rth is a ta blela nd f o rm ed by

.

mo u nta ins with bro a d fl a t t o ps a n d s teep s id es , T he Pa rtry .

 THE B RITIS H ISLE S 159

Mounta in s a ff o r d th e b es t exa m ple o f th is typ e Fro m Killa ry .

Harbo u r to Clew Ba y, in wh ich a re nu m ero u s lo w isla nds t h e ,

coast is lo w sa ndy a nd with few in d enta tio ns To t h e no rth is

, , .

Ach ill Isla nd th e la rgest a nd lo ftiest o f a lin e o f eleva te d isl a nds

,

o n th e c o a s t Ach ill Hea d o n th e west p ro j ects a s a na rro w

.
, ,

ridge with s teep clif fs in to th e Atla ntic To th e no rt h is the lo w .

Penins ula o f Mullet c o nn ected with th e la nd by a na rro w isth m u s

,
.

Th e interio r o f Ma yo ris e s in to a l mo s t u n in h a bite d u pla nds a nd

iso la ted su mm its su ch a s Neph in wes t o f La ke Co nn O nly t wo
, ,
.

ra ilwa ys rea ch th e west c o as t o f Ga lwa y a nd Ma yo a t Ma nnin Ba y

a nd Ach ill So u nd Th e no rth ea s t o f Co nna u gh t wh ich fa ces
.
-

Sligo a nd D o nega l B a ys h a s t he im p o rta nt p o rt o f S lig o a

, ,

na tu ra l o utlet fo r th e centra l lo wla nd by a ga p th r o u gh t h e c o a st

mo unta in s .

Th e Eastern Part of th e Central Pl ai n is d ra in e d by th e Lifl ey

fro m th e Wickl o w Mo u nta ins a nd th e Bo yn e wh ich ris es in t h e ,

Bo g o f Allen Mo re cerea l s— ba rley wh ea t a nd o a ts— a re gr o wn

.
, ,

tha n o n th e wetter regio ns o n th e west .

Iris h con c en tra tio n in A D . . 1 0 14 on t hi s pla in b o k r

e th e p o w er o f t he
Danes wh o had p en t ra ted in to th e in terio r
,
by t h e so u nd s a nd iv r ers a nd
,

h ad fo rmed settl em ents by A D 850 a t W a t erf o rd eric k and Du blin

. .
, L im ,
.

T he Engl is h p al e ex t end ed in 1 5 00 to th e B o g o f All en in t he interio r to t he ,

Wick lo w M o un ta in s o n t he so u th a nd D un da l kin th e n o rth ,

.

Dublin wa s fo u nd ed a t th e first po int so u th o f th e Wic lo w k

Mo un ta ins , wh ere th ere w a s ea s y c o nn ectio n a cross th e centra l pla in
with the rest o f Irela nd It beca m e th e ea s tern ter m inu s o f roa ds
k
.

—
the m a in r oa d t o Ga lwa y runs a lo n g th e cres t o f a n es er, a
ridge o f gla cia l gra vel— 0 1c ca na ls t o th e Shanno n a nd Ba rro w,
a nd o f ra ilwa ys , a nd th e
po rt o f s tea m sh ip l ines fro m H o lyh ea d
a nd Liver o o l Du blin ha s brewin g a nd d is tillin g indu s tries a nd
p .

chem ica l wo rks, a nd a co ns id era ble ca ttle expo rt .

On th e no rth t h e B oyne, with Dro gh eda , like Dunda lk, a n o ld

fo rtified to wn , a t its m o nth , ha s p la yed a grea t p a rt in Irish
h isto ry . It h a d to be cro s s e d in a ny a d va n ce o n Du blin ; th e
poss ess io n o f its fo rts d eter m in ed c a m pa igns Nu m er o u s str o n g .

castles o n its banks f urth er sh o w its im p o rta nce On a h ill .

a bo ve th e Bo n e wa s T a ra , th e a ncie nt c a ita l o f th e Iri sh Kin gs

y p .

South East Irel and — Th e S outh East Hig h l ands ru n, like th o s e

-
.
-

of No rth W es t D o n ega l , in a no rth e a s t t o so u th wes t d irec ti o n ,

- - -

and a re d ivid e d in to t w o
pa rts by t h e Sla n ey T h e B a rro w .

a nd the No re c u t th ro ugh th eir wes ter n e dge , a n d , a fter th eir

160 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

junctio n fl o w into Waterfo r d Ha r bo u r Th es e river s fo rm

, .

im po rta nt ro utes fro m th e centra l l o wland to the so u th c o a st .

Ca rlo w o n the Ba rrow a nd Kil kenn y o n th e No re ( with a sma ll

c oalfield) s ta nd at th e jun ctio n o f na tura l route s Wa terfo rd . ,

n ea r th e m o uth of th e Suir wh ich flo ws in to th e No re Es tua ry

, ,

wa s fo un d ed by the D a n es o n a cc o u nt o f its eas y c o mm un ica tio n

wi th th e so u th wes t by th e Su ir Va lley
-
Its po s itio n h a s ca us ed
.

it to beco m e a n impo rtant po rt a nd ra ilwa y centre W exf o rd a t .

,

the m o u th o f th e S la ney is t o o sh a llo w for la rge sh ips a nd a

, ,

ha r bo u r h a s been constructed a t Ro sslare o utsid e th e m o u th of ,

the ba y B etween this p o rt a nd Goo dwick in Pe m bro kesh ire

.
,

(see p . is th e shortest s ea pa ssa ge to Engla nd -

.

Th e W i ck low Hill s are m a inly c o mpo sed o f the gra nite a ,

fo rm atio n wh ich ext ends fro m Kin gsto wn Ha r bo ur t o th e B a rro w

Th ey fo rm a p la teau with s teep fla nk
.

s wh ich ris es int o do m e ,

sha p e d s u mm its In it s s tretch es o f bo gla nd a nd wo o d ed va lleys

.

th is regio n h as m a ny po ints o f res embla nce with D a rtm o o r In .

pla ces th e m ou nta ins c o m e clo s e to t h e c oast wh ich is sh elterless , ,

a n d h a s o nly t wo s ma ll h a r bo ur s— Arklo w a nd W ickl o w— be

tween W ex fo rd and Dublin No rth o f W icklo w th e ra ilwa y (see

.

Atla s o f British Isl es) runs a ctua ll y a l o ng th e cliff fo r so m e dis

ta nce a nd fa rth er no rth on th e na rro w c oa st it is o nly a few feet
,

a bo ve th e s ea Sh eep are kept o n th e h ills

. So m e gra nite is .

qua rrie d a nd c o pp er in th e Avo ca Va lley The W ickl o w go ld

, .

field p ro ba bly supplied the m a teria l fo r th e fa mo us go ld o rna

m ents o f Irela nd .

No rth ea s t o f a lin e dra wn f ro m Lim erick t o Wa terfo rd wh ich

-

fo ll o ws th e S uir Va lley the rivers genera lly fl o w so u th wa rd

,

throu gh a n u ndul at ing upl a nd o n wh ich stand iso lated h il l m a sses .

Th e B a rro w a lo ne rising in S lieve B lo o m ha s a c o ntin u o u s lo w

, ,

la nd va lley from th e centra l pla in to th e sea It is na viga ble .

fro m Ath y wh ere it is j o in ed by a bra nch o f th e Gra nd Trunk

,

Ca na l .To the south west o f S lieve B lo o m a re th e Devil s B it

-
’

Mo u nta in s in wh ich both the S uir a nd th e No re ris e

, Th es e a re .

c ontinu ed fa rth er to th e s outh west as the Silvermin es a nd fo rm

-

the western wa ter sh ed of th e Upp er Suir .

S outh W est Irel and — To th e so u th o f th e grea t bend o f th e Su ir

-

th e h ill ra nges a nd va lleys h a ve a gen era l e as t a nd wes t d irection .

Th is is sh o wn fa rth er no rth t o t h e so uth of T i era ry, in the

pp
,

Ga ltee Mo u nta ins and Ba llyho ura H ills, wh ich a re s e a ra te d fro m

p
th e Kno c k m ealdo wn Mo unta ins o n t h e so uth b an e a s t and west
y
depress io n fo rm ed by th e Ta r, a tributa ry of the S uir, a nd th e
Funshio n, a tributa ry of the Bla c wa ter . k
1 62 T EX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

m o u nta in l ou gh s a nd d eep va lleys Th e c o a st is ind ented a nd . ,

h as m a n y i slands o f wh ich Ara n is t h e la rges t S o m e o f th es e

,
.

a re o ccu ied fo r st o ck fa r m in g a n d fis h in g o w mg t o th e wet

p
-

clima te a nd th in so il Th ere is little a gricu lture Man y sh eep

.
.

a re ke t o n th e h il l s B etwee n L o ugh S w illy n d th e Fo yl e ] S

p .
a _ .

th e m o unta in o u s p en insu la o f Inish o w en wh i ch t ermm a t es l n ,

Ma lin H ea d th e m o st no rth ern p o in t o f Irel a n d .

Th e Mo u rne o r F o yle a s it is k
,

no wn n ea r t h e e st u a ry has
, ,
.

nu m erou s tribu ta ries— t h e Fir m a n d Derg o n t h e we s t a nd th e ,

Owenk il lew a n d Ca no w en o n t h e ea s t T h es e dra in m o st o f East .

D o n ega l a nd Tyro n e a nd th eir va lleys a re fo llo wed by ro a ds a nd

,

ra ilwa ys wh ich c o nverge o n Londo nderry Th is is a n i m po rta nt .

s h ipp in g o rt th o u gh la rge s te a m er s t o u ch a t Mo vfl le S h i rt
p
.

m a king is o n e o f t h e prin cipa l m a nu fa ctures .

Th e wa ter sh ed b etween th e rivers wh ich fl o w in t o Lo u gh F o yle

a n d t h e Ba nn re a ch e s o ver feet in th e Sp errin Mo u nta ins .

Fa rth er so u th it is little m o re th a n 500 f eet in t h e u pl a nds o f

S o u th Ty ro n e wh ich s epa ra te t h e ba sin s o f t h e B la ckwa ter a nd
,

Mo u rn e .

North East Irel and — Antrim is m a in l y c o vered with a sh eet o f

-
.

basa lt wh ich exten ds o ver th e No rth Ea st T a b lel a nd th e B ann

,
-

Lo wla nd a nd th e h ills o f Lo n do nd erry wh ich fo rm a n o rth ern

, ,

c o ntinua tio n o f t h e Sp errin Mo u nta in s .

T h is ba sa l t w a s f o r c ed u p t hro u g h t he u nd erl yin g ro c ka t a l a ter geo

l o g ic a l a g e th a n t h a t a t w hic h t h e ch a l kwa s d ep o sited a nd the j u n ct io n of ,

th e bla c ka nd wh it e ro c k s is s trik ing o n m a ny pa rt s o f t he s ea cl iff s a nd

es ca rp m ents In the no rth t he ba sal t rea ch es t he sea a lo ng m o st o f t he
.

c o a s t A rem a rk
. a bl e ex a m p l e o f l a v a c o l u m n s a nd terra c ed cl iff s d u e to

s u cc ess iv e l a y ers o f l a va i s fo un d a t t h e Gia n t s Ca u sew a y t o t h e ea st o f t he

’

Ban n Estu a ry .

Lo ugh Nea gh , th e la rges t l a ke in Irela nd , ha s a sha llo w ba sin .

It w a s p ro ba bly du e t o t he f o rm a tio n o f a fa ul t th ro ugh th e

s in kin g o f
pa rt o f t h e vo lc a n ic sh eet .

Th e North East Tablel and is fl a t to pp ed , a n d ha s n o d istin ctive

- -

su mm its It c o ns ist s o f a wid e O p en d o wn la n d c o vere d with p eat,

.

a nd u no ccu p ie d exce p t by sh ee Th e va lleys are n a rro w, a nd

p .

h a ve s teep s id es Th e t a hlela nd ris es steeply f ro m th e s ea , a nd

.

th e c oa st ro a d fo ll o ws t h e sh o re lin e s o m ewh a t clo s ely

-

No m a in .

ro a d cross es th e u pla nd (see Atla s o f t h e B ritish Isles ) The .

l a rgest p o p ul a tio n is t o th e so u th o f Lo u gh N ea gh in th e va lleys

o f th e La ga n , th e B a nn, a nd th e B l a ckwa ter A lin e o f lin en to wns .

stretch es a l o n g th is l o wl a nd— Arm a gh , M o na gha n, Po rt a d o wn .

 TH E BRITISH ISLES 1 63

Lurga n, d Lis burn

an Oth er s i m ila r to wns to th e west a nd n o rth
.

o f Lo ugh N ea gh a re Dun gann o n ( with co a l m in e s) , Ba llym e na , -

a nd Co lera ine .

The na tura l h arbour o f B elfas t Lo u gh has given B elf ast g rea t

adva nta ges a s the na tura l o utlet o f th e p o pul o u s a rea m entio ne d .

It is largely enga ge d in sh ip build in g Coa l is co nta ined fro m .

Ayrsh ire a nd Cu m berla nd , a n d iro n fro m B a rro w T h e wa ter .

is especia lly suited to t h e blea ch ing o f lin en There a re brewin g .

and distillin g indus trie s, to ba cc o fa cto ries, a nd h e m p r o p e ya r ds .

The Upp er Bann a nd the Va lley o f th e Newry lea d t o Ca rl ing

fo rd Lo ugh, a true fj or d, o n wh ich sta nds Greeno re, fro m wh ich
boa ts run to Liverpool and Ho lyh ea d Strangfo rd Lou gh, t o .

th e so uth east of B elfas t, is sha ll o w a n d has nu m erous is la nds, .

The lo wla nds of D o wn are well p o pul a ted, a nd the to wns a re a lso
enga ged in th e lin en indus try T h e principa l a re Ba ngo r, New
.

towna rds a nd Co m ber, to th e ea s t o f B elf ast

,
D ona gha d ee is th e .

ma in po rt, fro m wh ich is th e sh o rtest pa ssa ge to S cotla nd but a s

Po rt Pa trick is unsuita ble fo r la rge bo a ts, th e Lam e S tra n ra er -

ro ute is usu a lly taken .

The Mo urne Mounta ins between Dundrum B a y a nd Ca rl ingfo r d

Lo ugh fo rm a rem arka ble vo lca n ic gro up, with do m ed su m m its
a nd sl o in g s ide s
p The ro cks e xpo s ed a re la rgely gra nite
. .

The Erne Va lley, in th e so uth west o f Ulster, is a li m esto n e-

regio n The Erne fo rms a rema rka ble s eries of l a kes o n it s c o u rs e

.

to D onegal Bay .

Isl e o f M an .

No rth o f Rams ey the la nd is a lowland c o vered with drift .

This is bo unde d o n th e no rth wes t c o a s ts by th e san d du n es o f

- -

the Ayre The south ern p o rtio n is genera lly h illy, m u ch o f it

.

exceedin g 1 , 000 feet Sna efell . feet ) 18 th e h igh es t s u mm i t .

Fro m its t op the al most equ idista nt coasts of Irela nd, S c o tla nd,
a nd Engla nd ca n be s een o n a cle a r da
y Th e ra ilwa y fro rri .

Do uglas to Peel fo llo ws a d epress io n fro m east t o west , wh ich

divi des th e s outh ern upla nds Th ere a re nu m ero us s m a ll fishin g
.

to wns, wh ich a re resorted to by to u rists in th e s u m m er The .

clima te 1s suita ble fo r ca ttle Impo rta nt lea d m ines a re wo rked

.

QUEST ION S .

1 On the oro graphic al map o f Irela nd name the Wic k

. l o w Hil ls t he
, ,

Mo urne Mo untains, the No rth Ea st T a bl ela nd Lo ugh Ree th e Pa rtry

-

, ,

Mountains Nephin, Achill Isla nd th e Hig hl and s o f Doneg a l t h e Gal tee

, , ,

Mo unta ins Bantry Bay , Cl ew B ay Lo u g h Foyl e, th e Rivers No re S u ir,

, , ,

Bla ck
wa te r, Erne, Bann , Bo yn e a nd Liff ey , .
1 64 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

2 . D ra w on th e e m ap
sa m roa d s wh ic h fo llo w t he c o a st m o s t
t h e h ig h
c lo sely fro m Lo nd o nd erry t o Co rk E x pl a in w h ere y o u c an why ro ad s
. , ,

d o n o t f ol l o w th e c oa s t in m a ny p l a c es .

3 Des c ri be the p hy sic al c ha ra ct er a nd o c c u p a tio n s o f t he inh a bitan ts

.

o f a g ra nit e h ighl a nd , ba sal t t a bl el a nd a nd a l im es to ne pl a in

a ,
.

4 W h a t a re t he c h a ra ct eris tic ind u s t ries o f Ireland

. T o w ha t ex tent
ha ve they been d etermin ed o r d o th ey d epend o n p h y sic al c o nd itio ns 7
‘

5 D esc rib e t h e p o sitio n o f Du blin Co rk Lim eric k a n d Lo n d o nd erry

.
, , , .

T o w h a t ex ten t is their im po rtan c e d ue t o th eir b eing t h e p o rts o f th e su r

ro u nding d istri cts Z ‘
1 66 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

2 For Fi shing — Th e ch ief fish in g regio ns o f Eur o p e a re o n

. .

sha ll o w ba nks— c
g , th e Icela nd B a nks , th e Fa r o es , t h e Lo fo te n
Is la nds ( c o d a nd ha libu t ) , W es t N o rwa y ( h erri ngs) , N o rth Sea
(h erri ngs , fl at fish) we st c o a st o f S c o tla nd , Irela nd , Fra nce
-

(cf a ls o th e Ba nks o f Newf ou ndla nd , th e Kurile Isla nds , a nd

.

Y ez o in Ja pa n ; s ee p p 3 9 7 , .

T he brea thin g w hich t h e m o s t im po rta n t fo o d fishes ta k

a pp a a u s r t by e
i n o xy gen fro m wa ter is n o t a d a p ted to in c rea s ing p ressu re a t g rea t d ep ths .

It is d o u b tful if even so c al l ed d eep sea fishes — c o d h al ibu t et c

- -
, , .

d esc end m u c h b el o w 1 5 0 f a tho m s H en c e all fo o d fishes a re c o n fin ed t o

.

a n a rro w z o n e o f ra rel y m o re th an 1 00 f a tho m s f ro m t h e su rf a c e— a l e to

th e Con tinen t a l Sh el f a nd shall o w sea s All fi sh es a t spa wning t im e d ep o s it
.

th eir o va o n gra velly and sand y bo tto m in sh a ll o w er wa ter tha n their u sua l
ha u n t s p a rtly f o r sa fety a nd p a rtly t o secu re li ttl e p res s ure du ring th e
, ,

d evelo pm en t o f th e y o ung f ry T h eref o re th e f rin g es o f c o n tin ents a re

.

visited a t s pa wnin g tim e -

Pl ank ton is the nam e g iven to the c ountl ess varieties o f m ic ro sc o pic but ,

in credi bly n um ero u s g el a tin o u s o rga n i c bo dies fo und in a l l wa t ers bu t

, ,

e spe cial ly in f ree o c ea n s Diff eren t va rietie s a re c h ara ct eri st i c o f d iff eren t
.

d ep th s a n d a t d iff eren t t em p era tu res In t h e firs t 200 f a tho m s they are

.

la rg er and m o re num ero u s Th e t in y glo b ul es o f g el a tino u s m a tter a re

.

ca rried al o ng by cu rrent s and su rf a ce d rift s In irregu la r bo ttom s and .

sh a ll o w in g w a ter ed d ies a re p ro d u c ed by o pp o sin g c u rren ts a nd h ere th e

, ,

pla nk to n c ol lects T h erefo re t he fish w hi ch f eed o n it a re f o und o n b an k

. s

a n d t h e f rin ges o f c o n t inen t s w h ere t h e curren ts f o rm e d d i es esp ec ially ,

where c o l d a nd wa rm c u rrents o r d rif ts o r tid al cu rren t s a bu t In on

, , , .

cl o sed sea s wh ere c urrent s are less reg u la r in f o r c e a nd d irect io n t h e

, ,

f s h eries a re less c ert a in a n d t h e fish p ro b a b ly less a b u nd a nt

i , .

Structure .

Th e va riety o f stru ctu re in Eu ro p e is well sh o wn by it s Pl ains

th a t is, its a reas o f c o m pa r atively fl a t l an d, u s ua lly lo wla nd .

Am o ng th e m m a y be no te d th e wo rn gra n ite pla tea u o f Fin land

( p 29 0) th e u ndul a tin g m o ra ine c o vered pla in o f No r folk
.
-

(p . th e gl a ci a l drift p l a in o f No rth Ger m a n y ; th e Hu nga ria n

Pl a i n c o vere d by di la viu m d epo s ite d b y rivers in rece nt ge o lo gic a l
,

tim es ( p . th e Russia n p l a t fo r m ( p fluvi a l p la ins . .

s u ch a s t h e Delt a o f t he Rh i ne ( o r t h e fl a t ba s i n o f the
p .

M i dd le Rh i n e ; ZEo lia n pla i ns c o vere d with wi nd b o r n e s a n d such -

a s t h e La n d e s in th e so u th we s t o f Fr a nce ; t h e fl a t
p la in s in
-

encl os ed b a s ins o f th e B a lka n Peni nsu l a ( p a nd th e

p o lyes .

o f th e Kar s t (
p .
 EU R O PE 1 67

Tectonic M ountai ns— tha t is , m o u nta in s fo r m ed by fo ld ing a n d

fracture (see p 20)— are repres ented by th e l ine of ranges wh ich
.

traverse Europe fro m th e S ierra N eva da and Pyrenees in th e

west thro ugh th e Jura, Alp s Ca rpa th ia ns, a nd Balkans t o th e
,

Cauc asus, m ergin g fa rt h er ea s t in t o th e m o u nta in s o f As ia In .

the east , inn er lin es are fo rm ed by th e m o un ta ins o f th e Ba lka n

FIG . Ill — E U RO P E : R ELIEF .

Peninsula a nd th e Ta urus etc , in As ia M ino r Th e fo r ms o f

, . .

many o f th es e mo unta ins a re extra o rd ina rily c o mplex .

The c o m mo nest typ e o f eleva t e d la nd is tha t wh ich is so pro m i

nent in the British Is les Hi ghl ands o f Denudation ( see p
,
.

Where o ld folde d r anges ha ve b een w o r n do w n to p enep la ins, a nd f

again raise d to a co ns id er a ble eleva tio n b

y ea rth m o vem ents “
acc om anie d b
p y fau ltin g a n d fra ctures , but with out re gula r
folding in the pro cess The ero s ion o f va lleys in th ese mounta ins
.

may have had its in itia l d irecti o n d eterm i ne d by rifts fo r m e d

1 68 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
a

during th is la te mo unt a in bu il din g , but th e m a in fea tu res a rethe

works o f rivers Wh en rivers h a ve diss ected or cut u p a h1gh
.

la nd m ass i nto a s eries of rid ges a nd isol ated p eaks d1v1ded o nly
_

by d eep a nd wide valleys it is c a lle d a ,

d iss ected p la tea u
e g , th e La ke Dis trict (p
. . Wh ere h ighla nd m ass es are
.

su rro u nd e d by s unken a rea s a nd a re bo u nd e d by faul t pla nes ,

-

th ey a re term ed blo ck m o u nta in s S uch a re th e M es eta .

o f Spa i n, t h e Ce ntr a l Pla te a u o f Fra nce , th e Vos ge s , t h e B la ck

Fo rest, a nd B oh em ia , the i nteri or of wh ich f orm s a basi n within

a p l ate a u th roug h s ubs i d e nce a nd ero s io n
,
.

Tablel ands, wh ich are sim ila r in o rigin to blo ck m o u n ta in s but ,

ha ve a lm o st ho rizo nta l ro cks , a nd a re m a rked by s teep s ided -

go rges, a re well illustr ated in the Ca usses Regio n o f So uther n

Fra nce ( see p Wh ere the r o cks are tilted, es c arpm e nts
.

are fo rm ed a nd o ne s i d e o f th e s lo p in g a nd ge ntly d ipp in g t ab le

,

la nd is m arked by a steep s lop e Th e l a nds in which thes e s teep .

es c a rpm ents a nd gentle dip s l op es o ccur are c a lled sca rp la nds -

.

The s u ccess i o n of ge o lo gic a l f o rma tio ns in S outh Ea s t Engla nd -

fro m N W to S E is the S ever n Pl a i ns, th e Cotswol d e s c a rpm ent ,

. . .

th e Cl a y Va le , t he Ch ilter n e s c a rpm e nt , etc ( see p 1 3 9 , a nd a lso . .

pp 23 2, 21 2, Fr a nce a nd Ger m a ny)

. The typic a l p a rts o f a .

river c o urs e— torrentia l o r mou nta in , va lley, p lai n a nd delta or

estu a ry— a re a ll re pre s e nte d in m o s t o f t h e gre a t river s exce t
p ,

in th o s e o f Russ ia , but th e le ngths o f th e resp ective c o urs es

di ff er c o ns i d er ably .

The navig a bl e rivers of Euro p e a re sh o w n ( see p If t h e na vig a ble

.

p o rt io n o f a n y r iver be m ark ed o n t h e o ro g ra h ic a l m a s o f t h e diff erent

p p
c o un tries a n d t he c o urs es in m o s t a tla s es d iv id e d in to as f a r a s
,
p o ss ible , ,

t hese f o ur p arts it will b e fo und th a t t he rel ationship b etw een s tru cture
.

a nd relief a nd c h ara c ter o f tra c kis w e ll bro u h t o u t a nd t h a t a v er

g y f a ir ,

estim ate c a n be formed of the va lu e o f ea c h river for na viga tio n .

Co asts .

Eu ro p e ha s
many types o f c o a s t and co astlands (s ee p 21 .
,
Intro du ctio n ) no ticea bly d iff erent in fo r ma tio n a nd s tru ctu re
,
,
but as a rule fa vo ura ble to th e fo r m a tio n o f ha rbo urs a nd c o m
munic a t io n with the interior Fj o r d in lets a re repr es en ted in the
.

west o f S ca nd ina via and s o m e o f th e lo chs o f S c o tland ( see

p p 1 9 7 1 1 2) th es e a re usua lly bo r d ered by line s o f isl a n ds o r
.
,

s kerrie s between wh ich a nd t h e m a in la nd a re sa fe ch a nnel s fo r

,

n a viga tio n in win ter stor m s A lo wla nd skerry c o a s t is f o und

.

in S we d e n a nd Finla nd (see p Oth er typ es o f th e drow n ed

.
1 70 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPH Y

Th e W est Europ e an Reg i on .

Th e W es t Euro p ea n o r Atlantic zo n e inclu des No rth Wes t -

Spa in (a tra n s itio n regio n to M e d iterra n ea n c o nd itio n s a s th ere ,

is a m a rke d dry s ea so n in s u mm er ) mo st o f Fra nce B elgiu m

, , ,

Ho lla nd No rth W es t Ger m a ny a n d No rwa y

,
-

,
Th ere a re no
.

m a rked na tu ra l bo u nda ries t o th e ea s t except th e S c a n dina via n

,

Pla tea u a n d th e regio n m erges gra dua lly in to Centra l Eu r o p e ;

,

FIG . 17 .
— EU RO P E : ACT U AL IS OT H E RM S ( J AN U ARY ) .

Th e m a in cha ra cteristic s are c o o l win ters a nd Wa r m s u mm er s,

with no extrem es o f tem p er a ture ; ra in th ro u gho u t th e yea r ,
with no m a rked dry s ea so n except in th e so uth ern tra ns ition
regio n ; a m a xi mu m o f precipita tion o n th e o u ter o r Atl antic
m a rgin in winter , a n d o n th e in n er ma rg in in a utu m n ; grea t
rela tive hu m id ity a nd m u ch cl o u din ess .

T e mp erature — Figs 1 7 a nd 1 8
. . give th e a ctu a l temp era tu res
o f Ja nua ry a nd Ju ly, wh ich a re ta ken a s typ ic a l m o nth s It .
 EU RO PE 1 71

sho uld be no ted th a t the a ctua l isotherms ta ke i nt o a cc o u nt

the co mplex c o nd itio ns pro du ced by va riety o f relief a nd a n ,

a ccu ra te m ap wo ul d sh o w lin es gen era lly c o rre sp o nd in g t o th e

c onto urs o f h ill and valley o n o ro graph ic a l maps The li nes
,
.

selected t o sh ow a ctu a l tem p er a ture s in Eur o p e are g e n er a lize d

like the c ont o urs of Fig 16 A c omparis o n with is o th erm m aps
. .

FIG . 18 .
— EU R O P E : ACT U AL IS OI H E RM S
'‘
( J U LY ) .

°
60 F is . no t sh o wn in th e eleva t ed a rea s o f S o uth Euro p e , et c .

of Eur op e in a ny a tla s sho wing sea level tem p era t u re s will -

illustra te the eff ect o f a ltitu de o n tem p er a ture No te t h e .

Alps , Pyre n ees , Ce ntr a l Pla te au o f Fra nce a n d S c a n d in a via n ,

Platea u .

In summer th ere is a gra du a l d ecrea s e o f tem p er a tu re fro m

south to no rth , in Wi nter a rela tively ra p i d d ecre a s e fr o m we s t

t o ea st. Th is l a tter cha n ge ind ic a tes th e d i m in ish ing influ ence

o f o cea n win ds in la n d .
1 72 TEXT B OOK-
OF GEO GRAPHY

FIG
. 19 .
— EU ROP E : PRES S U RE AN D WIN D S ( J AN UARY ) .
 1 74 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
d e ns a ti o n , equ a ble i ns u la r c o nditi o ns a re c arrie d i nt o th e i nteri o r
by c h ecki ng ra di a ti o n during th e l o n g wi nter ni ght s .

Wh ere m os t o f the m o is ture is c o nd ens ed o n the s ea ward sl o p es

o f high l a nd or wh ere t h e no r m a l wi nd is dry , r a di a ti o n 1 s le ss
,

ch ecked, a nd m o dified c o ntin ent a l c o nditi o ns resul t Thu s th e .

,

no rm a l di strib uti o n o f p ress u re p o i nts t o a c o a st a l s trip , br o a d e n

ing n o rth w ar ds with a well m a rke d c o o l , i ns ul ar clim a te , sh a di ng
,
-

o ff , s o m ewha t irregul a rly, e astwar d i nt o a c o ld c o nti ne nt a l

wi nter .

It will b e rec o g ni ze d th a t th is s t a tem e nt d o e s repres e nt in ,

t h e m a i n cert a in i d e a s wh ic h are u s u a lly a ss o cia te d with winter

,
”
in o ur regi o n B ut t h e we ath er esp eci a lly o f t h e B ritish
.
,

Is le s is pr o verb ia lly u ncert a i n s i nce it d ep e nds o n ever v a r ying

, ,
-

a lter na ti o ns o f h igh a nd l o w
p ress ure s ys tem s diff erin g wid ely
fr o m the d is trib u ti o n repres e nte d o n t h e iso b a r ch a rt .

It w o ul d b e us ele ss t o e nter i nt o a n a cc o u nt o f a ll th e va ri a
ti o ns fr o m th e no rm a l typ e but a few typ es o f distribu ti o n st a nd,

ou t cle a rly Th e m o st settled we a th er in wi nter is o f t h e cold

.

typ e wh e n th e wh o le c o nti n e nta l a re a i ncl u d i ng S c a nd i na via is

, , ,

c o vere d by a n a nticycl o n e with m o der a te gr a di ents t o w a r ds t h e

Icel a ndic lo w p ressu re On t he e dge s o f th e h igh p ressure t h e winds
.

are s o u t h erly o r so u th we s terly ; wit h i n t h e a nticycl o n e t he

-

wi nds a re slight irregul ar (techni c a lly c a lms

, th e a ir is dry
a nd c o l d s i nce it is d e s ce ndi ng fro m u
, pp er l a yer s th eref o re th e ,

da ys a re fine a nd brigh t a nd d uring t h e l o n g cle a r nights the, ,

u nch ecke d r a di a ti o n o f h eat c a uses very lo w temp era tures wh ich ,

a re b a rely a ff ecte d b
y th e s u n f o rce eve n a t m i dda y All th e -

l o ng —c o nti nu e d p eri o ds of fros t h ave o cc u rred u nd er s im ila r

distribu ti o ns o f pressu re .

Oth er typ es o f c o ld wea th er o ccur wh en a n a nticycl on e lies

a nyw h ere t o t h e n o rt h o f th e re i o n a ss o ci a te d with lo w
g p ressure ,

t o the s o uth Acc o r ding t o th e rel a tive p os iti o n o f th e hi gh a nd

.

lo w p ressure ( s ee Fig no rth wes t no rt h no rt h e a s t o r e a st

.
-

, ,
-

winds necessa rily bl o w o ver the regi o n Th ey are c o l d a nd dry .

,

bu t freque ntly c a us e r a i n o r s no w wh e n th ey b l o w int o c o m

p aratively w ar m a nd m o i st a ir th e resu lt o f a p revi o us sp ell o f ,

a w a r m ty e o f we a th er The n o rth e a st a nd e ast s eries o f

p .
-

winds c om i ng fr o m th e edges o f a n a nticyclo n e o ver th e no rth

o f S c a ndi na vi a is e s ecia lly ch a r a cteristic o f l a te wi nter a nd
p
early spri ng .

War m typ es o f wi nter we a th er are asso ci ated with a s uccessi o n

o f cycl o nic st o rm s tr a velli n g in a ge ner a l e astw a r d d irecti o n

betwee n a no rth er n a nd a s o uth er n b elt o f h igh re ss u e

p r .
 EU RO PE 1 75

Acc ordi ng t o the rela tive p os iti o n o f t h e p ress u re b elts a nd the ,

directio n a nd l atitu de o f th e cyclo nic st orms s ix typ es s eem t o

,

call for no tice :

1 Cours e of st o r m s north e as t , pa r a llel with t h e c o a sts o f th e
.
-

British Is les Th is typ e a ppr o xim a tes m o s t ne a rly with t h e

.

norma l c o nditi o ns rep re s e nted o n t h e Ja nu ary i so b a r c h art .

2 Cours e e a st , a nd tr a ver s i ng t he B ritish Is les a nd p a s s i ng

.

i nto the No rth Sea , wh ere th e depress io n eith er disp er s es or

continues its c ours e eas twa r d, or b e nds so uth east a cr oss th e -

North Ger ma n Pl ain .

Obvio us ly the eff ect o f th es e st o r m s m us t d ep end o n wh ere

they cr oss th e B ritish Isles Th e c o ndi tio ns o f temp era ture a nd
.

rainfa ll set up o ver t h e res t o f th e regi o n if th e s t o rms tr a vel

a cr oss the Lo wla nd Pl a i n o f S c o tl a nd o r th e T yne Ga p m u s t b e ,

diff erent fr o m th os e wh ich resul t fro m a cr oss i ng o f th e Ch e sh ire

Pla in a nd th e Tre nt Va lley, o r fro m a pa ss a ge u p th e S ever n a nd
Avo n Va lleys , a nd s o e astwa rd .

3 Cours e u p t h e English Cha nn el a nd i nto th e No rth Sea o r

.
,

acr oss the Gre a t Germ a n Pl a i n .

4 Up th e Lo ire Va lley, a nd so e a stwa r ds

. Cyclo ni c s t o rm s .

o f this t yp e s ee m t o kee
p f a irly cl o s e t o th e n o rth er n e dge o f t he
Centra l Plate a u o f Fr a nce a nd o f the Alp s , a nd t o be sp eci a lly
c o ncer ned wi th the fo r m a ti o n o f t he fo ehn ( p .

5 From the B a y o f B is c a y, thr o ugh t h e Str a it o f Na uro u se

.

(b etween the Centr a l Plate au of Fr a nce a nd the Pyre nee s) , a nd s o

eastwards int o th e Gul f o f Lyo ns a nd th e Wester n M e diterr an ea n .

6 Fr om th e Atla ntic we st o f Sp a in , thr o ugh th e Str a it s o f

.

Gibra lta r , a nd th e nce e a stwar ds No te tha t a l o w p ressure in .

such a lo w l a titu d e im lies th at t he no r m a l h igh

p p ress ure b elt o f
-

middl e la tit ud e s ha s m o ve d s o uth wa rds a nd th a t a high pre ssur e ,

-

belt mus t lie t o the n o rth o f th e lo w p res sure , s o th a t we m a y

ass oci ate this s et o f c o ndi ti o ns with o ne o f th e c o l d ty e s o f
p
weather in North West Europ e -

T he la st tw o typ es o f cy clo n i c s torm s a re co nn ct d with th e w in t e e er

ra in s o f t h e no th co ast s o f th e W es t rn M edit r a n a n w h n t h e c n tr o f
r e er e , e e e
t he low p ssu re re e e
li s cl o s t o and alo n g t h e co a st W h en th e c nt li s . e re e
o ut in mid s ea , it is a s so c ia t d wi th s
-
e e
p cia ll y s t o ng n o th as t win d s f o m r r -
e r
r r e r r
Cent al Eu op ( M is t al a n d B o a ) sp c ia ll y h o t w in ds f o m t h e dg s o f
, e r e e
th e Saha a ( S ci o ccor r e
) Lastly wh n it li s clo s t o a n d a l o ng t h e c o a st
.
, e e
r r e
of No th Af i c a , it is a ss o cia t d with m o is t , c o o l w a th and a in in e er r
Ma o cco , Alg ia , a nd T unis
r er .

The
is obar ch a rt for Jul y sh o ws a well m arked h igh pressure
'
-
-

centre in the Atla ntic o ver a nd t o th e west of th e Az o res W i th ,

1 76 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

ge ntle gra dients e astwa r d a nd a lso no rth war d to a sh a ll o w

,

de pre ssi o n to the s o u th o f Icela nd Thus th e norm a l W i nds .

sh o ul d be ge ntle s outh we sterly a nd we sterly w1 nds o n th e c o ast

-
,

north and north we sterly i nl a nd t o t h e e ast

-
As m summ er t he .

land is war m er than the sea th ere w o ul d be little co nd ensa ti o n,

o n th e co ast a nd the l o wla nds but o wi ng to th e m o is ture t he , , ,

co nditio ns would be w arm a nd equable b eco m i ng m ore extrem e ,

inla nd .

It is c o mm o n exp erie nce th a t the summ er we a th er is a lm ost

a s irregula r a s th e winter T he m o s t s ettled we ath er i s of the
.

hot typ e c aus e d by a dis trib utio n o f press ures a l m os t i d enti c al

,

with t hat whi ch c a us es th e s ettled co ld typ e— viz a n anti cyclone .

,

exte ndi ng fro m the no rth e as t o ver th e B ritish Isles The length
-
.

of the day a nd the gre a t su n fo rce with c o mparati vely sma ll -

m oisture to intercept th e r a di a nt en ergy give very h ot da ys , ,

which the shortness o f th e ni ght a ff ects but little The cyclo ni c .

s t o r ms f o ll o w the s a m e p a ths a s i n wi nter a nd th eir e ff ects are ,

s im il a r exce t th a t in s um m er t h ey re duce th e te m p er ature

p
b elow the norm al .

It ma y no t be g enerall y k no w n t h a t t h e Da ily W eath er Rep orts is

p ost ed d aily a t 1 p m fro m t h e M et eo ro lo g ic a l Offi c e Sou th Kensingto n
. , ,

to sub scribers o f £1 p er a nn u m T ea ch ers a nd stu d ents are ref erred t o

,

this invaluabl e pu bli c atio n In t h e c o urse o f three o r four y ears a m ost

.

ins tructive coll ection o f chart s m a y b e m a d e o f a ll t h es e typ es of wea th er .

In this connection it ma y be w orth wh ile to refer to a curious

over st atem ent found in m ost text bo o ks in var yi ng for ms with
,
-

reference to the Gulf Stream a nd its effect up o n the cl im ate of

No rth er n Euro p e It c a nno t be t o o clea rly sta ted th at the
.

Gulf Strea m a s a current ce as es m o re th a n miles fro m

th e c o ast of Euro p e Alm o st imm e di a tely a fter iss uing fro m the
.

Fl orida Stra it it b egins t o s pread a nd th e spread ing i ncreas es ,

a s th e s tre a m flows up t h e c o a s t o f N o rth Am eric a As it .

s p re ads t he curre nt s l a ckens a nd t h e tem er a tur e ste a dily f alls

p , ,

a nd t he stre a m b ec o m es sh a ll o wer Wh en it is d eflected e astward .

by the Am eric a n c o ast its sp re a ds f a nwis e m ore rapidly a nd ,

fi nally covers th e s urf a ce o f t h e N o rth W e st Atla ntic it s tem -

p erat ure b ei ng m uch re du ce d by m ixin g with t h e Labrador

curre nt and in m elting th e e dges o f th e ice drift Und oubtedly -

it ra ises the temp era ture of th e N orth Atl antic by s ever a l degrees ,
but h ere its i nfluence woul d ce as e if it were no t fo r the s outh west -

a nd we st wi nds wh ich a re t h e
preva le nt winds of th es e la titude s .

The surfa ce water is drive n e astwar ds p o ss ibly with out m uch ,

 TEXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

The imp o rt anc e o f cloudiness, in c o ns id ering clim at e is sh own by th e ,

co m p ariso n of Riva , o n La k e Gard 6 no rth la tit u de — and T h orsh aven

°
a — 4

[ ]
3 8 — 62° no rt h la t it ud e— in t h e Faro es T h ey b o th ha ve th e same mea n
.

temperat ure in Janu ary b u t w h ile Riva h a s six, Th orshaven ha s twenty

,

eight ra iny days. a nd nearly tw ice a s m u ch cl o udin ess T he protec tio n .

aff o rded by c lo ud s ag a in s t ra d ia tio n a n d t h e c o n st a nt mo vem ent o f w arm er

,

a nd m o ist er sea a ir o v er t h e l a n d a re su ffi cien t t o co m p ensat e , a s reg ard s

,

m ean t emp era t ure , f or t he m a rk ed diff eren c es o f sun fo rc e ( see T a ble -

On J anu ary 1 th e sun is v ertical a t 23 so u h

°
t a n d o n Fe b ru a ry 1 a t, 1 7
°

t ere re t e t t t e no rt h is
°
so u h Th
. fo on h os d a e s t h e a l i u d o f t h e s un o n 6 2
5 a nd 11, a nd th e M a ximum M
y S rc e 9 i dd a un Fo
-
an d 1 9 ; wh il e on 46
°
no rth
la tit ud e t he a ltitud e is 2 1 a nd 2 6 a n d t h e S u n Fo r c e 3 6
,
-
a nd 45 .

Ce ntral Europe .

regio n fo r ms a tra nsition a rea between the ocea nic clima te

Thi s
o f Wes t Euro pe a nd th e c o n tinen ta l c o nditio ns of Eas t Europ e

a nd Asi a as th e c o nd iti o ns wh ich lim it th e p e n etratio n of

,

oce anic influences i nl a nd are d ep endent o n fa ctors tha t c anno t

b e exa ctly define d .

Th e e aster n m argi n o f t h e Ce ntr a l Eu rope an clim ate is m arke d

by a n irregula r lin e fro m Konigsb erg o n th e East B a ltic to th e , ,

m o uth o f the D a nu b e ( f o r t h e clim a te of Ea st Europ e see ,

p 3 02 sq Asia )
. Th e c o ntr a st o f tem p er a ture in the we st a nd
.
, .

e as t is sh o wn by th e f a ct tha t th e ea ster n river s the Vistul a a nd ,

O d er are blocked with firm ice for m o nths wh ile t he Rh ine

, , ,

th ough frozen is o nly partia lly o bstructed (s ee p

, .

Pressure W i nds and Rai nf all

, T h e pressure cond itio ns o f
, .

Centra l Euro p e d eter m in e bo th winds a nd ra infa ll N ormal ly in .

winter the Atlantic Low Pres su res a re t he co ntrolling fo rces ,

cyclonic d epressio ns pass i ng t o t h e no rth west of Ce ntra l Europ e -

so that th e p reva ili ng wi nd s are fro m t h e s outh wes t a nd we st -

.

Co ns equently th ere is a regula r ra infa ll th o ugh less tha n in

, ,

sum m er and dim inish i ng t o wa r ds t h e e a s t

, .

In summ er no rma lly th ere a re N o rth We st winds in c o nse

, ,
-

quenc e o f t h e in creas e o f p re ssu re o ver th e Atla ntic a nd th e ,

d ecreas e in s outh ea st Eur o p e a nd t h e we a th er te nds ( if a n

-

a vera ge is ta ken ) to be rel a tively wet a n d co o l ( No rth East and -

East winds c a us e a dry a nd ho t su m m er ) Th es e winds (No rth .

West ) are usually intens ified by a n increa s e o f lo w pressure a nd

h igh tem pera ture to th e e a s t A dry a nd ho t su m m er in Russ ia.

is usually a cc o m pa n ied by a c o o l a n d wet s um m er in Centra l

Euro pe .
 EURO PE 1 79

Th e M editerrane an Are a .

Th is regio n h a s a d is tinct ch a ra cter , with h o t ra inle ss su mm ers

a nd w a r m wi nter s with o cc as i o na l ra in This distributio n o f.
,

temp era t ure a nd ra i n rend ers it s uitab le for a sp ecia l evergreen

vegeta ti o n, with hard , well s epara ted lea ves The cha ra cter
-
.

is t ic clim a te is f o u nd thr o ugh o ut the M e d iterr a n e a n , b ut o nly

o n t he c oa stla nds Wh enever we pass i nt o th e i nteri or , we find
.

a d i ff ere n t clim a te a nd vegeta ti o n in t he B a lka n Pe ni nsu l a

it res emb les th a t o f Centr a l Eur o p e ; ( 2) in Spa i n, As ia Mino r ,
a nd No rth Afric a it
pa ss e s int o steppes a nd d e s erts .

In winter th e te m p era tu re o f th e s e s eas is h igh er tha n th a t o f

the su rro un d in g la nd a rea s, e sp ecia lly th e eleva ted regio ns o f
Spa in, th e Centra l Pla tea u t h e Al ps, etc , wh ich a re c o l d a n d
, .

centres o f h igh p ressu re a nd th e diff erence ass ists th e fo r m a tio n

o f t h e Lo w Press u re belt wh ich lie s o ver th e M e d iterra nea n , a nd is

d ivid ed by th e num ero u s p en ins ula s into a s erie s o f s ec o nda ry

d ep ress io n s in wh ich risin g w inds brin g ra in Th is Lo w Pressu re .

belt has a reas o f h igh er pressure o n ea ch s id e On th e west t h e .

High Pressu re a rea o f t h e Atl a ntic ha s its m a xim u m in Fe br ua ry

wes t o f th e Ca na ries a t its m o st so u th erly pos itio n, a nd a h igh
,

p ressu re a rea extends o ver the cen tre a nd no rth ea s t o f °th e

-

Iberia n Pen ins ul a c o rre spo ndin g to a c o ld z o n e o f a bo u t 43 F .

(see Fig . Fro m th is win ds blo w o utwa rds, a nd a re dra wn

int o th e lo w p ressu re a rea o f t h e W es tern M ed iterra n ea n fro m
-

th e no rth wes t ( s ee Fig 19 n o te the d irectio n o f t h e a rro w in

-

th e Ba y o f B isc a y ) On t h e e a s t o f th e a rea o f win ter ra infa ll is

.

t h e in te ns e h igh p re ssu re a rea o f As ia , a nd p ressu re a l so tends t o

-

increa s e bo th no rth a nd so uth o f th e Med iterran ean .

In summ er th e H igh Pre ssure s o f As i a t o t h e e as t a nd Afric a

to th e so uth o f t h e M ed iterr a n e a n h a ve b ec o m e L o w Press u re s
(a s ea rly a s Ma y) a nd as th e Hi gh Pressure o f the West Atl a ntic
‘
,

is no w f a rth er no rth (so uth ea s t o f th e Az o re s ) , N W a nd N

-
. . .

Winds , but not st o r m wi nds , p enetra te th e wh o le regi o n a nd

-

p ers is t till S e pte mb er The M editerra n e a n is rela tively a h igh

.

p ress ure a re a In Oct o b er t h e s ec o nda ry d epress i o ns re app e a r ,

.

a n d a utum n r a i ns b egi n T h ere is little r a i n in sum m er , a nd t he

.

r a infa ll d ecrea s es fro m no rth t o so u th The N Wi nds pa ss . .

gr adu a lly int o t he trad es in the so uth, a nd th e p ers istent wi nds

a nd rela tively ge ntle gra d ie n t a re o pp os e d t o t h e f o r ma ti o n o f
l o c a l cycl o nic d epressi o ns a nd the c o nvectio na l m o vem e nts o f air .

r
T he Af i c a n L o w P ressure rem a ins o ver t h e S ud a n in su m m er a nd , ,

t h o u g h t h e w in d s a re b lo wing to w ard s it a cro s s t he Sahara fro m t he

M edit erra nean a nd a re th erefo re sea wind s th e a ir d o es no t rise a nd so
, , ,
1 80 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

c oo l ex c ep t o n el ev a tio ns suc h a s T ib es ti T he l o w h ea ted l and is unfa vo u r

, .
,

a bl e to rainf al l In w in t er a hig h p ressure z o n e lies o ver th e No rth S a ha ra

.
-
,

a nd c a lm s o r w ea k wind s p reva il .

PRACT ICAL W ORK ON CLIM AT E .

exercises o n t he u se o f cl im a tic m ap s m a y pro ve o f servic e

T h e f ol l o wi ng .

In o rd er t o a ssis t referen c e t h e m a in p o in ts d ea l t w ith in t he qu es tio n s ha ve

,

b een su mm ariz ed in a k ey .

1 D esc rib e t h e c h a ra cteris ti c c l im a te o f t he W es t Eu ro p ean regio n w it h

. ,

S p ec ia l ref eren c e to t h e n u m b er o f m o n th s w hi c h h a v e t em p era t u re s a b o ve

a n d b el o w 5 0 F
°
.

2 . Des crib e t h e c ha ra cterist ic

cl im a te o f the M editerranea n with spe cial ,

referen ce to t he influ enc e o f tem p era tu re a nd ra infall o n veg eta tio n .

3 On t h e o ro g ra ph ic al m a p o f Eu ro p e d ra w t he Ja nu a ry iso th erm s o f
.

3 2 and 40 F a n d t h e Jul y i so th erm s o f 5 0 a n d 6 8 F Exp la in t he

° ° ° °
.

m o d ific a tio ns intro d u c ed in th ese l ines o f a c tu a l temp era tu re by ref eren c e

t o iso th erm s a t sea —l evel .

4 Give a genera l a cc o unt o f the n a tura l veg eta t io n o f Eu ro p e w ith

.

referen ce t o th e influ enc e o f cl im a t ic c o nditio ns .

5 H o w d o es t h e cl im a t e o f Eu ro pe eff e ct win t er c o m m u ni ca t io ns 7
.

6 H o w fa r d o t h e cl im a t ic reg io n s m entio ned m erg e o ne in t o a n o th er 7

‘
.

W hy is it n ec essary t o spea ko f tra n sitio n reg io ns 2 W hy i s it im p o ssibl e ‘

to indi c a te t h e l im i ts o f t he d is tribu tion o f cl im a ti c pro d u cts a ccu ra tely

by iso th erm s o r iso hy e ts ( lines o f e qua l ra in fa l l ) 7
7 Ex pl a in f rom the ex am pl es g iven t he nec essity o f c o ns id erin g h um idi ty
.

a nd cl o u d in ess in a ny a cc o u n t o f cl im a t e .

8 Ind ic a te in Eu ro p e t he c o nne ctio n b etween el eva tio n tem p era tu re

.
, ,

a nd ra in fal l .

9 W ha t p a rts o f Eu ro p e ha ve su m m ers wa rm
. en o u gh f o r the g ro wth
of w h ea t ? Co m pa re th e a rea s y o u m entio n w ith reg io ns o f l a rg e whea t
r e er r e
p o d u ctio n el s w h e in t h e wo l d a n d giv n o t s o n t h e cl im a tic c o ndi t io n s
, e
fo und n c ssa y ee r .

1 0 W hy i s t
. ree r e
g o wth o n the w s t c o a st o f No wa y f o u nd a t a h igh r er
la titud e tha n l sew h e in th e wo ld ?
e er r
e e
1 1 Ex pl ai n th e in fl u nc o f cl im a t o n c o p s in t h e B iti sh Isl s
. e r r e .

KE Y TO CLIM AT IC Q U E S T IO N S .

[ T he numbers k
i n squa re bra c ets ref er to the p ositi ons o n Fig 21 of .

thep lacesf o r w hich the temp era tu res a nd ra inf a ll a reg iven i n T a ble V ] .

An exa m ina tio n o f Figs 1 7 21 S h o ws th a t th e cla ss ific a tio n int o

.
-

z o nes wh ich illustra te the nu m b er o f m o nth s a bo ve o r bel o w .

s electe d winter a n d su mm er te m p era tures is e s ecia lly su gges tive

p
in Eu ro p e .
18 6 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

It s ted tha t the no rthern l im it o f w h ea t very n ea rly co rre

ho ul d be no
sp o nd s to t he l ine d ra wn in Fi
g 8 a t t he so u th ern m a rg in of the l a nd s
.

whic h ha ve l ess tha n fo u r m o n th s a t o r a bo ve a t em p era t ure o f 5 0 F (see

°
.

p. It m u s t b e rem em bered ho wever tha t t he c u mul a ti ve eff ect o f th e

, ,

sun fo rc e a t H a mm erf es t s e ven ty f o u r d a y s o f tw en ty f o u r h o u rs ) c o m

(
-
- -

pensa tes to co nsidera bl e ex tent fo r the sho rtness o f th e summ er On

a .

t he o ther h a nd th is c um u l a ti ve eff e ct is m inim iz ed in reg ion s whi c h ha ve

,

co nstan t m ists in su mm er a n d grea t rela tive hum id ity ( co m pare t he O rk

n ey s No te t h e c onnec tio n b etw een t h e g ro wth o f wh ea t in th e
p , .

B ritish Isles a nd the regio n s w h ic h ha ve wa rm d ry s um m ers , .

In this z o n e th e rip e ni ng o f gra i ns is lim ite d by d eficie ncy o f

su m m er h ea t a nd eve n t h e no rth ern c o ni fero u s fo res t 1 s a bs en t
,
.

Th e o nly vegeta tio n is tha t o f th e tun dra (s ee Fig 1 6 a n d p . .

th e lim it o f wh ich c o in cid es very cl o s ely with t he northern l imit

o f th e is o th er m o f 5 0 F in Ju ly ( Fig Th e a rea m a rke d m
°
. .

th e Alps a s h a vin g c o o l su m m ers incl u d e s c o n ifer o us fo res ts a s

well as th e z o n e o f Alpin e vegeta tio n Al titu d e a nd la titu d e bo th .

lim it plant gro wt h but in different wa ys ( see p 77 )

, .

The regio ns wh ich a re c old in wi nter ( u nd er 3 2 F ) and warm

°
.

in sum m er ( 50° t o 68 ° F ) are (a ) th e i nl and trans ition regi ons o f

.

No rth a n d Centra l Eu ro p e , wh ich lie between th e Atla ntic a rea

o f c o o l win ters a n d th e c o n tin en ta l r a nge o f extre m ely c o l d

winters a nd ho t su mm ers (o f th is l atter typ e o n ly a f ew exa mp les

a re give n in Ta ble th e Pla in o f Hu n ga ry [ 3 2] a n d th e Val
kahia n Pla in [ 3 4] (s ee Clima te o f As ia , p 3 02) a nd (b) the .

e astern l owl ands o f Rus sia no rth o f th e l ine o f 68 F in Jul y i n

°
.

Fig 1 8 . .

( a ) The inl and transi ti o n re g io ns a ffo r d gre a t c o ntr a sts o f

.

wi nter temp era ture wh ich resu lt fr o m diff erences o f c o nfigura

,

ti o n a nd l o c a l c o nditi o ns The Rh i ne Va lley h as a rela tively m ild

.

wi nter [ 22 and o wi ng p a rtly t o the sh elter a ff o r d e d t o its

dre nc h e d lo wla nd b y s u rr o u nding up l a nds Th e Pla te a u o f Ea s t .

Prus s i a 1s s urr o u nd ed by c o l d regi o ns— o n the no rth th e Eas ter n

B a ltic wh ich is no rm a lly fro ze n a nd o n th e no rth e a st a nd e a st t h e
, ,

Ru ss ia n Pla ins— a nd 1 s exp o s ed to c o l d winds c o ns eque ntly , it s ,

temp era ture i n Janu a ry is no h igh er tha n tha t o f th e Bro cken

”
mo re tha n 3 000 f eet h igh er ,
“
Fr ost h o les su ch as th e va lley
.
,

d epress io n o f Kla genfu rt h a ve th e m o st extrem e tem p era

tu res (co ntra st th e fu rna ce va lley o f th e Na renta in su mm er ,
Mo sta r , p 271 ) wh ile th e sh eltere d Alp ine va lleys a re o utpo sts
.

o f th e Me d iterra n e a n cli m a te M era n in the

(no te B o zen
Vin tsch gau , wh ich j o in s th e Etsch Va lley fro m th e west is a n ,

Au strian winte r reso rt) The e astern lim its o f th is regio n are
.
 E UR O PE 1 87

mdefini e, bu t a re a ro xima tely sh o wn b the lim it o f th e bo x

t pp y
fro m Ko mgs berg to the D a nu be Pla ins, wh ich happ ens to c o in
.

c 1de w 1th a te m era ture of a bo u t 23 ° F in Janu a ry

_ p Th e so uth ern . .

i m i ts a re m o re clea rly d e fin e d b
l y na tura l bounda ries Th e .

Is o th erm o f 68 ° F . in Jul y ( Fig 18 ) runs s outh of th e Cen tra l

.

Pla tea u o f France, follows the Rh o n e Va lley no rth , s kirts th e

Ap enn mes , A ps, a nd Ca rpa th ians , a nd extends fa r no rth in
l
Eas ter Ru s m (see Fig 4 1, As ia )
n s Th e na tura l vegetatio n of
ak
. .

th ls reg l o n 1s d eciduo us fo resH ,

elm, beech , a nd ch es tnut in
th e s o u th .

( b) Th e eastern l owl ands ha ve m uch grea ter win ter c o l d wh ich ,

i ncrea s e s t o t h e no rth e a st s ee Fig 1 7 is o th er m o f 1 4° The

( -

, .

north ern c o n iferou s fores ts m erge in to d ecidu o u s fo res t in th e

centre (see Fig . a nd th is a ga in pass e s a t a bout th e iso th er m

°
of 6 8 F in July into stepp e
. .

f
I th e lin e o f 32 F in Ja nu a ry is fo llowed fro m th e wes t c o ast
°
.

o f No rwa y th ro ugh Denma rk a nd W es t Ge rma n y to th e s lo es

p
o f th e B la ck Fo res t, Vo s ges, Jura W es tern A l ps , a nd Pyren ees
,

a nd Ca n ta bria n M ou nta ins it will b e s ee n tha t th e regio n wh ich

,

h es o n th e Atla ntic s ide— tha t is t o th e wes t a nd n o rth wes t ,

-

ha s m o s tly co ol winters (3 2 t o 50 F ) and warm summ ers ( 50 t o

° ° °
.

°
68 Na tura lly th ere a re c o ns idera ble d iff erences o f te m p er
a ture , a cc o r ding to th e dis ta nce f ro m th e m o ist Atla ntic win ds .

Th e Rh ine Va lley, the wa rm est regio n of Centra l Euro p e , with

m
te pera tu r es o f 3 2 F in Ja nua ry a nd 67 F in Jul y, o ff er s a
° °
. .

stri ki n g c o ntra s t to S cil ly with a temp era ture o f 46 F in °

.

Ja nu a ry a n d 60 F in July wh ere su btro p ic a l pla nts will gro w

°
.
,

out of do o rs in Winter Th ere is a rema rka ble un ifo rm ity o f

.

sprmg tem era tures a lo ng th e sa m e la titu d es owin g to th e s lo wer

.

p
ga in o f wa rm th a t oceanic s ta tio ns In w inter th ere is grea t .

s imila rity o f te m era ture in a no rth s outh d irecti o n fo r ma ny

p
-

d egrees o f la titu de Bord ea u x [ 74 ] a nd Toulo us e [ 76] h a ve

.

a bo ut th e s a m e te m era ture a s Ca e Wra th ( see Fig 1 7 iso th er m

p p .

Th e wes t c o a s t o f France fro m th e La nd es

°
o f 40 F , Ja nua ry )
. .

to Brittan y is 43 F , o nl y 1 less tha n Ventno r , Plymo u th , Du blin,

°
.
°

a nd th e H e bri d es . Th e in fluence o f th e wa rm Atla ntic winds

is mo s t ma rked o n th e wes t o f th e B ritish Isles In s umm er .

th e is o th erm s tend to fo llo w la titud e but th ere is o nly a d iff eren ce ,

of 3 F between th e m outh o f th e Ga ro nn e a nd tha t o f th e Elb e

°
.

( 9 o f la titu d e ) , a nd between Scilly a nd Aber deen ( 7 o f la titud e)

° °
.

B ut th e d ifferences of clima te wh ich a llow the gro wth o f th e vin e

o n th e Lo wer Lo ire and exclu d e it fr o m Britta ny, a nd re nd er Ea st

Engla n d m o re suita ble for wh ea t tha n the West o f Engla nd a nd

 18 8 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GR APHY

Wa les a nd Ireland canno t be es tim a ted so lely by temp era ture

,
.

Ra inf a ll a nd hum idity are m o re fa vo urable for grasslands a nd

c attle tha n dry h eat but th ey are less fa vourable for the rip eni ng
,

p r o cess e s necessary for gra i ns a nd fruit H e nce a n exa m i natio n .

o f a rai nfa ll map is im p o rta nt .

The regio n of co ol wi nters (3 2 t o 50 F ) and h ot summ ers

° °
.

( o ver 68 F ) correspo nds very ne a rly t o tha t of the Mediter

°
.

ra nea n clim ate (see p wh ich is m arked by a sh ort storm y.

winter the gro wing s eason c o mm encing in Octob er a sprin g

, ,

b rilli a nt with flowers a nd a m o re or less ra inless sum m er in , ,

wh ich the h arves t is re ap e d e a rly a nd th e grass b ecom es bro wn ,

a nd b urnt O nl y the evergreen s crub or ma quis wh ich co ns is ts

.
, ,

o f b oth th or ny a nd no n th o r ny
p la nts ( le ntis cus cis tus
-

, ,

c a n survive the drough t Ma n y o f th es e p la nts h a ve sp ecia liz ed.

m eth o ds o f p ro tectio n s uch a s lo n g ta p ro o ts lea th ery lea ves

,
-

, ,

a nd a wa t er ro o f varnis h
p ( co m pa re o th er a ro ma tic pl a nts such ,

a s fra nkin cens e

) wh ich ch ecks eva p o ra tion In th is region a few .

so u th erly s tatio ns Pa ler mo S evil le Gi bra lta r Ma lta [ 93 9 6 ]

, , , ,
-

h a ve a ls o wa rm winters .

If th e isoth erm o f 40 F in Ja nu a ry be exa m ined (see Fig

°
. .

it wil l be seen tha t it fo llo ws th e m a rgin o f th e Highlands o f th e

Ba lka n Penin sul a th e Ap enn in es exclud ing th e Pl a in of Lo m
, ,

ba rd y a nd the Ma ritim e Al ps
,
At th e Ca rc asso nne Ga p so uth .
,

o f th e centra l
pla tea u it r u ns a l m o s t du e no rth to the Fa ro es
, ,

bu t o win g to th e c o ld win ds th a t blo w do wn th e fu nnel o f th e

Rh o n e Va lley it cross es th e Rh o n e so uth o f Avigno n ( Fo r va ria .

tio ns o f clima te a nd pro du cts su ch as the olive orang es a nd , , ,

lemons etc see pp 25 6

, .
, .
,

An exa mina tio n of th e clima te n o tes in Ta ble V will ill us tra te .

the grea t dro ugh t of sum m er in so m e re gions Ma l ta [ 96] h a s .

1 5 per ce nt of its a nnua l r a inf a ll fro m Jun e to Augus t

. As is .

po inte d out o n p 48 6 (Au stra lia ) a sm a ll ra infa ll during a p erio d

.
,

o f grea t h e a t is eith er eva po ra te d o r ru ns o ff befo re it c a n mo is te n

th e pa rch ed soil a nd c o ns equently wh ere wa ter is uno bta ina ble

, , ,

fo r irrigatio n cerea ls and ha y cro ps su fl er Bu t th e Medit er

, .

ra nea n a re a is ge ner a lly a c o a sta l l o wl a nd with bra nch in g va lleys

p en etra tin g fa r into th e m o u nta in m a rgins of th e in terio r Hence .

much o f it is with in eas y rea ch o f wa ter flo wing fro m p erennia l

s tre a ms o r
percola ting th r o ugh m o unta in slo pes a nd p ers isting
d uring th e driest su mm er An o th er very i mpo rta nt re sult o f .

th is c o nfigura tio n is th e c 0 p io us d epo sit of dew in th e valleys

a s th e resul t o f the re ul a r intercha n ge of s ea a nd la nd breezes
g
(see p . It sh ould a lso be rem em b ere d tha t a utumn sp rin g , ,
1 90 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

ph ysic a l barriers , th ough th eir d istrib u tio n is largely influe nced

by the exte nt of th e is o la ti o n p r o duce d by varyi ng ph ysi c a l
co nditions .

Th e Three Rac es of EurOp e — T hree m a in r a ce t yp es a re u sua lly

.

distinguish ed in Euro p e : th e T eutonic , a tall ra ce, with lo ng

h ea ds, very ligh t ha ir , blu e eyes , a n d na rro w a quilin e no s es ,
origi nally co nfined to No rth West Euro p e ; the Alpi ne, or M o un
-

tai n o f m e dium sta ture , with br oa d o r round h e ads ; the M e di

terrane an r a ce , with l o ng h e a ds a nd d a rk ha ir a nd eye s Th es e .

d ivis io ns are p urely a nth r o p o lo gic a l , a n d the gro ups p oint ra th er

to differences o f race orig i n th a n t o m o d er n ra cia l typ es as de
velo ped in d efinite ge o gr a ph ic a l lo c a ti o ns , bu t t h ey are extrem ely
sugge stive o f the i nflu e nce o f e nvir o nm e nt o n the m igra tio n o f

p eop les .

Isol ation and Race Typ es . Th e Al p ine, o r Mo unta in, bro a d

h ead ed ra ce is so c a lle d beca us e it is th e p reva lent t yp e o f t h e
m o unta in regio ns of Centra l Eu r o p e wh ere i solati on ha s fa voured
,

th eir surviva l The upp er ends of m a ny va lleys in t he Au stri a n

.

T yro l ha ve a broa d h ea d ed typ e m a rke dly different fro m tha t

-

of the Op en valley floo rs wh ich ha ve ea sy a ccess t o t he main

valleys o f th e Inn and Etsch The gran ite upland o f Mo rva n
.

and th e Lim o us in o f t h e Ce ntra l Pla te a u o f Fra nce with its

p oo r ,

ca lcareous so il, bo th iso la ted a nd sterile regions, illustrate th e

influence o f iso latio n o n th e su rviva l o f bro a d h eaded ra ces In -
.

t h e British Isles o nly a few insta n ce s ha ve b een fo un d o f ro und

h ea ds approa ch in g to the m e a s urem e nt o f prehisto ric s
ro und
”
ba rro w p eop les .

On th e wh ole, in th e c o nsid era tio n o f th is d istri butio n o f ra ces,

we find tha t the m igrat io ns wh ich led t o the c o ncentra tio n in
definite a re a s o f p e o p le o f o ne typ e o f s ku ll for m are less c o m p lex
-

tha n the m ore m o der n m o vem en ts t o which the pres e nt a rra nge
m e nt of ra ces a nd l angua ges in Euro p e is due Eth nic zo nes .

( ra ces a nd la ngua ges ) a nd p o litic a l b o u ndaries coi ncid e m o st

clo sely o n the no rth west , wes t a nd s o u th west m argi n of Europ e
-

,
-

S c and ina via , H olland, th e B ritish Isle s Fr a n ce , and th e Iberia n

,

Pe ni nsula ( exce pt as rega r ds l a ng u a ges ) owe th eir ge ner a l unity

of type to th eir m argina l positio n, wh ich c hecked furth er ra ce
m igratio n On the who le th ey fo r m e d
.
, u nit areas ” with
mo re o r less clea rly d efin ed bo unda ries Hence nationality ha d
.

a n ea rly d evelo m ent , a n d fu rth er i m m igra nts were a bsor be d

p
with less mo d ifica tion of th e typ e tha n in th e bri dge lands
o f Eastern a nd Centra l Eu ro e S i m ila r re sults a re no ticea ble
p .
 EURO PE 19 1

in Ita ly so uth of th e Ap e nnines a nd Greece , wh ich bo th fo r m th e

l ted extrem ities o f p enin sul a s
i so a .

Sc andi navia enj o yed th e well m a rke d na tura l l o c a tio n o f a la rge

-

p e ni nsu la s epa r a te d fro m th e m a inla n d by t h e s wa m ps a nd la ke s

o f Fin l a nd o n t h e e a s t Th e insula r h e a rt o f Den ma rk Z ea la nd
.
, ,

h eld a s tra tegic po s itio n a t th e e ntra nce o f the Ba ltic a n d so ,

fa vo ured th e gro wth o f a na tio n stro ng enou gh t o d efend t he

na rro w s o u th er n la n d fr o ntier between t h e Ba ltic a nd th e No rth
Sea Po litic a l h ist o ry e m ph a s izes th e ess entia l un ity o f S ca ndi
:
na v 1a . Denm a rk S we d en an d No rwa y were c o m bine d in th e
, ,

fi fteen th centu ry in to a Un ite d Sc a n dina via a nd Denm a rk a n d ,

N o rwa y f o rm e d o n e sta te in t he s ixtee nth ce ntury Th e lo ng .

u ni o n o f N o rwa y a nd S we d e n ha s o n ly l a tely b ee n d is so lve d .

In s pite o f t h e clo s e s im ila rity o f r a ce a nd l a ng ua ge th e is o la ti o n ,

o f t h e d es o la te fj el d f o r m e d a n e ff ective na tu r a l b arrier b etwee n

th e we st c o as t o f No rwa y a nd S we d e n wh ile De nm a rk wa s s ep a ,

ra te d by s ea Co ns equ ently i nd ep end e nt na ti o na lities ha ve de

.
,

ve10 p ed fro m a c o mm o n o rigi n This s epa r a ti o n o f typ e w as

.

a cce nt u a te d b t h e d iverge n ce o f ec n m ic i d e l —
fis hing o n
y o o a s

t h e we s t a griculture a nd m a nuf a cture s in t h e interio r a nd o n

,

th e e a s t . T his wa s no t t o b e c o m p e nsa ted fo r b y t h e la ck o f

d e fin ite ba rrier s b etwee n t h e Gl o mm e n Va lley a nd Christia n ia
a nd S we d e n .

Th e Iberi a n Peninsul a p o ss ess ed a well defin ed la n d ba rrier -

th e Pyren ees n eve r a n a bso lu te ba r t o m igra tio ns ( of th e Va ndal s

, .

a n d Sa ra ce ns ) o r t o th e
, p oss ess io n o f bo th no rth ern a nd so u th ern
fl a n ks by o ne ra ce th e Ba s ques in th e no rth west o r o ne -

p o litica l po wer ( Na va rre ) bu t su ffi cient t o impo s e a b o r d er regio n

,

of a
p ec u lia r ph ys ica l typ e between Fra n ce a nd Spa in wh ich
,
,

h i nd ere d interc o u r s e a nd so m a d e fo r is o l a tio n Th e eth n ic a l .

c o nnectio n o f th e p e o p les o f th e Iberia n P eninsu la with th os e o f

No r th W es t Afric a ( th e B er bers o f M a ro cc o Al geria a n d T u nis )
-

, ,

illus tra tes its po s itio n a s th e brid g e t o Africa ; but in spite o f

nu m ero u s p a s sa ges o f m igra to ry p eo p les s u ch a s th e Va nda ls ,

a n d o f c o n qu es t s s u c h a s th a t o f th e S ar a cens th ere is th ro ugh

, ,

o u t a n ess en tia l u nity o f rac e exce p t in the c a s e o f th e Bas que s

, .

On th e o th er ha n d in la ng uage a ga in exclud in g t he B as qu es
, , ,

th ere a re th ree distin ct typ es Po rtu gues e o n the Wes tern S ea

bo a r d Ca st ilia n in th e centre a n d Ca ta la n o n th e ea st c o a stla nds
, , .

Th is ha s been d eterm in e d by h isto ric a l c a us es Th e res ista nce ,

t o th e M o o rs w a s d evel o p ed fro m three ge o gra ph ic a l a rea s fro m

t he m o u n ta ins o f Ga licia in th e no rth wes t fro m Ca s tile a nd fro m -

Ara go n in th e no rth ea st wh ere t he inha bita nt s ha d d erived t h e

-

,
 1 92 TEXT B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

Ca talan eech fro m th e French Provence th ro ugh th e ga p

Sp
between the Ea stern Pyren ees a n d th e Med iterra n ea n An .

o fficia l s eech— Po rtugues e S a ni sh a nd Ca t al a n— imp os e d in

p p , ,

ea ch cas e o n th e reco n quered a reas has p ersis ted t o this day; ,

The ph ys ic a l c o ntr asts between t h e moist farm la n ds o f Gal i c i a

a nd th e dr l a te a u of th e M e s et a ha ve no t d eter m ine d d iff er
y p
enc es o f la n ua ge
g .
0

In Franc e excep t in B ritta n y wh ere a Celtic to ng ue s urvi ves

, , ,

we find a sin gle lan gua ge with in the po litical bo unda ries Fo rmer .

po litica l in flu en ce a ccount s fo r t he Fren ch speech o n t he Ita li an

si de o f Mo n t B lanc in Fre nc h spe a k ing Switzerla n d Lorra i ne-

, ,

a nd in t h e W a ll o o n a re as o f B elgium Fra nce esp ecia lly in .

,

t he no rth e as t w as la rgely T eut o nic in th e M iddle Ages in

-

r a ce l a ngua ge a nd cus t o m s The na tura l b a rriers o f th e

, ,
.

wo od e d h ill co u ntry fro m th e Ard ennes to th e Vo sges were

-

p ierced by th e upp er va lleys o f th e M eus e a nd M o s elle .

Mezieres a nd S eda n o n the M eu s e m ark th e ga te of the

Ard e nnes ; Na ncy o n a tributa ry o f t h e M os elle is a c c ess ible fro m
th e e as t fr o m th e Rh i ne b y t h e Co l de Sa ver n e a n d fr o m
the west by To ul a nd B ar le Duc (s ee p 23 2 No te Rhin e Mar n e . .
-

Ca na l ) .

In Ita ly th ere is a ma rked d ifference o f r a ce in t h e p la in o f th e

P0 t o th e n orth o f t he Ap e nnin es It is no tice able th a t a t th e g aps
.
,

s u ch a s th o s e n ort h of Geno a t he ra ce s are m o st m ixe d , The .

T euto nic in va s ion o f No rth Ita ly ha s left no tra ce o n the pc pu

lation except in the i so la ted German colo nies on th e south o f
,

Mo nte Ro sa Lan gu a ge ha s a s u su a l fo llo wed p o litica l b o und

.
, ,

a rie s thou gh French still su rvi ve s in the no rth we st o f the P0

,
-

la in whi le Ticino spea ks Ita lia n ( see generally for the Alpin e
pd
,

an pp 260 266
s, .
,

In Germ any th ere a re c o ns id era ble diff erences o f h ea d for m -

in th e no rth, wh ere the lo n g h ea ds preva il, a n d in t h e south,

wh ere th e mo un ta in broa d h ea d ed ra ce is p reva lent ; but th es e
-

a re bo th equa lly Ger ma n in ra cia l t

yp e a nd la n gua ge Tra ces .

o f th e S la vo n ic in va s io n fro m t h e ea s t are fo un d a s far a s th e

Rh in e in th e p la ce na m es , d istri bu tio n of typ ica l villa ge form s ,

-

dia lects, etc , a n d th is is e sp ecia ll y m a rked o n th e ea s t, wh ere

.

pa rt o f S la vo n ic Po la nd is inclu d e d in the Germ a n Emp ire .

Here po litic a l a nd ethnic bo u n da ries ra rely c o in cid e Germ an .

s ettle m en ts exte nd in to t h e B a ltic Provin ces a s f a r a s St Peter s .

burg, a nd o n bo th s ides o f th e Vis tula in to Russ ia n Po land A . .

bro a d ba nd o f Ger ma n po pu la tio n c o vers th e inn er s lo p es of th e

Bohm erwa ld, th e Erzge birge , a nd th e Sud etes , tho u gh th e pla in
19 4 TEXT BOOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
a no th er thro u gh bro ad gaps in th e mountains o r between the
, ,

m o u nta ins a nd t h e sea a nd tha t d is s i m ila rity o f la ng ua ge does

,

no t p reve nt th e d evelo pm ent o f na tio na lity ; W e a ls o see that

t h e mo vem ents o f ra ce a nd la n g ua ge a re us ua lly gra d ua l ra th er
tha n a brupt a nd tha t th e unit a rea form ed by th e political
,

bo unda rie s o f th e m o dern na tio ns o f Euro p e is o nly pa rtly de

p end ent o n th e existence o f ph ys ica l barriers Fu s ion within a .

na tio na l a re a d e p ends m ore o n eas e o f c o m m un ic a tio n with in tha t

a re a a nd th e so lida rity
pr o du ced by c o mm o n l a ws custo ms , ,

ed uca tio n tra ditio ns a nd litera ture a s in Fra n ce tha n o n a

, , ,

co m plete iso la tio n fro m surro u nd in g a rea s .

Q UES T IONS AND PRACT ICAL WORK .

1 .On the o ro grap h ical m ap of Eu ro p e indica te t h e p o sition o f the

Co ntinental Shel f Expla in the imp o rtanc e o f sha ll o w s ea s fo r co mmunica
.

t io n s and fishing .

2 M a rkon the m a p fj ord regions ria c o a sts d ro wn e d ri ver vall ey s a nd

.
, , ,

d el ta s .

3 Indica t e t he p o sition o f the f oll o wing gap s and p a sses : T he Bur

.

gun d ian Ga te , t he Ga t e of Ca rc asso nn e the Westp ha l ia n Ga t e, the Syrian

,

Gate, the Mo ra vian Gate the B renn er th e Iro n Ga tes an d the Da riel
, , ,

Pa ss .

4 Ma rko n the m ap the Central Pl a teau the Meseta th e Ca rpa thi an s

.
, , ,

t he B al kans, t h e Pla in o f H ung ary th e Pl a in o f Lo m b a rdy the Finnish

, ,

La k e Regio n the Central Russian H ei gh ts the Cen tral Lo wland s The

, , .

N o rth German Plain is sh o wn on the m ap as b el o w 600 f ee t and W estern ,

Franc e is al so mo stly bel o w thi s el eva tio n S ho w fro m a study o f o th er

.

c o ntours that thi s plain is no t c ontinu o us .

5 Ma rkon a m ap the ve getation regions of Euro p e

. Give a sho rt .

a cco unt o f them .

6 S how o n t he m ap the m ain l ines f ro m Pa ris to Co nstan tinopl e Ro m e

. , ,

and Mad rid M a rkt he seas which a re usually fro zen in winter and ih
.
,

di ca te any ic e free p o rts north of 6 0 n o rth la titud e

°
-
.

SCANDINAVIA .

Extent and Ph ysi cal Fe ature s — Sc andinavia c o ns ists of th e

.

peninsula in wh ich a re No rwa y a nd S we d en a nd th e la ke p la tea u

o f Finla nd ( d es cri bed under Ru ss ia , p To the no rth wes t .
-

o f a lin e fro m th e Wh ite S ea , th rough th e Russ ia n l a kes, th e

Gulf of Finla nd a n d the Swe dish la kes, the coun try is co mpo sed o f
Archaean ro ck ( crystalline sch is ts ) , suppo rting c o niferous fo res ts ,
l ike tho se in No rth East Ca na da , but with little cultiva ble so il
-
.
 SCAND INAVIA 195

The ro ck cha ra cter and the influence o f ice ero sio n give a s im ila r
ph ys ic a l ch a r a cter to th es e c o untries The south o f Swed en, .

S c ania , a nd D enm ark, wh ich is h is t o ric a lly part o f Sc a n d ina via ,

a re c o m o s ed o f m o re recent r o ck
p .

Mu ch o f th e no rth wes t of S ca nd ina via and the fj eld tha t lies

-

between N o rwa y and S wed en in th e no rth, and between We s t

a nd Ea s t N o rwa y in th e south , co ns is t o f a ba rren tundra o n ly
,

inh a bited by rein deer and no ma d Lapps ( in the north ) .

Cli m ate .
—
Th ere is
great diff erence of temp era tu re between
a

pl a ces o n th e west c o ast of No rwa y wh ich are exp o s ed t o m o ist ,

s outh we s t w inds a nd th o s e o n th e e a st slo e o f th e

p p la tea u
-

wh ich h a ve a c o nti nenta l cli mate ( see Figs 1 7 and In winter .

( see Table V ) B ergen [ 3 9] and th e Lo fo ten Is lands [ 3 5] a re abo ve

.

freezing an d Na rvik at the h ea d o f th e Ofo ten Fj o r d t he ter

, , ,

m inus o f th e S wed ish min era l ra il wa y is a n ice free p o rt At ,

-
.

Chris tia nia [1 3 ] th e sea freezes 0 o p enh a gen [1 8] is lia ble to ice
, ,

a nd S to ckh o l m [1 4] is blo cke d fo r so m e th ree m o n th s Th e .

isoth erm o f 1 4 F fo r th e a ctua l tem p erature of Janua ry ( Fig 17

°
. .

illus tra tes very clearly th e infl uence o f elevation o n temp erature
o n th e S c a nd ina via n H ighlan ds a nd th e d ecre as e t o wa rds th e
,

north ea s t
-
S im il a rly in su mm er ( Fig
.
, th e is o th erm s of .

50 a n d 60 F sho w the c o o lin g in fluence o f th e o cea n a n d o f

° °
.

eleva tio n a nd h elp to in d ica te the regions in th e so uth wh ere

,

gra ins c a n be cul tiva ted .

Th ere a re grea t c o ntra sts es p ecia lly in S wed en between no rth

, ,

a nd s o uth Ha pa randa
. a t th e h ea d of the Gul f o f B o th nia
,

h a s o n ly s o m e three m o nths free f ro m fro s t (no te in Ta ble V .

°
tha t h ere six mo nths are a bo ve 3 2 F fo r th e a vera ge te m p era ture .

o f t h e m o nth ) Sno w fa lls a ll o ver S weden in th e W inter but

.
,

th e len gth o f ti m e durin g wh ich it re m a ins o n th e gro und va ries

fro m 200 da ys in th e north to 50 in th e so uth It has grea t va lue .

fo r th e tra ns po rt of tim ber a nd a po o r snowfa ll is in so m e regio ns

,

c ons id ered a c al am ity Thou gh th e ra in in Sweden c o m es m o stly

.

in sum m er a nd a utu mn the s ki es a re re marka bly clea r in Ju ne

,

a nd clo u d ed in Dece m ber ; thu s th e h ea ting efi ec t o f t h e s u n s

’

ra ys is un im pa ired in su mm er a nd loss of h ea t by ra d ia tio n

,

p reve nte d in winter Sun fo rce h a s a n im orta nt i nfl ue nce o n

.
p
-

t h e rip enin g of crops ; wh e a t c a n o n ly be grow n in th e so uth ,

wh ile t he no rth er n crops are o a ts rye and ba rley , , .

19 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Area = o ver s qua re mil es Po p ula tio n = 2 4 millio ns in 1 910 ;

‘
.

1 9 to th e qua re mi le Chris tiania = 0 2 5 m illi ons

‘

s . .

Position and Extent No rwa y extends fro m the la titud e o f

-

No rth Sco tl a nd to nea rly 5 b eyo nd th e Arctic Circle Its len gth ,
°
.

m iles, is th e sam e a s th e d is ta nce o f its m o s t s outh ern ca p e

fro m th e Pyrenees In th e so uth it is a bout 250 m iles, i n th e n o rth
.

a bo u t 60 m ile s wide ; a t o ne p l a ce , wh ere th e ra ilwa y fro m

°
Swed en r ea ch es th e Ofo ten Fj o rd (no rth of 6 8 no rth l a titu d e )
th e width is as little a s 5 m il es It s area is slightly grea ter
.

th a n th a t o f th e United Kingdo m , wh ile its co ast l ine, in cluding

th e fj o r ds a nd l a rger is la nds, is , a pp ro xim a tel , twice a s l o ng
y .

Excep t in the extrem e s o uth , N o rwa y is s epa ra te d f ro m

S wed en by a ba rren p la tea u (th e f j el d ) , of no grea t eleva tio n
(a bo u t 2, 000 feet ) , but o f co ns id era ble brea dth (o ver 100 m iles) .

Ic e bo und fo r m o st o f th e yea r , a nd un inh a bited excep t by

-

no m a d La pps , th is des ert bo rd erl a nd h a s ma d e co m m uni c a tio n

d ifficu lt between e a st a nd west, a nd e ff ectively s epara te d na tio na l
interes ts So d esola te is th is a rea th a t th e p ortio n no rth o f
.

T ro ndh j em wa s co ns idered a n o ma n s la nd in th e la st centu ry,

’

a nd t h e bou nda ry betwee n No rwa y a nd Rus s ia wa s n o t fixe d

till 1 8 26 While l and c o mmu nic a tio n was difficul t , th a t by s ea

k
.

“ ”
w as e a s y, o wi ng to th e s j aer a a rd ,
g a lo ng ch a i n o f is l a nds ,
k
wh ich fo rm a na tura l bre a wa ter , b ehind which s ma ll b o ats
c a n s a il in c o m pa r a tively c a lm wa ter , t he fine h arbo ur s f o rm e d

by th e fj o r ds , a nd t h e a bs ence o f ice eve n a s far north a s t h e

Lo f o ten Isla nds Christia ni a d o es no t sh are in th e p eculia r
.

clima tic c o nditions o f th e wes t c o ast, and its harb our is lia b le t o
b e fro ze n in winter .

N a tu ral ad vantages fo r the trainin g o f sailo rs c om bined with special ,

fa c ilities f o r fishing l ed to the d e vel o pm ent of th e Vik

, ing ty pe No rweg ian .

seam en b e c am e seal ers and w h al ers in t h e no rt h a nd f ro m Ot ha r in Kin g

, ,

Alfred s t im e t o N ansen and Am u nd sen th ey ha v e pla y ed a la rg e p a rt in

’

t h e s to ry o f Polar exp l ora tio n .

Co nfig urati on — The p ec ul ia r ch a ra cter of the s urfa ce fe a tures

.

o f No rwa y is du e t o th e l o fty pla tea u , o f wh ich a l m o s t th e wh o le

o f th e S candina via n p enins ul a , exc ep t th e extre m e so uth o f

S wed en , is c o m po se d Th is p la tea u cons is ts o f

.

( a ) A lower p lateau , wh ich co m m ences a t an irregula r lin e,

ma rke d by th e occurrence o f la kes of co ns idera ble s ize , wh ich
th e eye c an fo llo w o n a ma p fro m about 61 no rth la titu d e
°
1 98 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e u m ero us wa terfa ll s in No rwa y a re cha ra cteristic of a

n
gla cier scored l and and in m a ny c as es m ark th e descent fro m
-

the p la teau s Tho ugh t h e river s a re re nd ere d u nnaviga ble

.
,

their va lue as s ources o f po wer is i nc a lcul able .

On the Ha rd anger Fj o rd a nd in o th er p la c es wa ter p o wer is being used -

t o g enera t e electric ity a n d s ep a ra te ni tro g en fro m th e a ir As t h ere is .

a b unda n c e o f li m es to n e va l u a bl e c h em i c a l p ro d u cts c a n b e m a n uf ac t ure d

, ,

su c h a s a rtifi cia l sa l tp etre whi ch m a y c o m p et e a s a m a n ure with t he nitra tes

,

o f Chil e ( see
p .

Pop ul ation and Occ up ati ons The s m a lln es s o f th e to ta l a rea .

tha t is capa ble o f su pp lying fo o d a nd re m un era tive wo rk to any

but a sm a ll a nd sc a ttered p o pul a ti o n , a nd th e lo n g winter a ccount
for th e la rge ann u a l em igr a ti o n th a t t a ke s p la ce every ye a r to
N orth Am eric a Acc o r d i ng t o a recen t ce ns us , m ore than
.

m illio n N orwegia ns fo r m p a rt o f t h e m ixe d p opula tio n of the

Unite d States , a nd th e n um b er is ste ad ily i ncrea s i ng , e sp eci a lly
in the north wes t— the f o re st a re a o f Wa sh i ngt o n
-
This numb er .

is surprising wh en it is rem em b ere d th a t the tot a l p o pul atio n

of Norwa y is abo ut 25 m illio ns .

Of the t o ta l va lue o f exp o rts a nd im po rts t h e m ost imp ortant

perce nta ges are

ExPORTs — Anim al pro d u cts l a rgely c o d a n d o th er fish 3 3 timber

. .
, , and

wo o d pul p 3 3 ; pa p er 7 h a ir s k
-
, i n s ta ll o w o ils ta r 8
, , , , , , .

ImP OR T s — Cereal s l a rg ely ry e 1 7 ; m a ch inery and m etal s 1 6 ;

.
, , , un

wrough t min erals la rgely c o al , ,

1 7 ; hai r skin s tallo w
, , , o ils, t ar, et c .
, 14 ;
te xtil e ma n ufac tures 12 , .

T ra d e is ma in ly c a rried o n with th e Ba ltic S tate s and th e

Un ited K ingdo m , bu t th ere is a la rge sh ippin g tra d e with m ost
p a rts of th e w o rld , esp eci a lly in fis h t o t h e Ca th olic countri es of
Po rtuga l and Ita ly Su ffi cie nt fo o ds tu ffs c a nno t be grown f or
.

the suppo rt o f th e p o pul a tio n T h e ra w m a teria l s o f ma nu .

fa ctures ha ve to be impo rted S ilver , go ld, a nd co pp er are .

m i ned, but are co mpa ra tively u nimp orta nt Timb er is obtaine d .

at th e m outh of m os t o f th e rivers o f th e Trondhje m Fj ord a nd

o f th e rivers n orth o f Tro ndhjem Ma ny p ulp m ills have b ee n .

-

erec t ed

Communications and T owns No te o n th e o rograph ic a l ma p .

-

tha t th e area o n m o st o f th e west c o a s t belo w feet canno t

be sh own o n a sm a ll s c a le O bs erve th e Va lley of Trondh j em . .

In th e south and in th e va lleys no rth o f Christiania th ere is roo m

for a la rger popula tio n Th e fj o r d fo r m a tio n o f the west gives
.
 N O RWAY 1 99

pla ce o n th e e a s t to l o ng a nd rela tively sha ll o w va lleys, o f wh ic h

th e lo wer c o ur s es a re clea rly sh o wn a t th e fretted e dge o f th e
f eet c o nto u r Ma rked ga ps , pa rtly fil led by lo ng , m o ra in e
.

da m m ed la kes , h a ve b een c u t by th e rivers in th e e dge o f th e

h igh er p la tea u . Th es e a re o f i m po rta nce fo r c o m m u n ic a tio n .

No te t h e u se m a d e o f th e m by ra ilwa ys fro m T ro ndh j e m ea st

wa r ds t o S wed en, a nd th e m in in g ra ilwa y wh ich rea ch es th e
O fo ten Fj o rd (a bra nch o f th e W est Fj o rd ) in th e no rth Th is .

lin e pro vides a n ice f ree po rt in win ter fo r th e ir on d epo s its o f

-

th e h ea d o f th e Gu lf o f B o th n ia ( Gelliva ra ) .

Th e i m p o rta nt to wns o f No rwa y a re a ll o n th e co a s t .

Trondh j em , c o m m a n d ing th e m o s t ex tens ive d ep ressio n o n th e

west co a st , rep la ced th e o ld religio u s a nd p o litic a l centre o f th e
c o u ntry ( N ida ro s, fo u nd ed Its a d va n ta ge o f po s itio n lies
in ( a ) a la rge sh eltere d fj o rd ( ru nn in g so u th west t o no rth ea st )
- -

( b) th e m o s t extens ive a rea o f rela tive lo wla n d o n th e west c oa st

( bel o w 3 00 f eet ) su ita ble fo r a gricu lture (0 ) i mp o rta nt river s ga ps
lea d i ng t o va lleys o n th e ea s t a nd o n t h e s o u th ( the Gu ldal a nd
t h e Gl o mm en v a lley) , wh ich a re f o llo we d by r a ilwa ys .

B erg en, o n th e c o a s t b etween th e So gn e a n d Ha rda nger Fj o r ds,

h as a n excelle nt ha rb o u r Th e va lleys b eh ind th e t o w n c o nt a i n
.

a sm a ll th o u gh va lu a b le a re a o f u nd u l a ti ng a r ab le l a nd Its .

a d va nt a ges o f s itua ti o n a re no t s o gre at a s th o s e o f Tro ndhjem ,

a s rega r ds la nd c o m mu nic a ti o n The r a ilwa y t o Chris tia n ia h a s

.

o nly l a tely b ee n c o mp lete d , with so m e d iffi c u lty, a cr o ss t he

m o u nt a in p l a te a u O w ing t o its positio n a s a s ea h a rb o ur a t

.

a m o re so uth erly p o i nt th a n Tr o ndhj e m , it w a s , b e fo re t h e f o u n

d a ti o n o f B ode, T ro mso, a nd Ha mm erfes t , t he ce ntre t o wh ic h

a ll t h e p r o du cts o f t h e no rth er n fis h erie s were b r o ugh t , a nd f or

a l o ng p eri o d t h e tr a d e wa s a m o no po ly o f t he Ha ns e a tic Le a gue .

Christi ani a , n o w th e ca p ita l a n d th e m o s t p o p ul o u s to wn in

N o rwa y, lies a t t h e so u th o f a s erie s o f va lleys, wh ich c o n ta in
m o re th a n ha l f th e a gricu ltu ra l la nd o f th e c o u ntry, a nd c o m
m a n d th e h is to ric h igh wa y to T ro n dh j e m (No te La ke Mjiis en,
.

th e la rges t in No rwa y, o n wh ich sta nds Ha m a r , th e o nly i m p o r

ta nt in la nd to wn ) All c o m m ercia l ro u tes th ro u gh th is p o pulo us
.

d istrict c o nverge a t Ch ristia n ia , wh ich ha s o bvio us a d va nta ges

fo r c o m m u nica tio n with Den m a rk a n d th e B a ltic .

T he t o wn s o f N o rwa y a re a lm o st en tirely o n th e c o a st a nd a pa rt fro m

, ,

tho se m entio n ed a b o ve a re eith er shippin g p o rts a s S ta vang er o r fishing

, , ,

c en tres a s H am m erfe st In the la rg er inl a n d valley s esp ecially o n the

,
. ,

ea st there a re num ero u s isola t ed farm s bu t f ew villa ges On t he west

, , .

c oa s t t h ere a re tin y vill a g es a t t h e m o u th o f a l mo s t e very riv er v a ll ey w hic h

200 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

ha s su ffi cient c ul l owla nd a t it s entra nc e in to t h e f j ord

tiva ble A typ ica l .

villa g e is Sk j61den a t the head of th e So gne Fj ord T h ere is a trac k

, m a rk ed .

by p o l es (varden ) a c ro s s the d esola t e pl a teau of the fj eld to a vall ey running

into th e Gu dbra nd s dal en whi ch l ea d s t o Lak e M josen but there is very '

, ,

li ttl e tra ffi c a t a ny tim e In win t er t he ro u t e is us u a lly bl o ck

. ed even f o r
sl ed g es B erg en is t he m ark et town, three d ay j ourney by f j ord s tea m er
’
.
s .

Fishing ex c ep t f o r f o o d is u nimp orta n t a n d th ere is o n ly suffi c ient tim ber

, , ,

f o r lo c al u se T he p urit y of t h e wa t er in a la k
. e a bo ve th e to wn ha s l ed
t o t he est a blishm ent o f a n ice fa ct o ry w h ic h tra d es dire ctly with Lo n d o n
-
, .

Ap a rt fro m this c a ttl e f a rming a nd d a iry pro duc t s ( m a inl y ch eese) o ccupy
,

t h e b u lk o f t h e p op ul a t io n T h e c a tt le are driven up a s in Swit z erl an d t o

. , ,

t he hig h p a st ures a n d m igra te t o th e p la ins in a utu mn

, Al mos t a l l a va ila bl e .

l o wla nd a nd a c c essibl e hill sl o p e h o w ev er st eep , is d evo t ed t o ha y , whi ch is

,

o f t en brough t d o wn t o t h e v a lley by wire ro p es In epit e o f t he is o l a t io n . ,

th ere is const ant c o mm u nicatio n with o th er f j ord viHa g es by boat esp ecia ll y ,

in wint er , an d ma n y o f t h e men ha v e tra v ell ed t o b o t h N o rth and S o u th

America .

Historical Rel ations Green la n d, Icela nd a n d th e Fa ro es

. ,

were co lo nized f ro m No rwa y T h e ca st a nd no rth east win ds o f .

-

sp rin g m a de th e o u twa rd j o u rn ey t o th e S h etla nds a nd the

Western Isles po ss ible fo r s qua re sa iled No rrla nd boa ts, su ited -

t o sa iling befo re t h e wind, s i m il a r in typ e to th o s e s een a t th e

pres ent d a y Th e p reva len t Wes t a nd S outh W es t W inds pr o vid ed
-

Th e Ork
.

fo r th e return j o u rn ey n eys, S uth erla n d, th e H e brid es ,

.

a nd th e Isle o f M a n were a ll N o rwegia n p o ss ess io n s , a nd No r

w eg ia n King s rul ed in Du blin f o r m o re th a n 3 00 yea r s The

c o n qu eror s o f No r m andy were m a inly No rwegia n Vik
.

ings At .

th e p res ent da y a bo ut o ne th ir d o f t h e f o reig n tr a d e o f No rwa y -

is with th e Unite d K ing do m No rwa y is o nly s ep a ra ted fro m D en .

m a rk by a stra it o f 70 m il es (th e S ka gera k ) a nd th e d is ta n ce ,

is no t to o grea t t o preven t t h e ligh tho us es o f bo th la nds fro m

bein g vis ible a t th e s a m e p la ce Fo r 400 yea rs ( 1 3 80 1 8 1 4 ) .
-

No rwa y h a d a n intima te po litic a l co nn ectio n with Den ma rk .

S WEDEN .

Area = 1 73 000 q e m il es Po pula tion = 5 5 mi ll io n s in 1 9 10 ; 3 2 to

‘ “

,
s ua r .

the s qua re m il e . S to c k
h ol m m ill io n .

Po sitio n and Extent — Th e a rea o f S we den is ne a rly on e a nd

.

a h a lf tim e s th a t o f th e Un ite d Kin gdo m Like Norwa y, it .

ext ends b eyo nd the Arctic Circle t o th e north ( a bo ut two d egrees) .

It h a s a lo ng c o a st li ne in c o m pa ris on with its brea dth , with

-

num erou s i nd ent a tio ns , wh ere th e rivers e nter the sea ; th es e,

202 T EX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

ha ve m a n y m o ss es a nd p e a t bo gs Fo res ts, esp ecia lly p in es ,

.

c o ver th e h ills, a nd it is fro m th is regio n tha t th e m a in tim ber

su
pply is no w o bta in ed L ittle o f th is regio n is cultiva te d
.

except in th e sou th , wh ere th ere a re va lua ble o re d epo sits, a nd

a lo ng t h e l in e o f d e re ss io n , wh ich exte nds fro m T r o ndh j e m c a s t
p
i nto S we d en . Th is w a s fil le d with i c e—blo cke d la kes i n th e
gla cia l epo ch, in th e beds o f wh ich fertile d epo s its o f a llu viu m
ha ve b een left .

( )
0 Th e M a ri n e D e p o sit B el t —
Fro m a bo u t 600 f eet to th e s ea
. .

Th is 1S a d elta regio n o f sa n d a n d cl a y, wh ich were d ep os ite d a t

th e sea bo tto m a fter th e Ic e a g e As th e resul t o f th is d epo s it
.

a s eries o f c ul tiva te d tra ct s a re t o b e f o u n d i n a ll th e l o w river

va lleys o f No rth Swed en , but it m u s t be rem em bere d tha t th e

p o pul a tio n o f th is a rea is fa r m o re s ca nty a n°d th e fa r m s a re
wid er a pa rt th an in th e l o wla nds so u th o f 60 no rth la titu d e .

Th e o n ly a rea o f rela tively d ens e po pul a tio n lies a l o n g th e c oa s t

between 61 ° a n d 63 no rth la titu d e , a n d is du e t o th e sa w m ills
°
-

a nd ti m ber p o rts . Th e trees a re c u t in win ter , a n d dra gged

o ver th e s no w a nd f r o ze n m a rsh e s t o th e wa ter s e d ge
’
In .

s rin g , wh e n th e ice m elt s, th ey a re flo a te d do wn t h e rivers o r

p
a rtifi cia l flo a tin g ch a nn els ( o
f th e c o nditio ns o f Lu m berin g in
.

th e e a st o f No rth Am eric a ) .

South Swe de n —Th e so uth ern p o rtio n o f S we d en is , with t h e

.

excep tion o f th e h illy region so uth o f La ke Vetter ( mo stly fo rest

cla d a nd s i m ila r in ch a ra cter to th e m o ra in ic a nd m a rsh y region
described a bo ve ) fa r mo re fa vo u ra ble fo r a gricul tu re Fro m .

S to ckh o lm , o n th e B a ltic t o th e S ka gera k , r u ns a rem a rka ble

,

d epress io n, la rgely o ccu p ie d by exten s ive la kes ( M a la r , Ve n er ,

a nd Vetter c a na ls thr o u gh t h e t wo l as t na m e d l a kes c o nn ect
-

th e B a ltic a nd K a tteg a t ) Th is regio n h a s b ee n c o vere d b y

.

m a rin e d ep o s its like th e c o as t a l p la in o f N o rth S wed en, a nd

,

c o nt a ins a f ertile s o il It was t o th es e pla i ns th a t th e first

.

s ettler s in Swed e n c am e , a nd fr o m th e m th e S we d ish na ti o n h as

d evelo pe d .

Pop ul ation Occ up ations — Th e nu m ber o f p eo pl e e mp l o y ed

and .

in a ric u lture is r a p idly dim inis h ing o wing t o th e gre a t i ncre a s e

g ,

in s c i entific da iry fa r m in g a n d s to ck keep ing a nd th e d e m a nds

,

o f l a bo ur fo r m o d er n fa cto rie s Of th es e indu stries th e mo st

.

im po rtant are tho s e wh ich u se a s raw m a teria l ti m ber (th e saw

m il l regio n o f No rth Swe d en , m a tch e s, wo o d p ulp , p a p er ) a nd -

iro n (th e mo s t im po rta nt iro n m in es a nd centres o f iro n pro

-

ductio n are a little to th e no rth o f th e centra l la ke regio n ) .

 SWED EN 203

S we d ish iro n is very pu re , a nd a c o ns idera ble a m o u nt is ex o rted

p
t o Gre a t B rita in .

S we d ish indu s try s u ff er s m a teria lly fro m th e a bse nce o f c o a l ,

tho u gh a ss isted by th e la rge u s e o f cha rc o a l fo r iro n s m elting
a nd t h e
p reva lence o f wa terfa lls ( cf th e fa mous T ro llh atta n .

Fa lls a t th e ou tlet o f Lake Ven er ) At present wa ter a nd stea m .

p la y a pp ro xim a tely equa l pa rts in th e in dus tria l u nd erta k ings

o f S we d e n .

Ih t he extrem e so uth , fa ci ng De nm a rk , are fertile p la i ns o f a

.

d l fi eren t ge o l o gic a l fo r m a tio n ( no t o f Arc h ae an a g e bu t o f la ter ,

s e dim e nt a ry r o ck
) Th is a gric u ltura l a rea S c a nia , is the m o st
.
,

d e ns ely p e o ple d in S we d e n ( no te t h e exte n s i o n o f s uga r b eet ) -

.

O f t h e t o ta l va lues o f expo rts a nd im p o rts t he m o st im .

p o rta nt p erce nt a ges are

T im ber 3 0 wo o d p u lp 10 p a per 7 bu tter 6 iro n o ne 6

E x P O R Ts .
—
, , , , ,

m a nufa ctured iro n 1 0 , .

ImP ORT s — Mineral s m o s tly c o a l 1 7 ; m a c hin ery and s teel goo d s 1 6

.
, , , ;
c erea ls 8 ra w t ex til es 8 t ex til e m anufa ctures 7
, , , .

Fifty per cent o f th e su r fa ce is wo o d la nd a nd o nly 1 2 p er

.
,

cent a ra ble o r pas tu re h ence th e bu lk o f th e exp o rts a re fo res t

.

p ro duct s wh il e fo o ds tu ffs h a ve to b e i m p o rted

, T ra d e is c a rried .

o n m o s tly with th e Un ite d King do m a nd Ger m a n y Exp o rts .

g o a l so t o Den m a rk Fra n ce a n d N o rwa y a nd i m po rts c o m e

, , ,

fro m th e Un ited Sta tes Denm a rk and Russ ia , , .

T owns .
—
Th e m a in to wn s o f S we d en a re o n th e c o a st e r
or n a

th e grea t la kes , in p o s itio ns c o n ven ien t fo r tra d e

or as ,
centres
o f a gricul tu ra l a rea s Ma n y n ew t o wns a re sp ring ing u p in
.

c o ns equ e nce o f th e m o dern indus tries .

Sto ckh ol m a t th e o u tlet o f La ke Ma la r a n d th e en tra nce to

,

th e lo wla n ds o f Cen tra l S wed en w a s o f c o n s id era ble im po rtance ,

in th e M idd le Ages wh en th e S wed es po ss e ss e d F inla nd a nd pa rt

,

o f th e s o u th sh o re o f th e B a ltic a nd wh e n tr a d e w a s ce ntred o n ,

tha t s ea It h a s l a tely b ec o m e a great m a nufa cturi ng centre

.
,

o wi ng t o th e d evel o pm e nt o f m i ni ng i ndus tries a nd fa ct o rie s t o

t he n o rth a nd we st ( In th e twelfth century Vis b y in Go tl a nd

.
, ,

wa s o n e o f th e m os t p o werful tr a d ing to w ns in t h e no rth o f

Eur o p e ) .

Goth enburg o n th e west c o a s t a t th e m o uth o f th e Go ta Elf

, , ,

wh ich flo ws fro m La ke Vener is th e ch ief expo rtin g to wn a n d , ,

is o nlv s ec o n d t o Ch ristia n ia in ma nu fa ctu res Oth er t o wns a re .

Ma lm o o n the S o und No rrk o p i ng with its w o o lle n i ndustrie s, , ,

a nd Ka rl s kro na t he c h ief na va l ce ntre

, .
204 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

DENMARK .

Area = l ess than s qu a re m il es Po p u l a tio n = 2 7 m illio n s in 1 9 1 1

‘

18 5 to t h e s qu a re m il e . e e
Co p n ha g n = 0 4 5 m ill io n
'
.

Are a and Co nfi g uratio n — Th e a re a o f th e p res ent kin gdo m

. of

Denm a rk is o n ly o n e eigh th o f th a t o f th e U n ite d Kin gdo m

-
.

In t h e m iddl e o f t h e six teenth c en tu ry D en m a rkin clu d ed in it s k ingdo m

No rwa y ( til l S o u th ern S wed en ( till a n d t he D u c hies o f S c hl eswig

a nd H o l s tein ( t ill It s o nl y f o reign po ssessio n s a re n o w Ic ela nd ,

pa rt o f Greenl a n d t h e Fa ro es an d so m e W es t In d ia n Isl a n d s
, ,
T he .

hist o ric grea tn ess o f D enm a rkd epen d ed o n t h e c o m m a nd o f the B al tic by

m ean s o f t h e c h a nn el s w h i c h a re f o rm ed by t h e isl an d s o f Zea l a n d a nd
Fiin en .

While th e west c o a st is sandy a nd u nind ented th e ea st a ff o r ds ,

m a n y in lets a nd sa fe h a r bo u rs Th e cu rrents o f th e so un ds .
,

wh ich are s till so u rces o f da nger (no te th e wreck cha rt o f th e

Ka tte ga t ) a dded t o th e im po rta nce o f th e D a n ish p o rts e sp ecia lly ,

in da ys wh en a ll boa ts were sma ll a nd tra ffic c a m e t o a n end in

th e win ter .

Th e su rfa ce is gen era lly lo w few eleva tio ns exceed in g 400 feet , .

Th e m a in isla nds a re Z ea l a nd d ivi d e d fro m S c a nd ina via by th e ,

S ou nd Fy en ( Ger m Fu nen ) s epa ra ted fro m Z ea la nd by th e

, .
,

Grea t B elt La ngela nd Laa la nd Fa ls ter a n d M 6 en

, , Th e ro cky , , .

isl a nd o f Bo rnh o lm exp o r ts buil ding s t o ne to Den m a rk wh ich ,

is d eficient in s uita ble m a teria l Th e Fa r o es wh ich b elo ng t o .

,

Denm a rk lie to th e no rth wes t o f th e Sh etl ands Th e principal

,
-

indus tries a re sh eep rea rin g bird ca tch in g a nd fish ing

-

,
-

, .

Pro ducts Oc c up ati ons — Except in th e wes t a n d ce ntre

and
o f Ju tla nd , wh ere th e ba rren h ea th and bo g regio n h a s been
pa rtly recla im e d in m o dern tim es , th e so il is g oo d fo r a gric u ltu re
a nd
pa s tu re , a nd th e c o u ntry is m o stly o ccu p ie d with m o d ern
s cientific far m in g a n d d a irying Of th e su r fa ce , 40 per cent is . .

a ra ble a nd 3 0
p er cent , a t lea st, m ea do w la n d
-
.

Of th e t o tal va lu e of expo rts and im po r ts, th e m o st impo rta nt

percenta ges a re

Ex P O R T s .
— B u tter , egg s ,
b a con , et c 60 .

ImP ORT s —Cereals

. and f oo d s tu ff s ,
26 ; textile m anu fa ctu res 10 ; i ro n
ma nuf a ct ures 9 , co l o nia l p ro d u cts 7 , c o a l a n d wo o d .

Th e pre do m ina nt industry is da iry fa rm ing Cc o p era tive -

.
-

m eth o ds a re e m plo yed , o r th e c o u ntry is divided in to s m all

206 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

QUES TION S .

1 Il l ustra t e the in flu en c e o f p hy sical c on di tio ns on m ean s of communica

.

tion in S candin a via .

2 Ac co un t fo r t h e i c e free p o rts o f N o rt h W es t N o rway and the c on

.
- -

tinenta l clima te o f S w ed en .

3 Exa mine the im p o rts and eXp o rts o f No rway , S wed en, and Denm a rk
. ,

a nd ex pl a in th eir co nn e ctio n s wi th th e p hy si c a l f ea tu res .

4 Wha t p a rts o f S can din a vi a a re m o s t su it ed fo r fis hing , wo o d manu

.

f ac ture and d airy farm in g

,
-

5 Ho w is th e wan t o f c o al su p p li ed in S c a ndin a via 7 Do es thi s nac es

.

saril y ha mp er th e gro wt h o f m a nuf ac tu res

6 Des c ri b e th e typical o ccup a tio ns o f th e f j o rd c o a st o f W est No rway ,

.

the f j eld an d th e in t erio r vall ey s o f No rwa y a n d S weden .

7 Desc ri be the p o si t io n o f T ro nd h j em S to c k
. h ol m a nd Co penha gen, , ,

a nd a c c o unt f o r th eir im o r ta n c e
p .

THE GERMAN EM PIRE .

Th e North ern Pl a i n .

Area = 209 000 s qua re mil es Po p ul a tio n = 64 9 mill io ns in 1910

, .
‘

3 1 0 to
the s qua re m il e B erlin = 2 m illio n s . .

The rth o f Ger ma ny fo r m s pa rt o f the Centra l Euro pean

no
Pla in wh ich stretch es fro m th e so u rces o f th e D n iep er to th e
,

Rh ine Delta On th e c o a s t o f th e N o rth S ea th ere a re c o ns id er

.

a b le a re a s o f very lo w fl a t pla ins so m e o f wh ich a s in Holla nd , , ,

are b elow sea level a nd a re pr o tecte d by s a nd dun es a nd a rtifi ci a l

-

,
-

d ykes Pa rt of th is fen lo wla nd wh ich ha s b een d ra ine d no w

.
, ,

fo rms pastures and c o rnfields In th e interio r is a rath er h igh er .

land compos ed o f sandy wastes (th e yeast) covered wi th h ea th

, .

On the c o ast o f th is lo wla nd th e Ems W es er a nd El be for m , ,

la rge es tua ries .

Th e Ba ltic co as t is m o re eleva ted a nd th ere a re no ma rsh es ,

or po lders (see p T h e c o a s t is p ro tected by sa nd dun es

.
-

a nd in m a ny p la ces ris es s teep ly Sa nd d e p os its due to the .

B a ltic curre nts h a ve fo rm e d na rro w s pits (nehrung en) whi ch /

enclo se land locke d la goo ns ( k

'
-

fi
a en) o f fre sh wa ter a t t he m ouths

of the rivers t he N ie m e n ( Kuris ch e s Ha fi ) the Pregel ,

( Fris ch es Hafi ) a nd th e O d er In th es e t he rive rs are for m ing

, .

delta s ; cons eque ntly the h a rb o u rs a t th eir m ouths o fte n d ep end

,

for access to the sea o n a rtificia l ch a nnels The island o f B il gen .

is a d et a che d p ortio n of th e m a inla nd Th e la nd b ehi nd the co a s t .

 THE GERMAN EMPIRE 20 7

is l argely c o vere d with a n a ccum ulatio n o f gla ci a l drift to wh ich ,

m a n y of th e undula tio ns and t h e countless s m all la kes a re du e .

Fr o m th e Elb e to th e Va ldai H ills th es e s welling up la nds ( ris ing

'
t o a b ove 600 feet are k now n as the B a ltic Heights
) O nly sho rt .

Fro . 22 — GERM AN Y : RIVER S Y S T EM S

. .

Vosg es 2 B la ckFo res t ; 3 Ha rt 4 Oden wald 5 Sp essart ; 6 H a na

ruck 7 T a unu s ; 8 W ei ; 9 Wes terwa ld ; 10 Ro tha a r ; 11 V0 els
, , , , ,

, , , , , ,

berg ; 12 Rhiin ; 1 3 Thuringerwa ld 14 H a rz ; 1 5 W eser B eig ts ;

, , , ,

16 Teu to b urg erwald

,
1 7 Germ an S carp Lan ds ; 1 8 S wa bian Ju ra ;
, ,

1 9 Fra nc o nia n Jura 20 Fich tel gebirge 21 B é hm er W al d 22 Erz g e

, , , ,

b irg e 23 S ud etes 24 Polish H eig hts ; 25 Ly sa Gora 2 6 Bo urta ng e r

, , , ,

M oo r ; 27 Liinebe rg H ea th ; 2 8 Flam ing ; 29 Ea st Po m eran ia n

, ,

H eigh ts ; 3 0 Ea st Prussian H eigh ts

, .

rivers flow fro m th em So m e run directly north t o the Ba ltic

.
,

o th ers j oin th e bas i ns of th e Vis tul a O d er a nd El b e Ea ch o f , , .

th es e rivers is j oi ned by long tributaries flowi ng generally east ,

t o west in the o ld va lley lines o f the gla cia l ep och whic h fo rm ,

208 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

s ucc essive edges o f the retrea ting ice sh eet wh ich b locked t he -

passag e to the B a ltic .

Th e Drevenz j o in s th e Vis tul a fro m th e no rth ea st n ea r Tho rn -

, ,

fo r m in g pa rt o f th e Ru ss ia n fro ntier th e B ra h e N etze a nd Wa rth e ,

c o ntinu e th e lin e to th e O der wh ich tu rns no rth west a t Kiistrin ,

-

a nd th e Fi no w Ca na l fo ll o ws a lin e o f na tu ra l d epre ss io n no rth

o f B erlin t o th e Ha vel a nd El be B etween th e O d er a nd th e .

Vis tul a thes e va lleys a re m u ch la rger tha n th e rivers th a t no w

fl o w th ro u gh th e m a n d it is pro ba ble tha t th e Vistul a o n ce flo we d
,

i nt o the O d er by th is c ours e a nd p ossibly were tributaries of ,

th e Elb e T o t h e s o u th a s ec o nd lin e f o ll o ws th e Na rev Vis tula

.
,

( a little no rth o f Wa rsaw ) B z ura Warth e O bra O d er a nd Spree

, , , , ,

(see Fig .

In m e dieva l tim es th e d epress io ns fo r m e d s wa m ps th ickly ,

gro wn with a l d er wh ich were s erio us ba rrier s to c o m m u n ica tio n

,
.

In m o d ern da ys th ey ha ve been la rgely dra ine d a nd utilized

fo r ca na ls .

Th e Bal it c o ccu pies a shal lo w ba sin with a n a vera ge d ep th of 3 6 fa thom s , ,

tho ug h a few pa tch es rea c h in t he bro ad est pa rt 1 00 fa th om s A va st .

num b er o f ri vers b rin g d o wn fresh w a ter a nd t h ere is l ittl e e va p o ra tio n ,

.

Onl y na rro w c h a nnels b etw een th e D anish i sla nd s c o m m uni c a t e wi th t h e

m o re sa lin e a nd therefo re d en ser N o rt h Sea Less dense su rfa c e c urren ts .

fl o w o u twa rd s a nd d enser d eep s c o u ring c u rren t s in wa rd s f ro m t h e No rth

, ,
-

S ea . T h e tid es a re ba rely f el t b ey o nd Co p enh a g en a n d p a s t B o rnho lm ,

th e wa ter is n ea rly f resh It is fro z en regul arly in wint er f o r f ro m three

.

t o fo u r m o nths a nd som et im es fro m sh o re t o sh o re

, .

Rivers and M ou ntains .

Th e lo ng rivers o f th e Cen tra l Eu ro p ean Pla in ris e in th e h igh

la nds to th e so u th Th e Vistul a h a s its so urce in th e Ca rpa th ians ,
.

no t fa r fro m th e Mo ra vi a n Ga te a nd c u rves t o t h e no rth ea st ,

-

ro u nd th e Po lish H eigh ts a nd th e qua rtzite ridge o f Lysa Go r a

,

f eet ) Like th e O d er it cro ss es th e B a ltic H eigh ts in a

.
,

no rth ea s t d irectio n
-
Th e ma in s trea m brea ks th ro ugh th e sa nd
.

du n es a nd enter s th e sea wes t o f th e Fris ch es H a fl , with wh ich

it is c o nn ected by on e bra nch Da nz ig a little to th e west o f .
,

its m o uth , is c o nn ecte d with th e river a n d its p o rt N eu fa h r

wass er by c a nals Th e Vis t u la is na vigab le for barges b eyond
.

Cra c o w , but brings d o wn little fro m its upp er c o urs e except

Ca rpa th ia n tim b er a nd S iles ia n c o a l The Lower Vis tula low .

la nd is a br o a d fertile p la i n in wh ich wh ea t is impo rt ant Th e .

p oorer so il of t he B a ltic h eigh ts t o e a st a nd we st is m a in ly u s e d

210 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

grou nd a nd o n a n isla nd in the Spree wh ere th e river is narrow .

O n it c o nverged th e ea s iest r o ute fro m th e wes t a cr o ss ( by

Spa nda n ) the Ha vel la kes a nd s wam ps a nd the two great east t o '

west ( approxima tely) va lleys wh ich lead to th e O d er and V1stula

( s ee p . Th e imm e d ia te n eighb o urh oo d is na tura lly m
f ertile th ough m uch o f th e la nd ha s b ee n recla im e d by tha t
,

c a reful cultiva ti o n wh ich is us u a lly c a rried o n n e ar a b ig city .

As the ce ntre o f c ana ls r o ads a n d ra ilwa ys it has b ecom e a gre a t

, , ,

m a nufa cturin g to wn wi th va rie d occu patio ns

,
Its p rincipa l .

i ndus tries are textile m anufa ctures m a ch in ery a nd o ptic a l , ,

inst rum ents .

The Elbe is na vig ab le to river cra ft b y m ea ns of th e M o ldau

i nto the interio r o f the basi n o f B oh em ia It h as cut a gorge .

thro ugh th e t ab lel and o f h o riz o nt a l sa nds t o ne wh ich fo r m s th e ,

S a xo n S witzerla n d N orth o f th is lies Dre sd e n the c a p ita l o f

.
,

S a xo ny a n i nte llectua l a nd m u s ic a l centre a ls o manuf a cturing

, ,

m a chi n ery a nd p ia nos At M eiss e n o n th e Elb e north we st o f

.
,
-

”
Dresde n Dres den chi na is m ad e B el o w Dresde n the first
, .
,

importa nt tri butary o f th e Elb e is the Mulde wh ich flo ws from ,

t h e Erzgebirge thr o ugh th e p la te a u o n wh ich a re c o nce ntr ate d ,

t h e i ndustria l t o w ns o f S a x o ny Ch e m nitz Z wick a u a nd Pla ue n

, , ,

( o n the Upp er Elster ) The pres ence o f an im po rt ant c o alfield

.

su
pplies th e m a teria l for textile a n d ir o n indus trie s which occupy ,

a d e ns e p o pul ati o n .

On th e Lo wer Elster befo re it j o ins th e Sa a le is Leipzig the

, , ,

ch ief bo o k centre of Germ a ny a nd th e h o m e o f th e suprem e law

-

co urts It l ies a t the c o nfl ue nce o f th e Els ter a nd Pleisse a nd a t

.
,

th e co nverge nce o f routes which le a d s ou th e a st u p th e va lleys t o -

t he Sa xo n pla tea u and th e pass es o f th e Erzge b irge a nd so uth wes t ,

-

t o the m ain Thuring ian hig h way Th e la tter fo llows th e Saa le

.
,

th e Ilm o n wh ich lies W eim a r a nd pa ss es Er furt Go th a a nd

, , , ,

Eis ena ch o n t h e Werra which h ere tra vers es th e no rth wes t

,
-

extrem ity o f th e Thuringia n Fo rest a fo rested platea u d eeply ,

trench ed by river s Hence routes lea d t o th e F ul da and by tha t

.
,

river a nd a tri bu ta ry o f th e Ma in t o the Ma in a nd Rh ine pa ssing ,

between th e ba sa ltic c o n e of t h e Vo gels berg a nd th e sa ndsto ne

a nd ba sa lt
platea u o f th e Rh 6 n Ano th er r o ute fo llows th e Fulda
.

do wn t o K ass e] a nd is c o ntinue d into W estpha lia between th e

,

p a l aeoz o ic ro ck s o f t h e R o th a a r —
Sa uerla nd High la nds a nd the
na rrow sa nds t o ne ridge o f th e T eut o burger Wa ld wh ich s tretch es ,

b etwee n th e W es er a nd th e Ems .

Ano th er route fro m Leip zig t o th e we st pa ss es Ha lle o n th e

Saa le a nd follo ws wha t is k
, no wn a s th e Th uring i an D ep ression ,
 T HE GERMAN EMPIRE 21 1

betwee n t he terra ce s o f th e Thu ri nger Wa ld a nd t h e fo res t

cla d Ha rz , o n wh ich ris es th e gra nite ma ss o f th e B ro cken A .

rema rka ble wes t to ea s t va lley is tha t o f the Hel m e (the Go l den e
Au e o r M ea do w ) , a l o ng wh ich pa ss es th e ro ute t o Giittingen o n
-

t h e Lein e .

Th e t o wns o f Th urin gia a re fa m o u s fo r po ttery a nd po rcela in ,

a nd gla ss wo rk s Jena is well kn o wn fo r th e excellence o f its
.

o p tic a l gl a ss
. No rth o f t h e c o nflu e nce o f th e Sa a le is M a g d e burg,
s itu a te d a t a
p o in t wh ere firm gro u n d fa c ilita ted th e cro ss in g
a nd bri dgin g o f th e El be Th e to wn ha s im po rtant suga r re fin eries
. .

At t h e h e a d o f t he es t u a ry o f the Elb e a re H am burg a nd Al tona,

at a
p o i nt a b o ve t h e lo w m a rshl a n d pr o tecte d by d yke s wh ic h ,

b o rd er s t he river fo r s o m e 60 m iles , wh ere t h e h igh er h e a th cl a d -

u l a n ds ( t h e
p g eest) a pp r o a ch t h e river o n b o th b a nks .

T h e im p o rta n ce o f t h e Elb e a s a wa terw a y le a di ng fr o m th e

N o rth Sea , wh ich le a ds i nt o t h e h e art o f Germ a ny, is very gre a t ,
Ch e a p wa ter c a rria ge is e ss e nti a l f or t h e sa lt , a lka lies , tim b er ,
-

s t o n e , a nd su g a r wh ich a re br o ught d o w n t he river , a nd t h e im

,

p o rts o f c o a l ir o n sa ltp etre , a nd p etr o leum , wh e a t , a nd ra w

, ,

m a teria ls o f a ll kin ds s uc h a s c o ff ee , c o tt o n , etc

, Th e river a nd
.

c a na l h ighwa ys o f Germ a ny pa rtly c o m p ensa te f or th e grea t

d ist a nces fro m th e s ea o f m a n y inla nd m a nuf a cturi ng t o wn s .

T h e o u tp o rt o f Ha m bu rg is Cu xh a ve n .

Th e W eser B asi n — B re m en , o f wh ich th e o utpo rt is B rem er

ha ven , sta nds o n th e W e s er It is a grea t o cea n ic sh ipp ing centre
. .

t h e h e a d qu a rters o f t h e No r d Deuts ch er Ll o yd, a nd e sp eci a lly

im p o rts t o b a cc o a nd c o tto n fr o m th e Unite d St ates , a nd rice .

To t h e we st , V ilh elm sh a ven o n t h e Ja d e B a y a nd Em d e n o n

V

th e D o lla rt a re na va l s ta ti o ns Th ey are j o i n e d b y c a na l
. Th e .

Em s is a l so ca n a li z ed, a n d c o nn ected by c a na l with D o rt m u n d

a n d th e Rh in e After a win d in g co u r s e thr o ugh th e T hu ringer
.

Wa l d, th e Werra j o in s th e Fulda , a nd th e u n ited s trea m s s kirt

t h e so uth o f th e W es er H eigh ts, a n d pa ss th r ou gh th e W est
pha lia n Ga te a t M ind en Th e W es er H eigh ts ha ve c o a l m in e s
.

a nd sa n ds t o n e qu a rries , o f im p o rt a nce t o H a no ver , wit h its

c o tt o n a nd w o o llen m a nuf a ctures , c h em ic a l wo rks , a nd m a chi ne

s h o ps
. An im p o rta nt r o ute lies a l o ng t he Lein e va lley so u th
w a r ds
.

T h e Rh ine B asi n (see Figs 22 and .

Pa rt o f t h e Alp in e Fo rela nd o f Ger m a ny to uch es th e no rth

o f th e La ke o f Co nsta nce A gen ia l clim a te (s ee p 44 ) fa vo urs
. .

th e rip en ing o f vin es a nd f ruit trees Fro m La ke Co nsta nce to

-
.
21 2 TEXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

k
Ba s el th e Rhine flo ws in a r o c y bed b etween th e spurs o f th e
Swa bia n Jura a nd the Swiss Pla tea u , a nd between th e Bla ck
Fo rest and the Swiss Jur a Th e Fa lls o f th e Rh ine at Rh ein
.

felden are an i mportant so u rce o f po wer both for Germany a nd

S witzerland The strea ms wh ich fl o w so uth fro m the B la ck
.

Fo rest are used t o supply po wer fo r co tto n m ills, esp ecially th e

Wei s e at Bas el H ere th e Rh ine tu rns no rth and co mm ences
k
.

its pla i n trac between th e Vo sges a n d th e B la ck Fo rest No te .

t h e g a p o n the s outh west — th e Ga te o f B urgund y, o r Trou é e de

- -

B elfo rt, B urgund ia n Ga te ( see p .

Th e Vosg es a re co mpo s ed o f crys ta ll in e ro cks with round ed

cres ts ( B elehen, Fr ba llon ) in th e so uth
. In th e no rth th ey
.

fo r m fl a t to pp e d sands to n e pla tea us

-
At th e ea stern fo o t o f
.

th e Vo s ges th e 111 runs p a r a llel to th e Rh in e On it a re situa ted

.

Mu lha us en a nd Ko lma r , th e c o tt o n to wns o f Al sa ce ( Elsa ss ) ,

wh ich u se th e water po wer o f th e m o u nta in str ea ms To the
-
.

n o rth o f t he Vo sge s is th e Co l d e S a verne feet) , thro u gh

wh ich a tu nnel ca rries th e Rh in e and Ma rn e Cana l Co a l c o m es .

by th is fro m th e Saa r Ba s in t o S tr a ss bu rg , wh ich lies a t the end

o f th e ca na l o n th e Rh ine Pl a i n On the righ t bank no rth o f th e
.

B la ck Fore st th e Pa ss o f Pfo rzh eim lea ds fro m Ka rlsruh e t o

Stuttga rt o n th e N ecka r Th e ra ilwa y follows th is a nd cross es
.

th e S wa b ian Jura to Ul m a nd D o na uwo rth o n th e D a nu be .

k
The B l ac Forest ( Sch wa r z wa l d ) is s i m ila r in structure to th e
Vos ges It is densely wo o d ed As in th e Jura o f S witzerla nd,
. .

s m a ll m o un ta in indus tries exis t, s u ch a s clock ma king , brush -

m a king , etc On the w es tern m a rgin vineya rds, to ba cco p la nta

.

tio ns, a nd o rcha rds fa ce th e Rh in e lo wla nd .

Fro m th e Vo sges and Bla ck Fo res t no co ntinuo us ranges extend

no rthw a r d ; but the sa nds t o n e Ha rt M ou nt a i ns , wi th fore sts o f

p i n e , fir, b eec h , a n d o a k
— th e s e c o nt a i n a very sm all
p op ula tio n
c o ntinue the form atio n o f th e No rth er n Vosges, and th e O d en
wa ld, also o f sandsto ne, ris es north o f th e l o wer Necka r Pla tea u .

Thro ugh the rich a nd u ndul a tin g up la nd o f th e Pa la tina te to

th e no rth o f th e Hart p a ss es th e ma in route fro m Ma inz to th e
western fo rtress o f M etz in Lo rra ine (Loth rin gen) This pa ss es .

Ka isersl autern, th e indu stria l cen tre o f th e impo rtant Saa r c o a l

fiel d . Excellent iro n, s im ila r t o th a t of Luxe mbourg , is o bta in ed
no t far fr o m th e bor d er o f th is c o u ntry o n th e left ba nk o f th e
M o s elle ( Mos el ) k
Th e N ec a r a n d th e Ma in ris e in th e S wa bia n
.

a nd Fra nc o nia n Ju ra , th e w es tern p o rtio n o f wh ich is c a lle d

”
th e sc a rpla nds, b eca u s e it h a s a s teep es c a rpm ent fa cing wes t
(see p . Th ey bo th wind co ns id era bly, a nd cut go rges
21 4 TEX T—B OOK OF GE O GRAPHY

T Y PICAL PART S O F A RI ER CO UR S E V .

re r er
T h e g a t iv s o f t h e wo l d d iff r
l a gely in th e p o p o tio na t l ng th s o f er r r r e e
ea c h k . e k
ind o f t a c k S p a in g g n ally t he old s t i v rs t nd to in c a s
r e er , e r e e re e
e e
(0 ) a nd (d ) a t th e x p n se o f (a ) and ( b) .

( )
a S our c e or T o rr en t ia l Track — Sl o e f ro m 5 0 t o 10 f eet t o a m i l e
p Thi s .

l ies in t he h igh es t p a rts o f t h e b a sin wh ere o win g to el eva tio n t he m o is tu re , , ,

o f t h e a tm o s h ere b ro u h t by
p g p reva il in g w ind s is c o nd ensed a s sno w and
ra in T h e slo p e vel o city ero sion a nd c a rry in g po wer a re grea t T he
.
, , ,
.

eff ects a re m o s tly d es tru ct iv e Ro c ks a nd so il l o o sened b y f ro s t a nd g rea t

. ,

va ria t io n s between d a y a nd nigh t t em p era tu res a re wa shed d o wn in fl o o d ,

tim e to f o rm bo uld ers p eb bl es et c w hic h wea r d o wn the va ll ey sid es

, , ,

d eep en the bed a nd tend t o d rive th e so u rc e fa rth er ba c kint o th e m o u n

(

ta ins— ti e a riv er ea t s ba c k it s hea d

”
.

(b) Vall ey Track— Slo p e 1 0 to 2 fee t per m il e Eff ects p a rtly d estruc ,
.

tive pa rtly co nstru ctive W h ere t h e to rren t sl o pes end t he hea vi er

, . ,

m a teria l s c an be n o l on g er tra nsp o rt ed a nd g rea t m a s ses o f bo uld ers and ,

peb bl es c o ll ect whi c h in fl oo d tim e grin d o ne a ga in s t t h e o t h er The-

.
,

f ra gm en t s a re ca rried f a rth er t o f o rm g ra vel sa nd a nd m ud —b a nk s w here

, , ,

t h e c u rren t is c h ec k ed in edd ies o r by reefs o f h a rd ro c kthro u g h w hich

t h e river is c u ttin g it s w a y Abo ve su ch reefs l a k es a re fo rm ed which
.
,

bec o m e in tim e fil led w ith sed im ent l ea vi ng fl a t fl o o red va ll ey s As t he ,

-
.

river wo rk s t hro u g h t he b a rrier it s l e vel lo w ers a b o ve a nd t h e river fl o w s

, ,

a m id a l lu via l t erra c es genera l ly win d in g bec a u se a s it s c u rren t is d e

, , ,

fl ec t ed by o bs ta c l es edd ies a re fo rm ed on th e in sid e a nd in th em p a rticl es

, ,

a e d ep o sited
r .

( 0 ) Plain Track— Slo p e a f ew in ches t o a m ile Even t he fin est pa rt icl es

, .

c a n o nl y b e c a rried w h en t he c u rrent is s tro n g H en c e it is a regio n o f .

d ep o sitio n T h e bed ca nn o t be l o wered m u ch so t he ri ver ha s a m ea nd erin g

.
,

co u rse with m a ny island s a nd branc hes u nl ess it is a rtific ially restra ined
, , .

H ere th e va ll ey s id es by wea th ering t end t o be c o m e fla tter and t h e wid th

, , ,

o f t h e va ll ey grea t er p ro vi d ed th ere is n o g rea t d iff eren c e in t h e h a rd ness

,

o f th e ro ck o r it s p o ro sity .

(d ) Delta or Estuary Ih no n tida l sea s .

—
t he M ed it erra nea n— the -

m a t erial bro u gh t d o wn is sprea d o ver t h e sea fl o o r a t t he m o u th T he -

.

river brea k s u p into m a ny di s tribu ta ries a nd a f a nl ik e pro j ectio n of la nd ,

is fo rm ed w h o se u lt im a t e sha p e d epend s o n th e p reva il ing wind s a nd

,

c urrents a n d in som e c a ses a rtificial em ba nk

, m en t s whi ch raise t h e river ,

bed fa r o ver t he l o w ly in g recl a im ed la nd

-
In tid al s ea s t he diff eren c e be
, .

tween high and lo w wa ter ca u ses a sco u ring a ctio n a nd tend s to k eep a d eep ,

cha nnel thro ug h th e shallo wer ba n k s Here ag ain m an y va ria tio n s a re .

f o u nd .

The Rhine ( see e in t he Central Al ps with m any

Figs 22 . a nd 25 ) ri s s ,

tribu ta ries o n a n ex ten sive w a tershed fro m the B ern es e Oberla nd thro u gh
, ,
 T HE GERM AN EMPIRE . 21 5

the Go tha rd G ro up to the Engadine The torrentia l tra c kis in al l ca ses .

co m p a ra tively sh o rt The wa ter larg ely d erived fro m gla ciers a nd m el ting
.
,

s no w , va ries g rea tly in vol um e be tw een fl oo d a nd lo w wa ter Th e vall ey

tra c kis l o ng a nd is m ark
.

, ed by b road fl o o red vall ey s and grea t l a k es a b o v e -

a series o f ra id s f al l s o r c a ta ra cts
p , Th ese l ak
, es a re ra pidly fil ling a t their
.

no rth ern end s see

( p 1 7 D el ta s ) . Th e Rhin e h a s a l o n g pl a in tra ckex
, . ,

tend ing fro m B a sel ( Ba sl e ) to Wesel T h e sl ope o f this M id dl e Rhine Plain .

is in p a rts l ess th a n o n e in c h t o th e m il e T h e fl o o d s o f t he ri vers ha ve t o .

so m e e x t en t been c o n tro ll ed b
y dy k es a nd th e c o u rs e grea tly l eng th ened , ,

by t h e num ero u s lo o p s o r m eand ers ha s b een sh o rt ened b artificial cu ts

y ,

bu t tra ffic in t h e u pp er p a rt find s i t m o st c o n venient to f ol l o w th e Rhine

a n d Rho ne Ca n a l a b o ve t h e c o n fl u enc e o f th e 111 .

B etwe en B a sl e a n d B in gen t h e Rhin e fo ll o w s a bro a d rif t vall ey a n ,

o rig in a l l a k
e fl o o r fo rm ed a f ter seism ic a ctio n b efo re t he river c ut th e d eep
-

go rg e thro u g h th e pa l aeo o i c pla teau between B in gen and B o nn

z T he .

sl o p e is no t g rea t in t h e ri ver b ed o f t he
g o rg e ( th o ug h 1 0 f eet to the m il e
-

in t h e ra pid s a t B in g en ) bu t the p assa g e i s n a rro w a nd th erefore t he

, ,

c urren t is c o n sid era ble At Co bl ent z it is j o in ed b y t h e w inding M o s ell e

.
,

w hic h fl o w s fro m t h e so u th w es t b etw een th e Eif el a nd Hun sriic k B etwe en

-
. ,

B o nn a nd W es el th e riv er flo ws b etw een l ow ba n k s— p artly a ll u via l a nd ,

p a rtly t h e d win dlin g sp u rs o f t h e pl a t ea u At W esel b eg in s th e del ta . ,

w hic h c o n sis ts o f t h e N eth erla n ds ( see p p 2 1 7 .

Th e D anube B asin .

T he D a nu b e ris es in th e B la ck F o re st , a nd b ec o m es navi ga b le
a t U lm in fl o o d tim e f o r ste a m ers o f sh a ll o w dr a ugh t H ere it .

is j o i n e d b y th e Iller fr o m t h e so uth Oth er rivers which fl o w .

a cr o ss t h e Alp in e F o rel a nd a re t he Lech , Isa r , a nd Inn The .

Alp i n e F o rela nd c o ns is ts o f t he fl at D a nu b e Pl a i n a nd t he h ill

p la te a u s wh ich s tretch t o th e n o rth o f t he Alp s It h a s b ee n .

ge n er a lly c o vered with gla ci a l d epo s its , so m e o f which , th e .

c o a r s er gr a vel , is o f little us e for cultivati o n, a nd is cha ra cterized

by m a r sh e s a nd h e a ths The Amm er S ee a nd Wiirm S ee a re
,
.

m o ra in e damm e d l a kes wh ich m a rk t h e term i na ti o n o f a n cie nt

-

gla ciers .

Augs bu rg is a t th e c o n flu en ce o f th e Werta ch a nd L ech Its .

im po rta nce in th e Middle Ages wa s pa rtly du e to it s a ccess to

th e Inn Va lley Innsbr u ck a n d th e Brenn er by th e S eefel d Pa ss .

Th e wa ter po wer o f th e Lech is no w used fo r m

, ,

-
a nufa ctu re s .

Mu n ich o n t h e Isa r a l so us es th e river fo r po wer It h a s brewin g .

indu stries a n d is t h e centre fo r th e i m po rt o f cerea l s t o th e

,

Ba va ria n c a ttle districts Th e c o u ntry ro u nd Mu nich is genera ll y

.

infertile o wing t o p ea t m o o rs ma rsh es a nd wo o ds Th e r a i l

, , ,
.
21 6 TEX T B OO K OF GEOGRAPHY-

fr o m Leip zig a cro ss the Th uringer Wa l d rea ches the D anu be at

Regens burg (Ra tisb o n) At Pa ssa u th e D anube e nters Austria .

a t th e co nfluence o f the Inn .

Clim ate and Pro ducts .

Th e su mm er a nd winter tem p era tures o f a few selecte d s ta tio ns

s ho ul d b e note d ( see Ta ble V D a nz ig Berli n Ha m burg .

Fra nkfurt a n d M u nic h

T h ere are no very m a rke d diff ere nce s of tem per a ture , bu t
i nfere nces c an be dr aw n as t o th e diff ere nt cli ma tic regio ns .

Th e winter co ld increa s es to wa r ds t he ea s t as th e cli ma t e beco m es

m o re c o nti ne nta l Th e easter n rivers a re froze n for two o r three
.

m o nths , wh ile the lower rea c h es o f t he Rh ine , th ough freque ntly

fro zen in wi nter , ha ve no t su ffi cie nt ice to ch eek na viga tion for a ny
lo ng p erio d The Baltic ha rbo u rs ha ve th e addi tio na l d is ad
.

va nta ge o ver tho s e of t he No rth S ea in the ir li ability to freeze

in winter ( s ee Fig 17, iso th er m o f 3 2° F , Ja nua ry)
. . .

Eleva tio n, asp ect, a nd sh elter fro m c o l d winds la rgely i nflu ence
cli ma te The h igh er upla nds a nd m o u nta in pla tea us o f Ce ntral
.

a nd S o u th Ger ma ny ha ve c o l d wi nters Co mpa re th e Bro cken in .

”
t h e H rz [ Ta ble V
a feet 25 . in Ja nua ry] with t h e ,

sh eltere d va lleys of t h e Rh in e , Mo s elle , Necka r , a nd Ma in, wh ich

ha ve m ild wi nter s , with a n a vera ge te mp era ture a bo ve freezing .

Here t he wa rm th o f th e la te summ ers a nd a utum ns fa vo urs the

r i p e ni ng of the vi ne o n th e s l o p es o f t he va lleys The gro wth o f .

cerea ls ( excluding ma iz e) is m a i nly d eterm i ned by s o il rath er

tha n temp era ture , the la rges t wh ea t regio n o f Germ a ny b eing
in th e s o uth wes t Co nsid era ble a re as a re o nly s uita ble for
-
.

rye , the mai n brea dstuff, wh ich will gro w o n p oorer s oils Large .

a re a s o f th e No rth Germ a n Pla i n a re cultiva te d with sug ar b eet -

a nd
p o ta toes ( there us e d fo r t h e m a nufa cture of brandy) Forest .

covers o ne q uarter of the l a nd , m ea do w o ne sixth Sheep are

-
-
.

pas ture d o n th e he ath la nd s a nd th e b a rer upla nds .

Trade — Note the

. fo llow ing expo rts a nd im po rts in p erc ent ages
o f th e to ta l t ra d e

Ex ro nrs T extiles, 1 4 su ga r 3 ; iro n a nd steel good s 1 1 ; ma c hinery 6

.
-

, , ,

chem ica ls a niline dy es etc , 6

, , . .

Im on'rs — Gra ins mo stly wh ea t a nd ba rl ey 10 ; c o ff ee , 2 ; ra w co tto n

.
, ,

wo ol a nd sil kl l co al 2 iro n 1
,

, , , , .
21 8 TEX T B OOK-
OF GEO GRAPHY

t he s ea . T hese r ul e a bo u t 3 0 f eet h ig h a nd s everal hun dred f eet

a re as a

thick The wan t o f ro c kf o u nd a tio ns cau s es grea t difli culties Bo th t he

. .

w o od f o r t he hu g e p iles a n d th e gra nite for b a ll a st h a ve b een im p orted a t

Fro . 2 3 — H OL L AN D : R EL IE F
.
.

Th e high est gro u nd in H o lla nd is in th e Vel uw e a nd o n th e D un es .

g reat exp ense B y means o f t he dyk

. es a nd by su bseq u ent dra ina ge which
. ,

w o rkst ea m ha s m a d e ea sier than it w a s in t h e d ay w h en windm ill s alo ne

s u p lied t h e m o tiv e f o rc e t h e ex isting la nd n e a r s ea l ev el h a s b een
p pre
-
,

s er ved a n d larg e tra c ts ( p o ld ers ) h a ve b een rec la im e d f ro m t h e s h all o w

,
 THE NETHERLAND S 21 9

sea b o tt o m . As t he tid e at th e m o u th of t h e S c h ld e e ris es m o re th a n

16 f eet all t he c o a st line o f t h e island s o f Zeal a nd an d t he m a inl an d ha s t o
,

be p ro t ect ed by a rt ifi c ia l m e an s ex c e t o n t h e o u t er m ar in wh ere t h e
p ,
g ,

s an d d un es w hi ch lin e t h e w est c o a st a t a n a v er
a g e h eigh t o f a b ou t 30 f eet
f o r m a n effi c ien t w a ll .

FIG . 24 .
— H OLL AN D : S OIL S .

To t he no rth o f Z e a la nd, b eh ind t h e d un e s wh ic h n e a r Ha a r , ,

lem , ris e t o a l m o s t 200 feet , is th e la rge s t c o nti nuo us a re a b elo w

s ea level ( s o m e p a rts are a s m u ch a s 1 8 feet
-
Th e lin e
o f d u n es is c o nti nue d o n t h e s e a w a r d s id e o f th e Fris i a n Isl a nds ,

bu t t h e la nd s ide , wh ere it is c a p a b le o f c u ltiva tio n, n eeds d ykes .

Fr o m t he so u th east o f th e Z u id er Z ee th e d ykes are a lm o s t

-

c o ntinu o u s t o a nd even b ey o nd the mo uth of the Ems in

Germ a n y .

N ea r t h e bo u nda ry o f Ho lla nd th e Rh in e d ivid es into s evera l

220 TEXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

branch es, th e Lower Rh ine, wh ich receives a branch o f th e Ij ss el

fro m th e ea st, and th e Waal To th e s outh of th ese is th e Maas
.

( Meus e) , whi ch c a n o nly b e na viga ted by sm all stea m er s and a ,

c ana l has b een c o ns tructed by its s i de Wh ere it leaves B el gium .

Fro . 25 — H O LL AN D
. AN D B EL G IU M : RIVER S rs rs ms .

1 Bo u rta nger M o o r ; 2 Vel u w e ; 3 th e D unes ; 4 Ca m pine ; 5 Eifel :

k
, , , , ,

6 Ard ennes 7, Pla in o f Fla n d ers 8 H eig hts o f P ica rd y 9 H ii nsruc

k
, , ,

1 0 Pal a tina te Upland s l l Ha rt ; 1 2 M iddl e Rhine Pl a in 1 3 Bla c

, , , ,

Fo res t ; 14 Odenwal d ; 1 5 T a unu s ; 1 6 W est erwal d ; 1 7 Ro tha a r ;

, , , ,

18 T eu to burger W al d 1 9 W estp hal ia n Gate 20 , W eser H eigh ts

, , .

it ha s o nly o ne twentieth the v o lum e of the Rhi ne Th es e rivers

-
.

enter Ho lla nd by a compara tively na rrow g ate between th e sand y

tr a ct s o f th e Veluwe (ri sing to o ver 300 feet heath er clad a nd ,
-

note d for b ee keepi ng) a nd the Ca m p in e ( a ver age level 250 feet)
-
.
222 T EX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPH Y

no w been la rgely dra in ed The H IG H FE N S ( mo stly in No rth

.

Ea st Ho lla n d a nd t h e Ca m pin e to th e west o f the Maa s ) a re still

la rgely wa steland, th o u gh p o rtio ns o f th em h a ve been recla im e d
”
by m ea ns o f B efore th e s e bog s were fo rm ed
“
fen co lo n ies .

th e l and wa s c o vere d w ith d epo s its m o stly d erive d fro m S ca ndin

a vi a du ring th e Ic e a ge Sand p redo mina te s jus t a s it do es in
.

t h e Ca mp in e and Velu we ; co n s equently , th e soil is po o r in a ll

th ese d istricts, and o n ly rye, bu ckwh ea t, a nd potato es c an be
grown .

In th e so uth of Ho lla nd (Lim burg) , wh ere a lo ng to n gue of

land stretch es so uth o n th e righ t bank o f th e Maas a l o ess ,

d epos it ren d er s th e so il fertile a nd a d ens er p o pula tio n is fo und

,

in the n eigh bo urho o d o f Maastrich t

Trade — The tr a d e
. of Ho lla nd in p e rcenta ge of tota l va lue is
Ex ro a rs r
.
~
flo ur 12 iro n and steel
— G ain an d , , a nd ma nu fa ctures 9 , ;
tex til es 5
, c o pper 4 wo o d 3 bu tter 1
, . , .

I M P oa rs — Grain a nd fl o u r 1 6 ; iro n a nd st eel

. , , a nd m anuf a ctu res l l ,

tex til es 6 co pp er 6 wo o d 3 c o a l 3
, , . ,
.

Th e tra n sit tra de to Ger ma n y a nd B elgium m a kes it d ifficult

to dist ingu ish th e pro ducts pro du ced at h o m e a nd impo rted for
h o m e us e Ho lla nd p ro duces d a iry pro du ce, fl a x , and lin s eed
. .

The Ea st Indies expo rt suga r, co ff ee, t ea , to ba cc o , etc ( fo ur .

fifths t o N eth erlands ) Dutch Gu iana exp o rts suga r a nd ca cao

. .

As th ere a re no m in es a nd few fo rest s, c o a l and wo o d a nd the

ra w m a teri a l for ir o n m a nufa ct ure s are im p o rte d , a nd a ls o ma

c hi nery t o s upplem ent wh at c a n be m a d e in th e l a rge towns .

The m a nuf a cture s a re m os tly c o nnected with the prep aratio n of

trop ica l p ro ducts .

T owns Com muni c ations — B efore th e ra ilwa y a ge inland

and
water c o m m un icatio n was o f th e l ast i mp o rtance fo r na tiona l
prosp erity In th is H olla nd wa s esp ecia lly fa vo u red, a nd we
.

find th a t a ll the im po rtan t to wn s are s ea po rts o r w ith in ea s y

rea ch o f th e sea by m eans o f ca na ls .

Wh en th e Zuider Z ee was less sh allo w a nd boats were sma ller ,

a s erie s o f i m p o rta nt towns ( th e d e a d citie s ) existe d r o und th i s

sea wh ere no w th ere is o nly o ne p o rt, Ha rlin ge n, th e

p o rt o f
Leeuwa rd en, th e centre o f the tra d e in bu tter a nd ch ees e o f th e
no rth ern p ro vinces wh ich is l a rgely expo rted t o Engl a nd
, St a .

vo ren, t o t h e so uth o f th is po rt , w as o nce a n i mpo rta nt m em b er

of th e Ha ns ea tic Lea gue An o th er to wn in th is north ea st pa rt
.
-

of Ho lland is Gro n ingen, o nce o ne o f th e m o s t flo urish ing towns

 THE NET H ERLAN D S 223

of N o rth Eu ro p e , no w m erely t h e centre o f th e recla i m ed la nds

s o u th o f th e D o l a rt
l .

Excep t Maa strich t , in th e extre m e so u th (o n th e left ba n k o f

th e Ma a s , a t a n i m po rta nt cr o ss in g pl a ce , reta in ed by H o lla nd
-

wh en B elgium bec am e ind ep end en t in Flush in g , th e p o rt

o f t h e W e s t S ch el d e , wh ich h a s re l a ce d M idd le burg in th e centre
p
o f th e i sl a n d o f Wa lch eren
( in Ch a ucer s da ys th e m ain po rt ) ,
’

a n d Arnh e m a nd N im e u en a t th e e astern ga tes o f H o ll a nd ,

g ,

wh ere th e Rh in e a nd th e Wa a l brea k th rou gh th e sa ndy u pla nds

o f th e Veluwe a n d t h e Ca m in e , a ll th e la rge t o wn s lie in t h e
p
lo w , m a r sh y p ro vin ces o f N o rt h a nd S o uth H o lla nd a nd Utrech t .

N o t e t h e c o n v ergen c e o f ro u tes at th ese to wns , a nd t he im po rta nc e of

c ro ssing pla c es
-
.

On th e la nd wa rd s id e o f th e du n es a re th ree t o wns t o wh ich

s ettler s were a ttra cte d b
y th e dry so il th e sp rin gs a n d t h e wo o ds
, , .

Th e Ha gu e ( s Gra venh a ge ) th e o fficia l c a p ital grew u p ro un d a

’

, ,

h un tin g c a s tle o f t h e Co un ts o f H o lla n d Leyd en wa s a s ea p o rt .

wh en t h e Old Rh in e bro ke thro ugh th e dun es in a ga p a t th is

po int It is fa m o u s fo r its s iege ( 1 573 74 ) a n d th e u nivers ity
.
-

fo u nd e d t o c o mm e m o ra te it H aa rlem fa vo u red by th e strea m s

.
,

o f th e dun e s w a s well s itua te d fo r brew in g ble a ch in g a n d d yeing

, , , .

It is th e m a in centre o f h o rticul ture Utrech t o n th e e a st o f.

,

th e l o wl and a nd t h e western e d ge o f th e Velu we w a s th e key t o ,

th e inn er ga te o f Ho lla nd a nd c o mm a nd e d th e ro utes fro m th e

Zu i d er Z ee t o t h e Lek Th e Old Rh in e pro vid e d a n i mp o rta n t
.

ro u te fro m ea st t o west bu t no n e of th es e to wns were d estin ed

,

t o o bta in t h e im p o rta nce o f Am ster da m a n d Ro tterda m .

Wh en th e Zu ider Z ee w as fo r m ed with a bo u t it s p res en t ,

lim its n ea r th e end o f th e fo u rt eenth centu ry Amsterdam be

, ,

ca m e a s eap o rt but it w a s no t till t h e revo lt a ga in st Spa in ( 1 5 79 )

,

th a t it bec a m e th e centre o f th e stru ggle fo r in d ep enden ce a nd

f o r 200 yea r s th e grea tes t tra ding t o w n in the w o rld Th e .

Ea s t Indi a Co m p a n y w a s fo u nd e d h ere in 1 602

,
As a m o d er n .

po rt its s itu a tio n is less fa vo u ra ble tha n Ro tter da m in sp ite

, ,

o f t h e grea t c a na l s th e No rth Ho ll a nd Ca n a l t o H el d er a nd t h e
, ,

d irect c o nn ectio n o f th e Y ( Ij) th e fo r m er in let o f t h e Zu id er

,

Zee wh ich h a d been gra dually s il te d up a nd th e N o rth S ea .

, ,

Rotterdam is o n th e na tura l wa terwa y o f the N o rth Ma a s ,

a nd in sp ite o f t h e disa d va nt a ge o f s o m ewha t less water d ep th ,

is b ec o m i ng t he riva l o f Antwerp It is t h e m os t im p o rta nt

.

c o mm ercia l p o rt o f Ho lla nd a s it c o mm a nds th e wh o le h inter

,

l a nd o f th e Rh ine th o ugh f or po litica l rea so ns o nly a sm a ll

,
224 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

pa rt exp ort traffic of the Rhi ne basin f o llo ws th is r o ute

of th e .

It s p o rt a t the outer m a rgi n o f the land is th e Ho o k o f

, ,

Holla nd .

Colo nies — The East India n Isla nds are l a rgely Dutch D u tch .

Guia na , in S o uth Am eric a , a nd so m e is la nds o ff th e no rth c o ast

a re
po ss ess io n s of Ho ll and (s ee pp 590 , .

QUES T ION S .

1 M ark
. o n t h e o ro gra p hic al m a p o f t h e N eth erland s t he p a rt s o f t h e c o a s t

where d yk es a re nec essary Estim a t e th e a rea whic h w o uld b e fl o o d ed if

.

th e tid es ro s e a s high as t hey d o in t h e B a y o f Fun dy ( see p .

2 Nam e o n the o ro grap hi c al m ap th e Velu we the B etu we the Cam p ine

. , , ,

the D unes t h e B o urtanger M oo r

, Ind i ca te th e areas o f High a nd Lo w
.

Fen .

3 Gi ve. exampl es of to wns in Holla nd t

si ua t ed at th e co n verg enc e of

ro u t es .

4 . Wh a t t
p ro du c s are im p o rt d in e to H olland fr om the Ea st Indi es
Describ e th e p rin c ip al m anufa ctu es r .

BELGIUM .

Area q re m il es
s ua Po p ul a tio n = 7 5 m illio ns in 1 9 10
. 6 5 7 to the
q m il e B russels = 0 6 5 mil l io n
‘

s ua re . .

Positi on and Extent — B elgiu m is a little less th a n o n e tenth

.
-

o f th e Un ited Kin gdo m in a rea It is m o stly c o nta in ed by th e .

centra l a nd lo wer ba sin o f th e S ch el de a nd t h e centra l bas in o f

the Meu s e (o ne quart er o f th e M eus e is in B elgium ) (s ee Fig
-
.

Co nfi g urati o n and S oil s — B elgiu m ma y be divid e d in to a .

regi o n o f h igh er gro und , wh ich beg ins a little north o f th e d ee

p
a nd na rr o w va lleys of t h e S a m bre a nd Me u s e , a n d wh ich c o n

tains pa rt o f th e pl atea u o f th e Ar d ennes, ris in g t o feet ,

a nd a l o wer regio n, pa rts o f wh ic h a re belo w sea level -
.

No te o n the oro graph ical m a p t he lim it of 300 f eet , a nd o n Fi g 25 the

.

wa te rshed s o f the S c h eld e and M eu se .

Al ll g th e co ast fro m France t o Ho lland lies a n a rea of

a on

sa nd du ne s wh ich a re h o wever no t n ea rly so extens ive a s tho s e

-

, , ,

o f Ho lla nd B eh ind th es e d un es is lo w ground a t o r belo w sea

.

level wh ich ha s been dra ined a nd is p ro tected by dykes It sh oul d

, .

be no ted th a t sea wa lls a re no t necessary o n the sa nd dune coas t

-
-

o f Ho lla nd except in a few pla ces (see Fig

, As in tho s e .
226 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Ard enn es
~
is n o w m o stly imp o rted ) o n th e ea stern fro ntier ,
th is ,

t o t h e iro n fo u ndries o f S er a in g west o f Liege ( c o a l m in in g a n d ,

-

gun m a nu fa ctu res ; m o st o f t h e iro n is im p o rted fro m Lu xe m

bo urg ) H igh er u p th e M eu s e a re H u y (m eta l , zin c , a nd t m
.

pla te wo rking ) wh ere t w o tri bu ta ries j o in th e M eu s e fr o m t h e

,

no rth a nd so u th re sp ectively f o r m in g r o u te s, a nd Na m u r ( c o a l ,

m ining a n d iro n wo rkin g ) wh ere th e M eu s e a nd Sa m bre m eet

-

,
.

Still m o re t o t h e west a re th e c o a l m in es , wh ich re a ch a grea t -

d epth , th e iro n f o u ndries a nd gla ss wo rk s o f th e d is trict wh ich ,

extends fro m Cha rlero i to Mo ns Th e c o a l ba s in is c o ntin ue d .

a cr o ss t h e f r o ntier t o t h e m a nu fa cturin g t o wn s o f Va len cie nn es

a nd D o u a i in No rth er n Fr a n ce .

r area with a d ense p o pul a tio n is a c o m pl ete c o ntra st to

T hi s indu s t ia l , ,

the res t o f B el gium O wi ng to th e fa ct t ha t W a ll o o n (a k

. in to Fren c h ) i s
Spok en in it an d o wing t o t he f a cili t y o f c o m m un ic a tio ns a cro ss t h e bo rd er
, , ,

this reg io n h a s cl o s e c o m m erc ial a n d s o c ia l rel a t io n s w ith Fra n c e A lin e .

dra wn a li ttl e so u t h o f B ru ssels divid es t h e W a l loo n sp ea k ing p o p ula tion -

f ro m t h e Flem ish who se di a lect is a k, in t o D u tc h S in c e 1 8 3 0 h o w ever . , ,

Fren ch h a s been t he o ffi c ia l l a ng u a g e o f a ll B elg iu m T h e ea rl y in d u stria l .

pro sp erity o f t h e a rea n ever en tirely d es er t ed it th o u gh Lieg e s uff ered ,

fro m it s d estru ctio n by B u rg un dy in 1 468 a n d t h e reli g io us w a rs a lm o st ,

ru in ed t he c o mm erc e o f Antw erp .

Th e grea test d evel o p m ent o f th is a rea bega n in th e nin eteenth

centu ry with th e a ge o f iron Even if it h a d b een f ree f ro m t h e .

d istu r bin g influ en ce o f wa r a n inl a n d c o a l a rea w ith d eep s ea ted

, ,
-

m in es w o u l d p ro ba bly h a ve been slo w in gro wth

, .

On th e o th er ha n d th e to wns o f Fla n d er s o wing t o th eir ea s y

, ,

a ccess t o th e s ea bec a m e t h e centre s o f t h e firs t textile indu strie s

,

in Eu r o p e B ru ges a n d Gh ent first c a m e into p ro m in en ce

.
.

Brug es wa s c o nn ected with th e sea by a creek wh ich b ega n t o ,

be s ilted u p a t th e end o f t h e fif teenth centu ry In th e t wo .

preced in g centu ries it w a s th e ch ief s ea t o f tr a d e o f th e Neth er

lands a nd it s cl o th wa s expo rted a ll o ver Eu ro p e
, .

Gh e nt wh ich is a t th e j u nctio n o f th e Ly s a n d Sch el d e ( tida l

,

t o t h e to wn with a 4 f eet ris e ) w a s c o nn ected with th e s ea by ,

s evera l c a na l s in a dd iti o n t o th e m a i n s tre a m o f th e S ch eld e

, .

Th e m ost imp o rt a nt o f th e s e t o T er n eu ze n o n t h e n o rth h a s , ,

b ee n no w c o nverte d i nto a d ee p c a na l A c a na l a lso j o in ed .

it t o B ru ges Th e to wn was fa mo u s fo r wea vin g ( wo o llens a nd

.

lin e ns ) Th e fl a x o f th e Lys still a ffo r ds th e best materia l fo r

.

linen bu t c o tt o n h as no w t a ken th e pla ce o f wo o l

, .

In th e so u th west o f Fl and er s a no th er to wn Y p res o n t h e

-

, ,
 b liih b rl U M 227
’

Y s er , c o nn ected by a s ma ll c a na l with th e sea w as the riva l o f ,

B ruges a n d Gh ent Oth er t o wn s o n na viga ble rivers a re Co u rtra i,

.

o n th e L s th e ce ntre o f t h e rettin g o f fl a x fo r wh ich th e wa ter s

y ( ,

o f t h e river a re e s ecia lly suita ble

p ) a nd To urna i on th e S ch el d e ;
, ,

Th e im p ro vem ent o f m o d ern m ea ns o f c o mmu n ic a tio n by la n d

( ra ilwa ys ) h a s resul te d in th e gro wt h o f th e m o d ern p o rt o f
O stend , with its fine a rtificia l ha rbo u r Just a s th e Ho o k o f .

H o ll a nd a n d Flu sh ing a re m o re im p o rta nt fo r pass en ger tra ffic

than Ams terda m a nd Ro tter da m , so O stend in th is resp ect is in
fro n t o f An twerp .

Antwerp wa s a p o rt in very early tim es but it did no t rise into prom inenc e
,

till t h e beg inning o f th e fif t een th centu ry wh en the Co m pa ny o f M ercha nt

,

Ad ventu rers o f Engl a nd began t o u se i t a s a trad ing cen tre It g ra d u al ly

.

rea c h ed a l eadi ng p o sitio n a m o ng the po rts o f the Netherla nd s till in 1 5 79 ,

its tra d e wa s d es tro y ed by t he clo sing o f t h e S c h eld e by the Du tc h Und er .

t h e Fren c h rul e whi c h fo ll o wed t h e Re volu tio n a nd whil e B el gium fo rm ed

,

o ne sta t e wi th H oll an d ( 1 8 1 4 t he po rt ra p idl y ro se in im po rta n c e bu t ,

its p ro g ress wa s ch eck ed by a to ll im po sed till 1 8 63 Im po rtant c ha nges in

.

t h e d ep th o f t he c h a nn el s o f the S c h el d e o ccurred in m edi eval tim es bu t it ,

sh o ul d be n o ted th a t t he c hie f a l t era tion s c am e a t a

perio d w hen Antwerp
wa s l o sin g i t s im p o rta n c e ( 1 5 3 0 1 5 74
, In 13 00 t he Ea s t S c held e
w a s t h e m a in bra n ch o f th e ri ver a nd t h e H o n t wa s so m ewha t shall o w
,

bu t th ere ex is ted a n im po rtan t ro u t e fro m M iddl ebu rg ( th en a sea p o rt o n

t h e c o a s t ) in W a l c h eren to An twerp w hi c h f oll o w ed t he W es t S c held e
, , , .

Th e p o s itio n o f Antwerp is excellent fo r tra d e , a s th ere is a

d eep es tua ry wh ich sh ips o f la rge s ize to ns ) c an na viga te,
a n d th e ti da l ris e a m o un ts t o a bo u t 1 4 f eet ( lo w wa ter 28 4 1 , h igh
wa ter 42 f eet ) . Owing to th e c o nfi gu ra tio n o f B elgiu m th e
S ch el d e is th e so le m o uth o f tributa rie s wh ich c o ver th e wh o le
o f Lo wer B elgiu m (4 Fig . . it is th erefo re th e m a in p o rt no t ,

o n ly o f t h e to wn s o f Fla n d ers, bu t o f t h e m a nufa ctu rin g h i nd er

l a nd o f th e Sa m bre a nd M eus e .

The gr o wth o f Antwerp m us t b e a ttribu te d pa rtly t o t h e

d ec a y o f it s wes ter n riva ls ( B ruges , Gh ent o wi ng t o t he
,

s ilti ng u p o f th eir s e a p o rts a nd c ha nn els a nd pa rtly t o its ce ntr a l

,

p o s itio n a s th e n a tura l p o rt o f t h e S c h eld e a nd its tribu t a rie s

m
.

Ea rly d evelo p e nt w as certa in ly h i nd ere d b y t h e la rge a m o u nt

o f m a r shl a nd wh ich l a y r o und th e Lo wer Sch el d e .

The im p o rta n ce o f a centra l p o s itio n is sh o wn by th e c ho ice

o f Bruss els a s a c a p ita l by th e Dukes o f Bu rg u nd y, fo r p o litic a l

reaso ns, o win g to j ea lo u s y o r distrus t o f the po werfu l m ercha nt

cities o f Fland er s Th e s ite w a s well s elected o n th e so u th ern
.
228 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

ma rgin o f the Pla in o f Flanders a nd o n a na viga ble tri butary ,

of th e Sch eld e and as us ua lly h a s happ ened with a po litica l

, ,

c apita l th e ra ilwa ys wh ich c o n verge o n it fro m all parts of

,

B elgiu m ha ve ma d e its po s itio n s ecure (cf B erlin a nd Pa ris . ,

pp 209 , 23 3
. .

Oth er to wns n ear Brus s els, o n ce o f great i mpo rtance, but no w

d eca ye d, a re Lo uva in, o n th e Dyle, t o the ea st of B r us s els (sa id
to ha ve had in 13 00 a p o pulatio n o f with wea vers) ,
with a fam o u s university a nd so m e manufa ctures, a nd M echlin
( Malin es ) , o n th e Lo wer Dyle, no w d ep end ent, like so ma ny o f
th e dec a ye d towns o f B elgium , o n po orly pa id la ce wo rk -
.

Trade — Th e . tra de of B elgium in p ercenta ge s of to ta l value is

Exron'rs — Iron and steel , 8 m a c hi nery , 8 c oal a nd c o k
. e 4 c ereals 4 , ,

fl ax 3 5 ,
.

Imp o nrs — Cereals 1 0 ; tim ber 6 ; ra w wool , 5 ; fl ax 3 ; h id es 3 ; iron

.
, , , ,

( espec ially fro m L u x em bourg) .

The la rge tra ns it tra de o f B elgiu m ma kes it d ifficul t to distin

guish between p ro ducts pro du ced o r us ed at h o m e a nd th os e tha t
o nly pass th r o ugh Much of th is tra de is with Germ a n y, France,
.

a nd Holl a n d The selected expo rt s a nd imp orts give n a b ove how

.

ever , ma i nly represent go o ds pro duced or us ed in the cou ntry .

Iro n is n ee d e d for t he forges , a ddi tio na l fla x a nd w o o l f or th e

text ile fa cto ries, a nd foo dstuffs f o r the indus tria l p op ula tio n .

QUES T IONS .

1 On t he o ro graphic al m a p o f t h e N et herland s m arkt he b o undaries of

.

B elgium D ra w t h e m ain rail wa y li n es whic h lea d fro m B ru ssels t o Calais.

.

Paris Colo g ne a nd B asel

, Na m e t h e rivers and th e m ounta in groups
, .

th ey f oll o w o r cro s s .

2 On th e o ro gra phic al map m a rkth e wa tershed s o f th e S ch el de and

.

Meuse, and n am e th e Ardenn es Eif el H esbay e Plain o f Fl a nd ers Heights , , , ,

o f Pic a rd y a nd th e Ri v ers Ly s Sam b re O u rth e , Oise and Aisne

, Ma rk
, , , .

Luxemb o urg Na mur Li ege, M a astrich t and B rug es

, , , .

3 Explain ho w the c h anges whic h ha ve tak

. en pl a c e in the lo wer courses
o f t h e Rhin e a nd Sc held e ha ve in flu en c ed t he histo r
y o f Belgium and
Ho lland .

4 To wha t ca u ses phy sic a l a nd his toric al , did An twer

. ,
p B russels, ,

B ruges a nd Gh en t o we thei r im po rtanc e ? W hat po sitio n d o th ey no w

,

h ol d .

5 Into wha t na tu ral a nd ind u strial regio ns ca n y o u d i vid e B el ium ‘1

g
.

Desc ribe th ese sho rtly .

23 0 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

a nd Spa in (see( 2) Th e Al ps between France a nd Italy

p:
( see p . ridges o f th e Jura between Fra nce a nd
( 3 ) Th e
S witzerla nd (s ee p (4 ) T h e creta ceous a nd j u rass ic s c a rp
.

la nds o f th e Upp er S eine Bas in m os tly cha lk a nd lim es to ne ,

ridges a lterna ting with cla y p lains with steep esca rp m en ts to

,

the ea s t o f th e M eus e a nd M o s elle a nd th e so uth ea s t o f th e ,

-

S a one (s ee p 23 2 a nd cf Engla n d p
.
, ( 5) Th e Centra l
.
, .

Pla teau o f crysta llin e s ch i sts a n d a n cient eruptive ro cks bo r d ered

by li m esto n e fo r m ing th e Ca u ss es (see p ( 6) Th e B ritta ny .

H eigh ts o f Archsean a nd Pa l aeo zo ic ro cks gra nite a nd sch ests ,

(see p .
( 7) Th e No r m a nd y a nd Pica rd y H ills o f ch a lk
a nd li m es to n e ( s ee
p 23 1 a n d cf Engla nd p .
, ( 8 ) The .
, .

Arch aean a n d Palaeo z o ic ro cks o f t h e Vo sges b etween Fra n ce

a nd Germ a n y ( see
p ( 9 ) Th e Pal aeo zo ic ro cks o f th e
.

Ard enn es o n th e no rth ea st (s e e p -

.

Th e Frontiero f Fra nce p a rtly fo llo ws th e s e m a rked eleva tio ns .

A phy s ical f ro n t ier fo llo w s a river a divi d e or the sho re o f a la k e o r sea

, , .

A scien t ific f ro ntier is essent ially a rtific ial d et erm ined by l a titud e o r lo ngi ,

t ude ethno g raphical o r linguistic c o nsid era tions pol itical o r stra tegic
, , ,

exigencies .

1 France Spain — T he f ro ntier is m o stl y p hy s ical a nd fo l l o w s the m ain

.
-
.
,

c ha in o f t h e Py ren ees a nd it s ea s t a nd w e s t s purs T wo c a s es m ay b e m en .

tio ned where the f ro ntier c uts a c ro ss va l ley s — tha t o f the Upp er S egre .

whi c h is in Fra nc e a nd tha t of th e Garo nne the u pp er pa rt o f whi c h is in

, ,

S pa in f ro m w hi c h it is mo st ea sil y a cc essibl e o wing to go rg es o n th e no rth

, , .

Bo th th ese ex cep tions were a p pa rently d u e to igno ranc e o f the lo cal geog
rap hy wh en th e f ro ntier w as d el im ited in 1 6 5 9 On the west the B id assoa .

Riv er f o rm s th e frontier nea r th e s ea .

2 Franc e Italy — From th e M ed it erra nea n to M o nt B la nc the f ro ntier

.
-
.

fo llo ws th e d ivid e between th e tri bu tari e s o f the Po a nd tho se o f the Ro ya

'

Va r a nd Rh o ne ex c ept in t he e x trem e so u th wh ere so me eigh t m il es o f the

, , ,

M id dl e Ro y a is French a nd th e u p p er valley s o f the Ve su bie a n d T inee

'
, ,

trib u ta ries o f t he Va r whic h a re Italian , .

3 France Switzerland — From M o n t B la nc to the La k

.
-
e o f Gen eva the
Rho n e di vid e is fo l lo wed wi th f ew ex c ep tions Most o f the sou th shore
. .

o f th e l a ke is French Ro und t h e west end the f ro ntier is en tirel y a rtificial

.

( Gen eva wa s a n a ncien t Free City ) and co ntinu es so till it rea ches the Jura ,

wa ter p ar ting nea r the Do u b s so u rc es

, D ue west of Neu c h atel it rea c hes .

t h e D o ub s w hic h it fo ll o ws a s f a r a s i ts g rea t b en ds T h en c e t o t h e Vo sges

, .

it is m o st art i fic ial .

4 Fr anc e Germanm — Fro m th e Do u b s to t he B al lo n d Al sa c e the

‘ ’
-
.

f ro n tier c u ts a c ro ss th e l o w g ro und o f th e Burg und ian Ga te App ro x i .

ma tely the Do ubs Ill di vid e is fo l lo w ed but in t he l o wes t p art Germany

-
,
 F RANCE 23 1

e te
x nd s From t he B a ll o n d Al sa c e to th e hea d
in to the Do u b s B a sin .
’

w a ters o f the S a a r th e Rho n e M o s ell e d i vid e is the fro n tier ( th e Vo sges )

-
.

T h en c e tu rnin g no r th w es t it is m o stly a rtific ial c ro ssing the M o selle

,
-
, ,

so u th o f M e tz a nd th en c e to Luxem b o u r
,
g .

5 Franc e B elg ium — Fro m Lu x em bo u rg to the Cha nnel t he fro ntier i s

.
-

highl y a rt ific ial Co ntin uin g ro u ghl y no rth w est it c u t s a cro ss the M eu se
.
-
, ,

S a m b re S ch eld e and o th er rivers a nd fin ally rea ches the sea 15 m il es ea st

, , ,

of Ca l a is .

S tra t eg ically , sin ce e

S w itz erla nd a re neu tral
B lgi um , Lux em bo u rg , a nd ,

wh o se in d ep end enc e is guara n teed by t he Grea t Po wers Fra n c e lies o pen ,

o nl y b e tw een t h e Ard enn es a nd t h e Vo s es a nd be tw een th e Vo sg es an d th e

g ,

J u ra . T he a d va nta ges o f Fra n c e a nd Ita ly a re well b ala nc ed In th e .

Py renee s t he vuln era bl e po in ts a re nea r th e ea s t ern end near and a t the ,

west en d .

Paris B asi n and Eastern Frontier .

Th e S ei n e and S omm e B a sin is s e pa ra ted Fro m th e

Sch el de Ba sin in th e n o rth ea st by a c o m pa ra tively lo w d ivid e -

c o ns ist ing m o stly o f ch a lk do wn s very s im ila r in cha ra cter t o

th e c o rresp o n d ing pa rts o f So u th ern Engla nd Th ere a re n o .

well defined na tu ra l bo unda ries in th e c o u ntry th a t lies betwee n

-

t h e Ar d enn es a n d th e Ch a nn el , a nd c o m mu n ic a tio n is co u s e
qu ently ea s y fro m no rth to so u th On ly a s ma ll d iff erence o f .

level s epa ra tes th e u pp er wa ters o f th e So m m e a nd Sch elde, th e

Ois e a nd S a m bre ( No te th e s ites o f Crecy, Ag inc o u rt, etc ,
. .

o n t h e co a s t ro a d ) .

As th e e (Fla nd re ) sh o ws the no r thern pa rt o f th is reg io n wa s on c e

na m ,

pa rt o f Fl a n d ers a nd th o u g h t h e l angua g e is l o s in g gro und Fl em ish is st ill

, , ,

sp o ken o n th e Fren c h sid e o f the bounda ry (espec ially o n the co a st

D un k irk ) .

Th e B elgia n c o a lfield o f th e Sa m bre a nd M eu s e Va lleys extends

in to Fra nce ( m o re tha n h a l f th e French pro du ctio n o f co a l c o m es
fr o m th i s fi eld ) a nd this regi o n th eref o re h a s a d e ns e i ndu s tria l
,

o
p p ul a ti o n M a nufa cturing ce ntres a re— Lille ( t h e ce ntre fo r
.

r a ilwa y p l a nt a nd m a chi n ery ) , c o mm a ndi ng th e Va lley o f th e

Ly s a nd the e as ies t r o u te t o t h e So mm e a nd t h e sea ; Va le n
c ienn es a nd Ca m br a i ( l a ce a nd h os iery ; no te t h e excellent fl a x

o f th e Ly s V a lley) ; a n d Am ie ns ( a t a n i m p o rt a nt cr oss ing o f the

S o m m e a t it s c o nflu e nce with t h e Arve ) Thr o ugh o ut th is regi o n .

textile i ndustries a re o f grea t imp o rt a nce , esp eci ally wo o llens .

N o t e the su p ply o f wo o l in the M id dl e Ag es so m e fro m the c h al kdo wns ,

clo se by bu t m o s tl y fro m the Ard enn e s a n d the wid e ex tent o f cha l khills o f
,

Cha m pa ne in m u ch o f w h i ch t h e so il is o nl y su ita b l e fo r sheep

g ,
.
232 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

Th e po rt th is in du s tria l a rea is D u nkirk a t wh ich co nverge

of ,

num er o u s c a na ls wh ile Ca l a is a nd B o ul o g ne are well k no w n a s

,

p a cket st a tio ns .

No ga te o f Fra nce is so bro a d a s th is a n d no wh ere els e is ,

co mmercia l a nd so cia l interco urs e less im p ed ed no r is th is

entirely du e to po litica l rea so ns In no o th er pa rt o f th e frontier .

a re th e c o nd itio ns o f lif e o n bo th s id e s so s i m ila r o r a re na tu ra l ,

fa cilities o f c o m mun ic a tio n so grea t .

( 2) Fro m th e M euse Basin th e W es t Rh in e B a s in) by a

d ivid e wh ich h as th e p ecu lia rity o f bein g pa r a llel t o th e m a in
s tre a ms H en ce c o mm u nic a tio n is e a s y a s th o ugh th e wa tersh ed
. , ,

is o ver f eet ge ntle gra d ie nt s le a d t o it fr o m t h e river

,

va lleys An imp ort a nt c a na l f o ll o ws a tribut ary o f th e Ma r ne

.
,

cr o sses th e M eus e rea ch es th e M o s elle at T o u l f o ll o ws th e Meu rth e

, ,

a c o ns id er a b le di st a nce a b o ve N a ncy ( 6 50 f eet ) a nd t h e n pr o cee d s ,

e astwa rds b y tribu ta ry va lleys t o cr o ss t h e Rh i ne a nd S a rre ,

( Sa ar ) d ivide f eet ) a nd f a ll i nt o t h e Ill ( a nd s o th e Rhi ne )

,

a t S tr a ssb urg ( 459 f eet ) Thi s is t h e Rh i ne M a r n e c a na l

.
-
.

Al sa c e a nd pa rt o f Lo rra ine a regio n w h ic h ex tend ed so u th o f M et z t o

,

t he Rhin e were o nl y l o st to Fra n c e in t h e Fra n c o Germ a n W a r 1 8 7 1

,
-

, .

T he a bs enc e o f a ny w ell m a rk ed n a tu ral f ea tu res w h i c h c o u ld serve a s

-

mean s o f d ef en c e h a s nec essita ted t h e fo rm a t io n o f num ero u s stro ng fo rt s

on es— Seda n
b o t h s id , N an c y , an d B elf o rt in Fra n c e , an d M et z an d S trass
b u rg ln Germ a n y .

Th e pp er po rtio n o f th e S ein e B a s in is c o m p o s ed o f ch a lk
u

d o wns a nd lim est o ne s c a rpla nds wh ich res em b le th e Co ts w o lds ,

bu t c o nta in a m uch larger a re a o f d o w ns o nly su ite d fo r sh eep .

The m o d er n wo o lle n i ndu s try o f Rh eim s , S e da n , a nd Na ncy

received its first imp etus fr o m th e fa cilities for obta i ning wo o l .

Ano th er na tu r a l pr o du ct wh ich h a s d eterm in e d t h e o cc u pa ti o n o f

m u ch o f th is regio n is win e ( cha m pa g n e ) Rh eims , o n a p la in a t .

t he b as e o f th e ch a lk h eights , a nd Ep er na y , are imp o rt a nt t o w ns .

At th e fo o t o f th e Vo sges a re a s eries o f c o tto n to wns , Ep ina l ,

B elfo rt, etc , wh ich use wa ter po wer fro m t h e m o u nta in s trea m s ,
.
-

a nd im o rt ra w m a teria l b y c a na l fr o m Ha vre T h eir m o d er n

p .

d evel o pm e nt is p a rtly d ue t o th e l o ss o f th e c o tt o n t o wns o f

Alsace .

( 3 ) Fro m th e Sa fine and Rh one Ba s in by a n irregula r p’la tea u

’

(th e pla tea us o f Langres, with th e Fau cilles a nd Cfite d Or a t

eith er end ) , r u nning a t righ t a ngles to th e fl o w o f th e S ein e
tributa ries but ro u ghly pa ra llel to th e u pp er a nd m iddle c o urs e
o f t h e Sa o n e Th e steep esc a rpm ent o f th es e c ha lk h eigh ts is
.
234 T EX T B OOK -

OF GE O GRAPHY

It is in t eresting t o t e tha t th e prin cip al t o wns o n th es e ro u t es iare g en erally

no

a t int erva l s of a d a
y s d riv in g dis t a n c e a p art O n t h e who l e th e n etwo rk
'
. ,

o f ro a d s ra dia t in
g f ro m Paris h a s p l ay ed a grea t er p a rt in t h e his to ry o f
Pa ris th a n t h e na vig a bl e riv ers N o Eu ro p ean c entre is so cl early m ark
. ed
o ut b
y p hy sica l c o n sid era tio n s as fitt ed f o r a g rea t emp oriu m a nd h enc e ,

as t h e
p o litic a l c en tre o f a c o u nt ry .

Ro u en , th e grea t c o tto n to wn on th e S ein e, ha s grea ter a dva n

t a ges th a n Pa ris a s the lim it o f o cea n na v iga tio n , b ut far les s as

th e fo c u s of inla nd ro u tes .

Th e North -
W est Peninsul a .

A lin ed ra wn fro m th e p en insul a o f Co tent in th ro u gh th e

pla tea u o f No r ma n dy t o th e Lo wer Lo ire s epa r a tes a regio n o f
o l d er r o cks
(gra nite a nd s ch ists ) fro m th e Pa ris B as in a nd th e
pro vinces o f th e M iddle Lo ire .

Th e no rth er n p o rtio n in wh ich is s itu a te d Ch er bo u rg , th e

,

ch ief na va l a rs ena l o f Fra nce, h a s sha red in th e po litica l and

c o mm ercia l fo rtu nes o f Ea stern No r m a nd y a nd No rth ern Fra nce .

Pa sto ra l p ursu its d ep end ent o n rich gra ss wh ich gro ws wel l in
,

th e m il d a nd wet clim a te , p re do m ina te Ho r s es a n d c a ttle , .

da iry fa rm s, a nd a pple o rcha r ds ( cid er ) a re th e m a in o cc u pa tio ns

-

o f a regio n wh ich in m a ny wa ys re s e m ble s S o m er s et a nd No rth

Devo n Sh eep a re kep t o n th e drier h eights o f th e No r m a nd y

.

Pla tea u .

Brittany , th o ugh s im ila r in ph ys ica l c o n d itio ns to Western

No r ma nd y, h a s a lwa ys been iso la ted fro m th e rest o f Fra n ce by
its c o m pa ra tive i na ccess ibility Th e f ertile c oa st p l a i ns , n o ted fo r
.

m a rket ga r d e ni n g a nd da iry fa rm ing , a re b a cke d in la nd , a s in

- -

W estern Co rn wa ll , by barren m o o rl a nd a nd h ills c o vered with

h ea th er Access ibility by s ea , fin e h a rbo urs, a n d i m po rtant
.

fis h eries h a ve m a d e th e B reto ns, like th e No rwegia ns , da rin g

sa il o rs, vo ya ge s b ein g regula rly ma d e t o N ewfo u nd la n d a n d t h e

Arctic Renn es is th e o nly la rge to wn in th e in terio r

. Th e .

res t are o n the c o a st Lo rien t a nd B res t a re n a va l s ta tio ns , a nd

.

St Ma l o
. in th e n o rth is th e c entre o f a district wh ic h , like the
‘

Cha nnel Isla nds o f sim il a r s tr u cture a nd

, clim a te ,
e
s nds e arly
veget ables a nd da iry pr o du ce t o Engl a nd .

Th e Loire B asin .

Th e no rth ern s trea m s ris e in t he very bro ken p la tea u o f Sou th

No r m a ndy, a nd a re c o mm ercia lly us efu l o n ly a t eith er extrem ity
o f th e p l a te a u On th e west lies th e bro a d Va lley o f th e Vila ine ,
.
 FRANCE 23 5

wh ich sha rply s epa ra tes Celtic spea kin g B rittany f ro m th e rest -

o f Fra n ce a nd O ens u p c o m m u n ic a ti o n by Renn es with

p , , ,

St Ma lo a n d th e Cha nn el ; wh ile o n th e ea st th e Lo ir a nd t h e
.
,

Eure o n eith er s id e o f th e d ivid e between th e S eine a n d Lo ire give

, ,

t o Ro u e n a n im p o rt a nt o utlet t o th e so uth west ( Chartres o n -

t h e Upp er Eure 4 1 0 feet lies in th e ce ntre o f a no tice a b ly level

, ,
.

p la i n fro m wh ich r o a ds a nd r a ilwa ys r a d i a te in a ll directi o ns )

, .

Th e p ro vin ces o f th e M iddl e a n d Lo wer Lo ire (Ma in e Anj o u ,

a nd To ura ine
) wh ich lie in th e ba s in between th e Pla teau o f
,

N o r m a n d y a n d th e Cen tra l Pla tea u h a ve been c a lled th e Ga r den ,

o f Fra nce Th e cla ys a nd m a rls o f th e Pa ris B a s i n extend o ver

.

th e M idd le Lo ire a nd a gric ul tu re ( cerea ls a n d th e v in e ) pre

,

d o m ina tes .

Orle ans o f grea t h is toric a l i mpo rta n ce fr o m its po s itio n a t

,

th e b en d o f t h e Lo ire a nd its c o mm a nd o f th e ea s iest ro ute t o

th e Pa ris B a sin o n th e n o rth fo r m ed t h e key t o th is rich regio n
, ,

a n d w a s c o ns ta ntly be s iege d On th e ca ptu re o f Orlea ns o ften

.

d ep end ed th e fa te o f Fra nce To u rs a nd Blo is lo wer do wn th e

.
,

Lo ire h a ve a l so b een o f i m po rta n ce in h isto ry

, .

Th e l o wer Va lley o f th e Lo ire r u ns th ro u gh a gra n ite regio n

wh ich belo ngs h is to rica lly a nd geo l o gic a lly to Britta ny bu t is ,

no w c o nn ecte d with th e c o m m ercia l li f e o f t h e Lo ire regio n by

th e po rt o f Na ntes wh ich s ta n ds a t th e h ea d o f th e e stua ry
,
.

Al l th e so u th ern tribu ta ries o f t h e Lo ire r is e with in th e Central

Pl ate au Th e Ch er a n d Lo ire a re p a rtly c a na lize d a nd th e l atter
.
,

is c o nn ecte d with th e Sa one a nd t h e S ein e B as i n Mo ntluco n .

o n t h e Ch er is b ec o m ing a m a nu fa ctu ri ng t o w n o wi ng t o t h e

pres e n ce o f c o a l in t h e neighb o urh o o d O n t h e wes t t h e Vie nn e .

le a ds by a trib u ta ry t o th e d epress i o n o f th e Stra it o f Po it o u

a nd t o t h e wi nd i ng Cha re nte a nd t h is r o u te is f o ll o we d b y a ll
,

t he la nd b o r n e tr a d e o f S o uth W est Fr a n ce a nd is m a rke d by

- -

t h e t o w ns o f Po itiers a nd An go u l em e .

Th e tra n sit io n fro m n o rth erl y t o a so u th erly typ e o f clim a t e a n d

a

vege ta t io n is no tic eab l e a t o n c e w h en this p a ssage is pa ssed In histo ry .

th is ga p be twe en t he Cen tral Pla teau and the h eights o f t he Vend é e ha s

b een t h e s c en e o f m a ny s t ruggl es between th e N o rt h a nd S o u th It wa s a .

m e et in g pl a c e o f Christ ian s a nd M o slem s

-
At Po itiers t he Fren ch o f th e .

n o rt h w ere d ef ea t ed b y t he Engl ish w h o were th en in po ss ess io n o f G uy e nne

,
.

Pro t es ta n ts a nd Ca t h o l ic s Ro y al ist s a nd Repu bl ic a n s ha ve stru ggl ed f o r

, ,

it s p o ssessio n .

On th e e as ter n e d ge o f t he Ce ntra l Pla tea u a re t w o l o ng rivers ,

t h e Lo ire a nd t h e Allier wh ich a lm o s t cr oss it a nd a ff o r d r o u tes t o
,

with in a sho rt d is ta nce o f th e Rh on e Va lley ( th e ma in s trea m

23 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

of tra ffic fro m Pa ris t o Ma rs eilles go es by Dij o n) Of th es e .

t w o va lleys— th e Lim a gne o r bro a d Va lley o f th e M iddle Al lier

is rich in a llu viu m a n d gro w s vin es a nd cerea l s ,
Clerm o nt .

Ferra nd built o f bla ck la va n ea r th e Puy de D om e is th e ch ief

, ,

to wn wh ile th e Lo ire ha s b een th e s cen e o f grea t indu stri a l

,

d evel o pm ent St Etienn e clo s e t o a ga p in th e steep ea s tern

. .
,

m a rgin o f th e pla tea u th ro u gh wh ich ru n ro a d a nd ra il c o nn ecting

th e Lo ire a n d th e Rh é n e a n d t h e n eigh bo u r ing to wn s a re clo s e
, ,

to i m po rta n t c o a lfiel ds a nd m a nu fa ctu re s teel m a ch in ery

, , ,

ribbons a nd la ce In th e no rth ea s t Le Creuso t lies m idwa y

.
-

b etween t h e Lo ire a n d Sa on e with ea s y a ccess t o eith er (a n ,

i mpo rta nt ca na l th e Cana l du Centre pa ss es n ea r it ) a nd wo rk

, , ,

sh o s ha ve bee n fo u n de d a s a re s ult o f t h e w o rk ing o f co a l a nd

p
i ro n.

T h e Ce ntral Pla teau slo p es gently to no rth and no rth wes t an d c om -

,

m unic a tio n is ea sy by m eans o f these l o n g ri vers to p o in ts qu it e cl o se t o

t h e Rhone Va ll ey Co n venien t ga p s c o m pl et e th e c o nn ect io n
. T he .

pla tea u th o u g h i t d ete rm ines t h e d irectio n o f ro u tes t o ea s t a nd wes t

, ,

o ff ers b u t sl ig h t hi nd ra n c e to t he tra ffic be tw een n o rth a n d so u th It s .

i so l a t io n ho wever a nd rugg ed a nd b a rren c h a ra ct er rend er i t o ne o f the

, , ,

m o st cl ea rly m a rk ed na tu ra l d ivisio n s o f Fran c e M u c h o f it is c o m po sed .

o f o ld c ry s tall in e ro c kan d g ra nite f ro m w hi c h ris e vo l c a n i c m a ss es

, In .

su c h regio n s p o pul a tio n i s s c a n ty ex c ep t in th e d eep v all ey s w hi ch a s in

, , ,

o th er vo l c a ni c a rea s c o nta in a ric h f ertil e so il

, Ca ttl e a re k
ep t o n the rainier .

parts o f th e pl a teau ( t he M ill e Va c h es Pla t eau o f Au vergne ) whi l e in th e ,

l im es tone regio n o f the C a u s ses in th e so u th o nl y sheep fl o u rish H ere a re .

narro w p re c ip ito u s c a no ns f ed l a rg ely by un d erg ro u n d rivers

, , t he

go rg es o f t h e T a rn ) La c ko f wa ter in summ er a nd th e rigo ro u s cl im a t e

.
,

o f t h e l o n g w in ter w h en sno w l ies t o t h e d ep th o f s e vera l f ee t c o n fin e t h e

, ,

p erm a nen t h a bita t io n s o f th is reg io n m a inl y t o t he d eep va ll ey s .

Th e Garo nn e B asin .

The two m a in rivers wh ich fo r m th e es tua ry o f t h e Giro n d e

d erive th eir wa ter s fro m t wo very d istinct regio ns — th e Do r
do gn e a n d th e no rth ern tributa ries fro m th e Centra l Pla tea u ,
th e Ga r o nn e a nd th e so uth er n tri bu ta ries fro m t he Pyren ees .

W in e and a gricu ltu re predo m ina te in Gu ienne, excep t in th e

ba rren po rtio ns o f th e Centra l Plea ta u , wh ile Ga s c o n y t o th e
so uth is m a inly pa s to r a l .

Po verty ha s c om pel l ed th e Ga sc o n s t o seektheir fo rtun es a bro ad No te .

the l o ng c onn ect io n o f B a s qu e fish erm en with the Arct i c w h al e fish ery .

M a ritim e en te rp rise ha d to co nt end a g a inst the o b st a cl es o f po o r ha rb o u rs .

Stro ng westerly w ind s high t id es and sh if t ing sa nd du nes ha ve c aused a

, ,
-

,
23 8 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

ma ke it o ne o f th e s tronges t fo rtress es in Fra n ce Watch

ma k
.

ing is o f importance, and so m e iron indus tries a re ca rried

on . Th is is a l so th e c a s e in th e towns o f th e Jura wh ich bounds
Franch e Co mté o n th e east H ere pasto ra l in dus tries pre
.

do m inate, such a s c a ttle breed in g a nd da irying ( Gru yere ch ees e )

-
.

Wa ter po wer fro m th e Ju ra is u s ed fo r loca l fa ctories

-
.

In th e wes t th e ea stern slo p es o f th e Cdte d Or a re fa m o u s for

’

B urgund y N uits , B e a une , a nd Po mm a rd ( towns a t th e foot of

,

th e s lo p es wh ich ha ve give n th eir na m es t o fa m o us vinta ges) .

As in t he Ch am p a gn e district , t h e wa rm er s umm ers o f th e inla nd

regio ns fa vo ur wi ne pro ductio n .

2 Th e
. Valley th e Rh one , S outh of Ly ons — Ly o ns at th e
of .
~

junctio n o f th e Sa one a nd Rho n e, ha s grea t natur a l a dva ntages

of
po s itio n Al l th e ma in ro utes f ro m th e Sa6 n e Ba sin to that
.

of th e Rhone pass thro ugh it a nd o n th e no rth ea s t th e Rhi ne

,
-

co nnect s it with the La ke o f Gen eva a nd Switzerla nd On the .

west the Cevenn es , wh ich d ivid e th e Va lley o f th e Rh on e fro m

tha t of the Lo ire, are steep o n th e ea stern s10 p e, a nd lie so n ea r
to th e Rh 6 n e th a t sh ort tribu ta ry va lleys do no t a ff o r d easy
c o mmunica tio n , but a gap ha s been utilize d fo r th e ra ilwa y
‘

wh ich c o nn ects Lyo ns a nd St Etienn e Bo th th es e to wns a nd

. .

th e surr o u ndin g d istrict m a ke c o ns id er a ble u s e o f wa ter po wer -

fo r th e h o m e p ro ductio n o f s ilk, a s well a s fo r l a rge fa cto ries .

Electric po wer is ch ea ply d is tribu ted fro m centres wh ere energy

ca n be gen era ted Even sma ll villa ges in Al p in e va lleys, wh ere
.

waterfa lls c an be utiliz ed, ha ve electric light .

Th e bro a d Rh6 ne Va lley c a rries M ed iterra n ea n c o nditio ns far

into th e in terio r , but it is o nly a little no rth o f Orange tha t a
sudd e n tra ns itio n o ccurs to a cli m a te wa r m eno ugh fo r th e cultiva

tio n o f th e o live .

The im po rta nce o f D i j o n , Lyo ns, Va lence, Greno ble , a nd

Avigno n, a re clea rly due prima rily to po s itio n, bu t th e key to
the who le regio n is M ars eil les S in ce it s fo u nda tio n a cc o rd in g
.
,

to tra ditio n, in 600 B C , its pos itio n o n a na tura l ha rbo ur to

. .

th e east o f th e ma r sh es o f th e Rh é ne Delta h a s given it th e

pro m inent p la ce a s th e M ed iterra n ea n p o rt o f So u th ern France .

Cette is a w ine a nd sa lt p ort o n th e delta bu t s in ce th e a dva n ce

,

o f th e Rhfin e D elta , ow ing t o th e ga in of th e l a nd a n d th e gro wth

in th e s iz e o f sh ips, Mars eilles h a s ha d no riva l s (Arles wa s a riva l

in Ro ma n tim es a nd th e M id dle Ages ) Th e M ed iterra nean
.

trade o f Fra nce m ea ns no t m erely th e tra d e with th e countries

of the sea bo a rd, and especia lly Algeria (win e a nd iro n o re) , but
 FRANCE 23 9

a lltra d e with o r fro m th e East wh ich pass es thro u gh th e Su ez

, ,

Ca na l Ma rs eilles is th e ch ief po rt o f Fra nce fo r tr o p ic a l pro du ce

.
,

su ch a s r i ce t ea s ices a n d s ilks
p , , Pa l m o il ( fro m W es t Afric a )
, .

a nd co ra a re i m o rte d fo r th e s o a B o th
p p p a n d c a ndle fa ct o ries .

French a nd B ritish c o mpanies em ba rk pa ss engers fo r India a nd

Au stra lia .

Marseilles h a s r
p o t , with a s m all but s a f ha b o u with a na o w
a n o ld e r r , rr .

r ke r e
oc
y n t an c e r r r
T h e o l d to wn li s o u nd t he ha b o u a nd o n t h e d g s o f a
. e e
st re r rr e ee e e r
tch o f lo w g o u nd su o un d d b y s t p l im st o n h ills ( p o o u s : g o o d
,

er r re e e ree e
w a t su p p ly ) T h e n ew p o t st tch s w s t f o r a b ou t th m il s a long th e
-
.

r e re e
c o a sta l s t ip a nd up t h e s lo p s o f t h e hills Ma s ill s lies so m 25 m il s e . e
e a st o f t h e e er e e
a st n e e e
dg o f t he Rh on D l t a ( its lf 3 5 m il s wid ) e No e .

s trea m s brin
g s edim ent in t o p o rt ( Th is o ft en d et ermin es t he p os itio n o f a
.

p o rt in a no n tid a l s ea -

f Gen o a Fiu m e T riest e S alo ni ca ) It s rea l

u . , , , .

im p o rt a n c e lies in its c o m m u n ic a tio n with t h e hind erla n d ea st by t h e c o ast

t o Ita l y ; w es t b y t h e c o a s t t o Sp a in a nd t h e wine reg io ns o f L a ngu edo c
a n d B o rd ea ux ; no rth b
y t h e R h on e Va ll ey w h en c e ea s t t o Ita ly a nd ,

S wit z erla n d o r n o rth by t h e S a ene Va ll ey ; wh en c e w es t t o th e Lo ire

,

( Ca n a l d u Centre g ap ) n o rth w es t t o Pa ris a n d n o rth east by t h e D o u b s

,
-

,
-

t o t h e Ga p o f B elf o rt ( t h e B u rg u ndia n Ga t e) a n d t he Rh ine .

Th e wa rm M ed iterra n ea n clima te o f th e Lo wer Rhon e Va lley,

with its m o ist win ters and d ry su mm er s fa vo u rs th e cul tiva tio n
o f m ul b errie s fo r S il k
,

wo rm s, a nd a cco unts for th e co ncentra tio n

o f th e s ilk ind u s try in th is
pa rt o f Fra nce The vin e a n d th e .

o live a re a l so
gr o wn gen era ll y, esp ecia lly o n h ill sl o p es fa cin g
so u th e a st-
.

T h ere is rea t co n tra st between th e l o w plains the terra ced a nd cul

a g ,

t iva t ed hi ll sl o p es a nd the p a s to ra l u pl a nd s
, An o th er co ntra st is pro vi d ed.

by the c lim a t e o f win t er and su mm er O wing t o th e p a rc hed c o ndi tio n o f

.

t h e p l a in s in s um m er sh eep a re d ri ven grea t di s ta n c es fro m the Ca m a rg ue

,

in t h e Rho ne D el ta to t he hill s a nd bro u gh t ba c kin win t er ,

S im ila r .

m igra tio n s a re ma d e f ro m t h e pl a ins o f Lo m ba rd y to the hil l pa stu res .

( see p .

On th e wes t o f th e Rh en e a re Nim es, n ea r th e Al a is c o a lfield ,

c o mm a nd ing th e na tura l ro u te t o th e va lleys o f th e Al lier a nd

Lo ire, a nd Mo n tp ellier with its fa m o us s ch o o ls, a nd Perp igna n ,
,

a n i m o rta nt fo rtre ss c o m m a nding t h e e a s tern end o f t h e P yren ee s

p .

On th e ea st a re To ul o n , th e M ed iterra n ea n na va l s ta tio n, a n d
t he Rivier a wi nter reso rts s u ch a s Ca nn es a nd N ice ,
.

Excep t Greno ble (glo ves ) o n t h e Is ere a nd Ch a m bery (silk) ,,

wh ich o wes its im po rta nce t o a br o ad ga p which lea ds eas ily

i nt o th e Is ere Va lley, a nd s o a ff o rds a cc ess t o the Mo nt Cenis
240 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

ro u te ( r a il a nd ro a d) and th e Little St B erna rd ( ro a d ) th ere a re

,
.
,

few to wn s o f im po rta nce in th e Alp in e va lleys Th is m a y be .

a cc o u nte d fo r b t h e fa ct th a t tho u gh o nly a s ingle m o u nta in

y
ridge ha s to be cro ss ed in th e W es tern Alps between Fra nce a nd
Ita ly th e Va lley o f t h e Dura n ce is s o l o n g a n d windin g tha t a
,

s ec o nd pa ss ha s t o be cro ss e d t o a vo id th e n ecess ity o f fo ll o w ing

it th ro u gh o ut its who le length Co ns equently th e m edieva l .
,

M o nt Cen is ha s su ppla nted t h e Ro m a n Mo nt Gen evre a n d th e ,

co nstru ctio n o f a ra ilwa y th ro u gh a tu nn el a t th e h ea d o f th e

D o ra Ripa ria ha s furth er increa sed its a dva nta ges Th e c o m .

pa ra t ive e a s e o f c o mm u n ica tio n b etween Sa vo y a n d t h e pla ins o f

It a ly is i nd ic a te d b y t h e fa ct th a t th e Fre n ch la ng u a ge is spo ken
in t he Va lley o f Aos t a ( t h e D o ra B a lt ea ) wh ic h c o mm u n ic a tes ,

with th e d istrict o f Sa v o y by t h e Little St B er na rd a nd th e .

Fre nch sp ea ki ng Va lla is b y the Grea t St B er na rd

-
. .

It sho uld beted tha t there is a very m a rk

no ed d i ff eren c e be tw een t h e

a pp ro a c h t o t he p l ain o f Ita l y f ro m al l sid e s a nd t h e e x i t f ro m Ital y o u t

ward s A di a g ra m o f slo pe from Ly o n s t o T urin a nd fro m Geneva o r

. ,

Lu zem t o M ila n will b rin g o u t t h e p o int very cl ea rly and h el p to expl ain
, ,

t h e p red o m in a n c e o f Frenc h in flu en c e in t h e wes t o f S wiss infl u enc e in ,

T ic ino a nd o f Au s tria n in t h e Eas t

,
T his m o un ta in bo rd erl and bo th
.
,

slo p es o f w hi c h w ere so l o ng held by t he Ho u se o f S a vo y ( S a vo y wa s g a ined

by Fra n c e in is ve ry d iff eren t in c h a ra ct er t o t h e Py renees wh ic h ,

c o ntain s o ver m u ch o f it s l eng th no lo ng vall ey s l e adin g by ea sy gradient s

t o rel a ti vely l o w p a ss es It wa s in c ons e qu en c e o f thi s ea se o f c o m m u n ic a
.

t io n th a t Ga u l b ec a m e s o c o m p let ely Ro m a n the na m e Pro vinc ia s till

,

s u rviv in g in Pro v en c e .

Clim ate , Surf ace Fe atures, and Pro duc ts .

Th e winter tem p eratures th ro ugh o ut Fra nce a re no wh ere

very lo w except o n th e m o u ntains (s ee Ta ble Th e P u y d e
D om e a t n ea rly feet is 28 F in Ja nu a ry, a nd na tura lly
°
, .

m u ch c o l d er te m p era tures a re exp erienced in t h e h igh er Alps

a nd Pyren ees Pa rts o f th e Centra l Pla tea u a re very c o ld in
.

winter a nd o ften iso la ted by sno wd rifts (s ee Fig

, No rth .

Britta ny with a W es t Co a st cli ma te , h a s a s h igh a tem p era

tu re s t Rivier
a h e a M a s .s i °
r eille [ 77] s 43 F Pa ris in a n .

in la nd ba sin , is 3 6 F °
Th e sum m er tem p eratures a re l o w o n
.

th e m o u nt ina s i
h igh n t
,
h e s o u th, Ma r s eille s is 7 2
°
F , a nd .

°
least in No rth B ritt ny 6 1 F Except in the so u th , wh ich h as
a , .

dry su mm er s a nd wet sp rin gs a nd a u tu mn s, rainf all is no t d eficient

th ro ugho ut th e yea r Th e h igh er m o unta ins ha ve a grea ter
.
242 TEX T B OO K O F GEO GRAPHY
-

pr o ducts , su c h a s m a c h in ery Th e c o ns id er a b le ir o n a nd s teel .

pr o d ucti o n o f Lille Le Creu s o t etc is m a i nly u s e d a t h o m e

m
. .
, , ,

or ts aret he raw m a teri a ls f o r th e textile i nd us trie s .

r
N o n e o f th es e eve n s ilk , a re pr o d uce d in s ufficient qu a ntities
,

a t ho m e .

Q UES TION S .

1 . D esc rib e g iving y o u

, a s o ns r re , th e p o sition s o f Pa ris a nd M a rs il l s e e .

Na m e r r
o n t h e o o g a p hic al m a p t h e r er
iv s a nd g a p s f ollo w d by t he m a in e
ro u tes r e f om a c h t o wn .

2 D efine a
.
p h y s ica l a n d cien tific fron tier
s . Dra w r
o n a n o o gra phi a l c
m a p th e f ro n tie s o f F a nc r r e a nd d isting uish
, between the t wo types of

fro n tier .

3 . Com pa re t h e river co u rses of th e S in e e , Lo ire , a nd Garo nne , on the

p ri n cip l ee
xp la in ed o n p 1 6 8 , 2 1 4 . .

e r e
4 D s c ib t h e ph y sic a l c ha a ct
. er and pro du cts o f B rittany the Cen tra l r ,

Pla tea u and th e Lo wer R h o n e Vall ey

, .

5 On a n o ro g ra p hi c al m a p o f Fra n c e m a rkt h e 0 0 1 d e N a u ro u se Pro

.
, ,

ven c e t h e M o rvan t he Pla teau o f L an gres t h e Ven dee t he S tra it o f Po ito u

, , , , ,

Au verg n e Cé t e d o r t h e Ca u ss es t h e Ch er t h e Arm a ncon t he T arn th e

,
'
, , , , ,

Vienn e the Isere , .

6 In wh a t region s o f Fran c e is win e a nd in wha t c id er th e n a tiona l

.
, ,

d rink7 Expl ain this .

7 Com pa re the ph y sica l ch a ra cter an d p ro du ct s o f D a u phine and

.

No rma ndy .

THE IBERIAN PENINSULA .

Area = 1 9 0 0 00 s qua re m il es
Po p ul a tio n = 1 9 5 m illio ns in 19 1 0
.
‘

1 2 to
t he s qua re m ile . r
M a d id = 0 6 m ill io n
‘

S P AI N .

Relief .

Th e Py re nees — S epa r a te d fro m th e Centra l Pla tea u o f Fra nce

by th e br oa d d e press io n o f th e S tra it o f Na u ro u s e (th e Ga te o f
Ca rca ss o nn e ) , th ere ris es a grea t m o u nta in m a ss, th e Pyren ees .

Th is ra nge h a s no grea t brea d th , bu t ris es th ro ugh o ut its length

with c o ns idera ble a bruptn ess f ro m th e h ill c o u ntry o n th e no rth
a nd so uth , in wh ich th e tributa rie s o f th e Ga ro nn e a n d Ebr o

ha ve th eir m iddle c o urs es Th e u pp er va lleys o f th es e rivers a re .

gen era lly s teep a nd to rrentia l , a nd a re d iffic u lt to fo llo w, o ften

ris ing in cirques with precip ito us wa lls (e gz, Ga va rnie ) The . .
 THE IBERIAN PENIN SULA 243

watersh e d is never abo ve feet but s el dom b el o w

, feet
(th e h igh e s t p ea ks a re a bo ve feet bu t are no t o n th e ma in
,

ch a in) .

Th ese cha rac teristics a nd the grea t heigh t o f the pa sses rend er the
Py renees m o re d ifi c ul t t o c ro ss tha n the Al p s wh ere lo n g vall eys with
,

c ompara ti vely gentl e g rad ients l ead to gaps which a re lo w rela t ively to the
h eigh t o f th e m ou ntains w hi ch they tra verse ( see pp 2 60 .

FIG . 27 — IB ERIAN PEN IN S UL A

. RIV ER S Y S T EM S .

l , Pyren ees ; 2 Cantab ria n Mo unta in s ; 3 S ierra d e Gu ad a rra m a ; 4 S ierra

, , .

d e Gre d os ; 5 , Sierra M o rena ; 6 La M an ch a 7, Sierra N evad a

, .

Th ere is d istin ct ga p o f a co ntinuo u s na ture eith er t o th e

no
west or ea s t of th e Pyrenees On the west is a n u ndul a tin g
.

c o untry fr o m to feet in eleva tio n, with a wet climate ,

a n d d e ns ely cloth e d with fo re s ts The Ro nces valles Pa ss, fro m

.

Pa mp lo na to Ba yo nn e , is feet, and th e ra ilwa y between

th es e town s fo llows a circuitou s ro ute to th e wes t The centra l .

p o rtio n o f th e Pyren ees is a lo ng ridge with pa ss es wh ich a re

o n ly notch es a feet belo w the genera l level In th e no rth .
244 T EX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

ri bs a nd buttress es s epa ra te d eep ly cut va lleys in the so uth -

la tera l ridges a nd para llel cha ins extend for nearly 6 0 m iles
to wa r ds the Ebr o but th ere a re a gre a ter num b er o f lo ngitu di na l
,

va lleys whi ch run par a llel t o th e genera l a xis of th e Pyrenees

th e Ar a g o n wi th Ja c a a n d th e S egre le a di ng to th e Co l d e la
, , ,

Perc h e wh ic h are imp orta nt fo r h a b ita tio n a nd c ommu n ic a tio n

,
.

On the e ast a na rrow spur o f a bo ut feet nearly rea ch es the

c o as t ; but the a lterna te c o ntr o l o f b oth s id es of t he ra nge by
Fra nce a nd Spai n sh ows that c omm unic atio n was easy o n this
s ide .

T hi s route wa s foll owed by H a nn iba l in his march t o Italy an d by t he ,

S ara c ens when th ey o verra n La n g u ed o c It is int erest ing t o no t e t ha t

.

t h e m o re in a c c essible pa rt o f t h e Cen tra l Pyren ees ro und M o n t Perd u

a ff o rd ed a ref u e t o t h e Chris tians a s t h e S ierra N eva da did la t er t o t h e
g ,

M o ors .

As m ight be exp ected fro m th e d irectio n of th e m ois t winds ,

( p 1 69 sq) th e s outh si de o f th e r a nge is m ore burnt in s umm er

.
, ,

a nd h a s le ss
pa sture a nd f o re st tha n the no rth B a re wh ite
, .

lim est o ne wa lls overlo o k c o rk a nd o live groves a nd vi neyards ,

wh ich give place t o the sa ndy p la i ns with ch ara cteristic a lo e ,

a nd t a m a ris k of th e dr Ebr o Va lley

y .

Th e s ma ll repu blic o f An do rra in th e Ea stern Pyrenees is o nly

, ,

a
pp ro a ch ed by pa sses wh ich a re burie d fo r s evera l m o nths und er
sn o w .

The Wester n Pyre nees sinko n the we s t to a broken hill c o u ntry

o f m o d er a te eleva tio n wh ich fo r ms th e B a s que
, pro vin c es wh ere a ,

p ri mitive langu a ge still h o lds its o w n Th ere a re ma ny po in ts of .

res em bla nce between th es e h ills a nd th e Centra l German High

la nds : runn in g strea ms a nd wa ter fa lls ; forests of beech o ak , ,

b irch a nd a sh ; a pp le and ch erry o rch a rds ch estnut s a n d w al

, , ,

nuts fields of rye p o ta to es fl a x a n d h e mp sa l mo n a nd tro ut

, , ,

stre a m s a nd iso la te d fa r m s
, A d is tinct ra ce has h ere su rvived
.

in a la nd wh ich is sha rply d iff erentia ted fro m the wind swe t
p
-

h igh pla ins of th e M es eta with its extre m e cli ma te a nd s c a nty

,

supply o f running wa ter .

Th e Cantabrian M o untains c o ntinue t h e sa m e ty e o f c o untry

p ,

rls mg to h igh er eleva tio ns o n th e wes t Th ey are in ters ected .

in th e no rth by nu m erous sma ll s trea m s of no grea t length s ince ,

th e wa ter sh ed lies clo s e to th e c oa s t Th e mo unta ins a re rich .

co a l a nd iro n wh ich is expo rted fro m B il ba o a nd Santa nder

, .

Fa cin g th e Ba y of Bis ca y in Ga licia are th e h ar bo urs o f Coruna

, , ,

Ferro l a nd Vigo , .
246 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

a dd itio n th ey tend to intens ify th e dry clim a te o f th e rela tively

l o wer pl a ins a nd va lleys wh ich lie b etween th em (r a in sh a do w) .

Alo ng th e western m a rg in o f th e Ebro is a c o m p lex s yste m o f

upla nd s th e m ountai ns of Arag on and Castil e a t th e no rth o f
, ,

wh ich lies the lo w wa tersh e d wh ich sepa rates th e ba s ins o f the

Ebro a nd D o u ro Over th is a rea o f rela tive d epress io n pa sses
.

”
th e m a in ro u te fr o m Spa in t o th e no rth by t h e B urg o s Gap .

In th e m iddle o f th es e u pla nds ris e tribu ta ries o f th e Ebro the ,

D o u ro a nd th e Ta gus Th e l ine o f h ills wh ich d ivi d es th e D o uro

, .

fro m th e Ta gus th e Sierra de Guadarram a is th e lo ftiest a nd

, ,

m os t c o ntin uo us o f th o s e th a t tra vers e th e p la tea u it is d eeply

cut by ra vines a nd ris es a bruptly fr o m th e p la in
, .

In two pl a ces esp ecia lly do va lleys fo r m r o ute s ( a ) N ea r the

centre a ppro x im a tely o n th e l ine j o in in g Va lla do lid a nd Ma drid
, ,

a nd ( b) fa rth er we st o n th e lin e j o in ing S a la ma n c a a nd Pla

,

s e noia at a
, p o in t wh ere th e S ierra de Gredo s s in k t o a lesser
eleva tio n .

Th e a dva nta ges o f M adri d a s a c a p ita l s ee m t o lie p rincipa lly

in its centra l p o s itio n a s th e fo cus o f ro u tes in a ll d irectio ns
a cr o ss th e M es eta .

The m o u nta ins o f To le do wh ich li m it th e Va lley o f th e Ta g us

,

to th e s ou th a n d th os e o f th e S ierra Mo rena t o t h e so u th o f the

, ,

Gu a d ia na a re less c o ntin uo u s tha n th e S ierra Gu a da rra ma

, ,

esp ecia lly o n th e ea s t wh ere th ey s ee m to d isa pp ea r in th e a verage

,

level o f th e pla tea u f eet ) a nd fo r m th e h igh p la ins o f La

Ma ncha Th e lo fty Sierra Nevada wh ich fo r m s th e s o u th ern
.
,

ma rgin o f th e pla tea u is less a tta ch e d t o th e h ig h pla in s tha n

,

a re th e o th er m o u nta in s ys te m s ind ee d a s t h e c o nto u rs sho w , ,

t h e n eck o f la n d a bo ve feet is na rro w At eith er extre m ity .

th e S ierr a N ev a da wh ich is h igh es t wh ere it c o m es n ea res t the

,

c o ast is br o ken by d eep ra vin es a nd va lleys

, .

Valley s Th e Co ast .

Th e Guadalquivir is th e o nl y va lley wh ich ha s l o wla n d fo r a ny

c o ns idera ble d is ta nce In its bas in which fo r ms th e m o st f ertile
.
,

po rtio n o f An da lu s ia a re Co rdo va a nd S ev ille

, Ca d iz is s itua ted .

s o u th o f th e sa lt m a rsh e s a t th e mo u th This regio n exp eriences .

th e h o t a nd a lmo s t ra inless su mm ers a n d wa rm win ters o f the

s o uth M e diterra n e a n c oa s ta l d is tricts a nd h a s th e ty ica l ro~
p p ,

d u cts o f such zo n es— gra p es dried fruits (cf th e curra n ts o f , .

Greece ) suga r to ba cc o c o tto n etc

, , Sh erry is ma de fro m the
, , .

vin eya r ds .
 THE IBERIAN PENINSULA 247

Al l th e th er river valleys a re blo cked a t no grea t dis ta nce

o

fro m th e sea by lengths of r a p ids a nd falls a nd rugged go rges ,

wh ich a re co ntinued into the interio r The Ebro h as its g o rges .

m ost d evelo p ed in the lo wer pa rts wh ere it cuts th ro ugh a sp ur

,

fo rm ed by a cha in of h eigh ts wh ich descend fro m th e Pyren ees

,

a nd run a lo n g th e c o a st o f Ca ta lo nia m eeting a s imila r spu r a t

,

th e so uth ern en d of th e mo unta ins o f Ca s tile a nd Ara go n In th e .

h igh er c o u rs e th e va lley is much bro a d e r a nd deep er T h e ba s in .

is th e dries t pa rt of Spa in Th e o n ly i m p o rtant town is Sa ra go ssa

. .

Th e po rt ( T a rra go na ) is no t o n th e Delta o f the Ebro bu t t o th e ,

n orth B a rcelo na th e m a in p o rt o f Spa in is a m a nu fa ctu rin g

.
, ,

town p ro du cin g cotto n

, .

Th e M editerranean c oast of Sp ai n ( Valencia Murcia etc ) h a s , , .

a na rro w lo wla nd wh ich is excep tio nally dry in su mm er but

, ,

th e p ro xi mity o f th e mo un ta in m a rg ins ca us es it to be inters ected

by a n etwo rk of strea ms wh ich a re c a reful ly us ed in irriga tio n
.
, .

T erra ced cul tiva tio ns e xt e nd u p th e h ill sloPes Th ere a re .

nu m ero u s go o d ha r bo u rs — Va lencia Al ic a nte Ca rta gena Al

, , ,

m eria a nd Ma laga Th ese to wns a re mo stly s itua ted o n well

, .

wat ered fla ts a t th e exit of mo u nta in ro utes to the pla teau .

Th e B ale aric Isl ands a re pa rtly lo wla nd Iviza and Fo r m e ntera , ,

a nd pa rtly h ill country Ma j o rc a a nd M ino rc a

, Po rt Ma ho n in .
,

M ino rca h a s a go o d ha rbo ur

,
In th e S ierra Neva da is Gra na da
.
,

th e o l d Mo o rish ca p ita l Gi bra lta r wh ich c o mma nds th e s tra its

.
, ,

ha s a s tro ng na tura l p ositio n o n a lim es to n e rock n ea rly feet

h igh .

Th e Clim ate of th e Iberi an Peninsul a .

In a dd itio n to th e ma n y d ifferen ces du e to va riety o f c o n

figura tio n wh ich are especia lly no ticea ble in the Ib eria n Penin
,

sul a ( s ee th e Oro gra ph ica l M a p ) fo ur ma in z o nes m a y be dis

t ing uis h ed : Th e North Atl anti c Z one (th e Bas q u e Pro vinces ,

As tu r ia s Ga licia a nd Po rtuga l a s fa r so uth a s th e m o u th o f

, , ,

th e D o uro ) Th is has m ild win ters a nd cool s umm ers in wh ich ,

sno w a n d ice ra rely occur a n a bu nda nt ra in fa ll a nd co ns id era ble

, ,

h um idity a t all sea s ons even in th e dry m o nths o f m ids u m m er

,
.

F r its p ro d uc ts a nd ch a ra cteris tics 2 44 a nd

( o s ee p , .
,

Sa n tia go ) Th e Inl and Z one (th e M es eta a nd the Ebro B as i n)

.

Th is h a s ho t s u mm ers a nd co ld winters a nd even in su m m er ,

°
c o ld n igh ts thro ugh radia tio n (s ee Fig 18 isoth er m o f 40 .
,

Th ere is m uch sno w in winter th o u gh in th e s outh it do es no t lie

,

lo ng Th e pla ins a re burnt du rin g th e grea t h ea t a nd dro u ght o f

.

sum m er ( s ee B u rgo s S a rag o ssa Ma dri d s ee a lso

248 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

T h e regio n is m o s tly treeless excep t o n th e m o u nta in

p .

s10 p es T h e African, or S outh ern Z one ( So uth Po rtuga l, An da

.

lus ia , S o uth Murcia , a nd Al ican te) , wh ich has m a n y p o ints o f

res embla nce to the cl im a te o f M o ro cc o a nd Algeria , a nd th e
M editerrane an c o astl ands, ha s ho t a nd dry summ ers , with mi l d
wi nters, and mo st ra in in a u tum n (Fo r pro ducts, etc , see . .

p 246 , a nd fo r cli ma te see S eville

. Gi bra lta r Va len cia
Sa ra gossa Th e Iberia n P en in su l a h as little ra in in su m m er
bec aus e it lies ge n er a lly in a High Pressure are a , W h ile in wi nter
the s t o r m w i nds bring r a in fr o m t he wes t , but little o f this re a ch es
the ce ntr a l pl a i ns a nd e a st a nd s o uth e ast co astla nds -
.

O ccup ati o ns and Industries .

Of the t o ta l va lue of exports a nd imp orts , the m o st impo rtant

p ercen ta ges a re
Ex roa 'rs — Iro n 1 1 ( from the no rth ern c o a st m o untain s H ue l va a nd
.
, , ,

Sevil le — 10 per c en t to the Unit ed Ki ng d o m ) ; c o pp er 7 (f ro m the S ierra

. ,

Mo rena— Rio T into ) l ead 8 (f ro m t he m o un ta in s o f S ou th Ea s t S p ain ) ;

,
-

wine 7 ; o ra nges a nd o ther fruits (l em o ns figs p omegrana t es ) 7 ; c o r ,

, , , , k
5 esparto oli ve o il .

Imronrs .
—Ra w co to n , 1 3
; t m a ch inery , vehicl es , and vessels , 12 ; cereals .

10 c o al , 7 ( 3 per c ent f ro m t h e Unit ed Kin gdom )

. .

Oth er m in era ls o bta in ed in Spa in a re co a l zinc m a nganes e , , ,

a nd co ba lt bu t c o a l has t o b e i mp o rted
, Ra w cotto n wo o l a nd .
, ,

s ilk a re im p o rte d fo r th e textile indus try e s ecia lly i m o rtant

p p ,

n ea r B a rcel o na bu t ma nu fa ctu red textiles a re still la rgely

, pro
cured f ro m a broa d The expo rts o f M ed iterra n ea n fruits .
,

espa rto a nd c o rk illustra te th e cha ra cter o f th e clim a te o f the

,

ea st a nd so uth ea st co astla nds -

.

PORTUGAL .

Are a = 3 4 , 5 00 s q re m iles Po pula t io n = 5 9 m illio ns in 1 9 1 0 ;

ua .
'

1 70 to
the qua re m il e Lisbo n = 0 3 5 m ill io n
'

s .

Th e m a in towns o f Portu ga l are s itua te d o n o r n ea r th e coast .

Of th es e the m ost impo rt ant a re Lisbon, th e c a p ita l o n the ,

Ta gus, a nd Op o rto , th e c o mm erci a l m arket of No rth Po rtuga l ,

a nd th e exp o rt ce ntre f or p o rt W i n e , pro duce d es eci a lly o n t he
p
terra ced hill slopes of Traj o z Mo ntes beyond the m ou nt a i ns
Lisb o n ha s a m a gnificent na tu ral h arbo u r on the bo ttle s ha ped estua ry -

o f t h e T a gu s It ha s al wa y s been th e c en tre o f Po rtu gues e t ra d e which

.
,

h a s invaria bly d ep ended on th e sea It bec am e o f grea t imp o rtanc e a f ter t he .

250 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
B russels Madrid B o rd eaux Nan tes Ventno r [ 5 6]
a nd the Heb rid es Explain th e caus es o f th eir sim ilari ty o r d ifi erenc e .

4 No t e th e cl im a te o f Santiago
. B urgos Sara go ssa Ba rc e
l o na Lisbo n Ma dri d a nd Val enc ia Expla in the c o n
n ec tion between el eva tio n a nd tem p era ture, a nd d es c rib e t he clim a tic
regions to whic h they bel ong .

ITALY .

Area = 110 700 s qu a re mil es Po pula tio n = 3 4 7 m illion s ; 3 1 2 t o the

‘

.
,

s qu a re m il e
. N a pl es , M ila n Ro m e,
m illio n eac h .

Th e Liguri an Alps .

The Al ps ( see p 259 , fo r d escriptio n) a re s epa ra ted fro m th e

.

Ap enn in es by a ra nge of h ill s o r r a th er o f ru gge d up la n ds , o f

,

n o gre a t eleva tio n , but for m in g a c o ns id era ble ba rrier to free

interco urs e fro m th e co ast to th e Po Valley .

T hree im po rtan t vall ey s a fi o rd co n venient ro utes— th e S c r i via B orm id a ,

a nd T ana ro , l ead ing to p a ss es f ro m w h ich t h e p o rt s o f G en o a S a vo na and

, ,

On eglia a re rea ch ed by the c o a st s tream s T hes e pa sses were utilized

.

by Na p o l eo n in his firs t t wo c a m paigns in Ita ly .

In ma ny pa rts a lo ng th is c o a s t, wh ich ma y be sa id to extend

fro m th e Arno to th e Delta o f th e Rh en e , th e sa m e ch a ra cteristics
a re o bs erved Th e spur s o f th e ma ritim e cha in s en d a bruptly
.

in a s eries o f h illy h ea dla nds, a n d in th e in terva l b etween two

su cce ss ive h e a dl a nds are ba ys o f grea ter or les s er s ize, eith er

ba cked by h ill s o r o p ening o u t in to t h e va lleys o f to rrents , wh os e

so urce s lie o n th e wa ter sh e d, a nd wh ich th ere fo re lea d to
pass es
o f no g rea t eleva tio n, but a lwa ys r a th er a bru t
p .

Geno a is a grea t sh ipp in g p o rt and indus tria l centre o n th e

Gul f of Geno a It ha s sh ipbuil d ing do cks , iro n in dus tries , a nd
.

s o a p ( from o live o il) a nd textile fa ct o ries At Sa vo na , to th e .

west , m achinery is m ade , a nd sh ips a re b uilt at Sp ezi a .

Th e Ap e nni nes .

Sta rting fro m th e lo we r eleva tio ns m entio n ed , wh ich lie

no rth eas t o f th e Gu lf o f Geno a , t h e m a in lin e o f t h e A enn in es
p
-

ru ns do wn th e wh o le length o f th e p eninsul a o f Ita ly It is .

i mportant to no tice its po s itio n with reference t o th e two co asts

a nd th e
pla in o f No rth Ita ly .

In th e no rth the towns of Pa r m a , Mo dena , B o lo gna, F a enz a ,

and Ri m i ni ( o n the Via Ae m ili a ) m a rk the o u tlet of th e m o s t

 ITALY 25 1

i m p o rta nt va lleys wh ich in the Middle Ages were utiliz ed for

,

r o a ds a nd are no w except fr o m Ri m i ni fo llo wed by ra ilwa ys

, , ,
.

All th e s e va lleys lea d b y p a ss es i nt o the ba s i n o f th e Ar no o r t o ,

t h e c o a s t river s a little t o th e n o rth —we st a nd c o nn ect th is ,

regi o n with th e no rth ern p la i n As th e o r o graphic a l m a p sh o ws

.
,

FIG . 28 .
—
IT ALY : RIV E R S Y S T E M S .

th is is t h e pa rt wh ere t he m o u nta i ns tre nd to wa rds th e e a s t

c o as t b ef o re turn ing s o uth wa r ds H ere , t o o the brea dth o f
.
,

th e p e n i ns ula is grea tes t a nd th ere is m o re r o o m fo r th e f o r

,

ma ti o n o f la rge va lleys , tw o o f wh ich a nd th eir tribut aries prac

tic a lly o cc u py the wh o le o f th e la nd t o the west o f the Ap enni nes ,

whic h here a ls o atta i n their grea test breadth a nd c o mplexity .

 252 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

In the Valley o f the Ar no is Florenc e Nea r t he mouth is .

Pisa, th e o ld ort no w su l a nte d by Legho r n o n th e co a st

p pp , ,
.

Flo rence lies in a pla in s epa ra te d fro m th e Lower Arno by a

go rge .

Thi s plain is said to ha ve b een o riginall y a m a rs h The Etruscan to wn .

o f Fi eso l e w a s situa ted o n h ig h g ro un d to t h e n o rth ea st T he f ertility o f -

.

the co untry ro un d Fl o ren c e a n d the na tu ra l ro u t es whi ch co nne c t the pla in

,

o n w h ic h i t stand s wi t h t he to wn s a c ro s s t h e Ap ennin es , a nd by t he

Va l d i Chia na w ith t h e T ib er a n d so wit h Ro m e , a cc o un t fo r it s b ec o ming

th e ca pita l o f T usc a ny Pis a h a s l o s t i ts p o sitio n a s a p o rt , ow ing t o t h e
.

g p of th e Arno wh ich h a s f o rm ed a d el t a b etw een th e to wn a n d th e sea

sil tin u , .

The Valley o f th e Tiber is esp ecia ll y imp o rta nt Its s ource is .

in the no rth ern a nd h igh er pa rt o f th e Ap enn in es, but one tribu

ta ry rises in th e h illy regio n to th e so uth o f th e Arno , and between
th e ma in strea m o f th e T iber a nd th e M ed iterr a n ea n Th is is .

fo llowed by th e ma in r o ute no rth fro m Ro m e, wh ich passes

Flo rence .

Rom e wa s a t the h e ad o f na viga tio n fo r th e sea going ve ssels -

of tha t day ( the d epth in th e da ys o f th e Republic was p ossibly

1 2 feet wh ile no w o win g to s iltin g u p it is o nly 3 ; feet)
, ,
It was , .

built o n s even h ills wh ich fo r m e d a s tro ng po sitio n for d efence

, ,

and ra i s e d th e to wn a bo ve th e flo o d s a n d th e ma l a rio u s ma rsh e s .

The Campag na which f o rm s a s ligh tly u ndul a ting pla in b etwee n

,

the Tib er a nd t he Vo lc a nic H ills o f La tium wa s o nce fertile , ,

but is no w e ntirely pa st o ra l T o th e no rth e ast th e T ib er Va lley

.
-

l ed to t he Chia na River a nd to r o u tes a cro ss th e Ap ennin es o f ,

wh ich o ne o f the mo s t i m po rta nt was th e Fla m inian Way wh ich ,

led to th e M eta urus a nd th e co a s t p la in to t he s outh of Rimini to

th e ea st two ro utes lea d to Ch ieti a n i m po rta nt m il itary centre
, ,

o ne d irectly b
y th e d ra in e d La ke o f Fucino and th e o th er by the ,

Nera a tributa ry o f th e T i ber a nd pa ss es wh ich lea d to the lo ngi

, ,

tu dinal Va lley of th e Aterno by Aqu ila wh ich stands to th e so uth ,

wes t o f the Gran Sasso th e h igh est m o unta in mass if in the

,

Ap enn in es a nd to th e so u th ea s t to th e pla in o f Na ples by a noth e r

-

lo ngitudina l va lley— tha t o f th e Sa cc o to the west o f the m a in ,

m o unta in cha in wh ich h ere lies in th e centre of th e p enins ula

, .

Th e m o st impo rta n t ea s t a n d wes t c o nnectio n a cro ss the Ap en

- -

nin es is a little no rth ea s t o f Na ples a n d is m a rked by th e towns

-

of Benevento o n th e Vo ltu rno a nd Fo ggia o n th e ea st Histo ri , .

ca lly th is pass was o f th e grea tes t i mpo rta nce as it lay o n th e ,

mai n route fro m Ro m e t o B ru ndusium ( Brindisi) It was .

selecte d by Ha nniba l f o r his a tt a ck o n the c a ita l

p .
25 4 TEX TB OO K OF GEO GRAPHY
_ _

Th e Plain of Lo mbardy .

Confi g uratio n — Th e f o o th ills o f th e Alps are pr o lo nged i nto

th e p la in a s a n undu la ti ng regi o n la rgely c o m po s e d o f m o r a i nes
,

d ep os ited by th e o ld Alpin e gl a ciers a nd sp eci a lly pr o mi n e nt ,

ne a r t he m o u ths o f the l a rger va lleys N e a r Ivre a th es e ele v a t i o ns

.

rea ch nearly feet The p la in is fertile o wi ng t o the d11u v1um

.

s rea d o ver it by a ncient river s It sh o ul d be n o te d th a t t h e

p .

l a rger fl o w o f wa ter fr o m th e Al ps ha s ca us ed th e P0 to a ppro ach

m o re clo s ely t o th e bas e o f th e Ap e nn in es T he river s bu i l d .

up th eir be d s o n th e pla in and run so m ewh a t a b o ve th e gen era l

s ur fa ce level Irriga tio n c a na ls ra dia te in a ll d irectio n s
-
.
Th e .

l o wer po rtio n n ea r th e P0 is rea dily flo o d ed and is m a inly d evo ted ,

t o m e a d o w la nd a nd t o wa r ds th e e as t m uch rice is gr o w n o n t h e
-

m a rsh y gr o und At th e ba s e o f the Alp s a nd Ap e nni nes w a ter

.

o wer is exte ns ively us e d in t h e s ilk f a ct o rie s o f Co m e a nd

p
B erga m o a nd sp ecia lly in M ila n
,
.

Industries and Pop ul ati on — Th e m ul b erry fo r f eedin g th e s ilk

wo r m s is extens ively gro wn in th e Al p in e a nd m o u nta in va lleys .

M il a n h a s l a rge s ilk m a nufa ctu res, a nd is a riva l o f Lyo ns Co tto n .

m a nu fa ctu res a re c a rrie d o n in th e n o rth wes t a n d n o rth ea st o f - -

th e pl a in Wo o llen industries, fo r lo c al us e, o bta in pa rt o f th ei r

.

raw m a teria l fr o m th e sh eep kep t in th e A l ps a n d Ap enn i n es .

The iro n o f th e Al p in e va lleys s upplie s m a teria l fo r th e indu stri es

o f So ndrio in th e Va ltell ina (na il m a kin g ) , B erg a m o , B resc i a , -

M ila n , a n d Tu rin Th e ir o n fr o m El ba is us e d m a in ly a t S p ez 1a ,
( .

Sa vo na , a nd Geno a fo r sh ip bu ildin g a nd m eta l wo rk ) O nly in .

It a ly a m o ng M ed iterra ne a n la nds , a nd esp ecia lly in t h e Pla i n

o f Lo m ba rd y , is a l a rge pr o po rti o n o f th e p o p ul a ti o n e n ga ge d i n

m a n ufa ctures ( 1 6 per cent ; a gric u ltu re a nd c a ttle re aring em pl o y

.

50 per An im p o rta nt indus try is th a t o f sa lt , o b ta in e d

la rgely in the la g o o ns t o th e so uth o f Venice , Com a cch i o , etc .

T here is rem a rk a bl e c o n tra st betw een t h e ty p e o f inh a bit ants a nd th eir

a

so cial c o ndit io n s in th is no rth ern reg io n a nd in t h e so u th In th e n o rth .

a n energ et ic ra c e l i v es o n f a rm s a n d i s en g a g ed in a g ri cul tu re a nd c a ttle

rea ring a nd in the to wns is em plo y ed in indu stry Sm al l ind u stries a re

, .

c a rried o n l a rg el y e sp e c ia l ly in t he m o un t ia n va ll ey s a nd a t th e ba s e o f
,

the Al p s a nd Ap ennines in a ddi t ion t o t h e l a rg er c en tres

, In the sou th .

eg
. . Cala bria— th e p eo pl e a re m isera bly p o o r and 8 0 p er c ent illi t era te
, , . .

Less t h an ha lf t h e la n d c ap a bl e o f irriga tio n is irrig a t ed m o st ly with w ell ,

wa ter T h ere is pra c t ic ally no m o d ern m a chinery t h e m o st prim itive

.
,

s a d es a n d p lo u gh s b ein g em p lo y ed a n d l itt l e u se is m a d e o f m a nures

p , .

T he la nd is sew n w ith gra in f o r tw o y ea rs in su cc essio n a n d t h en a ll o w ed ,

 ITALY 25 5

t o lie f a ll o w f or a si mil ar perio d . T he o lives vines , , an d l em o ns a re ruined

b y ins ect p est s Mo re than half t he p o pulatio n is said t o be infe ct ed w ith
.

m ala ria a nd c onsumption is preva l ent

, Ab o ut 3 3 p er c ent o f t h e p op u la
. .

tio n ( la rg ely wo men) are engag ed in s ilkw eaving T he c are o f t he c o c o o ns .

in vol v es m u ch p erso na l to il , a nd i s p o o rly remunera t ed ( Co m p are la c e .

m ak
in g , a ls o a p ov erty industry ) .

A la rge u mb er of Italians em igra te esp ecia lly to th e United

n ,

Sta te s B ra zil a nd the Argentin e

, , Th e Ita lians of th e No rth ern .

Pla i n ( Pie d m o ntes e ) fur n ish m o s t of the lab our fo r r a ilwa y

co ns tructi o n etc in Centra l Euro p e
, .
, .

T owns a nd Ro utes .
— Th e
mo stly lie o n two ro u tes
to w n s The .

north ern lies a t th e ma rg in o f t h e lo wer fl o o d pla in wh ere th e -

rivers c o ul d be m o s t eas ily fo r d e d, a nd wh ere routes c o n verge

fro m Al pin e va lleys a nd pass es On th is are Turin, M ilan, B res cia, .

Vero na Of th es e Turin co mma nds the Do ra Riparia a nd Mo nt

.

Cen is (s ee a lso pp 260 , Mil an is a t th e co nvergin g p o int o f

.

routes Ro a ds a nd r ails lea d t o th e St Gothard a nd o th er Alpine

. .

o n th e s o uth t o Ge no a ( s ee p
pass es ( see pp 260, . .

a nd o n t h e so uth ea st to Pi a ce nz a a t th e pa ssa ge o f t h e Po a nd
-

th e r o a d wh ich s kirts th e Ap e nn ine s to B olog na a nd B rindis i .

Ver o na is at t h e outlet o f th e Adige Va lley which leads t o the

B re n n er .

T h e s ou th ern route o n th e n o rth ea st and east bas e o f th e Ap en -

n i n es is m a rked b y a l ine of t o wns ( s ee p .

Oth er towns are Al essandria co mma nding the ro ute so u th of ,

th e M o nf erra t H ills ( wh ich ris e to o ver feet, and a re ch est

nut a n d vi n e co vere d) a nd t h e ga p b etween th em a nd th e Ap en
nin es wh ich lea ds to Geno a Pa via , Cremo na , Mantua , a nd Ferra ra ,
wh ich lie o n o r nea r th e Po , a nd a re now less impo rtan t ; and in
th e no rth ea st th e gro wing in dus tria l centre o f Ud in e
-
.

Th e o n ly impo rta nt to wn o f th e c o ast is Venice, o n a gr o u p o f

isl and sand du nes north of th e m o uth of the B rent a It was
-
.

fo und e d a s a city o f ref uge a ga inst th e Huns after th e des tru ction
o f Aquileia , wh ich was s itua te d o n the c oas t to t h e no rth ea s t -
.

Th e sh o res o pp o s ite Venice a re lin ed with sa nd du n es, b eh ind -

wh ich , esp ecia lly to th e so u th, stretc h sha llo w la goo ns a nd

m a rsh es .

Clim ate and Pro ducts .

Th e temp eratures given in Ta ble V sh ow grea t d iff eren ces in .

winter b etwee n the Pla in of Lombar dy a nd th e rest o f Italy .

Co ntra st Mila n [ 73 ] a nd Ve n ice [ 72] with Geno a Ro m e

Na p les Pa lerm o a nd Ma lta No te o n Fig 1 7 th e .
25 6 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

l in e o f 40 F fo r Ja nu a ry It will b e s een th a t Pa ler m o h a s no

0
. .

co o l (a vera ge o f mo nth belo w 50 F ) m o nth s Na ples Ro m e a nd °

.
, ,

Geno a h a ve th ree a nd Ven ice five M alta t o th e so u th o f S icily

,
.
, ,

a grea t po rt o f c a ll a n d a B ritish na va l s ta tio n

,
gro ws ea rly ,

vegeta bles o win g to th e m il d clim a te o f winter .

The d ecre a s e o f s um m er rainf al l is no t well m a rke d in th e Pla in

o f Lo m ba r d y wh ich is no t a t , yp ica l M editerra n ea n a re a o f

m o is t wi nters a nd dry s u mm ers bu t b ec o m es gre a t t o war ds the ,

so u th in s o m e p l a ce s ( Pa ler m o
,
Ma lta b ei ng a lm ost
n egligi b le o wi ng t o t h e r a p i d ev a p o r a ti o n fro m t h e b a ke d a nd

p a rch ed l a nd Th e wh ea t h a rvest ( a sp ecia l h a r d W h e a t is gr o wn

.

i n Ap ulia a nd Sicily wh ic h is u s ed fo r m a ki ng m a c a ro ni ) is e arly ,

in Ju n e a nd July a nd a pa rt fro m t h e pr o du cti o n o f irriga ted

, ,

ga rd e ns a nd m ea d ows o nly sp eci a lized tree gr o wth ( o lives vines

,
-

, ,

o r a nge s etc ) with l o ng r o o ts whic h c a n ta p th e u ndergro u nd

,
.

wa ter o f th e terra ced h ills ides a nd m a ke f u ll us e o f th e c opi ous

d ew c a n withst a nd t h e dr o u gh t till a utum n
,
.

In th e Pla in o f Lo m ba r d y th ere is su ffi cien t r a in in s u m m er fo r

s om e
gr o wth o f gr a ss tho ugh irriga tio n is empl o ye d wh erever ,

po ss ible fr o m th e river s a n d s evera l ha y cro ps rea p ed in a yea r

-
.
,

H ence c a ttle a n d da iry p ro du cts a re i m p o rta n t He mp fl ax -

.
, ,

a nd m a ize a nd even rice a re gro wn

, Th e o live will no t gro w o n , .

th e pla in o win g t o win ter fro sts th o ugh it is cul tiva ted in th e ,

Alp ine va lleys Th e su rro u n din g m o un ta in s p reven t th e e sca pe

.

o f c o l d m a ss es o f s ta g na nt a ir in w inter a n d r a d ia tio n
pro du c es ,

a lo w temp er a ture ( cf p . .

Tra de .

Of the to ta l va lu e o f ex ports and impo rts t h e m os t i m port ant

p erce n ta ge s a re :
Ex r oa rs — Ra w silk 26 ; c o tto n s 5 ; silkg o o d s 5 ; fresh a nd d ried
.
, , ,

f ruits 5 ol i ve o il 3 h emp 2 s ul p hu r 2 eggs

, , , , .

Imp o R T s — Ra w c o tto n 1 0 c o al a nd c o k
. e 9 ; m a chinery 9 whea t 7
, , , ,

t im ber 6 raw sil k5 w o ol 3

, , , .

Abo u t 40 p er cent o f t h e i m p o rts c o m e equ a lly f ro m Ger m a ny

.

a n d th e Un ite d Kin g do m ( c o a l iro n wo rk a n d m a ch in ery

) Raw ,
-

, .

c o tto n is n eed ed fo r th e textile fa cto ries o f Lo m ba r dy th e Arno ,

Ba sin Geno a a nd Na ples

, Wo o l is pr o duced in th e co u ntry
, .
,

bu t h a s t o b e a lso i mpo rted S ilk is i mpo rted to be re expo rted .

-

Owin g to th e s ca rcity o f iro n a nd th e a bs en ce o f c o a l m a ch in ery ,

is la rgely i m po rted Su lphu r is o bta in ed fro m th e Phl egraean

.

Fields nea r Vesu vius and fro m S icily Th e expo rts o f o live o il , .
25 8 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

It sh o ul d b e no te d th a t th e m a i n pa rt o f S witzerla nd is define d
by th es e t wo rivers ( see Fig .

On th e s o u th ern s id e o f th e Al ps , lo wla n d is o n ly rep res ented

by th e sho res o f La ke Lu ga no a n d th e va lleys wh ich lea d into
t h e upp er pa rt o f La ke Ma ggi o re The Enga di ne (Upp er Inn) .

is a b o ve the level o f feet bu t o wing t o its directi o n ( fro m

, ,

no rth ea st t o s o u th wes t ) it receives a gre a t d ea l o f su ns h i ne ,

- -

a nd h a s a h igh s u m m er temp er a ture , wh ic h a ll o ws cere a ls t o

b e gro w n a t a h igh eleva tio n B esid es th e s e m a in va lleys th ere

.
,

a re nu m er o u s bra nch v a lleys wh ich c a nno t be sh o wn o n a sm a ll

s c a le m a
p a nd in wh ich t h e level o f c u ltiva ti o n va ries , a s els e
,

wh ere in th e Alps , a cc or di ng t o asp ect s o il a nd s l op e , , .

Fo r in sta nc e , is g ro wn a t Find el en n ea r Zerm a tt a t

ry e , feet o n the ,

su nny sl o p e ( f a c ing s o u th ) w hi l e t he sha d y slo p e ( fa c ing n o rth ) i s c o vered

,

with Aro lla pines N ea r S ta ld en in the Visp Va ll ey vin ey a rd s a re fo un d

.

high er than feet This va ri a tio n rend ers it im p o ss ibl e to d efin e a t a ll

.

a cc u ra t ely t h e c o nnectio n b e tw een al titu d e a nd c u l tiva t io n b u t it m a y be ,

said bro a dl y tha t th e c o n to u r l in e o f f eet g ives a very fa ir estima t e

o f t h e a m o un t o f l a nd a va il a bl e fo r c ro p s As t he up p er l im it o f c ul tiva
.

tio n is p ra ctically tha t o f the hig h est perm anently inha bited villa g es it ,

is ea s y t o find i t in a ny vall ey by exa minin g a l a rge s c a l e m a p o f th e Al ps -

.

Pro ducts and Industri es — O nly a bo u t 3 0 p er cen t o f th e c ou ntry

. .

is u nsu ita ble fo r p a stu re o r c u ltiva tio n ( th is in clud es gla cier s a nd

s no w fields , l a kes a nd rivers, s teep s lo p es ba re o f s o il , a n d ina c

cess ible pas ture ) ; o f t he rem a ining 70 p er cent , 20 p er cent is . .

fo res t, 3 0 p er cent p a stu re , a nd o n ly 20 p er cent o r les s c u ltiva ted

. . .

Owing to th e s m a ll a m o u nt o f a gricu ltu re , th e co mpa ra tively

l a rge m a nu fa cturing p opu l atio n, a nd t h e num b er o f t ourist s
w h o vis it m o u nt a in re so rts in sum m er a nd winter , f o o dstu ffs
h a ve to b e la rgely impo rte d It is c a lc u l a te d t h at th e who le
.

export o f ch ees e a nd c o ndens ed m ilk is a bo u t equ a l t o t he import

o f gr a i n , w h ile t h e i m p o rt o f ra w silk a n d c o tt o n a nd o f w o o lle n

a nd c o tt o n g o o ds a b o u t b a l a nce s th e exp o rt o f s ilk a nd c o tt o n

fabric s . Co ns eque ntly , m a nufa ctu res a re o f gre a t im p o rta nce

in Switzerl a nd Co a l has t o b e im po rted a nd a ls o ir o n , but th ere
.

is a bu nda nt wa ter po wer , u s e d t o pr o du ce electricity thr o ugho ut

-

th e c o u ntry wh erever th ere is su fficie nt f a ll On a l arge s c ale .

it is emp lo yed a t Gen ev a , Z urich , a nd th e f a lls a nd r ap ids o f

th e Rh i ne a t S c ha fl ha usen a nd Rh ei nfeld e n Th ere is c o n .

sid era ble l o c a liz a tio n o f i ndus trie s St Ga ll is the ch ief ce ntre . .

for Swiss embr o id eries so uth o f Lake Co nst a nce Th is a nd c o tto n .

m a nu fa cture s a re c a rried o n fr o m B er n t o La ke Co nst a nce , silk

 SWITZERLAND 259

a nd tra w pla iting a t Luz er n Z iiric h B as el a nd in Tici no ;

s -

, , ,

wa tch ma king throughout the Jura esp ecially a t La Cha u x de

-

Fo nds W ea ving is a lo ca l indus try o f ma ny m ounta in vi lla ges

.
.

Th ere is a la rge trans it trad e The wa rm er clim a te o f t he Rh6 ne .

Va lley ( th e Vallais) arou nd th e La ke of Geneva and in T icino , ,

1s w ll illus tr a ted b
y th e fa ct tha t h ere a l o ne a re vines cul ti
va teg
Towns — Th e ch ief to wns a re Geneva a t th e wes tern end o f
.
,

th e La ke o f Gen eva co m m a ndin g th e route dow n th e Rhone ,

Va lley a nd tho s e o n bo th s id es no rth a nd south of th e la ke th a t

, , ,

lea d to th e M iddle Rh 6ne Va ll ey and th e pass es fro m it t o Ita ly

( s ee pp 260 All tra ffic fro m Fra nce to S witzerla nd excep t
.
, ,

tha t wh ich cro ss es th e Jura to La us a nne o n the no rth o f th e

La ke o f Gen eva o r go es a s fa r no rth a s Bas el m us t pass by th is
, ,

s o u th wes t ga te
-

At th e ea s tern bas e o f th e Ju ra a re num ero us towns o f wh ich ,

th e m o s t im po rta nt is Nenc h atel o n th e la ke o f t h e sa m e na m e , .

Th es e a re s itua te d o n th e ro u te f ro m Geneva to t he Rh in e .

B ern ha s a centra l p o sitio n o n th e p la tea u It sta n ds o n a p la t .

fo r m wh ich th e Aar enclo s es o n th ree s ides Luzern (Lu cern e ) .

is a t t h e o u tlet of th e La ke o f Lu zer n ( La ke o f th e F o ur F o res t

Ca nt o ns ) Through it pa ss es th e St Go thar d r o ute fr o m Ita ly
. . .

Z urich is a t t he p oin t wh ere t he Limm a t le a ve s th e La ke o f

Z urich Th rough it pass es t h e m a in route from B a s el t o t he
.

Arlb erg t he Inn Va lley a n d Innsbruck a nd thr o u gh S c ha fi

, , ,

h a us e n t o Germ a ny B a s el c o mm a nds the Middle Rhine Va lley

.

a nd t h e B ur u ndia n Ga te
g .

Pop ul ation — S witzerla nd is a co nfed era tio n o f twenty t wo

.
-

ca nto ns diff ering in lang ua ge ra ce and relig io n Th e co u ntry

, , , .

fo r m s a re m a rka ble exa mp le o f a la nd u nited by c o mmo n in teres t ,

70 p er ce nt sp e a k Germ a n 22 p er cent Fre nch 7 p er ce nt

.
, .
, .

It a lia n a nd a sm a ll num b er Ro m o ns c h (see Fig 29 a nd p

,
.
,
.

60 p er ce nt of th e i nhab it a nt s a re Pr o test a nt
. .

THE ALPS .

— T h e Al s ma
Con gfi ur a tion and P asse s p y be mo s t co n ven ien tly .

gro u p ed in th ree d ivisions

1 W E S T ERN Arms — Fro m th e Co l di T enda to th e Grea t
.

S t B ern a r d
. .

2 CENT RAL ALPS — Fr o m t h e Gre a t St B ernard t o the S telvio

.
.

a nd Ets c h (Ad ige ) Va lley .

3 EAS T E RN Arms — F ro m th e Ets ch Va lley eastwa r d

.
.
260 TEX T B OO K -

OF GE O GRAPH Y

Th e W estern Alps .

Th e th ea stern fro ntier o f Fra nce lies m o s tly a l o ng t h e

so u -

wa ter sh ed o f th is grea t m a ss o f m ou nta ins fro m th e Co l d i T enda

Fro . 29 .
— W ES T ERN ALPS : RIV E R SY S T E M S AN D LAN GU AG E S .

e re ee
l , Mo nt G n ev ; 2 Col du L a u t t t ; 3 M o n t C nis T u nn l ; 4 , M o n t C nis
, , e e e
e er r
Pa ss ; 5 Littl S t B na d ; 6 G a t S t B n a d ; 7 Arit ro na ; 8 , Sim
, re er r
pl o n ; 9 G im s l ; 1 0 F u k
, . .
,

, r a ; 1 1 S t G o th a d ; 1 2 , Lu k
e , r m anier ; 1 3 . St
, . r .

er r
B na din o ; 1 4 S pl ii g en ; 1 5 S ep tim er ; 1 6 M a l o a ; 1 7 J u li ; 1 8 Al j er
b u l a ; 1 9 Flii el a ; 20 , B n in a ; 2 1 O f n ; 22 , R s c h n S ch id ck
, , , , ,

, er ; , e e e e e
, e
2 3 S t l vio 2 4 Um b ra il ; 2 5 T o n al ; I
, M o nt Viso ; II G a nd, e . , e r
r
Pa a di s ; III M o nt Bla n c ; IV , M o nt R o sa ; J u ng f a u ; VI Enga
. e V r
e
din ; VII Vint s c h g a u .

to t he Gre a t S t B erna rd It is clea rly m a rke d o ff int o s ectio ns

. .
-

b y th e pa ss e s wh ich co nn ect th e tribu ta ries o f th e Rh é n e by

th eir va lleys with th e va lleys o f th e Po a nd its tribu ta ries .
26 2 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

h ere, a ndtribu ta ries o f the Dura nce To th e west o f th e

th e .

River Dura n ce a re th e i so la ted m o u n ta in s o f D a uph ine The .

M o nt Ge nevre in th e Co ttia n Alp s lea ds fro m th e Upp er Va lley

, ,

o f th e D o ra Ri a ria a t t h e o u tlet o f wh ic h sta nds Tu rin to th e

p , ,

Upp er Va lley o f th e Dura n ce .

In m o d ern d a y s this p a ss h a s rea c hed n o grea t im p o rta n c e b ec a u se either ,

t h e l o n g a nd win ding Va ll ey o f t he Du ran c e h as t o b e f ollo wed o r a sec o nd ,

pa ss c ro s sed ( t h e Co l d u Lau teret t o th e Ro m a n c h e a n d Rh 6ne Va ll ey ) ,

bu t it ha d g rea t im po rta n c e in h is to ry It w a s c ro ssed by Caesa r in 58 B 0

. .

o n h is wa y t o t he c o n qu est o f Ga ul a n d by t he Lo m b a rd s f ro m t he ea s t
,

a nd t h e Fra nk s fro m t h e we st W h en t he D a u phin e w a s j oin ed t o Fran ce

.

in A D 1 3 4 9 it b ec a m e esp ecia lly a Fren c h pa ss (f ro m th e el e venth c entury

. .
,

t o A D 1 8 60 t he M o n t Cen is wa s wh o lly in th e h a nd s o f the H o u se o f S a voy )

. . ,

b u t s in c e S a vo y w a s a dd ed t o Fra n c e it h a s b een pra ct i c a ll y su p ersed ed by

t h e M o n t Cen is .

The M o nt Ce nis h a s t h e a dva nta ge o f b eing a s in gle pa ss fro m

Su sa in th e D o ra Ripa ria to the Upp er Arc Va ll ey
, ,
It wa s very .

i mpo rta nt in th e Middle Ages fo rm ing th e direct r oa d fro m ,

Tu rin th e la ter ca p ita l o f t h e Ho u s e o f Sa vo y to th eir ea rly

, ,

ca p ital Cha m bery a nd is s till a m u ch frequ ented driving roa d

,
- -

bu t tra ffic m a i nly f o llo w s t h e r a ilwa y und er Mo nt Fr ej us a b out ,

1 7 m iles t o t h e s o u th wes t -
.

To th e no rth o f th is pa ir o f p asses c o m es a very m a ss ive gro up ,

th e Gra i a n Alps wh ich exten ds fa r t o t h e e a s t f o r m i ng th at re

, ,

m a rka ble pr o j ecti o n i nt o th e pl a i n o f t h e Po wh ic h h a s f o rced ,

t h e D o ra B a ltea t o tu r n t o th e e a s t a nd i nclu d es t h e Gr a nd Pa r a dis ,

.

Th e Val d Aosta do wn wh ich flo w s t h e D o r a B a lt ea s erves

’
, ,

to m a rk o ff th e Western fro m th e Centra l Al ps At its h ea d is .

th e M o nt B la n c gr o u p feet ) Th e va lley is broa d in its .

u
pp er p o rtio n a nd ha s nu m ero us tribu ta rie s
, A s id e va lley .

fro m Ao sta lea ds t o th e Gre at St B ernard ( cr o ss e d by Na po leo n .

,

Ma y , wh ich has a lwa ys been o ne o f th e g rea t th o ro ughfares

o ver th e Al s e s ecia lly fo r Owing to its
p p , p ilgrims to Ro m e .

grea t eleva tio n f eet ) th e c a rria ge ro a d wa s no t c o m pleted

till 1 905 On the so uth nea rer th e h ea d a no th er valley with
.
, , ,

a g o rge n ea r th e m o u th le a ds t o t h e Little S t B erna r d a nd the

, .

Is ere Va lley Th e gra d ient o n th e Swiss s id e fro m t h e Rh6 ne

.

Va lley a nd o n th e French s id e fro m th e Isere is co ns id era bly

, ,

less in bo th th es e pa ss es th a n o n th e Ita lia n s id e .

It sh o u l d be no ted tha t t o th e we s t o f th e m a in wa tershed

between th e Po a n d th e Rh6 n e a bro ken m o u nt a ino u s a nd h illy
co u ntry extends fro m th e La ke o f Gen eva a l m o s t to th e M editer
ra n ea n th ro u gh Sa vo y D a u ph in e a n d Pr o vence , , .
 THE ALPS 263

The Ce ntral Alp s .

Th e Va lley epa ra tes the Pennine Alps in wh ich

of th e Rh6n e s ,

th i rteen m o u nta in su mm its includ ing the Ma tterh o rn and Mo nte

,

Ro sa f eet ) a re a bo ve , feet fro m th e B ernes e ,

O berla nd wh ich h as eleve n sum m its inclu d ing th e Ju ngfra u

, , ,

o ver feet At th e ea st o f th e Penn in e Al ps is th e Simp lon

.
,

o ver wh ich ( a s o ver t h e M o nt Ce nis ) Na o le o n c o nstructe d a

p
m ilitary rea d Th is is pierced by a tu nnel t o the lo ng va lley o f
.

th e T o ce wh ich has its m o uth in La go Ma ggio re

, T o th e n o rth .

o f th is a d irect r a ilw a y t o B er n h a s la tely b ee n c o nstructe d

fr o m t he Rhfi ne Va lley thr o u gh t he B er nes e Alps .

T he m o s t im p o rtant c o mm ercial ro u t e fro m t he Upper Va lla is t o M il a n

in t h e M iddl e Ag es wa s th e Ant ro na a t th e h ea d o f t h e S a a s Va lley a c ro ss
, ,

wh ic h th ere existed a pa ved ro a d .

To rea ch B ern a nd Lu cern e fro m th e so uth via th e h ea d o f

th e Rh 6 n e Va lley in vo lves cr o ss in g a s ec o nda ry p a ss th e Grim s el ,

to th e Aa r fro m wh ich a lo wer pa ss m ust be tra vers ed to th e La ke

,

o f Lu cer n e o r th e Furka to t h e Reuss

,
Co ns equ ently a pa ss .
,

s u ch a s th e S t Goth ard a fio rding c o m m u n ic a tio n fro m so u th

. ,

t o no rth o ver a s in gle sa ddle w a s bo u nd t o po ss ess grea t to p o ,

gra ph ica l i m po r tan ce Th is wa s increa s ed by pro xim ity o n its

.

fla nks o f p a sses lea d in g to th e h ea d va lleys o f th e Rh6 ne a nd

Rhin e o n t h e wes t a nd ea s t .

O wing t o t h e rugged and na rro w val l ey s o f th e Reu ss a nd t he T icino

( no te esp ec ia ll y t h e g o rge n o rt h o f An d erm a tt ) this p a s s was no t u sed so ,

m u c h in t h e M id dl e Ag es a s its d ire ctn ess w o uld l ead u s to ex pect It wa s .

,

h o we ver , a
grea t ro u t e f o r m erc h and is e a nd it f a cil it a ted t he c o n quest o f
,

t h e T i c in o ,
w hic h geo g ra p hic ally belo ngs to Ita ly The c arria ge ro a d .

( 1 8 20 1 8 3 0 ) a n d t h e ra il wa y tunnel ha ve m a d e it t he p rin cip a l ro u te o f t he

-

Cen t ra l Al p s .

To th e ea s t o f th e S t Goth a r d is th e Lu km a n ier o f co ns id era ble

.
,

im po r tance in th e M idd le Ages, bu t invo lving th e cro ss ing o f a

s ec o nd pa ss t o rea ch t h e Reu ss Va lley, a nd no t p ro vid ing so

sh o rt a r o ute t o Co ire a s th e S t B erna r d ino o r th e Splii g en . .

Th es e , in turn were bo th h a nd ica pp e d by th e n ecess ity o f

,

tra versin g th e d iffi cu lt Via Ma la Go rge a bo ve Thusis and befo re ,

ca rria ge ro a ds were ma de o ver th em th ey were bo th o versha do wed

by th e Sep t im er Th is ea s y pa ss lea ds to a bra nch o f th e H inter
.

Rh in e , wh ich j o in s it b elo w Thusis a nd a ff o rds a d irect ro ute to ,

Co ire ( Ch u r ) .
26 4 TEX T —B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY

T he B ish o p of Co ire w a s p o w erfu l in th e M iddl e Ag es t ha t in 1 3 59 the

so

Emp ero r issu ed a f o rm a l p ro hibi t io n agains t t h e use o f any o th er Al pine

ro ad in t he regio n but this .

As th e S ept im er h a s po ss ess e d a c a rria ge r o a d a cro ss

n ever
it m ul e tra ffic a s in
, ,
m u ch o f th e An des a t th e pres ent da y, wa s
a lo ne p o ss i ble .

At th e h ea d o f th e Va l Brega glia fro m wh ich va lley th e ,

S ep tim er sta rts o n th e so u th is th e M alo j a Pass lea d in g t o th e

, ,

Upp er Inn Va lley a n d th e Enga d ine Nu m er o u s pa ss es lea d .

fro m it t o th e no rth west to th e Rh in e B a s in ( th e Jul ier Albu la

-

, ,

a nd Flii ela ; t o t h e so u th we s t t o th e Va ltell ina th e B ern ina ;

) ( -

)
to th e wes t a nd s ou th west t o th e Vin tsch ga u (th e O f en a nd
-

Res ch en S ch eideck ) Owin g to its grea t length a n d it s h is to rica l

.

c o nn ectio n with th e Griso ns r a th er tha n T yro l into wh ich it ,

lea ds it wa s n ever a very i m po rtant th ro u gh ro u te

, .

Th e n ee d o f a ro u te by wh ich th e Ha ps bu rg ers o f th e Tyro l

co u l d c o mm u n ica te d irectly with th e Ha ps bu rgers o f M ila n gave ,

c o nsid erable i mpo rta nce t o th e Va ltellina th e l o ngitu dina l ,

va lley o f th e Adda o f wh ich t h e lo wer p o rti o n c o mm u nic a tes

,

with th e h e ad o f La ke Co mo Th e Stelvi o o ver wh ich th e .

,

Au s tria n Go ver nm e nt f o r p o litic a l re a s o ns c o ns tr u cte d wha t is

, ,

s till t h e l o ftie s t c a rri a ge r o a d in t h e Al s le a d s fr o m it t o t he

p ,

Vints chga u in the Etsch Va lley

, .

Th e Eastern Alp s .

In th e Ea stern Al ps th e Bre nner o ccu p ies a u niqu e po s itio n .

As it is by fa r th e lo west o f a ll pa ss es a cro ss th e m a in cha in,

a n d is rea ch e d o n eith er S id e b
y c o m p a ra tively s tr a igh t va lleys
lea d ing u p to a s ingle ridge, it fo r m s a na tur a l h igh wa y A .

referen ce t o a m a p will S h o w tha t th e Alps h a ve a t th is pa rt th eir

grea test brea dth Fro m Vero na n ea r wh ere th e Ad ige leaves
.
,

t he m o u nt a i ns in t he s o u th t o t he p la i ns o f B a va ri a in the north,
wh ere th e Inn leaves its c o nfine d va lley in th e la titu d e o f Sa lz burg ,
is a dista nce in a direct li n e o f a b o u t 1 70 m iles— a bo ut a s far a s
fr o m M ila n to B a s el Co ns eque ntly we S h o uld exp ect this
.
,

c o nti nu ous gap o ver so grea t a bread th o f m o u nta i n la nd t o

d o m i nate a ll rela ti o ns b etwee n Germ a ny a nd It a ly This is .

bo r n e o u t by t h e fa cts o f h ist o ry .

D rusu s ( 15 c ro ssed
c o n quer t he no rthern barbarians Its
it to .

im p o rta n c e to th e Ro m a ns is sh o w n by t h eir c o ns tru ctio n o ver it o f a a ved

p
ro a d It wa s p ro b ably by th is pa ss tha t t h e B a rb aria n in va s io ns o f Italy
.

were m a d e In A D 1 3 6 3 when t he T y ro l p a ssed into th e ha nd s o f t he

. . .
,
266 TEX T B OOK O F GEOGRAPHY
-

Fro ntie rs and P o p ul ati o n of Al p i ne L ands .

T he f rontier between Fran c e a nd Ita ly m a in ly f ollo ws t he Al pine wa ter

s hed o f t h e W es tern Al s bu t t h e p o p u la t io n o f t h e Va l d Ao st a sp eak
’
s
p ,

a Fre n ch d ia l e ct b ec a us e this reg io n w a s p a rt o f B urg un dy a n d Sa vo y

,
.

B o th t he S t B erna rd p a sses l ea d fro m It a ly t o Fren c h sp ea k

. in g regio n s -
.

T h e s o uth ern fro n tier o f S wit z erla n d in c l u d es t he La k e o f L ug a n o a n d ,

Ita lia n sp eak

-
ing T ic in o is t h e res u l t o f S wiss c o n qu est T h e va lley tha t .

l ea d s fro m th e B ernin a Pa ss in t o t h e Va lt ellina is a lso S wiss p o liti c a ll y .

T he b o und a ry betw een Fra n c e a nd S wi tz erla nd l ea ves t he La k e of Geneva

a nd Gen e va in S wi t z erl a nd a nd then ru n s a l o n g t h e cres t o f the J u ra t o th e
,

Do u bs wh ere it c ea ses to f oll o w a n y m a rk

,
ed p hy sica l l ine The Frenc h .

l angua g e ex t end s a cro s s t h e Rh 6ne Va ll ey t o t he n o rth o f La k e Neu c h atel ,

a nd in clu d e s t he J u ra .

T he b o und a ry o f S wit z erl a nd a nd Germa ny f oll o w s t he Rhine a nd La k e

Co nst a nc e ( B asel w hich w a s G erm a n t o 1 5 0 1 is in S w itz erla nd a nd so
. , , ,

a ls o is a d istrict a cro ss t h e Rhine n ea r S ch a ffh a u s en ) T h e la ngu a ge .

l in e b etw een G erm a n a nd It a lia n a p pro x im a t ely f o ll o w s t h e wa t ershed

f ro m t h e Pennin es wh ere t hree l a ngua g es m eet t o t h e ea s t ex c ep t in
, , ,

t h e Et s c h Va lley w here c o mm u n ic a t io n f ro m t h e no rt h e a s t t h e B renn er

, ,

a n d Fu s t er T ha l a nd f ro m t h e no rth w es t by t h e Res c h en S c h eid e c k

,
-
and -

Vintsc hga u h a s c aused t h e u pp er ba sin to be Germ a n Po l itically Austria

,
.
,

ho ld s th e val l ey s a t the hea d o f th e Lago d i Gard a a nd t h e Etsc h so uth o f

t h e l a ngu a g e bo un da ry .

N um ero u s p a sses l eading by l o ng a nd gen tl e gra d ients d o wn to the

,

It al ia n l o wla n d ga ve a n a d va nta ge in c o n qu est t o t he p o w er th a t h eld the

,

m o un ta in g a tes .

In the Vo rd er Rh ein B a sin a nd th e Enga d in e Ro m a nc e d ial ects survive

w hic h ne ver d e velo p ed into l a ngua ges Less th an .
p eo pl e sp ea k
Ro m o ns c h a nd Lad in .

In the Ea stern Alp s the l o ng itu d inal vall y s f a vo u ed t h e sp a d o f the e r re

er
G ma n la ng ua g e
T his w a s s t o ng. r er e
t ha n t he a d va n c o f M a gy a , m ostly r
c o n fin ed t o t he Pla in s o f Hu ngary an d t h e Sla v fro m t h e so u th ea st Italia n -
.

is t h e la n g u a ge o f t h e distri ct o f T riest e a nd t h e w est c oa s t o f Istria both ,

p o litic a ll y Au s trian .

Cli m ate and Hum an Occup ation .

On Figs . 1 8 th e Al ps a re sh o wn a s gen era lly below

17 a nd
°
3 2 F in Ja nu ry, nd b elo w 50 F in Ju ly In Ta ble V o nly
°
. a a . . .

t wo st a tio ns ha ve b een s electe d o n h igh gr o und , th e Great St .

B erna r d [ 5] a nd D a vo s Altitu d e h ere clea rly m o difies

tem p eratu re, bu t th a t th is fa cto r m us t be c o ns id ered in con
n ec t io n with l o c a l c o nd itio ns is clea r fro m a c o m pa riso n o f the
winter temp era tu res o f (s ee p 18 3 ) Kla gen fu rt [ 29] a nd Geneva .
 T HE ALPS 267

Gen eva a nd La ke Co m o [ 70] o w e m uch o f th eir c o m

pa rat i ve wa r m th in w inter to th e da rk h eat reflecte d f ro m t h e
la kes (s ee a l so pp 44 , .

Va lleys a re o ften coo ler than upla nds, a s th ey a re apt to

b ec o m e fille d with s ta gna nt a ir a t a s ea so n wh en , o win g t o th e
gen era l h igh p ressure o ver t he Alps, winds a re wea kest a n d
m o u nta in a n d va lley breezes eith er a bs ent o r fa r less m a rked
th a n in su m m er As p ect, wh ich pa rtly d eter mines po ss ib ility
.

o f sun sh in e is o bvio u s ly o f su re m e i m o rta nce wh e n th e a ltitu d e

, p p
o f t h e s u n is ge n er a lly lo w Owing t o the dry air and c o ns e
.

qu ently l a rge am o u nt o f s un shi ne , m any Alpi ne resorts wh ich

h a ve a f a vo ura b le p o sitio n a re vis ited in wi nter .

Th e influ en ce o f clim a te o n th e life o f t h e inha b ita n ts is clea rly

m a rked In w inter , wh e n s no w c o vers t h e m ou nta ins a nd upp er
.

va lleys , c omm uni c a tio n is diffic u lt Where po ss ible , l o ca l in

.

d us tries a re c a rrie d o n , su c h a s wo o d ca rving r o p e m a kin g , etc

-

,
-
.
,

a nd m a n y
p e a sa nts s eek emp lo ym ent in the t o wns o f t h e l o wer
va lleys ( see a lso p . In the e a rly s um m er , wh e n t h e s no w
ha s m elte d a nd d a n ger fro m a va la nch es is past , the c a ttle are
drive n up t o t he h igh er p a stures , wh ere ch e es es are m a d e In .

a u tum n th ey a re a ga in br o ugh t d o wn t o th e va lleys , a nd a re

h o us e d a nd fed in t h e villa ges in winter T h ere a re num er o us

.

tra ns iti o na l s ta ges a nd tim es o f m igratio n, and lo c a l cus t o ms

diff er th r o ugh o ut t h e Al p s ; bu t th e c o w m ay b e c o ns id ered
t h e d o m ina tin g i nfl u e nce in th e li fe o f m ost Alp in e p ea s a nts .

Th e exte nt o f t he upp er ha y m ea do ws is lim ite d b y t h e a m o unt

o f m a nure p r o vi d e d by t he c a ttle , bu t every a va ila b le h o llo w o r
gr a ss s lo p e , even a t a c o ns ider a b le a ngle, is c a refully irriga ted .

In s o m e c a s es th e m o s t ina ccess ible p a s tu res a re v is ite d fo r h a y ,

wh ich is c o nveyed t o th e va lleys by wire r op es Pr a ctic a lly a ll .

th e gr ass wh ich is w o rth c u tting is o b ta in ed, but t h e sho rter gr ass

o f m u ch o f t h e h igh er S lo p es is no t m a d e u s e o f excep t t o a

li m ited extent by g oa ts Sh eep a re o nly pastured in la rge

.

n u m ber s t o p ro vi d e mu tto n fo r t h e m a rket s o f l a rge t o wns ,

excep t in the So uth Eas t Alps, wh ere a thin gr ass gr o ws o n th e
-

p o o rer lim e st o n e s o il .

A no ta bl e in stanc e of r m igra tio n o f sheep is a ff o rd ed by th e

th e su mm e

a s t u res w hi c h su rro un d t h e Fo rn o Gla cier in t h e so uth o f th e Ortl er

p
.
,

T h e sh eep a re d ri ven u p f ro m the lo wer va ll ey s o f t h e B erga m a s qu e Al p s

s o u t h o f t h e Va l tellin a to th e h ig her p a stures wh ic h a re ren ted fo r t he
,

u r os e a n d ta k e n d o wn to B erg a m o in t h e a u tu m n f o r t he m a rke t of
p p ,

M il a n .
 268 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e lo wer va lleys a re la rgely d evo ted to th e gro wt h o f fo dder

cro ps The n eed o f utilizin g a ll a va il able scil a nd wa ter has
.

led to the extens ive u s e o f terra ce cultiva tio n o n th e va lley s id es .

Vin eya rds a re e sp ecia lly im po rta n t o n th e so uth ern s lo p es .

Q U EST ION S .

1 . S ho w on S wit z erl a nd ( in clu din g t h e N o rt h West and Centra l

t he m a p of -
~

Alp s ) the f o ll o w ing p a s s es : T h e M o n t Genevre M o n t Cenis Littl e a nd ,

-

Great St . B ern a rd S im p l o n S t G o t h ard M a l o a a nd S t el via

, , . Na m e , j , .

the va ll ey s whi ch l ea d t o th em Dra w the p ol itical bound a ries o f S wi tz er .

l a nd Italy a nd Au stria a nd exp la in why th e wa tersh ed d o es no t in so me

, , ,

ca ses fo rm t h e fro n tier Ind ic a t e th e regio n s where Fren c h Germ a n and

.
, ,

Ita lia n Ro m o nsc h

,
a nd La d in , a re sp o k
en .

2 M arko n the m ap th e f o l lo wing t o wn s a nd ex plain th eir impo rtance

. ,

a s t he c en tres o f c o n v er
g ing ro ut es M il a n T u rin Gen eva B a sel Lu c erne , , , , .

3 Sh o w o n t h e m a p o f t h e Ea s tern Al p s t h e f o llo w ing p asses : The

.

Arlberg B ernin a T o na l e B renner Po nt ebb a

, , Na m e t he vall ey s which
, , .

l ea d to th em . Dra w t h e p ol iti cal bo un d a ries o f Germ a ny S wi tz erl and , ,

Ita ly ,
Au stria , a n d H u n g ary W here is t he fro n tier s cien tific 7 Give wh at
.

rea son s yo u c a n f o r thi s Ind i c a t e th e regio ns w h ere Germ a n Ital ian

.
, ,

M agy a r , es a re spo k
en
a n d S l a v o ni c l a ng u a g .

4 M a rkt h e fo ll o w in g va ll ey s T h e In
. the Vin ts c hga u t he Val tellina , , ,

t h e Fu ster T ha l t h e Pinz g a u th e Enns Va ll ey

, N am e a n d a cc o u n t f o r the
, .

im po rta nc e o f In nsbru c k Vero n a T rieste Fium e a nd Kla g enfu rt

, , , , .

AUS TRIA HUNGARY -

.

Area = 24 l 000 , s qu are m il es . Po p ul a tio n = 5 l m il lion s 2 1 t o th e s qu are

m ile . Vienna = 2 m illio ns e
B u d a p s t = 0 8 m ill io n
'

Au stria H unga ry m a y b e d ivid e d in to m a ny na tu ra l regio ns,

-

wh ich d iff er c o ns id era bly in ph ysica l cha ra cter , clim ate, a nd

pr o du cts .

Th e Eastern Alp s in clu d e th e Vo ra rlberg , with B regenz o n

La ke Co ns ta nce , wh ere , a s in t he S wis s c a nt o ns o n t h e o ppo s ite
s i d e o f t h e Rh i ne , sp i n ni ng a nd e m br o id ery a re c arried o n ; Tyro l ,

t h e centr a l va lley o f t h e Inn , in wh ich is s itua te d Inns br u ck at

th e no rth o f t h e B renn er ( s ee p 265 ) t he Upp er Ets ch ( Adige ) , .

Va lley, with Bo zen c o nnected with Inns bruck by th e Brenner ;

th e u pp er va lleys o f t h e Sa ve, Ca rnio l a ( Kra in ) , with La i ba ch,
o f th e Dra ve , Ca rinth i a ( Karnten ) with Kla ge nfu rt , o f th e Mur,

S tyria ( Steier m a rk ) , with Gra z , a nd o f t h e S a lza ch , Sa l z bu rg .

T h e Ea stern Alp s a re re m a rka ble fo r th e nu m ber o f lo ngi

270 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

A good d e a l of lig nite is t i ed in m ost o f th e va lleys which

ob a n ,

m a ke s u p for the wa nt o f c o a l a nd th e f o res ts su pply ch a rcoa l

,
.

Le ad is o bt a ined a t B leiberg to the e a st o f Kla ge nf urt a n d qui ck

, ,

s ilver a t Idri a in Carni o l a As in the Alps ge ner ally c attle

.
,

a nd
pro d ucts c o nn ected with th e m for m the ma i n r es ources
o f th e m o un ta in la nds To th es e sho ul d be a dd e d th e supply
.

o f tim ber th e f o rests o f th e Eastern A

,
l p s being m uch m o re c on
t in uo u s a nd d ens e tha n th o s e o f t h e west .

The Dinaric Lands m a y be ta ken t o includ e t he so uth ern

b as in o f th e Sa ve west o f th e Drina the K ars t regi o n a nd the , ,

Adriatic dra i na ge The s outh ern lim e st o n e z o ne of th e Alps

.
,

in wh ich are t he d olo m ites is c o nti nued in th e Di naric Ra nge

, ,

which fo rms the watersh ed of the rivers wh ich j o in the D a nube

B a s i n a nd th os e th a t fl o w int o th e Adri atic ( s ee p
, The .

Karst regio n is tra vers ed by the r a ilwa y from La ib a ch t o Trieste ,

wh ich is th e ch ief s eapo rt of Aus tria An artificia l harbo ur has .

b ee n c o nstructed Shipb uildi ng is c a rried o n a nd th ere are

.
,

ir on W o rks and m a nufa ct ures o f o il s o ap a nd c a ndles for which , , ,

t h e olive grow n o n t h e c o as tla nds supp lies t h e ra w m a teria l .

The po pu l atio n is largely It a li a n .

On th e west a t th e h e a d o f th e Gul f o f Trieste the Pla in o f

Go ritz in th e Iso n zo Va ll ey is rich ly cultiva te d The Pen ins ula o f .

Is tria h a s a M ed iterra n ean clim a te a nd p ro du ces o lives m a ize , , ,

a nd t o ba cco . Po la with a sh eltered h a rbo ur is th e ch ief nava l

, ,

s ta tio n . It is ho wever too f a r rem o ved fro m th e im po rtant

, ,

in dus tria l centres to be o f much va lue fo r co m m erce Fium e is .

th e po rt o f Hunga ry A h a rbo u r h as been a rtificia lly c o ns tructed

.

It expo r ts th e bul k of th e gra in fro m th e Pla in of H ungary.

Th ere a re many go o d ha rbours o n th e D a l ma tia n coast a nd goo d ,

a nch o r a ge in t h e sh elter o f th e is la nds ; bu t th e o nly river va lley

wh ich m a kes a gap th ro ugh th e mo unta ins by difi‘ic ult gorges ,

t he Na re nt a ha s a p o o r ha rb o ur
, Co ns eque ntly th ey are a t .
,

p res e nt o f little va lue except for p o litic al p ur p os es The h a rbours .

o f Ra gus a a nd Ca ttar o are i m p o rta nt f or t he fleet of Aus tri a ,

wh ich keeps a firm c o ntrol over its Sla vo nic pr o vinces b etween
t he Dr a ve a nd t h e Adria tic .

T h e Din aric Al p s h a v e a n exc essiv e ra in fa ll o w in g t o t he f a c t that ,

rela tively warm wind s fro m t he Adria tic la den with m o ist ure are forced , ,

t o a s c en d the m ou n tain sl o p e T he grea t es t a mo unt o f ra inf all recorded

.

( a bou t 200 in ch es ) is pro b a bl y a littl e in ex c es s of tha t o f Sno w do n ( see

p. T he c o a stlan ds h a v e a m o d erate rainfall a n d are su ited for ,

the gro wth o f the o l ive f ruit a nd th e vin e

, Only in the so uth a re winter
, .

ra ins and summ er d rought well mark ed T he clim ete of the c oas t is mi lder
.
 AU S TRIA HUNGARY -
27 1

in w inter tha n ther

a ny o
p a rt of Aus tria Hunga ry ( see T a bl e V Ra g usa
-
.
,

[ 8 1 ] ha s Ja nu a ry tem p era t ure o f 48 °

a T h e ex c essiv e diff eren c e b e
tw een t h e Ka rst Pla t ea u a n d t h e c oa st 2 F a nd 3 2 F m e a n m in i
° °
. . ,

m u m t em p era tu re a nd t h e sligh t diff eren c e o f el eva tio n— a bo u t

, f eet
— are t h e
c a u se o f t h e l o w t em p era ture o f t he bo ra wh ich blo w s fre qu ently
a t Fiu m e a n d T riest e s ee
( p .

Owing t o t h e po ro s ity o f th e Ka rst th e m o u nta ins a re no t so ,

d ens ely wo o d ed a s m igh t b e ex p ecte d fro m t h e grea t ra in fa ll ,

excep t o n th e ea st wh ere th e fo r m a tio n cha nges Th ere is a grea t .

c o n tra st b etween th e pol yes o r broa d s inks o f W es tern Bo snia ,

o ccu ied
p by sh eep a nd c a ttle a n d flo o d e d o nly in t h e wet ,

s e a so n a n d th e exten s ive a nd d e ns e fo re s ts o f th e ea st wh ere

th e a c o r n s o f th e o a k
, ,

trees feed innu m era ble s win e Th e d eep

-
.

c u t va lleys a re fa m o us fo r
plu m s T he m in era ls ha ve b een u n .

d evelo p ed bu t iro n is no w m in ed to t h e wes t o f S era y evo a t

,

a n eleva tio n o f f eet T h e c a p ita l o f H erzego v ina is Mo sta r

.

o n th e Na re nta S la vo n ia b etween th e Sa ve a nd t h e Dra ve

.
, ,

res em bles Bo s n ia in its pr o du ct s Agra m is th e ca p ita l . .

T h e D a nu b e B a s in fro m t h e Inn a t Pa ssa u to th e Leith a a n d

Ma rch n ea r Pressburg c o m pris es th e p ro vinces o f Upp er and
,

Lower Austria Vie nna is s itu a ted in a c o m m a nd ing po s itio n

. .

It lies o n th e ea stern slo p es o f th e Wien erwa l d (th e extre m e

n o rth ea s ter n p ro l o nga tio n o f th e Ea stern Alps ) th ro ugh th e
-

edges o f wh ich th e D anu b e so m e 1 2 m iles fro m Vienna , ,

ha s c u t a d eep a nd na rro w go rge (of th e Rh in e Go rge a bo ve .

Co blen z ) .

Vienn a fa c es th e g rea t pla in o f t h e Da nu b e a nd H un ga ry and d efend s ,

t h e ro a d s l ea d in g t h ro u gh t h e W ienerwal d t o B a va ria whic h a vo id t h e ,

g o rg e In t he M iddl e Ag es i t wa s th e b ul wa rko f S o u th ern Eu ro p e a gain s t

.

t h e a d va n c in g T urk s The m o d ern im p o rta n c e i s du e to c o mm un ic a tio ns

. .

1 W es twa rd by ro a d a n d ra il wa y a c ro s s t he Wien erwald a n d eith er ba nk

.

o f t h e D a nu b e and t o a l im ited ex t en t by river t o B a va ria W est Germ a ny

, , ,

etc ( t h e Au s tria n Ga t e )
. .

2 N o rth wa rd by th e M a rc h Va ll ey a nd B asin
. Then c e no rth wes t t o .
-

B o h em ia a nd Centra l Germ any a nd no rth ea s t by th e M o ra vi an Ga t e ,

-

b etween the S ud et es a nd t h e B esk id s ( Ca rp a thia ns ) to th e Od er a nd Ea s t

Germ any a n d to th e Vistu la a nd Ru ssia .

3 Ea stwa rd a c ro ss t h e Hun ga ria n Pla in o r s k

. irting it especially so uth , ,

ea st to B elgra d e a nd the B a l k
,
a n Peninsul a o r by ri ver t o th e B l a c kS ea ,

( th ere is no w a n a viga bl e c h ann el o f 6 feet t o Vienn a ; see p 28 1 Iron Gates ) .

, .

4 S o u th wa rd s by th e S em m erin g Pa ss in t o the l o n gitud ina l val l ey s o f the

.

M ii rz a nd Mu r a nd by pa sses a c ro ss a nd al o ng t he Upp er D ra ve ( c en tre

,

Kla genfu rt ) and Sa ve to T rieste o r by th e Po nt ebba thro u g h Ta rvis to Ita ly

,
.
272 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th e B oh e mi an Pl ateau — Bo h em ia fo r m s a ba s in bo r d ered by
.

the B o h em ia n Fores t ( Bohm erwa ld) a p i ne cl a d r a nge of

-

Archaea n r o ck o f a b out feet, o n the s outh west ; by the -

Mo ra via n Up la nds o n t he s o u th e a s t ; by the Erzgeb irge ( Ore

-

Mounta ins ) , wh ich ris e a bruptly fro m the Eger Va lley a nd s lop e
gently to th e north wes t ; and by th e S ud etes in the north eas t
- -

with a steep no rth and south fro nt The Fich telgebirge in th e

k
.

west fo r m a mo unta in no t fro m wh ich derive th e Erzgebirge,

B ohm erwa ld, Fr a nc o nia n Ju r a , a nd Thii ringerwald In this .

knot ris es th e Ma in, fl o wing to t he Rhine , the Naab to the D anube,

th e S aa le t o th e Elb e , a nd the Eger t o t he Elb e in th e B o h em ian
Ba s in .

Th e th o f B oh em ia is a n a gricu ltura l upland s lop in g gra du

so u

a lly n o rth f ro m the foreste d m o u nta ins Budweis o n t h e Mo ldau .

( th e lim it o f s team navigatio n) is th e o nly i mpo rta nt to wn In .

t he no rth ea s t o n the f o rela nd o f t h e Sud etes is a regio n o f im

-

, ,

p orta n t textil e m anuf a ctures fa vo u red by water p ower a nd the

-

exis tence o f co a l Th e la rges t to wn is Reich enberg Glass

. .

m a king is c arried o n ne ar the Sa xo n S witzerl and thr o u gh which ,

pa ss es th e Elb e Gorge (see p owing to th e fa cility with

.

wh ich qu a rtz c an be o bta in ed fro m th e sandsto ne .

In th e no rth west in th e B a s ins o f th e Eger a nd B iele are

-

, ,

imp o rta nt beds o f lig nite wh ich h a ve c ontributed t o th e growth

,

o f a n in dus tria l regio n with textile a nd ea rth enwa re in dus tries .

The kao lin d erived fro m th e gra n ite n ea r Ka rlsba d fa vo urs the
ma nu fa cture o f po rcela in In th e centre c o a l a nd iro n a re fo und
.

n ea r Pils en a nd Pra gue Pra g ue is o n th e Molda u nea r th e ma r in

.
,

of th e less f ertil e s outh er n regi on o f sch ists and is th e c o nvergi ng ,

po in t o f ro utes It ha s no w b ec o m e a m a nufa ctu rin g to wn

.
.

Bo th Pilsen a nd Pra gue h a ve engin eering wo rks pa p er mills , ,

a nd lea th er industrie s fo r wh ich th ey dra w th eir ma terials

fro m su rro und ing regi ons— th e pa p er fro m th e wo o d pul p of -

th e so u th ern f o rests a nd t h e lea th er fro m th e c a ttle o f the

s outh ern a gricultura l upl a nd B r ewing is extens ively ca rried
.

on . B eet is gro wn la rgely fo r su ga r .

Th e m a j o rity of th e po p ula tio n o f B oh e m ia ( 63 p er cent ) are .

S la vo n ic Czechs wh o a t Pra gue fo rm s even eigh ths o f th e in -

ha b ita nt s .

Th e M oravian Uplands — Th e s e are dra i ne d so u thwa rds by

.

the Ma rch (M ora vi a ) In th e n o rth the O d er dra ins th e u l ands

.
p
b et ween the Sud ete s a nd Ca rp athia ns (Au stria n Sile sia ) . Through
the lo w w ate rshe d at the Mo ra vian Gate no w pa s se s a canal
27 4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

no rt h t he S za m o s T h e se river s ha ve cut d ee p va l leys a n d go rge s

.

t hrou gh the m a rgina l ran ge s The c oun try is la rgely co vered

.

with tim b er and is m a inly devo ted t o c attle an d pa sto r al in

,

du stries bu t it is rich in m iner a l s e sp ecia lly iro n

, , S o u th o f t h e .

Ma ro s a re i m po rt ant ir o n wo rks wh ere pig ir o n is ma de cha rc oa l

, ,

be in g u se d fo r sm eltin g F o u r seventh s of t he popu lation o f

.
-

T ran sylva nia a re Ro u m a n ia ns .

The Carp ath ian Foreland ( Ga licia a nd Bu ko vina ) h a s, like the

Hun ga rian Pla in c o l d win ters and wa rm su mm er s ( see T ab le V
,
.
,

Cra c o w Debreczin The l o wland s a re a gricultura l

a n d gro w wh e a t a nd m a ize , rye a n d p o t a t o e s b ein g c u ltiva te d

on
p oo rer la n ds . The h igh la n d s a re w o o d e d with b eech and
p in e . Wieliczka , n e a r Cra c o w , is fa m o u s fo r ro ck sa lt Som e .

petro le u m is o bt a in ed f r o m the Ca r pa th ia n sa nd st one The .

m a in t o wns a re Cra c o w , the o ld c a pit a l o f Po lan d , a stron gly

f o rtifie d t o wn on t he Upp er Vist u la , which c ontro l s t he west
e a st ro ut e b etween the Po lish Height s and t he Ca rpa thians,
f ro m t h e sou th e a st o f Germ any a n d t he M o ra via n Ga te ; a nd
-

Le mb erg , t h e c apita l o f Ga licia , wh ic h lie s on th e Po d o lian

Height s, o n t he wa ter sh e d b etwee n t h e Bu g an d the Dn ie ster .

The t o wn lie s o n t he r ou te wh ic h tra ver se s the c o m pa r a tively

level ta bleland b etween the swam ps o f the Bu g a nd t h e dee ply
trenc he d va lley s o f t he Dnie st er an d it s tribu ta rie s Czerno witz , .

t he c a p it a l o f Bu ko vina , lie s a t t he m o u th o f a va lley , wh ere it

e m erge s fro m the Ca rpa thian m o u nt a in b elt .

The m a j o rity o f t he i nh a bit a nt s o f t hi s di strict a re Po le s .

The re st a re m a in ly Ru th en ia n s ( Little Ru ssian s) and Ro u m an ians .

There a re m an y Ger m a n s in t h e t o wn s .

There a re t w o Hung arian Plains The Upp er Hun ga ria n Plain

.

inclu de s the l o wlan d o n both sid e s o f the D anu b e b etween Press

burg wh ere t h e D an u b e enter s Hu n g a ry , a n d t he c o mm ence
,

m ent o f t he gre a t b en d n o rth o f Bu d a p e st It c on sist s of nu

.

du la ting l o wlan ds , into wh ich pr o j ect spu r s o f t h e Alps and

Ca r pa th i a n s . The w o o de d B a k on
y F o re st tra ver s e s it d ia g onally
t o t h e we st o f t he Pla tten S ee T he Gre a t Hu ng a ri an Pla in
.

(the l o wer pla in) c o ver s a mu ch la rger a re a It is tra versed .

by the m idd le c ou r se o f th e D a nu b e a nd the T heiss ( T isza ) .

T ho ugh gen era lly fl a t , it h a s m a ny m in o r un du latio n s a nd depres

si ons o cc u pie d by sa nd du n e s a n d m a r sh e s
-

Ab o ut ha lf the
.

l a n d is a ra b le , an d o win g t o the f ertile so ils, du e t o the river

d e p o sit s (d ilu via l ) o f e a rlier a nd (a ll u vi a l ) o f recent river s, great
cr ops o f wh eat and m a ize are grown .
 AU STRIA—HUNGARY 275

The early sum m er ra ins a re o f grea t impo rtanc e fo r wh ea t th e princ ipa l ,

exp o rt M o re l and is c o nstantly bein g bro ught und er cul tiva tio n bu t va st
.
,

a rea s a re still p a sto ral a nd a re o cc u pied by c a ttl e sh eep h o rses a n d p ig s

, , , ,
.

O ther ex p o rts o f th e pl a in b esid es g ra ins a re wine eggs wo o d f ro m t he , ,

m o unta in f o res t s wh ic h b o rd er the l o wl a nd ( whic h is g en era lly treel ess ) ,

l ea ther a nd fru it — appl es p ea rs and plum s— rip ened by th e a bu nd a nt

, , ,

su n shin e o f d ry su m m ers The p u sstas o r va st l e vel st epp es o f the H u n

.
, ,

ga ria n l o wla n d ( t he Alf i ld ) w ere o n c e t ra vers ed by tra c k

s d eep in d u st o r,

m u d ro a d s b eing d iffi cul t t o c o ns truc t o wing to th e a b sen c e o f sto ne

,

( cf the Arg en tine th e p ra iries o f No rth Am erica etc pp 6 1 9

.
, , .
, .
,

wh ich l ed a cro ss uni nha b ited w astes f ro m o ne step pe villa ge to a n o ther ;

bu t a netwo rko f m o d ern ra il wa y s is no w being spread o ver th e p la ins ,

stim ul a tin g a nd f o llo w ing t he m o d ern gro wth o f w hea t ( of Ca na d a p 54 2 . , . .

a n d t h e Arg en t in e p , .

B udap e st, t he c a p it a l o f Hu nga ry , is a ra pid ly gr o win g t o wn

s it u a te d a t t h e p o i nt wh ere th e level p l a i n t o u ch e s t h e l a st spurs

o f th e h igh l a nd s It h as im p ort a nt fl o u r m ills a nd t o ba cc o a nd

.
-

s u g a r f a ct o rie s Oth er t o wns , f o rm ing m a rkets for th e a gri

.

c u ltur a l regio ns , are M a ria Th eres iop el , b etween th e D a nu b e

a nd t h e Th eis s ; S zeged i n , o n t he l atter river , a nd T e m e s var
f a rth er t o th e s o uth ea st -

Trade .

Th e m a i n exp o rts a nd imp o rts , in p erce nt a ge o f t o ta l va lue ,

o f t h e Cus t o m s U ni o n o f Aus tri a a nd Hu ng a ry a re

Ex r o n 'rs .
-
W o od a nd w o od wo rk (m o stly from Au stria ) 1 4 ; su g a r ,

(m o stly f ro m Au stria ) , 9 wh ea t and fl o ur (nea rly all fro m H u n g a ry ) 7 ,

e
lig nit 4 g la ss a nd g l a sswo
,
rk(fro m B o h em ia ) 3 , .

ImP OR rs — Ra w c o tto n 10
. , c o a l a nd co k
e, 7 wo o l , 6 sil ka nd m an u
f a ctu res 4 ,
m a c h inery , 4 .

Fr om t he Un ited Kin gdo m t he impo rts are wo o llen g o o ds ,

ste a m ve s sel s and c oa l an d the e x po rt s t o t he Un ite d Kin gd o m

, ,

a re flo ur suga r an d ba rley
,
The ti m b er expo rt s a re e specia lly
,
.

n o tice a b le a s th ey sh o w t he la rge f o re st a re a (o ne th ird o f t o ta l )

-

, ,

a nd the gro win g wh e a t exp o rt o f Hun ga ry The expo rt s o f .

c a ttle pigs a nd sh eep from Hun ga ry fa r excee d t he im po rts

, ,
.

The la rge exten t o f a gricu ltura l an d pasto ra l land c a u se s the

m a in exp o rt s t o b e fa rm p ro du cts but t he gro wing m an ufa ctures ,

require ra w ma teria l a nd som e cere a l s ha ve t o be i m po rted , ,

m ain ly t o Au stria There is a de ficien cy o f c o a l wh ich ha s t o be

. ,

im po rted .
27 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Pop ul ation .

The fo llo win g table shows t h e ele m ents of the p o pu la tio n of

Austria a nd Hun ga ry a cc o rdin g t o langua ge in 1 900

PERC ENTAGE or Tou r. POPUL ATIO N .

Au s tria .

Germ ans
Cz ec h s
Sl o va k s
Pol es
Ru th eni an s
S ervi ans
Kro a tians
l l agy a r
Ro m an
fi oum n n
c e It l i n nd a
.

ia

a a a La d in

The d iver sity po pulati on a n d langua ge is a s gre a t a s that

of

o f na tur a l regio ns The disu ni o n du e to th is is e sp eci a lly no tice

.

a ble in t h e Aus tro H ungaria n a r m ie s -

It sh oul d b e n o ted that .

in Hu nga ry pro p er the Ma gya rs n um b er 4 6 per ce nt o f the tot al .

po p u la tio n Th ere is a very c o ns id era b le e m igra tio n from

.

Aus tri a H u n ga ry, m os tly t o t h e Unite d Sta tes

-

QUEST IONS .

1 Divid e Au stria Hunga ry into na tu ra l regions

.
-
Ma r these o n the . k
o ro gra p h ic a l m ap a nd nam e th e c hief p ol itica l divisions wi th whi c h the
,
y
a pp ro xi m a t ely c o inc i d e .

2 . es cribe the positio n o f Vienna a nd B uda pest H o w fa r d o they o we

D .

th eir im po rta nce to phy sical c o nd iti o ns 7

3 S ho w o n th e o ro grap hica l m a p th e m a in wa tersh ed s
.
Na me the chief .

rivers a n d m o un tains Ma rkthe M agy a r Ga te the Klisura the Iro n Ga te

.
, , ,

t he M o ra vi a n Ga t e and t he Kro a t ie n Ga te
, .

4 D es crib e t h e c hief ra c e el em en t s o f Au stria Hun ga ry indi c a tin the

g
-
.
,

reg io ns in which ea ch pre domina t es .

5 Ex pl a in t h e influ enc e o f clima t e o n pro d uc ts with S ec ia l reference

.
p .

t o wh ea t t h e o l ive a nd the v ine

, , .
27 8 TEX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY

and the Mora va north Other pa ra llel va lleys are tho se of the
.

Bit olia , the Uppe r Drin with La ke s Oc hrida and Presba , and
,

the Vi strit sa The directio n o f th e n a tura l de pre ssions m a ke s

.

c o mm unication ea sie st fro m no rth to so uth . The Vardar is the

FIG . . KAN PEN IN S UL A RIVER S rsrs ms

3 2 — B AL : '
.

N o te the Dol inas in the Ka t rea o f inla nd d ra inag e

rs a 1 H un ga rian Pl ain
2 T ransyl vanian Al p s ; 3 Val k
.

5 B al k
,

, h ia n Pl a in 4 D o b ruj a
, a ans , ,

6 Din aric Al p s ; 7 D lm a t ia ; 8 Al ba ni n Al p s 9 Pindu s 10 S ervi an

, , a , a , ,

Highla nd s ; l l Rh o d o pe
, .

key to two routes which c o nverge at Uskub ( S la v Skoplie) the .

,

o ne by a n e as y pass feet ) t o th e M o ra va f o llowed by the ,

rail fro m B elgra d e via N i sh t o S a l o nic a t h e oth ers le ading to ,

the Kossov o Pl a in a t t h e h e a d—wa ter s o f the S ervi an Mor ava

, ,
 THE B ALKAN PENINSULA 279

a nd by a m ore diffi cult ro u te t o B o snia through t he Sa ndj a k of

Noviba zar On the e a st o f t h e Va rdar the Ma ce do nia n High
.

lands ter minate in the three pr o nged peninsula of Cha lcidice,

-

on the e asternm o st bra nch o f wh ich is Mount Atho s Farth er .

ea st is the Desp oto D agh (h igh es t po int feet) o r Rh o dop e

Mo unta ins , d ivide d into t wo un equa l portions b y th e upp er
wa ters o f the S trum a Thes e enclos e the Maritsa Valley o n the
.

s outh , with a wooded m o u nt a i n wa ll , s e am ed b y t o rre ntia l

s tre a m s, wh ich c a n o nly b e cr o ss e d b y bridle tr a cks .

The gen era l diffi culty o f c o mm un ication between e a st and

west em phasizes the impo rt a nce of the m ai n h ighwa y fro m
B elgra d e to Co nst a ntino ple wh ich is followe d by th e Orie nt
,

express This leads fr o m Nish o n the Morava to the B a sin of

.

So fia by Tr a j a n s Gate , wh ere the Ro m a ns ba rric a d e d the na rrow

’

ga p b etween the m ounta ins As th e oro graphic a l ma p sho ws ,

.

the eleva tio n h ere is b elo w feet Fr o m the Sofia B as in a n

.

eas y pas s leads t o the Maritsa Va lley, in wh ich are Philipp op olis
a nd Adria no le There is a n im p o rt ant route o n th e e a st t o
p .

Burga s o n t h e B l ack S ea .

( 3 ) The Balk ans are f o lde d m o unta ins of o ld r o ck m o stly ,

cryst a lline with a me an elevation in the centre where th ey a re

,

hi gh e st o f fro m feet They we ather int o fl at

"

to
roun de d dom es and are c o vere d with fore st s of oakbeech and
. ,

, , ,

fir . They s lop e steeply towa r d t he Plain o f Ea stern Ru m elia

o n t he so u th and gently to wa rd t he D anu b e on the n o rth
, .

The ch a in is cut through by th e T im o kVa lley wh ich p r o vid es ,

c omm u nica tio n b etween the D a nu b e and Nish a nd by th e

Is ker Va lley wh ich co nnects t h e D a nu b e with S ofia
, Co mm u ni .

c ati o n is generally ea sy a cr o ss th e B a lkans and th ere a re m any ,

pass es tr a vers ed by c arri a ge r o a ds Th e Shipk a Pass

. feet )
is stra tegic ally the m os t im p orta nt .

Climate and Pro ducts .

See Ta bl e V Bel ade B u c a re st Ra gu sa Co n

ld
.

sta ntino le
p Sa nica Ko rfu Ath ens Spa rta
No te the h ot and a lm o st ra inle ss summ ers of Ath en s a n d
Spa rta . The typic a l p ro du ct o f Greece , e specia lly the so uth
we st, is cu rrant s, which thrive on th e lime stone soil a nd requ ire ,

dry we ath er and con sid era ble su nshine No te th e D a n u b e .

whea t regions which ha ve a c o ld winter bu t a hot su mm er and

, ,

rain in early sum m er when it is nee ded for th e growth o f wh e at .

The typic a l Me diterrane an ve ge tation is confined to the coa st s

 28 0 T EX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

a nd lo w pla in s evergreens and o live s and in the so u th

. Here are ,

fig s o ran ge s a nd lem ons

, The h igh er m oun ta in s of the n o rth
, .

ha ve su mm er ra in s Owing to the lim ited a rea o f pla in s pa sto ra l

. ,

i ndus tries a re im po rt a nt wh erever th e gr a ss l a nd o n t he m o untai n

s l op es is no t b urnt u in s umm er C a ttle a re kep t in t h e r i ch er
p .

river m eadows a nd sh eep a nd g o ats o n t he drier t ab lel a nds .

S wi ne are fed o n th e a c o r ns o f th e o a kf o re s ts in S ervia a nd B u l

,

ga ri a a nd in Greece in sp ite o f th e ge n era l d efo rest a ti o n

, ,
Th e .

no rth wes t c o a st ( D a lm a tia ) h a s a l a rge r a i nfa ll

-
a nd c o ns e ,

qu ent ly th ere are d e ns e f o re sts Gen er a lly t h e r a infa ll is m o d era te

'

.
,

but it is s c a nty in th e sh eltere d p l a ins a n d va lleys o n the e a st .

Th e influ e nce o f eleva ti o n o n tem p era ture s is sh o w n in Figs 1 7 .

a nd 1 8 This furth er lim it s c u ltiva tio n

. Th ere is m u ch sno w .

in winter o n th e m o u nt a i ns but t h e tem p era ture o f the regio ns ,

with the m ild es t clim ate a t th is s easo n th e no rth west Ragusa ) ,

-

t h e so uth west ( K o rfu) a nd t h e s o uth ( Ath e ns a nd Spa rta ) a re

-

, ,

o nly a little b el o w 50 F Co ns equently wh erever temp era ture

°
.
,

a ll o ws gra ss a nd f odd er cr ops gr o w lu xuria ntly thr o ugh o ut th e

,

wi nter wh en m o st o f th e r a i n f a lls
,
.

QUEST ION S .

1 . c omm un ic a tion o f t he B a l k
Dra w th e m ain lin es a n Penin su l a o n
of

t h e o ro g ra phi cal m a p Exp l ain th eir c o nne ct io n with th e c o n fig ura tio n

. .

2 M a rka nd n a m e o n t h e o ro gra p hi c a l m a p o f Greec e t h e m a in pl ain s

.
,

irresp ec tive o f al titud e T o wh a t ex t en t c an y o u a ttribu t e t h e gro wth o f

.

t he ind ep end en t c ity sta t es o f An cien t Greec e t o p h y sic al c a u s es

3 Il l u s tra te th e d ep end en c e o f p ro d u cts o n cl im a t e in th e B a lk
. an

Pen insula .

4 D esc ribe the p o sition

. S o fia and Ath ens
of B elgra d e B u c a rest
To , , , .

wha t a d van ta ges d o th ey o r d id th ey o we th eir im po rta n c e

, ,

5 H o w a re t h e ra c es o f t h e B a l k
. a n Pen in sul a d is tri bu t ed

6 D escribe the B a l k
. a ns th e u pl a n d s o f th e Pel o p o nnese a nd a Ka rs t
, ,

regio n W ha t a re the m ain p ro du cts o f ea c h 7

.

ROUMANIA .

Area = m o re than s qu a re m il es Po pu l a t io n = 0 7 m ill io n 140 to

'
.

t he s qu a re m il e B u ca res t = 0 3 m illio n
'
. .

Config uration — The c o un try c on si st s pa rtly o f t he m o un ta in

.

slo p e s o f t he Ca r pa t hi a n F o rela nd , an d
pa rtly o f the lo w a llu vi al
p la in o f t he D anu b e The Ca rpa th ian F o rela nd c o m prise s
.

Mo lda via on t he e ast a so u th wa rd sl o ping ta b lel and trenc he d

,

by t he dee p and stee p sided va lley s o f t he S ereth a nd Pruth ; -

28 2 TEX T B OO K -

OF GEO GRAPHY

SERVIA .

Area = 1 8 600 , s qu a re m il es . Po p ul a tio n = 3 m ill io ns ; 1 60 to the s quare

m il e . B el gra d e = 0 8 4 m ill io n
°

N in ety p er cent o f t he inh a bit a n t s a re S erb s

. Th e m aj o rity .

b elo n g t o t h e Greek Ort ho d o x Chu rc h T he n orthern b o u nda ry .

o f S ervi a is f o r m e d b y th e S a ve a nd t h e D a nu b e , a t th e j u ncti o n

o f wh ich with t h e S a ve is s it u a te d B elgra d e , t h e c a it a l , in a

p
s tr o ng
p os iti o n c o mm a nding r o u tes no rth , s o u th , e a st , a nd west
a l o ng t h e river va lleys Nish , o n t h e N ishe va , is the r a i lwa y
.

j u ncti o n for Co ns t anti no ple a nd Sa lo nic a S ervia is a m o u n .

t a in o u s c o u ntry, exce pt in t h e n o rth , a nd c o ns is ts o f a high la nd

o f cryst a lli n e r o cks d ee ly di s s ecte d b
p y river s , wh ich fl ow in
d eep va lleys in a ge n er a l n o rth wes t directi o n T h e s e a re c o vered
-

k
.

with d ens e f o rests o f b eech a nd o a Gre a t nu m b er s o f p igs .

a re fed w ith t h e a c o r ns , a n d c a ttle ( 1 5

p er ce nt o f t he t o ta l .

va l u e o f expo rt s a re mea t and hid e s, m o stly sent so u th t o regions

wit h a M e diterra n e an clim a te ) a nd h o r s e s a re pa stu re d in t he
,

m ea d o w s ; s heep an d go a t s a re ke pt o n t he high er slopes .

S er vi a is the o nly Ba lka n St a te wit h a la rge p a st o r a l i ndu stry,

the d irect re su lt o f a wetter su mm er a nd ric h er gra ss Plu ms .

a re gr o wn ext en sively in t he va lley s Ma iz e a n d wh e a t for .

ex port (50 per cent o f t o t a l va l u e m o st ly sent n o rth) a re cu lti

.
,

va t ed .Co a l a n d li gn ite a n d m o re va lu a b le mi n era l s a re mined,

bu t t he in du stry is u nd evelo p e d o win g t o la ck o f go o d ro ads
a nd ra ilwa y s Flo u r mi llin g is t he m o st i m po rtant indu stry
.
-

Al m o st every p ea sant cu ltiva te s h is o wn free h o ld , va ryi ng in

size fr o m 10 t o 3 0 a cre s .

MONTENEGRO .

Area = 3 6 00 , qu are m il es ( = o ne half

s -
of W a l es ) . Po p ul a t io n = 0 25 mil
'

lio n ; 70 t o th e s qu a re m il e .

The p o p ula tion b elo n gs m o stly t o t he Greek Ortho d o x Church,

a nd is o f t he Servia n b ran c h o f t he Sl a v r a ce M ontenegro .

o we s it s o rigin t o Ru s si a , with whic h st a te it h a s cl o se rela ti ons .

It is i nh ab it e d by a ra ce o f wa rlike m ou nt a in eers wh o have ,

n ever b een su bdu e d by Tu rkey Th e we stern p o rtio n o f the .

c o untry is a sterile K a r st u pl and spa rsely c o vere d with brush

wo od and st unte d scrub , bu t o n the e a st t he cryst a llin e schi sts
su ppo rt a d e ns e wo o d l and o f b eech a n d oa ks Th ere a re go od .

m o un t a in p a stu re s a nd fert ile va lley s , bu t n o c o mmun ic ation

in the highlands exce pt b rid le tra cks Sh ee p and c attle are .
 THE B ALK AN PENINSULA 28 3

ke pt In the Valley o f t he Z et a which lie s in t he centre m a ize

. , , ,

t oba cc o and the vin e are gro wn

,
Mont e negro is a lm o st c u t .

o ff fro m the sea by Au stri a but ha s a sm all c o a st lin e o n wh ic h

-

the po rt is D u lcigno The o live ca n be c u ltiva te d o n t he c o a st

. ,

which has a typica l Mediterran e an clim ate There is a little .

fishin g on the La ke o f S kutari The c a pit a l is Cettign e Mo st . .

o f th e p o pul a ti o n live aw a y fr o m t o wns a nd th e l a nd a s in , ,

S ervia is m ostly di vid e d i nt o freeh o ld f arms

,
.

BULGARIA .

Are a = 3 8 1 00 qua re m il es Po pu la tio n = 4 3 millio n s ; 1 1 3 t o t he qu a re

'

, s . s

m il e S o fia = 0 l milli o n
‘

. .

Bulg aria qu a re mi les) c onsi st s o f t he u pper

( re a = 24 400
a , s

c ours es o f th e Nis hava a nd Strum a the p la i n o f Sofia o n th e ,

Upp er Isker a nd the B a lka n F o rela nd a p la te a u thr o ugh which

, ,

th e river s h a ve trench ed d eep a nd s teep s id e d va lleys t o t h e -

D a nu b e Th es e h a ve a f ertile lo ess so il wh ere wh e at and m a ize

.

(45 per ce nt o f th e t o ta l va lu e o f exp o rts o f B u lga ri a a nd Ea st

.

Rum elia ) a nd p lum s are gr o wn

,
Th o u gh th e F o rela nd is b a re .
,

th e B a lka ns a re well wo o de d Water po wer is utilized fo r wo o llen .

-

m ills a nd sma ll ir o n ma nuf a cture s Va r na o n th e B la ck Sea is

Rus chuk o pp os ite t o Giurg evo is the m ost
.

th e m a in p o rt .
, ,

im po rta nt o f the fo rtifi ed t owns which c omma nd the ferries o f

the D a nu b e .

Eastern Rumelia (a re a = 1 3 700 s qu a re mile s ) c o n sist s o f the

. ,

Upp er Ba sin s o f the Ma rit sa a nd Tun j a The so u th ern s lo p e s .

o f t he Ba lka n s are well wa tere d b

y in nu m era ble stre a m s an d ,

are c o vere d with gree n p a stures Wa lnuts c h est nuts a nd .

, ,

plum s gr o w in t he va lleys Mu lb errie s are cultivate d f o r silk .

worm s The ch ief t o wn is Phi lippopo li s and Bu rga s is the po rt

.
,

o n t he B l a ck Sea The wa rm er climat e o f t he s ou th ern va lley s

.

!
a ll o ws t he gro wt h o f rice c o tt o n and t he vin e , , .

The bu lk of t he p opulatio n a re Bu lga r s wh o sp e a k a Sla vo n ic ,

langu age and bel on g t o the Greek Church The Tu rki sh popu la .

tion n ow less than one sixt h of t he who le is diminishin g s in ce

,
-

Bulga ria bec am e in dep endent .

Alba ni a Ma ce do ni a , , Thra ce ce a s e d t o be p art o f the

and
Turki sh Emp ire in 1 91 3 , a fter t he w ar with the B a lka n S t a te s .

N O T E — At t h e tim e wh en t h ese p a g es w ere g o ing thro u g h t h e press ,

t he fina l p o lit ic a l a rra ng em en t s wit h reg a rd t o t h es e c ountries w ere st ill

u nsettled .
28 4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Albani a is m ou nta in la nd c o mpo sed of lim estone

a It is .

largely stony and waterle ss and ha s no forest s except on the ,

wetter hill s whi ch fa ce west In the upl ands little indu st ry is

, .

po ss ible except the keep in g o f sh eep a n d c a t tle A little whe at .

is grown on t he hi gh pla in o f Y an in a The o live is gro wn o n the .

coast a nd in the s outh ern va lleys S ku ta ri n e ar Lake Skutari .

, ,

is t h e m a in to wn Th e p eo p le are p a s tora l m ounta ineers

.
,

d ivid ed i nto sma ll trib es o ften at feud with o ne a no th er,

.

M acedonia is m uch m o re f ertile than Alban ia havin many ,

hill circled pla in s suita b le fo r a gricu ltu re

-
Unfo rtun a te y s ome .

o f th e s e ,as Mo na st ir a nd the Cam pa nia we st of Sa loni ca are ,

ma rshy and sub ject to m a la ria Sa lon ica is the p ort and .

terminu s o f the ra ilwa y fr o m B elgrad e Wheat and toba cco are .

grown in the pla ins and river va ll eys and o live s on the c oast , .

is fe rtile in the a llu via l va lleys o f t h e Maritsa and it s

tributa ry the Er eni and m a i ze t oba cc o and wine are grown
, , , .

Mulberrie s a re on t ivat ed fo r silk fo r wh ich Adrian ople is fa mou s , .

As in t he Ka zanlik Va lley in Ea stern Ru m elia o n the Tunj a ,

a tributa ry of the Ma rit sa ro se s a re gr o wn f or the manuf a cture ,

of p erfum e .

The e a st of Thra ce between Adria no ple and Cons tantino ple

, ,

is a steppe c oun try with pre do mina n t pastora l in du strie s It is .

swe p t by c o ld win ds in win ter and du st storm s in su mm er

'
-
.

TURKEY IN EUROPE .

B osni a H erzegovina S ervi a B ul garia and Ea ster n Rum elia ,

a nd , ,

Greece , Alba nia , Ma ce do nia a nd Thra ce were form erly p art of ,

t he Turkish do m ini o ns wh ich are n o w res tricted to a na rrow

,

stri p o f land, from Eno s a t th e m o uth of th e M arit sa Rive r, to

Midi a o n th e B la ck Sea .

Constantinopl e ( S ta m b ul ) s ta nds a t the s outh west end of the -

B osporus ( nowh ere m o re tha n tw o m iles a nd in parts less than ,

ha lf a m ile , wide) wh ere it wid ens t o t h e Sea of Ma rm ora

, .

The inl et of the Go l den H o rn f o rms a goo d h a rbo ur fo r sm all er vessel s .

T he to wn has an ex c el l en t p o sit io n a s a s tra t eg i c c entre be in g buil t on high ,

gro und a t the end o f a na rro w p enin sul a The Da rd anell es a re long , .

winding and narro w and ea sily defended

, T he c omman d of sea routes .

fro m the Bla c kSea to th e ZEg ean a nd o f th e co n verg ing land ro u tes fro m ,

Eu rope and Asia Minor expl a in its grea t im po rtanc e in histo ry

, .
28 6 T EX T B OOK -

OF GEO GRAPHY

FIG . 33 . PL AIN S OF GR E EC E .

, r
1 , Plain o f Athen s ; 2 Co inth ; 3 A go s ; 4 A , r , rc a dia ; r
5 S pa ta ; 6 M ss nia ;
, ,
e e
7 Oly m p ia ; 8 El is ; 9 Ac h aea ; 1 0 Asp o
, , , , r o t a m o s ; l l A ta
,
r
1 2 B oeo tia
,

, e
( Liva d ia ) 1 3 T h ssa ly ; 1 4 T h erm o py , 213 .

Climate and Pro ducts — In Greece sm a ll fertile pl a ins a re

.

o ften s e pa ra ted by u pla n d s o f crysta llin e sc hi st s with a poor ,

o r b arre n li m e st on e
so il
, p la te a u s (see Fig T hi s h elps .
 T HE B ALKAN PENINSULA 28 7

to explain cien t divi sion o f Greece int o rela tively sma ll

the an

City S tates The ind ented c oa st with nu m ero u s ha rbo urs

. , ,

facilitated c ommunication by sea .

The influ en ce o f ho t a nd a lm o st rai nle ss su m m ers is a ccen tu a te d

in a region wh ere the pred o min an ce o f po r ou s lim e st on e re stri ct s
the exten t o f runn ing and surf a ce water The plai n s a re W i th ere d .

in summ er ; springs a re a va lua b le pr op erty a nd i rr i g a ti o n l s ,

necessa ry fo r t h e gr o wth o f fr ui t The typ i c a l pr o duct o f th e .

Io nian Isles a nd th e Pelo po nne se is cu rra nts Whea t barley .

, ,

rye and m a ize are gr o wn Th e Pla in o f Thessa ly i s l argely

,
.

d evo ted t o wh e a t Ab o u t o ne qu arter o f th e im p orts are f o o d

.
-

r o du c t s O f t h e re st c oa l a nd m a nuf a cture d c o tt o ns a nd
p .

wo o llens are the m o st impo rtant Toba cc o a nd c otto n a re gr o w n .

in Th essa ly a nd th e Pla in o f Liva di a ( B oeo tia ) Th essa ly is .

fa m o u s f o r h o r s e s Silkwo r ms a re kept esp ecia lly in Mess eni a

.

a nd Th e ssa ly The ho n ey o f Hym ettu s is f a m ou s

. Spo nge s .

are o btaine d o n the we st c o a st .

Th e m a in exp o rts a nd imports in p erce nta ge o f t o t a l va lue , ,

are

Ex p o nrs — Currants 3 7 l ead

.
, o re , 5 i ro n o re, 6 o li ve o il , 8 wine , 8 .

Imp oR T s .
— Grain 26 , tex til e m anu fa ctu res ,
11 c oal , 5 .

Ir o n , lea d, z inc , s ilver , a nd o th er mi ner a l s a re o bta in ed fro m

the La u riu m d istrict, Th essa ly, Eu bce a , a nd t he ZEgea n Isle s . .

Aseven in the dro u ght o f summ er there is a c erta in am o un t o f wa ter

flo wing fro m the un dergro un d res ervo irs o f the l im esto ne u plan d s t h e ,

m ea d o ws o n t h e hill slo p es c an be irriga t ed fo r c a ttl e a nd c ul tiva tio n

-

c arried o n in t he plain s w here level spa c es fa cilita te the d istribution of

,

wa ter by numero u s c h ann el s T his reg ul a rity o f wa t er su pply pro vides th e

.
-

k ey to the o ccu pa tio n o f t h e sm a ll p l a ins by t h e Greekcities An exa m in a .

tion o f Fig 3 3 wil l sho w tha t all the im p o rt ant to wns c o mm and pl ains
.

which co ul d be wa tered and c ul tiva ted in summ er .

Towns — The la rge st inla nd t o wn s a re Trika la a nd La ri ssa

.

in Thessa ly , wi th so m e c o tton , silk, a n d le ath er m anu fa ctu re s ,

and t he
p ort o f Vo l o Athen s, with the po rt o f th e Piraeu s , is the
.

capita l o f Attica Syra , or Herm o u po lis, is the m a in tra d in g centre

.

of t he [ E eam Pa tra s , in t he Gu lf o f Pa tra s, expo rt s c u rra n t s

g .

Crete b ec a m e pa rt Greec e in 1 9 1 2of On t h e so u th t h e m o un ta in ba ck .

bone, whic h rises t o o ver f eet fall s st eepl y t o th e c o a st w h ich is li ttle

, ,

in d ent ed and ha s f ew h arb o urs O n th e n orth th e slo p e is m o re g entl e

.
,

a nd ext ens iv e c u ltiv a tio n is

p ossibl e T h e c o ast h as m a ny p en in su l a s b a y s
. , ,

a nd
g ulf s .T h e im p or ta nt cities o f a n cient Crete w ere b u il t o n this sid e ,

a nd t he m o dern t o wn s h a v e b een ere ct ed o n t h e a n c ien t sit es O f th es e .

28 8 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

t h e m ost im p o rt a nt are Canea a nd Ca ndi a Ca ttl e a re ex te ns iv ely p a st ured .

o n t h e m ou nt a in s w h il e th e vi n e an d o live a re cultiva t ed o n t h e h ill

,

sid es . A c erta in am o u nt o f wh ea t is gro wn in t h e lim it ed a rea o f pla in .

Cy pr us is un d er B ritish a dm ini st ra tio n On t h e no rth is a crescent .

sh a p ed ra n g e o f m o un t a in s ri sin g t o o v er f eet a nd f al ling st eeply t o

, ,

t h e s ea . T o t h e so u th o f this ra n g e a l o w pla in th e M esa o ria ex t end s , ,

fro m ea st to w est N ic o si a t h e p rin cip al t o w n li es in th e c en t re

. , T he , .

so u th w e s tern p o rtio n o f t h e isl a n d is l a rg ely o cc u p ie d b y t h e f o rest ed

-

Ol ym p u s M ou n ta in s o r T ro ed os wh ich ris e t o o v er
, f eet T h e f o rests
, .

h a v e su fi ered fro m th e in roa d s m a d e sin c e early da y s ( s ee p T he .

Ph oeni cia n s o bta in ed t im ber in Cyp ru s f o r ship b u il ding a n d c op p er f or t he ,

m a nufa ct ure o f bro nz e wh ich ne c essita t ed th e a d di t io na l d estr u ctio n o f

,

w o o d fo r sm elting O wing t o th e lim est o n e fo rm ation there a re n o p er

. ,

m a n ent riv ers b ut a seri es o f springs a t th e b a s e o f th e hill s su p ply th e

,

n eeds o f settlem en t ( see p 3 1 T h e M endip s ) .In th e n or th ern c o a st ran g e

, .

t h ese o cc ur a t fro m 5 00 t o 700 f eet a nd la rg ely in flu en c e th e p o sition of ,

vill ag es an d to wn s in t h e c en tral va lley As in Cret e t h e m o un tains a re . ,

p a st o ral th e lo wer h ill sl op es a n d p la ins w h ere irrig a tio n i s p o ssibl e

-
, , ,

a g ri c u l t u ra l A la rg e am o u nt o f sal t is o bt a ined fro m t h e sa li n e lak

. es o f
La r na k a a n d Lim a so l w hic h d ry up in s u m m er
, .

RUSSIA IN EUROPE .

Area = 2 09 5 000 s qu a re mil es m o re than sev en t een tim es the United

, , ,

Kingd o m T he whol e Ru ssia n Em pire = 8 ; m illio n s qu a re m il es mo re

.
? ,

tha n three qu arters o f t he B ritish Em pire Po pul a tio n = l 3 9 m ill ions in

-
.

1 9 1 0 ; 6 6 t o t h e s qu a re m ile S t Pet ers bu rg = nearly 2 m illio n s

. . .

Confi guration and Natural Reg ions .

B altic Lowl ands and Uplands — The Ea stern Lo wla nds, which .

c o mpris e m o st of Ru ss ia , are a c ontinu a tion o f the Centra l

Lo wlan ds o f Euro p e They lie b etween the h e a d stre a m s o f the
.

Dn ieper and the Ura ls .

The c oun try is gen era lly a lo w pl atea u , the wa tersh e ds o f the
river s lyin g o n m arshy do m e shap ed u plands, which seldom -

exceed feet The no rthern pa rt o f the land is c o vered

.

with m o rain ic d epo sit s (see Fig whi le in the south , fr om the .

D ni ep er B as in t o th e grea t b end of th e Vo lga , is a band of rich

s o il k no w n a s th e bl a ck e a rth .

The B altic Drainag e is supplied by t he Vi stula , o f which the

l ow er c ou r s e is in Germ an y— the Niem en and the Dun a The .

m idd le ba sin o f t he Vi stula fo rm s Ru ssia n Po la nd Mu ch of the .

surfa ce is w o o d e d Ca ttle a nd ho rs e s a re n u m erou s

.
Sugar .

b eet and wh e a t a re the m a in cro ps Lo d z , with textile in du stries, .

290 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

S ve ab o rg on t he c o a st o f Finland St Petersburg , o n t he . . so u th
ban k o f the N eva buil t in 1 70 3 by Peter t h e Grea t t o
, , c om

m an d the B a ltic is c onn ecte d with the Gu lf o f Fin la nd by a

,
canal
which a vo ids the bar at the m o uth o f the Neva .

Th e Finnish Lak e Region — A line dra wn fro m t he Whi te Sea

k
.

through La ke s O n ega , Lado ga , and the N eva , ma r s t he so uthern

b o un da ry o f t he Archa e an p latea u o f Finland c o vered with
c o untless gla cia l l a kes and va st pin e and fir fo re st s Th ere is a .

rem a rka ble regul a rity in the directi on o f the l a ke s and o ld

m o ra in ic rid ge s, wh ic h ha s in flu en ce d tha t o f the ro a d s and even
the streets o f the t o wn s Thi s is m a in ly fr o m n o rth we st t o
.
-

so u th —e a st . The gla ciers wh ich sc o re d t h e land , and ha ve left

su ch la rge erra tic b lo cks a nd ext e nsive d e p o s it s o f c o a r se m o ra in ic

m ateria l , s eem t o ha ve fo llo we d thi s d irectio n O win g to the .

inf ertility of th e so il , tim b er an d c attle a re m o re impo rta nt than

a gric u lt u re , wh ich is li mi te d t o ba rley o a t s, ry e, p o t a t o e s, and ,

b eet ro o t
-
. The h igh intelligence a nd in du stry o f t h e Finns ha s
enabled th em t o m a ke the fu llest u se o f na tu ra l re sou rces Water .

po wer is la rgely em p l o ye d , a nd m a nu f a ctu re s a re c a rried on at

Hel singf o r s an d o ther c o a st t o wns .

The Arctic B asin — T he No rth ern D vina is fo r m e d by the

.

k
c o nfl uence o f t w o river s, the Su h o na fro m th e s o u th west, a nd -

th e Vy c h egda fr o m th e no rth ea s t N in ety three per ce nt of

-
.
-

th e g o ver nm e nt o f Vo l o gd a , wh ic h f o r m s it s u pp er ba s in, is
o cc u p ie d b y f o rests o f l a rc h , p i n e , will o w , a n d b irch Th e north .

is o cc u p ie d by the m o r a ss es wh ich f o rm th e lich e n tundra , wh ere

reind eer r o am Th is is u ninh ab ited excep t by wa ndering
.

S a m o ye d e s .At the im o u th is Archa ngel o n th e Wh ite Sea,

'

wh ich exp o rts timb er , furs , and cere a ls Th e M urma n, o r Lap .

l a nd c o as t , o n the no rth eas t o f th e K o l a Pe ninsu l a , is ice free

- -

du ri ng m ost o f th e ye a r ( see p a nd is V i s ite d f o r c o d fis hin

.
g
-
.

A na va l h a rb o u r h as b ee n c o ns tru cte d a t Po rt Ca th erin e .

The Pe ch ora is on ly free fr o m ice at it s m ou th during one third -

of the yea r .

The Urals ris e grad ua lly f ro m the we st t o a bo ut feet,

bu t d e scend ste eply t o the e a s t to wa rds Sib eria The n o rthern .

pa rt fo rm s a tun d ra regio n T he centre is d ens ely f o re sted, a nd

.

ha s va lua b le min e s o f g o ld , c o pper , iro n , c o a l , and

pla tinum
( th e m ain sou rce o f produc t i on in t he wo rl d ) Y eka terinburg .

is the centre o f t h e m in era l regi o n a t a n im p o rta nt n a tura l a ,

g p
where the Siberian ra ilwa y cro sse s the Ura l s In the sou th the .

Ura l s sink into the ste ppe s o f t he Ca spia n d e pre ssio n .

 RUSSIA IN EURO PE 29 1

The South West B asin — This is dra ine d by the Dnie ster , the
-
.

Bu g, and the D niep er , whic h ha ve cut d ee p va lley s into t he o ld

rocks which lie belo w the m o re recent su perficia l de po sits The .

Dnieper ris es in the Cen tra l Height s, a f o re st regi on with ma ny

mora sse s, where the We stern D vina a nd O a , a tribu t a ry o f the k
Vo lga , also ha ve their o rigin The Pripet , which j o ins it fro m
k
.

the we st , flo ws thro ugh t he Ro itn o m ar sh e s In the u pper pa rt .

of the Dniep er Ba sin t he p ro duct s are rye (t he ma in f o o d cere a l

of Ru ssi a ) , ba rley an d oat s, fla x and h e mp In t he centre is .

the fertile bla ck ea rt h regio n wh ere whe a t , to ba cc o and su ga r ,

beet are cu ltivated The so u th ern pa rt o f the so u th we st ba sin

.
-

bordering the B la ck Sea is a ste pp e regio n , m a inly pa st o ra l with

shee
p ca ttle , and h o rs e s, tho u gh the a re a o f whe at cultivati o n
,

is being extend ed so uthwa rds Kiyev ( Kiefl , Kiev , Kiew) , o n

.

the D nieper , a t t h e c o nfluence o f its m a i n tribu t a ries , is th e ce ntre

o f the no rth er n a nd s o u th er n a ricu ltur a l d istrict , a nd ha s fl o ur
g
mills , toba cc o , b eet suga r , a nd wo o lle n fa ct o ries
-

Y eka terino .

sl av , o n th e e ast o f th e D o nets c o a lfield , lie s a b o ve the r a i ds

p
of the D ni e er a t t he gre a t b e nd W h ere th e river is cr o ss ed b y a
p
bridge three qua rters o f a m ile wid e
-
Kh erso n , a t th e m ou th.

of t he D nie er , N ik o la yev, a t t he m o u th o f th e B u , a nd O d es s a ,
p g
eas t of the D niester , are wh ea t po rts with fl o ur m ills a nd so m e
shipbui lding .

The Central Russian B asin — Th e Don rise s in t he Centra l

Heights It s chief tributa ry , the D on et s , ha s a n im p o rtant
.

c oa lfield , wh ere iron is m in e d There a re gro win g iro n a nd steel

.

manufa ctu re s Kha rko v lies a little t o the no rth o f thi s c o a l

.

field, in the centre of th e

whea t regio n b etween the Dn ieper and
Don . It ha s on e of the m o st impo rtant fa irs in Ru ssi a and ,

manufa ctu res soa p toba cc o and su ga r Ta gan ro g a t the hea d

, , .
,

of the Sea o f A z o v and Ro st o v a t the m o u th o f the D o n a re

, , ,

the po rts o f the c o a lfield a nd the o u tlet s fo r cere a ls fla x w o o l , , ,

and ta llo w Seva sto p o l in the Crim e a fa m o u s fo r it s siege
.
, ,

i n 1 854 is a n a va l a r sena l
, Win e and t o ba cc o a re pr o duced in
.

the Crim ea e s ecia lly on t he sh eltere d so u th ea st c o a st where

p
-
, ,

a Mediterran e an cli ma te
preva ils .

The Volg a rise s in the Va lda i Hil ls in a pea t m o ss a n d flo w s ,

through a series of la ke s s im ila r t o tho s e of the Ba ltic Height s

It receive s the Ok
.

a a t Nizhny i No vg o ro d which is situ a ted at

-

the o ld meetin g la ce o f e a st a nd we st On t he we st t he c a ra va n
p
-
.

routes led t o Mosc o w while on t he ea st they fo llo wed t he n a viga ble

,

Volga and Ka ma Rivers to pa ss the Ura l s by the Y ekaterinburg

292 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

ga p, o r to skirt the m at t he sout h by Orenburg , where ta llow,

so ap, and le a t her a re p r o du ce d The m a nufa cture s of Tula and
Central Ru ssia were b rou gh t by t he Ok
.

a to exchan ge for the

ra w cotton , brick t ea and p etro leu m o f the Ca sp ian The

-

, .

autu mn fa ir is still i m p o rt an t p ro b a b ly treb lin g the po pula tion

,

but m o de rn ra ilwa ys ena b lin g p ro du ce t o be sent a cro ss Ru ssia

,

to the Baltic , Bla ck Sea and even t h e Arctic po rt of Archangel,

,

ha ve d iminish ed t he n eed f o r a c en tra l m a rket

k
.

M oscow, on the Mo skva a tribu ta ry of the O a , is the most

,

important intellect u a l an d ind u stri a l centre in Ru ssia Roads .

and ra ilwa y s ra dia te f r o m it in a ll direct ions a s th ey do from

Pa ri s . The c o a lfield s o f the Ok a wh ere at Tula , there are , ,

i mportant manuf a cture s o f ha rdwa re and a rms, supply the fuel

fo r fa cto rie s .

Ka z an , abo ve t he Ka ma c o n flu en ce is a l arge manufacturing ,

t own The Volga , sou th o f t he Ka m a ha s lo ft y ba nks on the

.
,

we st , the Volga Heigh t s excee din g feet in pla ces The .

remarkable b end a t S am a ra is c au s ed by a lim e stone barrier .

Sa ratov, to t he sou th o f S a ma ra ha s o il re finerie s, flour mills, ,

a nd t o ba cco fa ct o rie s .

Thro ugh out t he Lo wer Vo lga which pa sse s through a steppe ,

region in which ca ttle, ho r se s a nd sheep are pa stured, leather ,

is an im portant i du try In 48 n o rth la titud e the Volga is

° '

n s .

on ly se parate d fro m t he Do n by lo w h eight s , wh ich ca u se it to

turn so uth e ast to t he Ca sp ia n (85 feet b elo w sea level ) There

- -
.

it fo r ms a delta tra versed by man y c ha nn el s As tra khan is the .

port . A line o f sa lt m a rshe s a nd la ke s the Manych Valley, ,

cro sses the steppe s from the h ead o f the Sea of Az ov to the
Ca sp ia n This regi on ha s gen era lly a very sma ll ra infall, and
.

is entirely un suite d fo r cu ltiva ti on except in fa vo ure d regions, ,

s uc h a s the Kuba n Va lley wh ic h o e ns u o n th e B l a ck Sea a

p p ,

little so uth of Az ov, th e T erek Delta , etc In th es e t he warmer, .

dry clim ate a ll ows th e gro wt h o f vin e a nd t o b a cco with irri

gatio n .

To t he so uth of t he Ca uc a su s (see As ia , p 3 3 8 ) mulberries, .

vin e s, t ea (in the wetter regio n s) and co tton c an be grown , .

Climate , Pro ducts, and T rade .

T ab le VI ( Asia ) sh o ws th e cl im a te o f p la ces in Russi a (see

.

Figs 3 8
. Th e co nti n e n ta l c h a ra cter is well m arke d The .

wh o le cou ntry has col d winters excep t t h e so uth of the Crimea,

Tr ansc a uc a sia , a nd th e s o u th ea s t c o as ts o f th e B l a ck S ea Yalta,
(
-
29 4 TEX T B OO K-
OF GE O GRAPHY

t he Vo lga H eigh ts . Ma i kth e M a ny c h Va lley a n d the so u thern lim it o f

gla c ia tio n . Dra w th e ra il wa y s th a t ra dia te fro m M os c o w a nd t h e na viga bl e
rivers .

2 . Ru ssia is n o t a fl a t pl a in b u t a n u nd ula ting pl a tf o rm rising gently

, ,

fro m a bo u t 3 00 f eet to 1 000 f eet ex c ep t in t h e d eeply c u t river val l ey s

, .

Illu stra te by referen c e t o s p ec ific regio ns o n the o re g ra phi c al m a p .

3 M a rko n t h e m a p t h e m a in ind u s tria l a rea s a nd d is ting uish t he

. ,

ind u s tri es S ho w t he fo rest a nd st epp e regio n s

. .

4 Ill u stra t e t h e c o nn e ct io n b etwe en cl im a t e so il a n d pro d u cts in Ru ssia

.
, , .
 ASIA

Struc ture .

IN Fig 35 the m a in fea tures o f th e

. s tru cture of As ia a re em

pha siz ed Th es e m a y be su m m a rized

. as

1 . Th e Ol d W orld
Lowl ands, a va s t pla i n, th e c o nti nuity o f
which is o nly i nterrupted by the low fo l d ra nge o f the Ur a ls .

The na viga bility o f the l o wer c o urs es o f t he Ob a nd Y e n is ei

(see Fig 48 ) are a re m inder o f th e gra dua l s lop e fro m the m o un
.

ta ins o f Centra l As ia t o th e Arctic Ocea n .

2 Th e Pl ateaus, wh ich extend fr o m As ia M ino r t o Ea s t

.

Siberia at diff erent eleva tio n s Th e s e a re a s a r ul e bo rd ered by

.

ma rgina l ra nges, wh ich in m a n y c a s es a re pa ra llel t o th e line s o f

the ma in fo l d m o u nta ins .

3 Th e Fold M ountai ns — Th es e c o ns is t o f th e Ca u ca su s, be
. .

tween th e Manych Ga p a nd th e Kur Va lley, in Tra ns ca uca s ia

th e bla ck sea c o a st r a nges , d eeply cu t by th e Va lley o f th e
Kiz il Irm a k, a nd th e Ta u rus , wh ich enc lo s e th e pla tea u o f As ia
Min o r o n t he no rth a n d so uth , a nd cul m in a te in th e Ar m en ia n
kno t a t Mo u nt Ara ra t ; th e m ou nta in bo rd ers o f th e Plateau o f
Ira n ; t he Alta i ; th e Hin du Ku sh , Tia n Sha n , Kw enlu n , a nd
Ka ra ko ra m , wh ich a pp ro xim a tely m eet in th e Sa riko l kno t , in
th e so u th ea st o f t he Pa m ir Pla tea u th e H i m a la ya s th e Ara ka n
-

Mo unta ins, wh ich bo u nd th e Ira wa d dy Ba s in o n th e wes t a nd were

once co ntinu ed thro ugh th e Anda m a n a nd Nic o ba r Isla nds t o
the so u th wes t o f Su ma tra ; th e Kh ing a n Ra nge a nd t h e f o ld
‘

ranges o f th e o ld Pa cific sho re l in e fro m Ma la ys ia to Ala ska

-
.

4 Th e Trench es f orm ed by Rivers wh ich lea d th r o u gh th e

.
,

bo rder ra nges a nd esca rp m ents o n to th e pla tea u s Th e m a i n .

gaps o f th is descriptio n wh ich d etermin e th e l in es o f t h e o ld tr a d e

,

routes o f Centra l As ia a re tha t o f th e W eiho Valley le a d ing by

, ,

the Ja d e Ga te a nd th e defil es no rth o f th e Na nsh a n t o t h e Ta rim

Ba sin a nd the Zunga ria n Ga te b etween th e T ia n Sha n a nd th e ,

Alta i a nd th a t o f th e S elenga s o uth o f th e rift va lley o f La ke

, ,

295
29 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

J APAN 5

V
ert lci l m tion 4 0 times
ex agg e .

FIG . 35 .
—As m : S T RU C T U R E .

Of . c arefully w ith Figs 3 6

. , 37 .
29 8 T EX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

Two results m a y b e no ted— i so la tio n fro m r a in brin g ing W inds

(th e Ta ri m Bas in ) , a n d wa r m in g o f w inds, wh ich descend sh a rply
t o th e p la ins k
Pe ing [ 5 6] is wa r m er th a n N i uc h w a ng [ 5 5 ]

bec au s e t h e winds a re so m ewh a t wa rm e d by ra p i d d es cent in

Fro . 36 .
— AS IA : RELIEF .

p la ce blo w ing d irectly o ver c o l d p la in s

of In . a dditio n it sh o uld
be n o te d tha t a n increas e d r a in fa ll is d u e to fo rced a scent on
m o u nta in m a rgin s.

Reli e f .

Th e c o nto u rs s electe d fo r p ictur ing th e a rea s o f equ a l eleva tion

o f As ia o n t h e o r o gr a h ic a l m a
p p a re th o s e o f 600 ,

a nd f eet
.

Lowl ands — Th e 6 00 f ee t line clea rly d e fin es th e Old Wo rld

.
-

Lo wla nds a nd th e Ara lo Ca sp ia n Dep re ss io n ( Tura n) a regio n

-

,
 ASIA 29 9

of dy des erts a nd barren s tepp e s, isola te d o n th e ea s t a nd

s an

sou th s ide s by m o u nta in ranges , a n d s inking o n a ll s id e s t o wa r d s

th e Ca spian, th e level of who s e wa ters is c o ns id er a bly belo w th a t

o f the Me diterr an ea n To the imm e dia te e a s t o f th e Old Wo rld
.

FIG . 3 7 — Asu
. : R rvnn SY S T EM S .

Note the inl a nd ba sin s Cf w it h Fig s 1 1 , 44 4 5 ( Ra infa ll ) ,

. . . ,

a nd Fig 4 7 ( Veg eta t io n)

. .

Lowlands the S iberia n Lowla nd is confin ed to a broa d c o a sta l

,
pla in , whi ch na rro ws a pprecia bly towa rds th e Ea st Ca p e A .

well marked regio n is tha t o f th e grea t a ll uvia l Va lley o f th e

-

Lena , which extends far inla nd in to th e mo unta ins o f th e sou th .

On the south a nd ea st very difi erent c o nd itio ns a re m et with

througho ut th e eno rm ou s length o f coa st fro m th e Sea o f Azo f,
round the Pensinul a o f As ia Min o r, d own th e S yria n and Ara bia n
coast, and in and o ut fro m th ere to B ering Stra it The co as ta l .
300 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

pl a in is for th e mo st pa rt na rro w and ba cke d by h ill y regio ns,

wh ich in m a ny parts ris e very sharp ly fro m the c o ast ; as, for
ins ta n ce, the no rth ern a n d so uth ern c o as ts o f As ia M ino r, Wes tern
Ara bia , th e We stern Decca n , S outh ern Ch ina a nd Ko rea .

Ind ee d, th e ch ief excep tio ns are th e va lle ys of th e la rge ri vers,

a ll o f wh ich a re m a rke d b
y lo w a ll uvia l valleys , extending fa r
inla nd to th e very s lo p es o f th e h ighla nds in wh ich th e r i vers

ris e Of th es e th e mo s t im po rta n t are th e Euph ra tes a nd Ti gris

.

t h e Indus , with th e Pun j a b s epa r a ted o n ly by a lo w water sh e d

fro m th e Pla in of th e Ga nges th e Brah m a putra , a nd th e sm a ller
rivers o f th e Decca n Th en , f a rth er ea s t th e lo wer cours es of
k
.
,

th e Ira wa ddy, M ena m , M eko ng So ng o i (Red River) , in Indo

Ch ina a nd th e Sik
,

ian g, Ya ng ts e , H wangh o , a nd Peih o in Ch ina .

Up lands -

. In co ns id erin g th e cha ra cter o f th e p a rts between

th e 6 00 a nd feet co ntour lin es, it mus t be no ticed tha t th e
diff ere nce o f eleva ti o n is very c o ns ider ab le , and m ay comprise
rel a tively high h ills , a nd le a ves room for grea t variatio n in
fea tures The. f eet li ne th rougho u t As ia d efin es the limits
of the l o wlands , a nd ma rks the lo wer s lop es of the grea t m o unta in
r anges wh ich enclo se th e regi o ns o f th e p l a teaus , a nd which in
th eir continu a tio n eastwards i nt o Indo China f or m long ridges,
-

s epa ra te d by d ee
p g o rges In Ch ina th e s e ra nges f o rm the
.

Kw enlu n Mo u nta ins a nd th e So u th Chi n a Heights , the na tural

divis io ns o f Ch ina pr o p er , a nd north e a stw a r ds , th e Y ablo noi
-

a nd St an ov o i Mo u nt a i ns o f Ea stern S ib eria M ore o ver , the

.

im porta nt d epress io ns o f As ia M ino r , Centr a l Ira n , B aluch is tan,

t he Tarim B a s in, a nd M o ng o lia a re clea rly sh o w n b el o w this
eleva tion, th us emph a s izing th e inl and dr a ina ge areas of the
pl atea us . In the o utlying pl a te a u o f Ar a b i a th e ge ner a l slo pe
from wes t t o ea st is indic a ted . In t h e Decc a n , th ough t he
pla tea u is no t well ma rked, yet a c a reful insp ectio n sh ows that
t h e elev a ti o n is h igh er a nd les s broke n in th e we s t a nd so uth
th a n in th e ea st ; a nd sim il arly th e m o u nt a inous parts of Man
churia a nd Ko rea s tand o ut bo ldl y fr o m the lower l a nd w hich
s ep a r a tes th e m fro m the Kh ing a n M oun t a i ns .

Th e rivers, t o o , a re s een to group th e ms elve s in th ree cla sses .

All t h e S iberia n rivers, in clu d ing the Am u r , for m a group a part,

d is tinguis h e d by a rela tively sh o rt upp er cours e a m ongs t the
m o un ta i ns o f the S ib eria n gro up , a lo ng middle c o ur s e , a nd an
extra o rdinarily lo ng l o wer cours e Th e rivers of Ch ina , th os e of
.

Ind o China ( excepting th e Iraw a ddy ) , t o geth er with t he B rahma

-

putra a nd Ind us , c a n b e gro up e d to geth er by t h e e nor mo us

302 T EX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

an d a bove which ris e lofty m o unt a in cha i ns to feet

high er Tib et like the lower p la te aus of As ia is buttress e d by
.
, ,

grea t ra nges ; o f th ese the m ost pro m inent are th e Kwenlun, l n

t h e north , a n d t h e Tr a ns Him a la ya , Ka r a ko r a m , a nd Him a la ya
-

in the so uth rising t o ,

f eet in Mount Everes t .

CLIMAT E .

Po siti o n a nd Exte nt — Th e . fo llo wing p o in ts s ho ul d be ex

a mined gl obe
on a

1 . Extrem e Lo ngi tudes W to 26 E . m iles fro m

— 1 70 ° .
°
.

th e western c o a s t o f As ia M ino r to Ea st Cap e ( cen tral m eridian

a bo ut 1 08 ea st— ale fro m th e c o a st o f Anna m t o a little east o f
°
,

Ca p e Ch elyus kin ) As th e m erid ia n o f 90 ea st (s ix ho urs in

.
°

a dva nce of Green wich )

pa sses a little ea st of Ca lc u tta it will be ,

s een tha t so fa r a s l o ngitu d e is co n cern e d As ia ha s a grea te r

, ,

ex tens io n to th e wes t o f India th a n to th e eas t bu t an exa mina

tio n of a glo be sh ows tha t th e N i millio n s qu a re m iles of As ia
( mo re than th e who le o f the New Wo rld a nd a l m o st a th ird o f ,

t h e la nd s urfa ce o f th e glo b e ) lie a ppro xim a tely ha lf o n ea ch , ,

°
s i d e o f 90 ea s t l o n gitu d e .

" °
2 Extre m e Latitude
.
— 7 8 3 0 N to 90 m il es n orth o f th e
. .

E qua tor— ie f ro m a p oint a bo ut h a lf wa y b etween th e Arctic

l
.
-

Circle a nd th e No rth Pole to a little so uth o f S in ga po re

m iles ( Cap e Ch el y us kin t o Ca p e B u ru ) .

3 Th e Inc i de nc e o f th e Equator and th e Tropics — Only th e

.

no rth ern tr0 p ic fa ll s with in t h e c o ntinent so th a t di vis io n ma

y ,

be ma d e int o
( a ) A na rro w belt o f no t mo re th an 23 § to ta l width and a
o
,

little less tha n 8 0 length It b o ul d be noted tha t tro p ica l As ia

°
.

lies almo st entirely to the eas t o f th e c entra l m erid ia n— o n wh ich

’
t h e s un s ra ys a t lea st onc e in the yearf a ll vertica ll
y dis tributing ,

th e m a ximum o f h e at a nd ligh t .

Th e ma xi m u m a ngul a r d ista nce fro m th e regio n o f vertical

s u n is 4 7 c o ns equ e ntly th e r a nge of Midda y Su n Force in the
,
-

tr o pi cs is appr o xima tely fro m 1 00 to 68 (see p 3 9 General .

,

Intro ductio n t o Clima te

( b) A bro a d belt o f grea t brea d th a nd len gth t o the no rth of ,

th e n o rth ern tro p ic o n wh ich th e su n s ra s al wa s all obli uel ’

,
y y f q y ,

t h e o bliquity va rying with th e d is tance fro m th e h ea t equator

( wh ere the su n s ra ys fa ll vertica lly )
’
.

A reference t o Table II (see p 3 9 ) will ma ke it cle ar tha t the

. .
 ASIA 3 03

di ff ere nces extrem e (06 6 5 per cent in wi nter ) in extra

are s o .

tr opica l Asia that a further s ubdivisio n will be fo und n ecessary .

4 Surroundi ng Parts —On the wes t th e Old Wo rld Lo wla nds

. .
-

are c o nti nuo us int o Eur o p e a nd cycl o ne s to rm s ( so uth so uth

, ,

west and west) c a n penetr a te with dim inishing fo rce i nt o

, , ,

Western Siberia ; their influence extends to a ppro xima tely th e °

To th e s o u th o f a bo ut la titu d e 40
°
Yenis ei 90 ea st l o ngitu d e
, .

Asia Mino r sha res with S yria a nd the wes tern m a rgin o f th e
Plateau o f Ir an the typ ic a l Med iterr a ne a n clim ate o f winter r a i ns .

Farther s outh Arabia is s epa ra ted from Afric a by th e na rr o w

rift va lley of the Red Sea a nd o nly dry wi nds c a n rea ch Asi a
,

from that qua rter In the no rth the Arctic Ocea n with its
.
,

frozen surfa ce forms in wi nter a n extens i o n o f th e c o ld l and m a ss

,

o f As ia while in s um m er No rth W e s t
, No rth a nd No rth Ea st
-

, ,
-

winds of a mo ns o o n ch a ra cter bring a certa in am ou nt of m o istu re

t o the Sib eria n Pla ins On th e e a st a nd so uth As ia is b o u nd e d
.

by the Pa cific a nd Ind ia n Ocea ns resp ectively ; c o ns eque ntly ,

the winds tha t are dr a wn int o th e interi or o f As ia fr o m th e s e

qua rters a re the m a i n s o u rces o f ra i nfa ll .

Oth er Factors of Clim ate .

So fa r o nly wha t m a y b e c a lled th e exterio r fa cto r s o f clim a te

ha ve been c o ns idered Th es e m a y be s u mm a rized a s sun f orc e,
. -

depe ndent on l atitude a nd th e sourc es of m oisture It is clea r .

tha t th e dis ta nce o f so m e a r ts o f As ia fro m s u ch s o urces a nd

p
the ro xi m ity o f o th ers m u s t be o f s u rem e i m o rta nce in th e
p p p
co ns 1dera t io n o f th e re sul ta nt r a i nf a ll Th e c o n tinen ta l ch ar.

a ct er o f muc h o f As ia c a n be b es t re a lize d b
y m e a surem e nt o f
the dl s ta nc es wh ich m ust b e tra ver s e d b efo re m o is tu re fro m t h e
o ce a n ca n sl o wly
p en etra te i nt o t h e i nterio r ( see Fig 4 4, th e .

Ar al B as i n) Th e preva ilin g winds a re fr o m the la nd

.
The .

rai nfall is dependent o n the l o ca l circul a ti o n o f m o is ture d erived

from lo c a l evap o r a tio n, es ecia lly fro m la kes a nd rivers Th is
p .

is
pr o ba bly renewe d eve ntu a lly fro m th e o cea n , but th ere is
o n i n o u s a nd re ul a r
pa ssa ge o f air fro m th e sea t o t h e
p
o
g
and c t u
A fa cto r o f su p rem e i m o rta nce is elevation
p .

Its mfiu enc e will p erh a s be b es t e x la in e d b a stu d y o f

_ p p y
Winter a nd su m m er co nd itio n s Fo r th es e Ja nu a ry a n d Jul y
.

have been ta ken a s ty ica l mo nths th o u gh in so m e c a s es th e

p ,

extrem es o f temp era ture a nd ra infa ll a re fo und at oth er da tes

e
g , In India the ho ttes t m o nth is Ma y
.
.
3 08 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

W INT ER CO ND IT ION S ( J ANU ARY ) .

T emp erature — On Dece mber 2 1 th e s u n wa s vertic a l o ver the

s outh ern t ro p ic , a nd during Ja nua ry is p ro cee d in g no rth wa rd
towa rds the Equato r Hence t h e midday sun f orc e W l ll be
.
-

a l mo s t at its lowe st th r o ugh out Ja nuary ( s ee Ta ble II , p . .

It is useful t of o llo w t h e lines o f l a titud e o f a nd 60 °

ea s tward
fro m th e B ritish Isl es , and to no te th e diminutio n o f sun f o rc e and hours
-

o f da yl igh t f ro m sou th to n o rt h o n D e c em ber 2 1 .

rth La titude : Liza rd Ob River 0 F ; Amu r

°
°
5 0 No 45
°
F . .

River — 14 F Midday sun fo rc e = 28 Ho u rs o f d ay ligh t = 8

° -
. . .

5 5 No rth La titud e : S ol w Firt h 4 0 F Mo sco w ° °

°
12 F ; the
. , .

S i berian Ra ilway ea st o f T o m s k
°
3 F ; a nd the S ea of .

Ok ho tsk 10 F Midd ay sun f o rc e = 20 Hou rs o f day

° -
.
.

No rth La titud e : S h etla nd s 3 9 F ; B erg en

° °
60
°
. 34 F
S t Petersburg 1 5 F ; the Siberia n Lo wla nd s
°
.
°
.
,
20 F
Ok ho tsk 10 F M idd ay sun fo rc e = l l H o urs o f day
° -
. .

l ight = 5 i .

A ref erenc e sh o ul d b e m ad e to T a bl e VI p 3 1 6 , for th e temperatures of

‘

. .
,

towns on these la titudes .

The change f ro m wes t to ea st fro m th e W es t Euro p ea n climate ,

to th e c o ntin en ta l w inter is mo s t ma rked , .

Owing to th e a bs ence of c o ns idera ble eleva tio ns in No rth

S iberia Fig 3 8 sh o win g temp era ture a t s ea level gives a gra phic
, .
,
-
,

repres enta tio n o f the increa se in th e intens ity o f co ntin ental

c o nd itio ns fro m west t o east T h e col d p o le o f S ib eria lies no rth .

north l a titud e o n th e Arctic Circle Verkh oyansk

°
of 69 .

wh ere th e grea test kno wn c o l d h a s been r ec o rd ed is in th e same ,

latitud e as t he Lo fo ten Is lands in No rwa y wh ich are about ,

The d i ff ere nce of tem p era ture b etwee n the western

°
32 F .

oce anic b ord er a nd th e i nteri o r o f the gre at co ntinental a rea of

°
extrem e cold is o ver 90 F .

On t he ea ster n m argin of No rth Asia c o ld N a n d N W winds . . .

from t h e high pressure area o f Asia c a us e c o l d wi nters as far

-

s outh as the H wa ngh o Th eir c o oli ng i nfl uence is sh own by the

.

temp er a tures of Sha ngha i [ 95 ] a nd Ho ngkong which are

m uch lo wer than tho s e of Lah ore [ 1 09 ] a nd Ca lcutt a [ 1 24]
in th e sa m e la titu d es In th e S ea o f Ja pa n th e co ns id erable
.

brea dth of th e wa ter ena bles th e c o ld dry win ds fro m th e no rth ,

west to ta ke u p mo isture wh ich is co nd ens ed in ra in or sno w on ,

th e west co ast o f Ja pa n .
3 10 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
Th es e re a ch Japa n a nd North Chi na as N orth We s t wi nds , -

Indo Ch ina and India a s th e N o rth East M o ns o o n, a nd We st

- -

S i beria a s t he S o u th Wes t wi nds

-
It m us t be rem emb er ed,
.

h owever , tha t t he fi gures sh owin g p ressure a n d winds a re the

re pres e nta ti o n o f th e a vera e c o nd itio ns durin g a m o nth , a nd in
g
th e m a j o rity of c a s es are ba s e d o n very few o bs erva ti o ns Oh .

viously t h e s ystem s o f pressure a nd th e preva iling wi nds are not

s o s im le a s is sh o wn o n t he c ha rts , b ec a us e in a c oun try with a
p
c o mplex c o nfi gura tio n, such as As ia , th ere a re cou ntless diff er
ences o f te m erat ure a nd m o is tu re o n m o unt a i ns , p l a te aus ,
a nd e n cl o s e d a sine wh ich give ris e to s ec o nd a ry a re a s o f h igh
,

or rela tively low pressu re Ma ny of th es e a reas are mo re or less

.

iso la ted a s rega rds a ir circ ula tio n ; c ons equentl y, th e general
s ch e m e o f o utfl o win
g winds, o u tlin e d in Fig 4 4, m us t be s tudied
.

in c o nn ectio n with o ro graph ic a l m a ps Wh er e a very h igh mass

.

o f eleva te d ground s urro un ds a regio n o n o ne o r mo re s id es , it

na tura lly interferes with a ir m o ve m ent s, a n d if , a s in th e c ase

o f t he m o un ta ins a n d
p la tea us t o th e no rth o f Ind ia it is very ,

bro a d, it ma y tend m o re or less c o m pletely to isolate o ne regio n

fro m a no th er (see India , p .

From the d irectio n and chara cter of the win ds it is ob vio u s that
the grea ter part o f Asia c an h a ve little ra in in Janu a ry exce pt
where t he winds c a n t a ke up m o isture from l o c a l s curc es , rivers,
la kes, s no wfi elds , o r fr o m the s ea a nd blow d irectly o n th e la nd .

Th e we s t coa st o f Ja pan ( Niiga ta Ka na za wa North

Fo rmo sa and the Phi lippine s a ffo rd go o d exam ples of ra in falling
,

o n t he wi ndwa rd side o f m oun t a in r ange s whi le the lee side is

,

c o mpa ra tively dry Not e t he dry b elt t o t he ea st o f Japan

'

( To k
.

io and t h e so uth we st of Luz o n in the Phi li

ppin es
-

( Ma nil a On the we st c o a st of Anna m ( Hu é the

rain o ccu rs in au tumn and is la rgely th e result o f th e storms
,

which hera ld the c o m m encem ent o f t he North East Mon so on -

.

Burma ( Manda la y a n d S i a m ( Ban gkok lie in the

lee o f m o unta in ran ges, a nd t he dry land winds c an b rin g little
ra m .

A re ma rkable inst ance of the ra in b eing c onfin e d t o t he co asts

a nd hi ll s wh ich lie in th e direct cour se o f t he winds is given b
y
No rth B o rne o S a nda kan
. o n t he n o rth co a st ha s it s ,

greate st ra infa ll du ring t he N orth East Monsoon ; Lab uan an-

island on t he west c oa st is th en sh eltered f r om the rain bringing

,
-

winds and ha s a dry season

, .
 ASIA 3 11

SUMM ER CON DIT IO N S ( JULY ) .

Temperature — On Jun e 21 the sun wa s ve rtic a l o ver t he

norther n tr opic , a nd in Ju ly is s l o wly pr o cee di ng s o u th wa r d s
towards the Equa tor ; h ence th e h ea ting po wer o f the m idda y
sun remains a lmo st a t it s gre a te st d uri ng July .

Befo re de alin g with t he c onnection b etween te mp eratu re pre s ,

sure , winds, and ra infa ll , the ma p sho wi n g actual temperature s

should be c o m pa re d with that re du ce d t o sea level

-
.

As Table II , p 3 9 , sho ws , the sun fo rce is c onsidera ble

. . on -

north latitu de a nd t he da y s a re lo ng , and but f o r t he sho rt

°
summer o f North Sib eria — three m onths only o r le ss abo ve 50 F , .

and no m onth in t he ext re m e n o rt h ( see Fig 8 , p 47 — a gricu l . .

ture might be po ssible t o the Arctic Ocean .

It should be no ted tha t a eas r

whic h a re belo w 50 F fo r all bu t o ne m onth °
.

coincide a ppro xim a tely wi th the Po l a r g ro wth o f t rees a n d o f t h e gen era l ,

cul tiva tio n o f t he ha rd ier grain s whil e w hea t c an be gro wn wi th a t em

,

pera ture of abou t 50 F f or fo u r m onths no te the n orth wa rd ex ten sio n o f

°
.
—

whea t areas in Canad a Ma iz e re qu ires h o tter summ er bu t it c a n be

. a ,

gro wn in M an ch uria a nd the Ru ssia n steppes where t he cl im a te h a s a ,

temperature o f 68 F fo r t wo m onth s
°
. .

For pra ctic a l pu rpo se s the i so therm o f 50 F is le ss im p o rtant °

.

°
than tha t of 68 F It will be seen tha t a la rge area of m oun
.

tainous la nd in Centra l Asia ha s wa rm su mm er s but do e s n o t ,

possess the high tem pera ture sh o wn on iso th er m m a ps re duced

to sea level Tibet o ver 90 F (Fig
°
-
Tem p era tu re s o f . .

over 90
°
F a re, however, found in Sou th We st Asi a from the
.
-

Indus to Me so pot amia .

Pressure, Winds, and Rainfall — In th is l a st nam e d regio n o f .

-

extreme h eat lies the centre o f th e lo w pressure area No te th a t -

the centres o f bo th lo w r es su re in sum m er a nd o f h igh re ssure

p p
i n wmt er far excee d in i nte ns ity tho s e o f o th er c o ntin e nts Th e .

existence of a n extrem ely low pressure area in S ou th W est As ia

'

- -

would not alone b e suffi cient t o a cc o unt for th e infl o win g wi nds
of Asia and the m o nso o n r a i ns An exa m i na ti o n o f th e a ctu a l
.

tempera ture map ( Fig 3 9) sho ws tha t a vast a rea fro m Indi a
.

to Ma nchuria is a bo ve 6 8 F a nd th a t a c o ns ider a b le r o o rtio n

°
.
p p
,

of this area is above 75 F

°
.

Consequ ently the air is he a te d ex a nd s l o se s d en sity tend s

, p , , ,

to ri se a nd a lo w re ssure is r o du ce d on t he sur fa ce with a

,
p p ,

corre s onding hi gh
p pre ssu re in t he upper a t m o sph ere As in .

th e semi circle of hot la nd s th e land is c o nsid era b ly wa rm er tha n

,
312 TEX T=B OOK OF GEOGRAPHY

the sea , a ir mu st fl o w in fr o m regions of h igh er to regions of

lower pressure .

We may therefore spea k gen erally o f a gre at system of low

re ure nd in fl win a ir o ver Asi a a s a c ons equen ce of whi ch
p ss a o g ,

winds bl o w t o Indi a fro m the S o u th W est to Ch i na fro m the S outh

-

a nd S o uth Ea st and p a s s in S i b eri a fr o m W e st to North East

-
-

, ,

brin gin g ra in in pro po rti on to t h e m o i st u re th ey c o nt ain a nd the

a m o unt o f coo lin g t h ey un d ergo bu t th is is so far a s we k now , ,

no t d irectly d e p endent on t he p re ssure c o ndi ti on s o f t he m oun

t a ino u s interior but on th o s e wh ich exi st in th e se lands them
,

s elve s . It is true tha t the lo wer pla tea u o f Ea st ern T ib et receives

m ons o on ra ins which swell the grea t rivers o f Ind o China but
,
-

the p o sition o f the lin e sh o win g 1 in ch o f ra in illust rate s very

clea rly the limi t of t he pen etra tion of in d owing winds into the
i nterio r .

Much of the ra infa ll o f Jul y fa lls in cyclon ic storm s which ,

a dvance in the genera l d irecti on o f the preva ilin g winds but the ,

infl uenc e of el evation on rainfall is well m a rke d in ma ny regions .

The great ra infa ll o f t h e W e stern Gha t s is du e to c o o lin g by

f orced as ce nt In th e Decc a n th e a ir in d escend ing is warmed
.

by c o mpressio n and th e w i nds h a vi ng l o s t m uch of th ier mo is

, ,

ture bri ng compara tively little r a i n es peci a lly in the lee of the
, , .

mo re l o fty m ounta i n regi o ns o f S o uth Indi a and Ceyl on The .

Khasi Hills in Assam ha ve a n extrem e r a i nfa ll Ch err ap unj i .

wh ich h as the grea test know n ra i nfa ll m ost o f wh ich fa lls during ,

t he S o uth W e st Mo nso o n o we s its wet clim a te to a p eculiarity o f

-

loca l po sition a s it lie s o n an e sca rpm ent wh ere winds al mo st

,

sa turate d wit h m o i sture a re c o m p elle d to rise very r apidly .

Note t he rela tively sma ll ra infa ll o f t he B rah m aputra Va ll ey in

t he rai n sha do w
-
Owin g t o the deflection of t he winds
u p t he Gan ge s Va lley t h e Him a l a ya s receive m uch le ss rai n
, ,

th ough they far exceed the Kha si Hil ls in eleva tion The dry .

b elt of the Va lley o f th e Ira w a d dy in B urm a is a n excellent

inst ance of the d ecrea s e o f ra infa ll in d epress ions or lower areas
in the lee o f r a in d elu ge d h ills -
Th e Ar a k a n Hills a nd the
.

Pegu Y o m a receive t h e fu ll fo rce o f t h e S outh We s t M onso o n -

a nd th e wi nd d e s ce nd i ng i nt o th e Ira w a dd
y Va lley is com para
t ively dry A s im ila r regi o n is S i a m b eh i nd th e ba ckb one o f the
.
,

Ma l a y Pe ni nsula .
3 14 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

s elected winter and sum m er tem pera ture s is e specia lly suggestive
in Asia .

Rainfall —The figure s given in T a b le VI o f m ea n annua l rain

. .

fa ll combine d with a stud y o f Figs 4 4 a nd 45 wil l h elp to sh ow

, .
,

t he genera l c ha ra cter o f t h e clima te bu t t h e m a ps c annot sh ow

d eta il enough t o a d equ a tely repre s en t th e c o o l misty su mmers
'

of O k hotsk [ 1 3 ] und er t he in flu en ce o f the c o ld current Turu .

chenek with ha lf the annu a l ra in fa ll o f Okh o tsk ha s dry and ,

rela tively wa rm summ ers It is n ece ssa ry t o t a ke into a ccount

.

the h u midity o f t he a ir in c o nsid erin g clima te Bushire [ 111]

and Ma sc at [ 1 27] ha ve p ra ctic a lly n o m e a su ra b le ra in in summer ,

bu t a temp era ture whi ch is a lmo s t un b eara b le on a ccoun t of the

hum id ity o f the a ir .

Fresh— The tim e of o cc u rren ce o f t h e first fro st is n oted in

va riou s pla ces in Table VI (see Od essa Mo scow
. and
Arc ha ngel Us efu l c o m pa ris o ns c o ul d b e m ad e by th e us e
of s im ilar st at istic s given fo r No rth Am eric a in T ab le X .

Snow —As the tota l am o un t o f p reci pita tion is o ften of gre at

.

ec onom ic importance a llo wan ce m u st be m a d e for the great snow

,

fa ll oi the Ka rakora m an imp o rtan t sou rce of t he Indu s floods

,

o f the Hi m a la yas and o f t h e m o u nt a i ns o f S o uth Eas t T ib et an -

imp ortant flood s ource o f th e grea t rivers o f Indo China -

.

Note a lso the d ry a re a s o f As ia with c o ld winters and le ss than ,

20 inc he s a nnua l ra infa ll ( see Fig s 3 8 a nd 44) (a small snowf a ll .

,

drifted by wind and c o llecte d o n t he m a rgins of high er ground .

ma y a ssume co nsid era b le p ro p o rtio n s a s t he so urce supply of

d e se rt and sem id e sert stre a m s) In thi s conn ect ion examina tion
.

should be ma d e of d eta ile d ma p s o f As ia sh o win g rivers and ,

m oun ta in ran ges or even mino r a re a s o f eleva tion a s in a small

, ,

d ia gra m su flicient a cc o un t ca nn o t b e ta ken of the infl uen ce of the se

fea tures o n the wa ter s u pp ly o f rivers (cf [ 17] and
-
Table .

Th ere is m uch less win ter s no w In th e S ib eria n region of greatest

cold (s ee Fig 3 8 ) tha n in Wes t S ib eria o r at the Y enis ei m outh
.

( see p 3 33 for the influence o f sno w o n c o m m unica tion)

. .

Sun Force i nd T e mp erature — It will be no ted in Fig 39 that

-
.

the a rea o f Asia wh ere t he te m p e ra tu re o f Jan u a ry is 32 F or le ss

°
, .

( c o ld winters) extend s t o the Hima la ya s on the south e rn ma rgin

,

o f Tibet which a re so u th o f n o rt h la tit u d e 3 0 He re the sun

°
,

force ( see Table II p 3 9 ) is a ppro xim ately 59 wh ile the Shet

.
, .
,

l ands and the we st c o a st o f No rwa y wi th a sun fo rce of only 11 ,

-

have cool winte rs If t he su n fo rce a lo n e were ta ken into a ccount

.
-

,
 ASIA 3 15

Pekin g [ 56] wo u ld ha ve the sa m e tempera tu re in Jan u a ry a s

Smyrna and Bergen [ 72] a s Okho t sk

It is important t o no tice tha t t he su n fo rce o n d ry pla te a u s like

-

those of Asia is grea tly increa sed by the fa ct tha t the ra y s pa ss

through a le sser ext ent of a tmo sphere and o ne that c onta ins ,

less water va pour The d irect sun light which fa lls o n Tib et
.

when the sun is at it s zenith in the latitu de o f t he Him a la ya s is

FIG . 46 .
— AS IA : KEY TO CLIM AT E EX E R C IS E S .

Of the iso therm o f 32° F c o ld w int ers ) w ith th e sea l ev el iso th erm
.
.
( limit of -

ig . 8

one an d a ha lf times that whic h fa lls o n t he la in s o f Indi a twice

the sunli ght when 45 °
p (
from the z enith) This increa sed su n .

power di rectly a ffect s the hab ita bility o f h igh la te a u s in

p
sheltered a
v lleys in Tibet gr ain c an be gro wn, in spite o f th e low
nl ht
g temperature, but o nly wh ere th ere is lo c a l m o is ture fro m
the ri vers.

The extent t o which o t her h sic a l c on d itio n s m o dify sun fo rce

‘

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 ASI A 3 23

will b e cle a r fro m the follo wing c onsiderat ion s : Two s et s o f

ma p s mu st b e st u die d Fi gs 3 8 and 40 Temperature reduc ed .
,

to Sea Level ; a nd (b) Fi gs 3 9 and 4 1 Ac tual Temp er ature

-
.
, .

Only in ( b) is th e in fluence o f eleva t i on o n t e mpera t ure a ppa rent .

Com p arison of Sea Level Tempera tur es ( Winter) (a ) In .

Fig 3 8 ( Janu a ry ) it will b e seen t hat o ce a n ic in fluence s and w a r m

.

S o ut h W e st winds mo dify t h e cli ma t e o f We stern Euro pe wh ile

-

Ea st ern Asi a (o cca sio n a lly eve n so fa r so ut h a s Ca n to n ) is un der

the i nflue n ce o f c o l d No rt h and No rt h We st win ds wh ich b l o w -

g p re ssure sy st e m o f As ia
o ut wa r d s fr o m t he hi h Co n sequent ly
-
.
,

c ont inenta l c ondit ions preva il even n e a r th e co a st while in the ,

int erio r ro un d the co ld po le of t emperat u re in Sib eria they a re

int en sifie d in the hi ghe st de gree The c o ld Arct ic current lo we r s
t he t e mpera t ure o f t he n o rth e a st c o a st (Vla divo sto ck
.

Janu a ry 5 ,
°
an d t o so me ext ent o f Ja a n ; bu t it c an ha ve
p
litt le influence on the t empe ra tu re o f the int erio r o f Manchu ria ,

i so lat e d fro m the sea by mo unta in range s Simila rly the Ku ro .

,

S iw o ra i se s the t e mpera ture o f Ja pan in summer wh en wa r m

winds b l o w o fl it o n t o t he la n d bu t in win t er it ha s litt le e ffec t ,

on t he t e mpera t ure o f th e e a st c o a st p a st wh ich t he ma in st re a m ,

flo ws b eca u se it lie s a t so me distance fro m th e c oa st and th e

,

win ds b lo w fro m the lan d In the No rth Pa cific its wa r min g

influen ce is st rongly mark
.

e d (not e t he n o rthwa r d b en d o f the

°
i so t herm o f 3 2
In ( b) (Fig 39 Ja nu a ry ) an a t t e mpt ha s b een ma de t o a ppro xi
.
,

ma t e t o a ct ua l c onditio ns It will be cle a r a t o nce if the ac tual

.

t e mpera t ure fo r Ja n u a ry is c o nt ra st e d with th a t r e duce d t o sea

level t hat eleva t e d pla t ea us such a s Tib et cau se a mo st mark
, , ed ,
°
mo dific at io n o f t e mpera ture The a ctua l i sotherm o f 32 F . .

ext ends sout h o f 30 no rt h lat itu de a nd the i sot herm of 0 F c an

°
,
°
.

b e t ra ce d a long the line o f the Tian Shan a n d the Pa mi rs to the

Hima lay a s The influe nce o f higher gro un d is e qua lly well illu s
.

°
t ra t ed by the i so t h er m s of 50 a nd 58 F in the Pla t e a u o f Iran
°
.
,

t he We st ern Gha t s t he pa ra llel ran ge s o f In do China a n d th e

,
-

h i gh er eleva t i ons o f the Ea s t I ndi e s .

Inverszons of Tempera tu re o ccu r c o n

'

Summer (see Fig .

-

y in Asi a (see p In the Yeni sei Va lle y 60 no rt h la t

°
st a nt l .
, .
,

the no r ma l difl eren c e o f t e mpera t ure is 1 4 F in Ja nu a ry in tw o

°
.

p la ce s a t feet and feet re spect ively On so me days .

the u pp er st a t io n i s 3 6 wa r mer than t he lo wer

°
Thi s is due to .

t he a ccu mulat ion o f c o ld st a gnant a ir in the va lle y s and a t lo w

,

level s In summer the co ld Arct ic current mo difie s the clima t e

.
3 24 T EXT —B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY

of No rth Ja pa n an d the e a st c oa st o f the ma in lan d Cont inen ta l .

°
c on d it ions ext end the i so therm of 68 F no rth o f 50 n o rt h la ti °
.

t u de t o the Amur Va lle y a n d t he R u ss ia n St e p pe s bu t a s the ,

a ct u a l t e mpera t ure m a p sh o w s t h e hi gh pl a t e a u s o f C ent ra l Asia

,

a nd mo un t a in re g i o n s ge n e ra lly re d uce t h e t e mp era t ure t o b el o w

58 F It mu st b e re me mb e r e d h o wever tha t th e re duction o f

°
. , ,

t e m p era t ure by a lt it u d e is le ss in su mm er th a n in win t er Hen ce .

suc h a m a
p c an on ly b e an a pproxima ti on It i s sufficie nt ho w .
,

eve r to S ho w that the a re a s o f ho t su mm ers a re very diff e rent

,

t o wh a t m i ght b e i nferre d fr o m Fig 40 ( T e m pera t ure re duce d t o .

Sea Level July ) wh ere the lin e o f 8 0 F ext ends o ver t he wh ole
°
-
.
, ,

o f t h e l o f ty pl a t e a u s o f Cent ra l As ia a nd 90
°
F c o ver s th e po r
, .

tio n o f T ib et whic h i s sa i d t o ha ve an a vera ge level o f feet .

A refere n ce t o the a ct u a l t e m pera t ure m a p sh o ws t h at o n ly in

t h e T a ri m d e pre s sion (K a sh ga r Ya rka n d and the Turfan Sink ,

which is belo w sea level ) and in t he va lley s o n the we stern

-

ma r gin of the p la t e a u s ( Tash kent Pe sha wa r d o such

h igh t e mperat ure s o ccur The la ck o f referen ce t o so me c o rrect ive
.

dia gra m such a s tha t o f a ctu a l t e mpe ra ture ha s b een re sponsib le

f or muc h c o n fu sio n o f t h o u ght in the stu dy o f t he m o n so on clima te
o f Ind i a ( s ee p 3 5 7 .

M a ps o f Temper a ture and Pressure — T e m pe ra t ure a n d pre ssure .

st and t o one a no th er so mewha t in the rel at i on o f c a u se a nd e ff ect

-
t h a t is t o sa y t ha t w a r me d a ir t en d s t o ri se a nd so re duce
,

pre ssure a t l o wer level s and c o o le d a ir t o sin k a nd so in cre a se

,

p re ssure a t lo wer level s ; bu t the m a p s re p re se nt in g t h e se c o n

d ition s c an o nly b e c o mpa r e d a s re ga r d s th eir b ro ad fe a t ure s .

Fo r i n sta n ce t he lo w pre ssure m in i mu m in July ( 29 4 ) lie s t o the

,
-

we s t o f the Lo wer Indu s whe re t e mp era ture s o f o ver 90 F a re °

.

fo un d a nd t he high pre ssure ma xi mu m ( 3 0 5) lie s in a re gi on of

,
-

i nt ens e c o ld t ho u gh it do e s not c o in ci de wi t h the co l d po le The

, .

clo sene ss of the i so t herms ( st eep gra dient ) in t he No rt h Pa cific

an d No rt h Atlant ic c o rre sponds wit h th a t o f t he i so ba rs ,

a n d in d ica t e s t he re gi on s w here s tr o n g win ds m a y b e l o o ke d

f o r while t he gent le gra d ien t o f t he i so ba r s in July i s the

,

re sult o f le s s ma rke d diff erence s o f te mperature b e t ween sea and

la n d .

Pre ssure ma p s a re re duce d to se a —level ; c on sequent ly they do ,

no t re pre sent s urfa ce c on d it io n s the a c t u a l pre ssure o f

hi gher T ib et in wint er wo ul d b e un der 15 a b ou t o ne ha lf o f wha t ,

it is a t sea level a n d a t L e h a b o ut t wo t h ir ds
-

, Suc h p re ssure -

ma p s do ho wever re pre sent a ppro xi mat ely the gene r a l c ha ra ct er

, ,
3 26 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

VEGETATION .

It mu st b e re me mb ere d tha t the typic a l winter and su mmer

c ondit ion s o f t e mp erat ure re pre sent e d by the ma p s o f Janu a ry
a n d July a re n o t suffic i e n t eve n 1n As ia wh ere t he c o nt r a st s o f
,

se a s o n a re m o st ma rke d t o fully exp la in t he in flue n ce o f t e m er

,
p
a ture o n ve e t a t i o n
g Sp rin g a nd a ut u mn c o n d it io n s a re 1m
.

p o r ta nt a s well as t h o s e o f wint er a n d su mmer .

A referen c e to T a b le II p 39 sho wi ng the a l t i tud e o f t he su n an d t he

.
, .
,

su n fo r c e a t d iff eren t l a t i tud e s a nd d a t e s a nd Fig 8 sho w i ng t h e num b e r

-
, . ,

o f m o n t h s b elo w 3 2 F ( c o l d c o nd i t i o ns ) a n d a b o ve 50 F ( w a rm c o n d i
° °
. .

t io n s ) s ho ul d h elp t o illu st ra t e th e m a rc h o f t em p era t ure

,
.

S i mila rly ra in fa ll mu st b e stu d ie d i n ot h er m o nth s tha n Jan ua ry

,

( s ee Ba rtho lo m ew s At la s o f M et e o r o l ogy)
’
a nd Jul y Th e .

s umm a r y o f r a i nfa ll c o ndi t i o ns give n in th e m a p o f m e a n a nnua l

r a infa ll Fig 1 1 p 7 2 will b e f o u n d t o expla i n t h e m a i n fe at ure s
,
.
,
.
,

o f t h e ve e t a t i o n if c a re b e t a ke n t o a pp l y g e n er a l pri ncip le s
g ,
.

The Desert a re a s ha ve litt le ra in a t any sea son an d a s the se , ,

m o st ly lie in d e pre ssion s o r rel at ive lo wlan ds where the su mmer

te mperat ure i s very h igh little ve ge t a tion can exi st except in ,

the ca se o f specia lly a da pt e d pl ant s wh ic h d ra w wa t er fr o m the

su bso il o r ha ve a b rief exi stence durin g o cc a s iona l ra ins B o rder .

in g t h e s e d e sert s a re t he re gi on s o f wh a t m a y b e c a lle d Semi

des ert (scru b a nd po o r g ra ssl an d ) The se a re a s c o rre spo nd very .

clo sely t o t h ose with litt le ra in (n o t e the line of 10 in che s o f ra in

less tha n 1 i nc h per m o nt h— o u Fig .

It m us t b e re m e mb ere d t h a t c h a r a c t er o f s m fa c H e s o il . .
,

a nd s l o p e— is l o c a ll y re sp o ns i b le f or d e s ert eve n wh ere th e ,

r a infa ll is s ufficie nt f or gras s l a nd ( cf t h e Or do s in th e b e nd o f .

t h e H wa ngh o t h e l o e ss a re a o f Ch i na g e n er a lly a nd t he s a lt
, ,

d es er ts o f P ers i a ) Wh ere th ere is u nd er gr o u nd wa t er o r wh ere

.
,

irrigat io n fr o m river s is p o ss ib le cult iva ti o n c a n b e c arrie d o n ,

eve n in d eser t a nd s e m i de s ert re gi o ns ( th e Ar a l B a s i n M es opo ,

t a m i a Ar ab i a t h e I n dus Delta )
, , In l a t it u d e s Wh ere the d e s ert.

a re a s h a ve no c o l d wint er s gre a t diff ere nces of t e mp er a t ure,

o ccur b et wee n da y a nd nig ht ( s ee Ja c o babad wh ere th e

ni h t t e mp er a t ure in N o ve mb er i s b el o w freezi ng) Th i s nec essi
g .

t a t e s f o r d e s ert dwellers s uch as th e B e da wi n Ar a b wa r m

cl oth ing ( w o o l o r sk
, ,

ins ) s ubst a nt i a l felt te nt s o r s t o ne h o us e s

, ,

a nd a s upp l y o f fuel for fire s St ill gre a t er d iff ere n ce s o ccur in

.

dry re gi o ns with c o l d winter s Th e T urf a n O as is [ 49] ( s ee

p 3 1 7 ) lie s i n a d epre ss i o n wh ic h re a c h e s t o 3 00 fee t b elo w s e a
 AS IA 3 27

level .
Th e rma l winte r t e mp er a ture is s ta te d t o va ry b etwee n
no
o
2 F . a t s u nr1s e a nd 5 4 F a t no o n in t h e sha de
°
. Thi s has pr o b .
_

ab ly th e m os t c o nt m ent a l clim a te in th e wo rl d Th e Tundr a .

FIG . 47 .
— AsrA : VE GE T AT I O N .
( AFT E R S C H IM P E R AN D H AR D Y ) .

the Imp eria l Ga z et eer o f In di a vo l i pp 1 9 1 1 9 3 :

, . . ,Mu h of th e
.
-
c
o p en c
o u n t r y o f t h e De cc
a n p re s e nt s a j ung le o f s m a ll t ree s a nd sh ru b s ,

t o g et h er w c w c
it h a h er ba eo u s veg et a t i o n hi h is lea ess o r b ur nt up fl
in t h e dry s e a so n T h e n a rro . w
st rip o f l o w ly ing la n d b et een th e
-
w
cc
Ea st ern G h a t s o f t h e De a n a nd t h e sea is dry h o t a nd , in ma ny , ,

c
t ra t s , sa n dy T hi k c
et s o f t ho rny everg reen s a bo u n d
. In t h e .

, w c
ext rem e so ut h h i h is s helt ere d fro m th e S W a n d N E M o n soo ns , . .

t h e um b rell a s h a p e d a a i a is fo u n d ,
-
c c w c
hi h is ty p i a l o f t h e dry b elt c
o f E a st Afri a c .

in th e rth o f As i a is a c o l d s e m ide s ert The s ubs o il is p er ma

no .

n ent ly fr o ze n b ut th e m el t ing o f t he s no w in s u mm er f a v o urs

,

th e form a t i o n of sha llo w mar sh e s in wh ic h gr o w mo ss lich ens , , ,

 3 28 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

a nd lo wbus h e s Th e Si b eri a n river s tha t flo w through t h es e

.

l owl a nds ha ve th eir s o urce s f ar t o th e s o uth ; c o ns equently th e ,

spring and e a rly s u mm er fl o o ds re a c h th e l o wer c o ur s e of th e

river s l o ng b efore th e ice has m elte d ; a nd as th e wa ter c a nno t
e s c ap e b y th e mo ut h o f th e river s it spre ads fa r a nd wi d e o ver
th e l ow gro und Th e s wamp s re s ult ing fr o m th e s e a nnua l
.

flo o ds and th e p la gue o f mo s quit o e s in s umm er rend er commu

nicat ion difficult The on ly in h a b ita nts a re a few s emi no mad ic
.
-

tri b e s who de end on fishin g fo r their o wn suppo rt and trade

, ,

in s kins and o i derive d fro m s e a ls an d o th er s e a ani mal s The .

r eindeer i s o f grea t ec on o mic impo rta n ce fo r like the c am el o f , ,

the de s ert it pro vi d e s fo o d ( milk) clo thin g and m e an s o f tran sp o rt

Th e regio ns m a rk
, , , .

e d a s Al pine i nclu de th e gl a cier reg io ns

wh ich a re o nly ext en sive in re gion s o f la rge r ainfa ll such as th e ,

Hi ma la y a th e K ar ak ora m an d t he Ca uc a su s h igh sand d e sert s

, , , ,

s uch as the l ofty p la te a u o f Ea ste rn T ib et and m o re or le ss ,

ba rre n steppe s a nd gr a ss l a nds a t gre a t eleva ti o ns L ife i s .

pas t ora l pa rtly no m a d ic a nd p a rt ly s e tt le d with s o m e little a gri

, ,

culture as a t Lh as a a nd th e rela t ively l o wer va lle ys o f th e grea t

,

T ib eta n river s F o re st s a re o nly fo und o n th e s lop e s o f m ou n

.

ta i n r a nge s wh ich receive s ufficie nt ra i nfa ll Th ere is a grea t .

c ontras t b etween th e s o uth s lo p e o f th e Hi ma l a yas a nd th e

ba rren no rthern sl ope t o T ib et .

The Grassl and re gion s as a rule se pa rat e the se mi d e s ert a re as

fro m th o se of fore st Their po sit ion is gen era lly d etermin e d by
.

the fa ct tha t the to ta l di st ribut ion o f ra in fa ll th ro u gh out the

y e a r d o e s not pro vi d e e no u gh m o i sture fo r th e gr o wth o f tree s .

In th e R ussian st eppe s m o st o f t he ra in fa ll s in su mm er ( June )

in thun d erst o rms and run s o ff wit ho ut penetra ting into th e
,

gro und whi le th ere i s litt le ra in in sprin g a n d winter

, Th e sno w .

fa ll in winter i s a l so slight and o win g t o the fla t cha ra cter of th e

, ,

l and and genera l ab sence of elevat ion s whic h might c au se drift s ,

t he amount of m oisture o bta in e d by its m elt ing i s insufficie nt

fo r tree s The c ol d e a st winds wh ic h p reva il in win ter o ften
.
,

s wee ping the e a rth entirely ba re o f it s sha llo w la yer of po wd ery

s no w ha ve a d es icc a ting eff ect a nd prevent the gro wth o f tree s
,

a t th e tim e wh e n th ey a re m o s t in n ee d o f m o is ture Th e spri ng .

a nd s umm er r a i ns a t t h e p eri o d o f r o wt h a re s uffi cie nt h o wever

g , ,

f or grass la n d a nd th e gr o wth o f wh e a t As in Ca nada ( e sp eci a lly.

in Ma nit o ba s ee p , th e m elt ing o f the s ligh t s no w c overi ng

.

h elps t o pr ovi d e m o i s ture for th e cr ops S im il a rly Ma nch uri a .

,

p o ss e ss e s a grass la nd clim a t e b ec a us e the c o l d d ry no rth we s t

, ,
-

wi nds fr om th e i nterior of Asia a re unfa vourab le to tree gr o wth -

.
330 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

m erges i nt o s ub tr opic a l a nd t r o pic a l fo r ms s uc h a s th e m ag ,

n o lia b a mb o o a nd
, p a lm
,
.

No di st in ct io n i s m a de in Fig 47 b e t wee n th e M onsoon Forests .

-

o f I d ia an d t he t r u e Tro pic al Rain Fo rest o f t heMa l a Arc h i pela go

n
‘

y .

The la tter requires a u nifo r m a nd h igh te mp er a ture a nd gre a t

r a i nfa ll ; th e c o c o nu t a nd sa go pa lms b etel nut m e g et c are
-

, , ,
.
,

t yp ic a l t ree s a nd b u sh e s o f ec o n o m ic im p o r t a nce .

COM MUNICATIONS AND POPULATION .

'

Fig 48 illu st ra t e s in a st rilnn g ma nn er t h e c o nt ra st o f me d ieva l

.

a n d mo d ern m o d e s o f t ra ns it .

Ste a m sh i p s ha ve la rgely re pla ce d sa iling ve ssel s , a nd railwa y s

ha ve b een pu she d inlan d fro m ma rit im e ba s es so fa r a s p o litical
a nd ec o n o mic n ee d s ha ve b ee n ab le t o o verc o m e c o mm e r cia l a nd

na t ura l o b st a cle s The a d va nt a ge s o f wa ter o ver lan d t ran spo rt

.

ha ve le d t o the c on cent rat io n of t ra de a t a s erie s of gre a t po rt s

f r o m Sm y rna in As ia M in o r t o Yo ko ham a in Ja pa n A lin e o f .

Impe r ia l c o a ling s ta t i o ns a nd ce nt res o f c o m m erc eg Aden,

‘

C o l o mbo , P e na ng , S i ngap o re , Sa ndak a n , H o ngk o ng W ei ha i w ei ,

- -

—
rings r o und th e s o ut h o f As i a , a nd h elps to m a i nt a i n B ritish
i nflue nce .

The i mpo rtance o f railways in Asia has b een incre a se d by t he

li mit e d na vi ga b ility o f river s due in t he dry int erio r t o w an t o f
,

wat er ; in t he no rthe rn p la ins t o the sho rt n e ss o f the su mmer

s e a son when the river s a re f ree fro m ice and fl o o ds ; and in the
m on so o n land s t o ra pids ca u se d by t he de scent fr o m t he pl at e au s ,

a nd t o flo o d s a nd sh o rta e o f w ate r in a ltern a te s e a s on s o r to

g '
,

ba rs at t he mo ut h and the silt ing u p o f e st u a rie s ( see Ba n gko k ,

p 3 8 6 ; Sha ngh a i p
. The eff ect o f flo o d s i s natur a lly i11
, .

t en sified in t h e n a rro w c ha nnel s b etwee n ro cky w a ll s w h ich o ccur .

in the c o urse s o f m o st o f the rivers o f Indo —Ohi na Where water .

c anno t be u se d for t ra nsit a s in Pe ninsula r In di a and Ja pan

, ,

mo dern develo pment c o ul d ha rdly ha ve re a che d it s pre sent c o n

d it i o n wit ho ut th e a id of r a ilw a ys Th e r a ilwa ys o f As i a do n o t.

cr o ss well m a rke d m o unt a i n r a nge s a s in the Alps th e And es o r;

-

, ,

th e R o ckie s th o u gh a s in the c as e o f th e line s fr o m B o mba y c o n

, , ,

s idera b le e ngineering ski ll h a s b een nece s sa r y t o o verc o me st ee p

e sca rpments No r (except in t he c a se o f the Sib erian lin e fr o m

.

La ke Ba ika l t o t he Ma nchurian P lain s ) d o the y cro ss th e line of

pla t e a u s wh ic h se pa r a t e n o rt h an d so uth The gre a t ext en sio n .
,

elevat i on a nd de so la te c ha ra cter of t he se plat e a u s in C ent ra l

,

Asia pre s e nt su fii c ient o bst a cle s t o an y c h an ge fr o m c a ra va n

’
 ASI A 33 1

FIG . 48 .
—AsrA : CO MMUN IC AT I O N S .

O nl y t h e ma in na v i ga b le river s are s ho wn in As ia .

Not e , ra il wa y d evel o pm ent t ha t n o b a rrier s a re t o o fo rm i da ble f o r

in ,

m o d ern eng in eerin g a n d t h at t h e ext ensio n o f ra il wa y s is g o vern e d

,

b y t w o p ri n c ip les
( a ) Comm ercia l — Pro ba b il ity o f t r a ffi c re c eip t s t o p ay re aso n a b le
.

i nt erest o n c a p it a l .

b S i — If f or o ff e nc e or d ef en c e or t o c o nt r o l c o nsi d er a b le
( ) tra teg c . ,

a re a s it i s i m p o r t a nt t o c o n c e nt r a t e t ro o p s a n d s u pp lie s o n d e fi ni t e
,

p oint s .

Gen era ll y ( a ) c o m b ine d by a d esire t o m ke it w o rt h w hile

a nd ( b) a re a

f o r t ur b ulent no m d t o b n do n a n c est r l p ur suit s f o

a s a a ett le d n a r s co

d itio ns o f gri c ult ure a nd t o tt r c t p o p ula t io n in f v ur a b le l c a lit ie

a , a a a o o s

w h ere t h ere a e f ew inh b it an t s

r a .
332 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

tr a ns it t o m o d ern lo c o m ot io n t h o ugh p o litic a l re as o ns a l o ne have

,

s o fa r
preve nte d th e c o nn ec t i o n o f I n d i a and R u ss i a n T urke s ta n
vi a Ka ndahar and Hera t .

Natur al Li nes of Co mmunication .

C o mmunic ation i s de a lt wi th in m o re deta il in th e de s cript io n

o f t he c o untrie s an d re i o n s o f As ia b ut a few
g genera l c onclu sio n s
,

m a y b e d ra wn h ere .

1 Th e extens i on of th e Old W orld Lowlands f ro m Euro pe in t o

.

As ia to La ke Ba ika l on t he e a st an d t he ma rgin o f the p la tea u

,

o n t h e s o ut h h elps t o exp la in t h e a d van ce o f R u ssi an in flue nc e

,

in S ib eri a a nd Turan t h o u gh the a d va nce b e y on d the Ura l s w a s

,

due t o t he nece ssity o f c ontro lling the grass steppe s b etween

Y eka terinburg and the Sa lt La ke s wh ic h fo r me d the gat h erin g ,

cent re o f n o madic Ki rgh iz trib e s It sh oul d b e note d tha t th e

.

n a vi gab ility o f e aste rn a nd we stern tri buta rie s o f th e

gre a t
S ib eri an river s ma teri a lly as si st e d R u s s ia n ad van ce in Si b eri a .

2 Th e genera l d irect i o n o f long g ently rising river valley s i n

.
,

t he s o ut h and e as t of t he Si b eri a n P la in give s a clue to th e ext e n

s i on o f R u ss i an influe nce i nt o t he Pa mi r s and Man c huria while ,

t he d e s ert s b ey o nd t h e Al t a i su fficient ly a cc ou nt fo r pr o gre s s

b ein g ba rre d in the centra l pa rt s .

3 The pos iti on o f China wit hin it s circle of moun ta in s a n d

.

de se rt plat ea u s a cce ssib le only fro m th e no r th i s suffi cient to

, ,

a cc o u n t f or th e isolation o f th e co un try fro m we stern in fluen ce s ,

e xce t a l on
p g th e c o ast and in t he ma rit i m e p ro vin ce s Exce pt .

t ha t o f the Cho w s w ho fo llo we d th e Wei Va lle y a ll o rganize d

, ,

in va s ion s of Chi na see m t o ha ve c o me t hrough Ma nchuria The .

G re a t Wa ll whic h pro tecte d No rt h Chin a fro m Mongo lia w a s

p ro b a b ly c o ns tructe d a t a ny r a te o n t he we s t as m uc h t o
,

keep o ut r a i ding bands o f no m a ds as a s eriou s li ne o f d efe nce

,

4 Th e m ountain barri er of Indi a d ecre as ing in b read th a nd

.
,

h eight to wa r ds th e no rth west a nd wes t a t o nce revea l s th e

-

vul n er ab le po int o f th e fr o nt ier a nd th e

pr o bab le line ta ke n by
,

inva d er s .

5 Th e routes o n th e As i a tic p l ateaus in d ic a te th e g a te s o f

.

th e m o unta in ma rg in s and th e po s it io n o f per ma nent s upplies

,

o f wa t er eith er in th e f o r m o f s t re ams o r well s wh ic h a llo we d

, ,

c a ra va ns to fo llo w a s eries o f o as es a t th e bas e o f mo u nta in

cha ins .

6 A s tu dy o f th e g rea t trade ro utes g ive s th e clue t o th e

.

histori cal mig rations and invasions .

33 4 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

of ana ni ma l ; ho r s es c a m el s a nd ya k
,
s o n th e dry treeless
, ,

pla tea us with wh eele d ve h icle s a n d s le d ge s wh ere level pl a ins ,

o r w inter s no w a ll o w a nd
p o rt er s wh ere m o unta ins a nd fo re s ts
,

ma ke a ll o th er m e a ns o f ca rria ge i mp o ss ible (s ee p 43 6 Af ric a ) .

,

o r in re io ns s uc h as Ch ina
g p r op er wh ere a d e ns e po pul a ti o n,

e nga ge d in g a r den cul t iva tio n ca rries th e re so urce s o f ha nd labo ur

to th e p itc h o f p erfect io n .

Density of Pop ul ati on .

Th e d ens e pop ul a t io ns o f Ind ia Ch i na a nd Ja pa n sh o w th e

, , ,

pro ductive cha r a cter o f th e m o nso o n l a n ds o uts i d e th e a re a o f

excess ive r ainfa ll and trop ica l fo res ts wh il e tha t o f Jav a illus ,

tra te s th e s uccess ful exp lo ita t io n o f na tive la bo ur b y a Wh ite

ra ce fro m no rth ern l at itu d es Th e les s p eo p le d reg io ns have a
.

la rger popul a tio n a long th e ma in l ines o f co mmun ica tio n

o n th e ad va nce o f R us s ia n ra ilwa ys in Ea s tern As ia o n th e
no rth a nd T urke s ta n o n th e s o uth we st a nd t o a le ss degree
,
-

a lo ng th e c a r a va n r o ut e s .

F a cilities fo r o bta ining wa t er and its u s e in irriga tio n diff er

ent iate o ne d ry re io n fro m a no t h er In s o m e a re as s uc h as
g .
,

th e Ta ri m d es icc a tio n s ee ms t o o ff er a per ma nent ba rrier to th e

,

return o f th e dens er p opula t io n o nce rep re s ente d b y flo ur ish ing

citie s ha lf burie d in sa nd bu t Me so po ta m ia o nce th e riva l of
, ,

Egyp t o we s it s c o mpa r a t ive de s o l at io n to neglect o f th e natura l

,

adva nta ges wh ich ha ve b ee n so well ut ilize d in Sin d and th e

Indus D elta Th e inha b itable cha ra c t er o f l a nds with a fro zen
.

s u bso il o f de s er ts a nd ba rren pl a t ea us is well illus tr a te d by th e

, ,

vast a re as with les s than o ne t o a s qua re m il e O nly wh ere .

va luable m inera ls o ccur a s in th e Klo n d ike in No rth Am erica

,

o r Co o lg a r d ie in W e s tern Aus tr a lia c a n we e x ect t o find centre s

p ,

o f d e ns e po ul a tio n in su c h reg io n s
p .

Eth nic Regi ons .

Th e ma in r a ce s o f As ia ca n b e g ro up e d amo ng th e th ree ma in
typ e s
Th e Whi te Race — To th is b elo ng th e Geo rgia ns and o th er
.

trib es o f Ca uc as ia th e S e m ites o f Ara b ia and Syria th e Arya n

, ,

p e o ple s o f I r a n a n d No r th ern In d ia a nd th e Sl a v ra ce s ,

wh ich a re p re ss in g fo rwa r d int o S ib e r ia a lo ng th e line o f

th e T ra ns S ib eria n R a ilwa y a nd a lso to a le ss extent in to
,

T urke s ta n .
 ASI A 335

Th e Yell o w Race — Th e s e fo r m ab o ut t wo th ir ds o f th e po pula

.
-

k
tio n o f As ia Th e Chu ch e fish ing a nd reindeer t ribe s o f No rth
.

Ea st S i beria ha ve ma n y a ffinities with th e Eski mo Th e Ain u s

k
.

o f th e mo ut h o f th e Amur , th e Kurile Is l a n ds , S a ha lin a n d

Yez o , th e is la n d a nd m o u nta in refug e s o f p ri m it ive ra ces , a nd

th e na tive s o f K am c ha t ka , b elo n g a l s o t o t h is t yp e , wh ich h a s
b een ca lle d Pa laeas ia t ic , b eca us e it is tho u gh t to repres ent th e
a bo rig ina l in ha b ita nts .

Th e No r th ern Mo ngo lia n t rib es who sp ea k po lysy lla b ic la n

gu a g es m a y b e g en er a ll y dis t ing uis h e d fro m th e So u th ern who
us e mo no s y ll a b ic to ngues Amo ng th e No r th ern Mo ngo lia n
.

t rib es a re th e Ya kut s o f t h e L en a Ba s in th e T ungus bo th , ,

hunting a nd fis h ing t ri be s with h er ds o f reind eer ; th e Mo ngo l s

p ro p er o f Mo ngo l ia p a s t o r a l no mads o f t h e in la nd st epp e s
, ,

with flo cks a nd h er ds and ca m els th e Ma nchus till la tel y th e

, , ,

rulin g r a ce o f Ch ina ; and th e Ko rea ns a nd Ja pa ne s e wh o a re ,

so m ewh a t difi erent in t yp e In t h e s o uth wes t a re th e Kirgh iz

.
-

o f th e s t e
pp es a nd o f th e Pa m ir s a nd T ia n S ha n ( b o th p as t o r a l
n o ma ds ) t h e T urko ma ns b et ween t h e S ea o f Ar a l a nd th e B l a ck
,

Sea a nd th e int rus ive O sm a n li T urks o f As i a M ino r

, On t h e .

no rt h e a s t a re t h e O s t y a ks o f th e L o wer O b R iver d ep e nd e nt o n
-

fis h ing a nd t h e f ur a n im a ls o f t h e f o res t ; th e S a m o y e ds o f t h e
no r t h o f Euro p e a n R u ss i a a nd t h e La pp s o f S c a nd i na vi a b o t h
, ,

d ep e nd ing l arg ely o n h er ds o f reind eer Th e Finns o f Finla nd .

,

th e M a gya r s o f Hu ng a r y a nd th e B ulga r s o f B ulg a ria ha ve

, ,

Mo ngo lia n a ffi n it ies but a re mo difie d by m ixture wi th wh it e

,

tn es .

h e So uth er n Mo ngo lia ns in clu de th e T ib eta ns th e inha b ita nts

’ ‘
i ,

o f Ch ina
p ro p er a n d In do Ch ina ( B ur ma S ia m Ann am ) va rio u s
-

, , ,

Hi ma l a ya n h ill t rib e s a nd th e st ra igh t ha ire d Ma la y r a ces

,
-

Th e Bl ackRace — Th is is repres ent e d by th e N egrito Ma la y

.

t rib es with wo o lly ha ir wh o ha ve a ffin it ie s wi th th e Afric a n

,

ne gro e s a n d pro ba b ly by s o m e o f th e Dra vi dia n r a ce s o f th e

,

Decca n a nd C ey lo n .

QUESTIONS .

1 . On the r r
o o g ap hi c a l m a p of As ia m a rka nd
e the Kwenlun T hi an
, n am ,

S ha n Al ta i Pam irs Z un gari a T a rim B asin Sy r Da ri a S i b erian Lo w

, , , , , ,

l ands Go bi M o ngolia Lak

, , e Ba i k a l Sa ri k
, o l T i a n and H in du Ku s h
, , .

2 Ind i c ate o n th e o ro g rap h i c al m ap the lim it o f the navi ga ti on o f ri vers

.

na m ing t ho s e y o u ma rk S ho w t he m a in c a ra va n ro utes a nd m a rkt h e

.
,

p ass es w hi c h t hey f o llo w on t o t he Asia t i c pla teau s .

336 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

3 S ho w on t he o ro grap hi c a l m ap th e ba sins o f inl and d ra ina ge a nd

. ,

m a rkthe lim i t s o f th e c hi ef river sy st em s In di ca t e a ny re gi on s w h ere .

t he so urc e s t rea m s o f rivers a re s it ua t ed in a n a re a o f l a rg e ra in fa ll .

4 W ha t p a rt s o f Asi a ha ve in th e pa st b een o cc u p ie d by p as to ral nom a d s

.

Acco unt fo r t h i s Ho w fa r is th e t yp e st ill p reva len t

.

5 M a rkt h e regi on s o cc u p ie d by t em p era t e fo re sts tun d ra step p e a nd

. , , ,

d esert Desc ri be th e m a in p ro du cts o btained fro m tem p era t e and t ro p ica l

.

fo res ts .

6 Nam e o n t he m a p S in g ap o re B a tavi a S an d a k
. an M o un t Kin a B alu
, , , ,

P ena ng S und a S t ra it a nd La b ua n
,
Wha t a re the p rincip al p ro du ct s o f
,
.

t he S t ra it S e tt lem en ts a nd o f B ri t i s h N o rt h B o rn e o

RUSSIAN LANDS .

SIBERIA .

Are a = 4 78 7 000 u re m ile s Po p ula t io n = 8 2 m illio n s in 1 9 10 ; 1 7 t o

'

, , sq a .

th e sq a u re m ile .

Th e S ib eria n
Lo wla n ds c o nt inue th e lo wla nds o f Euro pea n
Ru ss i a o n t h e we s t o f t he Ur a ls w h ic h in t h e ce nt re o f t h e c ha i n ,

a re no t s u ffi cie nt ly high t o f o r m a ba rrier t o c o mm u nic a ti o n .

The Siberi an railw ay f o ll o ws the s o uth er n marg in o f t he gre a t

°
s wa mp reg io n which exte nds no r t h o f 5 6 n o r th l a t it u de b et wee n ,

t he Ur a ls a nd t h e Y e ni s ei t o the Arc t ic Oce a n Th e s wa mp .

re gio n is inters ec t e d by s luggi sh s tre ams t ri b ut a rie s o f th e Lo wer ,

O b a nd i s so level t ha t fl o o d wa t er fl o ws i nto eith er th e O b or

,
-

Y e nis ei a cc o r d ing t o th e wind T o th e s o ut h lie s the dry s tep pe

,
. .

Al o ng t h is lin e o f fir m er gr o und a t th e m a r g in o f th e n o rt h er n ,

m a r sh e s a nd f o re st s ma ny Mo ngo l i nva s i o ns p e net ra te d int o

,

Euro pe until d efe a t e d o n th e T o b o l by th e R uss i a ns

, .

Th e ra ilwa y t ra vers es th e Ura l s a t a wa t er ga p so uth o f

Y eka t erin burg Fro m h ere th e l in e gra dua lly d es cen ds to th e
.

s tepp e la n d o f S o uth W est S ib eria cro ss ing th e T o b ol and th e Irtish

- -

a t O ms k ( To bo l sk [ 1 6] lies t o th e no rth a t th e junctio n o f th e

Irtish a nd T o bo l ) th e centre o f th e fert ile b l a ck e a r th reg io n
, ,

in wh ic h wh ea t s t o ck keepin g a nd da iry fa r m in g a re o f g re a t
,
-

,
-

impo rta nce A ro ut e fo llo ws th e n a vigab le co ur s e o f th e Irtis h

.

t o S e m ipa la t ins k [ 40] a nd th e Z u nga ria n Ga te On cro ss in g .

th e O b (na viga b le t o B a rna ul th e lin e ru ns t h ro u gh th e

t a iga a nd f o ll o w s t h e f o o t h ill s o f t h e no rt h er n b uttre ss e s o f
,

C e nt ra l As ia ( th e spur s o f t h e Alta i Ko bdo Pl a te a u ) cr o ss ing th e -

Y e ni s ei a nd m a ny t r i b ut a r y s tre ams b efo re re a ch ing I rkuts k

o n t h e Anga ra ( a t ri b u t a ry o f th e Y e nis ei) a b o ut 40 m ile s no r t h ,
3 38 T EXT B OOK -
or GE O GR AP HY

Arctic Ocea n in S ib eria p o ss ess ing cli ma tic d isadva nta ge s wh ich
m a y o utweigh th e c h ea pness o f wa t er tra nspo rt Th e mo uths .

o f th e Y enis ei a nd O b a re reg ul a rl y vis ite d b y s te am er s m th e

su mmer b ut th e L ena tho ugh na vigable to th e delta is o cc a
I rk
, , ,

s io nally b l o cke d by ic e even in Jul y ( cf T o ms k utsk .

th e Amur R iver fo r th e ir s im ila rit y of ch ma t e as

rega r ds c o l d winter s h o t su mmers and su mm er r a ins No te in
, ,
.

Fig 47 th e a rea co vere d with tun dra fo rest a nd s tepp e a nd

.
, , ,

co mpa re with th e Ra in fa ll Ma ps Figs 44 , .

,

l i rea = 95 400 , squa re m iles . Po pul a t io n = 7 m illi o ns ; 7 1 to the squa re

mil0 .

To th e so uth wes t o f th e Many ch d epre ss io n b etwee n th e

-

B la ck Sea a nd th e Casp ia n is th e mo unta in ba rrier o f th e ,

Ca uc as us in wh ich El bruz a n extin ct vo lca no excee ds

, , ,

feet Th is c a rrie s p er ma nent s no w gla ciers and mo unta in

.
, ,

fo rests R uss ian o ccupa tio n o f th e Ku r and Rio n Va lleys o n

.

th e s o uth er n s i de was fa cilita te d by th e Dariel Pass f eet )

in th e ce ntre wh ic h c o nnec ts Vl ad ika vk a z a nd Tiflis a t th e
,

na rr o we s t p a rt ( 60 m iles ) o f th e m o u nt a i n r a nge A r a ilwa y a t .

th e drier eas tern extre m ity c o nn ects with Ba ku o n th e Casp ia n ,

th e centre o f an i mpo rta nt reg ion o f p et ro leu m wells and runs to ,

Po ti (o n th e R ion) a nd Ba tu m wh ic h bo th lie o n th e B la ck Sea , .

Th e ma in river s wh ich fl o w fro m th e Ca uc asus to th e Casp ia n

th e T erek Ku ma and Kur— fo r m d eltas
, , Th e T erek flo ws .

thro ugh th e B a riel Gorge a nd in sp ite o f gre a t eva po r a tion in ,

th e st epp e reg io n i s ut iliz e d in its lo wer co urs e b y irriga tio n

c ana l s Th e Ku ma o ften fa il s to rea ch th e Caspia n o wing to
.
,

evapo r a tion and t o th e us e made o f its wa ter s in i rrig a tio n Th e

, .

Kur runs th r o ugh go rg es a nd r ap ids ab o ve Tiflis a nd receive s ,

ma ny trib uta rie s fro m th e Ca uc asus I ts lo wer c o ur s e i s th ro ugh .

a s tepp e where it is na vigab le for sma ll ves s el s ( dr a wi ng 4 feet)

f or 450 mile s Th e s tur ge on fis h ery i s a n impo rta nt i ndus try I ts
. .

ma in s outh ern tributa ry is th e Ara s wh ich ris e s so uth o f Erz eru m , ,

a nd flo ws ro u nd Mo unt Ara r a t to th e no rth Into th is d r a ins

La ke Go kcha b y a n o verflo w c ha nnel wh en s wo llen b y m elting
.

, ,

sno ws Th is fo r ms th e s ma lles t o f th e t h ree clo s e d bas ins o f

.

Ar m enia o f wh ic h th e l a rg er t wo a re o ccup ie d b y La ke s Va n
,

a nd U r m i a .

To th e s o uth lie s a mo unt a in o u s reg io n fo r ming p a rt o f th e ,

Ar m enia n Pla te a u th ro ugh wh ic h ro ute s to As ia M ino r

,
 RU S SI AN LAN D S 33 9

th ro ugh Eriva n in th e Ara s Va lley to th e no rth o f Mo unt Ara ra t ,

th e cul mina ting s u mm it feet ) o n th e fro ntier o f Russ ia ,

T urkey and P er s ia
, .

Th ere a re ma rke d difl erenc es o f clim ate due to ra infa ll a nd

eleva tio n Ba ku o n t h e Cas ia n i s muc h d rier tha n Po ti
.
p ,

( 62 inch e s ) o r Ba tu m ( 98 inches ) Ka rs [ 3 4] is much co o ler tha n .

Tiflis
Th e two s i d es o f th e Ca uc asus a ffo r d s trik ing co ntras ts ; Cis
c a ucas ia i s expo s e d to win ds wh ich b lo w o ver th e s te
pp e s fro m
th e no rth increas ing th e a ridit y a nd lo wering th e te mpera ture
, .

Hence it is very dry in s u mm er a nd co l d in wint er Ma ny o f th e .

river s never rea ch th e sea In T ra ns ca uca s ia th ere is a co ns ta nt

.

s upply o f wa ter fro m th e Ca uc a s us fo r th e va lleys o n th e so uth

s id e a nd th eir sh elt ere d po s it ion p revents th eir bein g fro zen in
,

o r d ina ry win ters As th e mo is t ure b ringing win ds bl o w fro m

.
-

th e B la ck S ea th e wes tern p a rt h as a luxu riant na tura l

,

vegeta tion wh ile th e Kur Va lley is in its lo wer pa rt a ba rren

,

s e m i des ert Excep t a t c o ns i d er ab le eleva tions th e su mm er s

.
,

a re ho t and in so m e o f th e sh eltere d va lleys dry eno ugh fo r th e

gro wt h o f th e o live Fruits o f a ll k
,

. in ds flo urish fro m s ton e fruits , ,

s uc h as th e p ea ch a prico t a nd ch erry to o ra nge s and le mons

, , , .

Th e vine is gener a ll y gro wn Ma ize wh e a t a nd rice gro w .

, ,

o n b o th s i d es o f t h e Ca uc a s us wh erever t h ere is wa ter a nd were

, ,

fo r m erly cul tiva te d in th e dry s t eppe a rea o f th e Kur Va lley .

Area = 1 3 23 000 squa re m ile s Po p u la ti o n = 9 6 m illi ons 7 to the squa re

'
.
, ,

mil e .

To th e s o uth o f th e S ib eria n Rail wa y in Wes t Sib eria s tretc h

th e s tepp e s o r treeless pla in s Th ree belts c a n b e dis tinguish e d
,
.
,

fro m no rth to so uth and fro m eas t to wes t fo llo wing clo s ely th e ,

decrea s e in ra infa ll— g rassla n d s cru b and d es ert Th e typ es o f , , .

cultiva tio n co rrespo n d clo s el y to cli ma tic diff erence s In th e .

no rth ern po rtio n th e r ains a re s uffi cien t to a llo w th e gr o wth

o f wh e a t wh ic h is b eing exten d ed s o ut h wa r ds fro m th e b elt o f
,

th e S ib eria n line In the drier s o uth ern a reas th e deter min ing
.

fa cto r is th e po ss ibility o f irrig a tion fro m s treams wh ich dra w

th eir s upply fro m b ett er wa tere d mo unta in reg io ns with winter
-

s no ws a nd s u mm er ra in s o r fr o m wel ls Here ho t s u mmer s

, .

a ll o w th e gro wth o f ma iz e a nd rice wh ile abu nda nt s unsh in e a nd ,

dry c o nd itions fa vo ur no rth ern fruits a nd th e vin e As in .

Eas tern T urke s ta n th e c h ief s ettle m e nts lie in po s itio ns wh ere

,
3 40 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

wa ter fro m h igh er gro und is mo s t fa vo ura b ly c o ncent ra te d

Suc h a re the I li Va lley wh ic h flo ws to L a ke Ba lk
.

,
a sh in wh ic h ,

lie s Kul j a o n th e ro ute to Ch ina no rth o f th e T ia n S ha n ; th e

,

S yr D a ria ( Ja xa rt es ) with its fert ile upp er b a s in o f Fergha na

,

no te d fo r cotton th e Z a r a fsha n with th e c a s es o f Sama rka nd,

o nce th e s e a t o f Ara b Em ire a nd o f M o h a mm e da n int ellec t u a l

p
l ife a nd Bo kha r a th e Murgha b with M erv a t th e po in t wh ere
, ,

th e river is lo st in th e d es ert sa nds On th e lo wer co urs e o f th e .

Amu D a ria ( Oxu s ) is th e o as is o f Kh iva th e o nly to wn o f

h is to rica l i mpo rta nce a t a d ista nce fro m th e mo unta ins .

Th e mo unt a in sp urs wh ich ext end we st wa r d into the de s ert

fro m th e T ia n Sha n enclo s ing fertile va lleys will h elp t o expl a in
, ,

th e i mpo rta nce o f T urkes ta n in th e h is tory o f As ia tic Emp ires if

it i s rem e mb ere d tha t th ey receive e no u gh sno w a nd r a in to flo o d
th e rivers ( co ntra st th e ra infa lls o f Kh iva [ 50] a nd Tash kent
Russ ia n c o ntro l o nl y b ec am e eff ect ive wh en ra ilwa ys co nnecte d
th is reg io n s epa ra ted b y des erts fro m th e res t o f th e Emp ire
, ,

with th e Vo lga a nd th e Bl a ck S ea .

Th e Transc aspian R ailwa y wa s firs t b uilt a s a s tra teg ic line

( b egu n in 1 8 74) to su bdue th e no mad ic T urko ma n trib e s to ,

threa t en Afgha nis ta n and so I ndia a nd to s trength en th e

, ,

Russ ia n h o l d o n No r th P ers ia Th e wh o le a rea has n o w b een .

tra ns fo r m e d a nd th e line is a co mm ercia l s ucce ss Th e irriga te d

, .

a rea has b een do u b le d fro m a cres a nd s ch e m es a re no w ,

in pro gre ss to o pen u p a cres (a b o ut th ree qua rters o f -

th e cult iva te d la nd o f Egypt ) Th e raw c o t ton nea rl y suffice s .

fo r th e p re s e nt n ee ds o f R uss ia Th e trad e in s ilk w oo l a nd

.
, ,

drie d fru its is s tea d ily gro wing Th e m in era l reso urce s a re very .

va luable th o ugh ba rely ta pp e d a nd th ere is a l a rge and g ro wing

, ,

ma rket fo r Russ ia n go o ds in C ent ra l As ia .

The rail way sta rts f ro m Krasno vo d sk o n the Ca spi an a t it s n a rro w es t , ,

p a r t o pp os it e B a k u Ferry bo ats co nne c t wi t h th e R ussian lin es o n t he

-
.
,

o th er sid e T h e no rth ern m a rg in o f th e Ko p et D a g h is cl o s ely fo ll o we d

.
,

both o n a cco unt o f t h e supply o f wa t er whi c h it a ff o rd s in sho rt st reams ,

flo w ing int o the d esert a nd on a cco unt of the fertile b el t so m e 10 to 20

, ,

miles wi d e o f w ind b o rne l o e ss whi c h lie s a t t h e b a se of the rang e

,
-

A .

sim il a r s t rip o f f ert ile so il a l so wa t ere d by s ho rt s t rea m s lie s o n t h e inner

, ,

l e
s op s o f t he r
spu s o f th e Pamir Pl a t eau , and o f t he T rans -
Al a i and Alai
Rang es , a nd lin e of ag ri cul tu ral Settlem en ts cl osely
h elps t o expla in why a

follo ws the foot o f the m oun tain s T he Ko pet D a g h is out o fi from the high
.

edge o f the Kho ra ssan Pla teau by the t win va lley s o f the At rek fl o win g ,

no rt h w es t a nd the K ha sa f ( the Valle y o f M es h ed ) a t ri b u ta ry o f t h e

-
, ,

Ha ri Rud ( the ri ver o f H erat ) T o the no rt h o f th e lin e is the Ka ra Kum "

.
,
3 42 T EXT B OOK -
o r GEO GRAPHY
no t s oc ur th e chann el s In a ddi t io n t h po r u s d et rit u s a b so rbs m uc h
.
, e o

wa ter w hi ch pp e rs s g re t sp ring s w hen c e th rivers rise t lo w er ele

, a a a a , e a

v t io n s
a W h ere t h ere is c lay o r fin ely d ivi d e d m a t eria l ma ll s tre am s fl w
. s o ,

a n d h ere a n d t h ere f rm s w m y la k es in s um m er T h ri se t o t he ridg e sa e

p o .

is g ra dua l o w ing t o t h en rm o u s ext ent o f t h s crees

, e o e .

Q U ES T ION S .

1 On t h e o ro g raphi c al m ap o f As ia d ra w t he S i b eri an R ail way

. M a rk , .

a n d n a m e T o b o l sk Irk u tsk Yek a t erin b urg , and Vl a d ivo s to c k In d i c a t e

, , .

th e c hief w h ea t a n d d a iry fa rm in g reg i o n s a nd t h e fu r p ro d uc ing a re a s

-

,
-
.

2 O n a n o ro g ra p hi c a l m a p o f S o u t h Wes t Asia d ra w t he T ra nsc a sp ia n

.
-
,

Ra il w a y M a rka nd n am e t he c hief o a ses t h ro u g h whi c h it pa sses

. M a rk .

a nd n a m e T ifl is B a t um B a k u Ast ra k , han T eh eran S a m a rk , a nd H era t , , , , ,

a nd O ren b ur
g Desc ri b e g enerally th e c o unt ry t h ro ug h wh i c h th e line
.

p a s se s .

3 De s. c ri b e sho rtly t h e h c f
p y s i a l ea t ure s o f T ra ns ca u ca sia T urkestan , ,

and S i b eria Wh t a r . a e t h e m a in p ro u ts a n d o d c cc upa tio ns o f the in

h a b i t a nt s
4 G ive
. a s ho rt a cco unt of th e Pa m irs , the Ca spia n Dep ress io n , a nd th e
tai g a
”
.

5 Wha t co ndit io n s fa vo ured o r hindere d Ru ssian a dva nc e into S ib eri a

.

a n d T ur ke sta n 2 ‘

6 Des c ri b e t h e m e a n s o f c o m m un i c a ti o n in t h e w h e a t reg io n s o f S i b eria

. .

Co m p a re th em w i th t h os e o f Ca na d a .

SOUTH -
W EST ASIA .

So uth Russ ia n l a n ds So u th W e s t As ia c a n b e d ivid e d

of th e -

in to T urkey in As ia co ns is tin g o f As ia M ino r S y r ia a nd Mes o

po tam ia Ar a b ia in wh ic h T urk
, , ,

ish influence o n ly ext en ds t o th e

,

Red S ea c oa s tla nds o f wh ic h Ye m en is th e mo st i mpo rta nt a n d

, ,

t o th e n o r th wes t m a r g in o f th e P er s ia n Gulf wh ile N ej d in th e

-

, ,

cent r e a nd O ma n o n th e so uth ea s t a re in depen de nt a nd Ade n

, ,
-

, , ,

with its h in derla nd is B r it ish a nd th e Pla t e a u o f Ira n c o ns is t ing

, ,

o f P er s ia o n th e we s t a nd Af ha nist a n a nd B a luc h is t a n o n t h e
g
e as t .

ASIA M INOR .

Are a u are m iles sq . Po pu latio n = 1 1 5 milli o ns '

4 3 to th e squ a re
m ile . S my rna = 0 3 5 m illio n '
.

Co nfi g uration, Towns , and Pro ducts — As ia M in o r , with Ar m en ia

a nd Kur d i s t a n , fo r ms a w es t erl
y c o nt in u a t io n o f th e Pla t e a u o f
I r a n I t va rie s c o ns i der ab ly in eleva t i o n O n t h e extre me
. .
 f ee;

l
l
l

i
i
l
l
!t
I
t
i

l
Over 6 0 0 0 f t .

3 0 0 0 00 0 0 f t
-
.

1500 n

I
: under /50 0
0
L-
25
J
50 75 oo m/ s
r k .

FI G . 4 9 —T H E GAT E S
. or S O UT H -
W ES T AS I A .
 3 44 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP H Y
-

no rth we s t t h ere a re o nly is o la t e d m o unt a ins o f a ny eleva t io n

-
,

s uc h as Olym us feet ) a nd Id a ( ne a rl y fee t ) l n t he

p
Trea d Fa cing t h e ZEgea n a nd o n t h e n o r t h we s t o ppo s 1t e the S ea
.
-

o f Ma r m o r a t h ere a re c o n s i d er ab le a re as o f l o wla n d e s p eci a lly i n

, ,

th e Va ll e ys o f th e Ge d iz a n d M e n d ere s wh ic h p en et ra t e e a s twa r d ,

into th e pla t ea u a nd a re s ep a ra te d by co mpa r a t ively lo w wa ter

,

sh e ds no wh ere much excee ding

,
feet Th e cli ma t e a nd .

s itu a t io n o f s uch va lle s a ff o r d e d a c o ng en ia l ho m e fo th e gro wt h

y r .

o f th e ea rly civ iliza tio n o f Greek c o mm un i t ie s S i mi la r i n cha r

.

a cter tho ugh mo re o r less is o la t e d a nd indepen d ent Of th e

,
.

nu m ero us flo uris h ing cit ie s o f th e c o a s t a nd i s l a n ds ( S myrna ,

Eph e s u s M ile tus H a lic a rna ss us Rh o d e s

, ,
o nl
y S my rna [ 80]
, ,

ha s ma in t a ine d its i mpo rt a nce Th e p ro duct s a re t ho s e o f th e

.

Eas t ern M e d i t erra n ea n— curra nt s a n d figs wit h s ilk in the no r th , ,

ro u nd Brusa fo r expo r t a nd wh e a t a nd th e o live fo r fo o d Wo o l

, ,
.
,

a n d e s ecia ll y m o h a ir fro m th e f am o u s Angora go a t s th e p as to r a l

p ,

expo rts o f th e pl a t e a u find th eir o utlet a t S myrna wh ich is no t e d

, ,

fo r T urke y rugs a nd c a rp e ts .

Th e centra l po rt i o n o f th e pla t ea u lie s b et wee n a nd

feet H ere a s in th e mo re eleva t e d mo u nta in ma r g in s a nd

.
,

th e h igh er p la te a u o f Ar m e n ia to f eet ) pa sto ra l co n d i ,

tio ns preva il except in mo u nta i n va lleys wh ere irriga t io n a llo ws

,

th e cul t iva t io n o f wh ea t An exa m in a t io n o f a la rg e s c a le m a p

.
-

will sho w tha t except in th e centra l sa lt a nd s e m ides ert wa st es

, ,

s uc h va lle ys a re nu m ero u s a n d a re s e a ra t e d b
p y lo w r a nge s ;
,

co ns equent ly a griculture a nd pas ture a l t erna te a n d th e st ruggle

, ,

b et ween pa sto ra l no ma ds a nd s ett le d a gricult ura l co mmun it ies is

a cut e . Th is is pa rt icul a rly int ens ifie d in the c a s e o f th e Ar m enia n
fa r m ers and th e ho rs e bree din g Kur ds o f th e so ut h ern ma rgin o f
-

th e Ar m en ia n Pla te a u .

Communications — It sh o ul d b e n o t e d tha t w ha t a re u sua ll y

.

c a ll e d th e mo unta in rims o f th e pla t e a u o f As ia Mino r— th e

T a urus, th e Anti Ta urus, and th e B la ck S ea c o a s t ra nge s— do no t
-

c o mple t ely i so la te th e pla t ea u o n th e no r th, so uth , a nd so u th

e ast The no rth er n c o as t r a nge s o u th e e a s t f or m th e m o s t c o n
.

t inu o us r a nge , as t he Ta uru s f o r m t h e h igh e st , re a c h i ng o n t h e

we st t o th e Y e sh il Ir m a k, a nd c o nce nt r a t i ng tra ffic i nto a linit ed
numb er o f m o unt a i n p a ss e s , o f w h ic h th o s e o n t h e d irect li ne
b et wee n Erzer um a nd T re b iz o nd a re the m o s t freque nt e d Th e .

T a urus a nd Anti Ta uru s c an b e m o re e as il y cr o ss e d , t ho u gh th e

-

li ne o f lea s t re s is t a nce ha s b ee n t h r o ugh th e C ilicia n Ga te s fr o m

b efo re Alex a nder s i nva s io n o f P er s i a t o mo d er n da y s
’
.
34 6 T EX T B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

SYRIA .

Are a squa re m ile s Po p ula t i o n = 3 7 m ill ions ; 33 t o the s qua re

'
: .

m ile .D a ma sc us = 0 3 5 m ill io n
'
.

In th e so uth we s t o f Syria is th e ga te b etween South West

-
-

As ia a nd Afric a . One o f th e o l d es t h is to ric a l ro ute s fo llo we d th e

c o a st pla in s o f Pa le s tin e cro ss e d th e R ift Va lley o f th e Jo r da n
, ,

a nd , pa ss ing D amas cus wa t ere d by s t reams fro m th e Ant i

,

Le ba no n (th e Aba na ) t ra vers e d th e S y ria n Des ert by Tadmo r

,

( Pa lmyra ) t o th e Euphr a t e s a nd do wn t o Ba ghda d .

D am ascus o wes its h is to rica l i mp o r t a n ce to th e exis tence o f a n

o a s is a t th e wes tern ext re m ity o f a t ra ct o f s prings a nd well s
wh ich cro ss th e no rth ern po rt io n o f th e d es ert fro m th e Euph rat es
( 2) fa cing th e gap b etween Mo unt H ermo n and th e An t i L e ba no n -

wh ic h le ads t o th e B ekaa a b r o a d v a lle y ( o ver

, feet) b etwee n
Le ba non and Anti Le ba no n t hr o ugh wh ic h fl ow th e L e o nte s
-

a nd t h e Or o nte s in o
ppo s ite directi o ns A r a ilwa y now c o nnects
.

D a ma scu s with B eiru t b y th is o p ening rep la cing th e old c arria ge ,

r o ad wh ich cr oss e d th e Le ba no n a t a b o ve feet and is c o n ,

t i nne d thr ough t h e B eka a p ass ing Baa lb ek t o th e Or o nte s t h e

, , ,

o t h er gre a t river wh ic h fl o w s t o t h e M e d iterr a ne a n c o as t a nd t o ,

Ale ppo in th e Syri a n Gat e ( 3 ) At t h e p o i nt wh ere th e c a ra va n

.

ro ut e fr om Egypt e nt ere d th e S yria n De s ert I ts m o der n im .

p o rta nce is furth er i ncre as e d b y its p o s iti o n o n t h e p ilgri m r a ilw a y

wh ich runs so uthwa r d t o Mecc a .

Thro ugho ut S yria S a ha ra 1 co n d itio ns a re in clo s e co nta c t

,
-,

with tho s e o f th e Me d it erra nea n typ e As fa r so uth as Mo un t .

Ca r mel th e c o as tl a nds a re well wa t ere d a nd fertile es p ecia ll y o n ,

th e s l o pe s o f L e ba no n .

T h e rem a ins of g re at wine an d o il p ress es a n d res ervo irs [ o r oil and co rn

a re evi d en c es o f th e so u n d a g ri c ult ura l b as is o n w h i c h t h e Ph oe ni c ia n s

fo und ed th eir comm er c e T he fa c ility w it h whi ch wo o l co ul d b e o bt ained

.

fro m the pasto ra l int erio r a cco unts for the impo rt anc e of t h eir fam o u s
dy ed clot h ( the purp le w as o bt a in e d fro m sh ellfish ) T ho ugh th e c eda rs .

o f L eb ano n hav e al m ost va ni s h e d it is e a sy t o und er stand th e a dva nt a g e s

,

t h ey aff o r d e d for sh ip b uil ding .

Mo d ern d evel op m ent o f th es e reg io n s is la rgely directe d t o th e

g ro wth fo r expo rt o f t o ba cc o o ra nge s le mo ns a nd ba na na s , , , .

La ta kia T ripo li ( th e o ld ma rket o f T yre a nd S i do n) a nd B eirut

, ,

a re th e ma in po rt s tho ugh th e c o a s t has no na tura l ha rbo urs

,
.
 S O UT H WE ST ASI A
-
34 7

PALESTINE .

To th e s o uth o f Ca r m el th e l a n d is much drier pa r tl y o wing to ,

th e p o ro us li m e s to n e a nd pa r t ly b ec a us e th e h igh la n ds o f Pa le s
,

tin e lie s o m e d is ta nce inla nd a nd a re no t s uffi cient ly lo fty to

,

co n dens e much mo is ture in s u mm er in sp it e o f th e wes terly winds,

wh ich p reva il during mo s t o f th e y ea f o wing to th e po s it io n o f ,

lo w p res s ure a re as o n th e e a s t a n d s o u th e as t
-

Ra in is bro u gh t -
.

by c y clo n ic d e pr ess io ns wh ich p a ss fro m we s t t o e a s t a n d fa lls

, ,

mo s tl y in a u tu m n th e fo r m er and in s pring th e la tter

ra in s Exce ptio nal ly i m po r ta nt as in mo s t M e d it erra ne a n
,

l a nds a re th e s e a winds wh ich bl o w during th e day a nd except

fo r a b rea ka t s u ns et mo s t o f th e n igh t a nd b ring th e h e a vy
, ,

, ,

d ew wh ic h is th e ch ief s o urce o f mo is ture in Pa le s tin e in s u mmer ,

a nd o n w h ic h th e o live ma in ly d e ends
p .

T h e p res en t comp a r at iv e d es o la tio n o f Palest ine— the la n d des cri b e d a s

fl o wing w it h milka nd ho ney — m ust b e as c rib ed no t t o a chang e o f
clima t e b u t to th e neg lect o f irrig atio n— t erraces a nd th e d es tru ctio n o f
, ,

t ree g ro wt h Erosion o n hi ll slo p es rap idly p ro du c es a n a ccum ulat i ve

.
-

eff e ct w h ere n o prot e ct ion is g iven t o th e so il from fl oo ds .

Ja fi a is th e mo d ern po rt , with a n i mpo rta nt expo rt o f o ra ng e s .

A ra il wa y c o nnec ts it with Jerusal em, th e na tura l c a p ita l , fro m

its s tra t eg ic a l po s itio n o n a spur o f th e pl a tea u, surro un de d o n
th re e s i d e s by d eep r a vines, s uc h a s a re c o mmo n in l im e s to ne
reg io ns T e mp erat ure incre a s es very ra p idl y ( fro m 70 to 95 F or
.
° °
.

mo re in s umm er) fro m J erus a le m feet ) e as twa r d a nd do wn

wa r d t o th e Lo wer Jo r dan Va lley ( th e De ad S ea is feet
b elo w s e a level ) , a nd r a infa ll dim i nish es This re gio n h a s the
-

u nh ea l th y clim a te of s o m e o f th e Algeri a n s inks , a nd is u h

inh a b it e d Jeric ho , th e cit y o f dat e pa lms , w as th e o nl y t o wn
.
-

in h i s t o ric a l tim e s Th e Ea st er n P l a te a u b eyo nd th e Jo r da n

.

receive s e no ugh r a in f or pas ture a nd whe a t in th e fert ile ba sa lt

,

re gi o n o f Haur a n .

T urk i s h Em p ire : Area : squ a re mil es Pop ula tio n = 1 m illio n ; .

6 to t h e sq ua re m ile .

Om a n : Area = 8 2, 000 square m iles Pop ul a t ion = 0 5 m illion ; 6 t o t h e

‘

u re mile
sq a .

Ar ab ia is a tab lela n d, with a gra du a l s l o p e to wa r ds th e e as t

( s ee p .
Iso la te d a rea s excee d feet o f which Ye m en
,

a nd O ma n a re th e mo st i mpo rta nt . In th e cent re is th e Nejd

 3 48 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

Pl ateau, a ge nera l eleva tio n o f abo ut

of feet o n wh ich r is e ,

r a ng es s o m e feet h igh er S ince in mo s t o f Arabia th ere a re .

no p er ma n en t s treams ( tho ugh t h e w adis a re s o m et i m e s flo o d e d ) ,

th e life o f t h e s e ce ntr a l o a s es d ep ends o n a p lentiful s upp ly

o f un d ergro un d w a ter d erive d fr o m co mp a r a tively h ea vy r a in s
,

in S pring a nd a utu mn D a t es a nd m il let a re cul t iva t e d t ho ug h

. ,

th e p rin cipa l fo o ds a re m ilk fo o ds a nd th e we a lth o f th e la nd ,

c o ns is t s o f th e famo us bree d o f c am els h o rs es do n ke ys a nd , , ,

sh ee p .

Nej d is typ i c a l o f th e ru le of s h ep h er d kings who us e d th e c a m el a s the , ,

Ph oen i c ia ns u s e d s h ips f or tra nsit o ver d es er t

, s eas a nd ba s e d t h eir ,

w ea l t h b o t h o n p a st ur e and a gri culture Cont ro l o ver t h e d w ellers in .

c as es a nd a k
, no w le d e o f th e a r ts o f irrig at io n wh i c h d es er t c ult iva t io n
g ,

d em an ds w ere n e c essary to the Ara bs who ex t end e d the Ara bia n Emp ire
, ,

t o t h e Py ren ees .

Nej d is la rg el y i so la te d tho ugh c a r a va ns cro ss th e N efu d o r

,

No rth ern Des ert to D amas cus a nd to th e Pers ia n Gulf Were

it no t fo r p ilgrim
, .

s to M ecca a n d M e dina th ere wo ul d be little ,

c o mmu nic a t io n with th e Ea s t To th e so uth lies th e a l mo s t .

i mpa s sab le D ah na De s ert wh ich s ep a ra tes Ye m e n a nd O ma n , .

Th e W estern Coastl ands a re h o t a nd dry like tho s e o f Egyp t ,

o n th e o pp os it e s i d e o f th e R e d S ea a nd ha ve a s c a nty p o p ula ti o n ,

but Yemen in th e s o uth wes t en j o ys a wa r m te mp era t e clim a t e

,
-

, ,

a nd is wa tere d b y p erenn i a l s t rea ms w h ic h d erive th e ir mo is t ure ,

fro m th e so uth wes t mo ns o o n Wh ea tfields a nd o rcha rds co ver

-
.

th e h ill s id es and co ff ee i s st ill i mp o rta nt Th e po rt is Ho deida

-

, .
,

wh ich h a s repla ce d Mo c ha Th e so uth west er n sl o p es wh ere .

-

'
,

c o ff ee flo urish es ha ve a damp a nd ho t cli ma te with c o nsta nt

, ,

s e a m ists wh ile th e eas t a nd no r th eas t s ides o f th e mo u nta ins

-

,
-

Sa na — ha ve a drier cli ma t e with 0 0 0 1 W int er s a nd c o n ,

s idera ble extre m e s o f te m p er a ture .

A re ma rka ble c ontr as t is p ro vid e d by Aden th e B rit ish cr a ter ,

fo rt ress o n th e co as t wh ic h la rg ely d ep e nds o n th e eva po r a tio n

, ,

o f s a lt wa ter t h o ug h h uge re s ervo irs a re us e d for s t o r a e o f t h e

, g
w a ter fro m th e s o m ewhat r a re b ut t r op ic a l r a ins to rm s .

To th e e a s t o f Y e m e n an i mp o rta nt d ep re ss io n is tha t o f th e
Wadi Hadramaut wh ich o wes its fertility to th e r a ins wh ich fa ll
,

o n th e Pla te a u o f Ye m e n F a rth er to th e e as t th e influence o f

.

th e des ert i s s upre m e th e sa n ds drifting to th e c o a s t a nd o ver

, ,
“

wh el m ing a ll vegeta tio n except in a few fa vo ure d l o c a l itie s s uc h

, ,

as D o fa r wh ic h i s sh eltere d by m o unta in spurs

, .

Th e Oman M o unta ins s teep o n bo th e as t and wes t s lo p e s a re

, ,
3 50 T EXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAP HY
lea ving th e pla tea u th e Euphra tes pass es th ro ugh a n a lluvi a l
s trip ( Ma la t ia ) a nd th en brea ks th ro ugh th e Ta urus in fo rmid
,

a ble ra p ids L ea ving th e g o rg es th e river flo ws with in 95

.
,

m iles o f th e M e diterra nea n a n d bends s o uth e as t t o wa rds th e -

Pers ia n Gulf Fro m B irej ik wh ere o ne o f th e g rea t h is to ric a l

,

.
,

h igh wa ys cro ss es th e river to th e s ea th e fa ll is s ca rcely mo re tha n ,

8 in c h e s to th e mile Fro m tha t p o int like the Nile it h a s no

Lik
.
, ,

p erma nent tri bu ta ries excep t t h e Kh abur o n th e ea st e .

ma ny s lugg is h rivers wh ich fl o w t h ro ugh lo w pl a ins it has built ,

fo r its elf a n e m ba nk me nt a bo ve t h e level o f th e surro unding

co u ntry t h ro ugh th e s i de s o f wh ich it co ntinu a lly brea ks a nd
,

fo r ms va s t ma rsh es Many o ld cit ies fo r m erly o n its ba nks a re

.
, ,

no w a wa y fr o m th e river wh ic h h a s d e s erte d th e m in its c ha ngin g

,

c o urs e Tho ugh na vigab le fo r s ma ll s teamers to B irej ik th e

.
,

wa terwa y i s little us e d .

Int eres t ing c o mp a risons c an b e m a d e b et w een t h es e rivers a nd o th ers

( a ) Mou nt a in o rig in and floo ds from th e m elt ing o f sno ws ( cf t he H im ala yan .

river s ) ( b) hig h f ert il e plains c o vere d wit h alluvium d ep os it ed a t th e first

m a rk ed fl a t in t h e do wnwar d c ours e o f t he stream ( of the Va le o f Ka shm ir ) .

( c ) gor g es w h ere th e river b re ak s t hr o ug h a m o unt a in rim ( cf t h e Su tle j) .

( d) the ris e o f th e level of th e river o n t h e l ow er plains o w in g t o t h e d eposit

'

o f all uviu m ; ( e) a fl o o d p la in in th e l o w er c o ur s e p ro du ct ive o f g re at f er ,

tility w h ere th e wa t ers a re u s e d an d a d eq ua t ely r estrain ed b u t d es tru ctive

, ,

if n egle ct e d by m an ( of th e H wa ng h o ) . .

Th e Emp ires o f As syria a nd Chaldma with th eir p opulo us ,

centres a t N in eveh and Bab ylo n were bas e d on th e a pplic a tion o f ,

irriga tio n t o a griculture ; Th e o ccupa tio n o f th e l a n d b y p as tor a l

no mads fr o m th e e as t has a llo we d wha t was o nce a cultiva te d

ga r d en lik e th e N il e Delta to revert to s teppe Th e rich ne ss o f .

th e reg io n is pro ve d b y th e fa ct tha t even no w with th e mo s t ,

pri m it ive m et ho ds a nd in th e li m ite d a reas th a t c a n b e ea s ily

irriga t e d fro m th e river s eno r mo us crop s a re o bta in e d o f wh e a t
, ,

ma iz e co tto n a nd to ba cco a nd in Lo wer M es op o tamia o f

, , ,

suga r c a ne a nd th e da te p a lm
-
Impo rta nt irriga tio n works
-

a re now in pr ogress o f c o ns truct i o n on th e Lo wer T igris a nd

Euphr a te s .

T he f ert ile lo wland of M e so p ot a m ia o w e d no sma ll a m o un t o f it s im

po rt an c e in h ist o ry t o it s p o s it io n c o m manding all t h e overl a n d rout es t o
,

Egypt a nd th ro ug h Asia M in o r t o Euro p e exc ept via T a b riz Erz eru m an d

-

, , ,

T reb izond It is interest ing to no t e t ha t ex c ept t ha t o f th e P ersians t he

.
, ,

great Em p ires of M esop o tam i a all relie d o n c o mman d o f t h e sea N ebu .

c hadnez z a r b uilt fl eet s a t T yre an d o n t he Persian Gulf ; Al exan d er esta b

 S O UT H -

WES T ASIA 351

lish ed do c ky a rd s o n t h e Lo w er Eup h r a t e s a nd t h e Ar a bs sa ile d fro m t he

P ers ia n G u lf to Ind ia a nd t he Ea st l o ng b efo re th e dis c o very o f th e ro ut e

r o u nd th e Ca p e o f Go o d H0 p e .

Th e mo st i mpo rta nt mo d ern to wns a re Mo s ul o n th e T igris an d

D i a r bekir b o th a t th e ju nc t io n o f i mpo r ta nt ro utes Ba ghda d
,

a t t h e ju nc t io n o f a r o ut e fro m th e P l a tea u o f I ra n a nd th e

c a ra va n ro u t e to th e west (s ee p a nd B a sr a th e na t ura l .
,

po rt o f th e d elta .

THE PLATEAU OF IRAN .

P ers ia Area = 628 000 squa re m iles Pop ulat io n = 9 5 millio ns ; 15 to t he

'

: , .

ua re m ile T e h eran = 0 28 mil lio n

'

sq . .

Confi g uratio n — Ira n g e n era ll y fo r ms a pla t ea u, with b o r d e r

.

r a nges a nd cent ra l dep ress io ns (s ee p Excep t th e vo lc a nic .

c o n e o f De ma ven d in th e Elburz (o ver feet ) Wes tern Ira n ,

h a s no lo ft y mo u nt a in s tho ugh t h ere a re c o ns i d era ble a re a s a b o ve

,

feet, e sp ecia lly in th e Ba kh t ia ri R a ng es b et ween Is fa ha n

a n d M eso o t am ia On th e e a s t iso la t e d p ea ks ri s e t o o ver
p .

feet — th e Ko h i Ta fta n a nd th e Ko h i—Ma lik S iah, wh ich

- - - -

lie a t th e po int wh ere Afgha n ista n, P ers ia , a nd Ba luch ista n

m eet , a nd o verlo o k th e d epress io n o f S eista n— bu t it is o nly in
th e ext re m e no rt h ea s t t ha t th e s pur s o f t h e H in du Ku s h fo r m a
-

l o fty mo unt a in s yst em On th e ea st o f Meso po ta m ia is th e .

bro ken h il l co untry wh ich go es by th e g en er a l na m e o f th e

Z a g ro s , a k arst reg io n w h ere rivers s in k i nto li m es to n e a nd c o n

t in n e t h eir c o ur s e un dergro un d .

Co mm unic ati ons Th e d ifficul t ies o f cr o ss ing s uch a c o unt r y

.

a re o ft e n g re a t o win g to th e st ee pn e ss o f th e cliffs a s well a s

,

t h eir eleva t io n a n d th e na rro wn ess o f th e go rg es wh ic h t r a vers e

,

th e m .
Th e ro ut es via th e Ka run th e o nl y na viga ble river o f ,

P ers ia t o Isfa ha n a nd via Ker ma nsha h f ro m Ba ghdad by

, ,

Ha ma da n t o T eh era n sho ul d b e c o mpa re d with tho s e fro m

B ush ire t o S h ira z Ba n da r Abba s to Kerma n Ask
,

,
a bad t o M e sh e d , ,

a nd R e sh t a nd Amo l o n th e Ca sp ia n t o T eh era n ( cf Fig 50 p 3 52 . .

,
.
,

wh ich sh o ws th e pla tea u a bo ve feet a nd th e d irec t io n o f th e

ma in ra nge s ) .

It will b e s ee n tha t th e ch ief r o u t e s o f th e int erio r tr a vers e th e

la t e a u z lo ng th e b ett er wa t ere d b a s e o f th e mo u nt a in s a nd
p
-

a vo i d th e rela tive d ep ress io ns o ccup ie d by th e s a lt d es erts o f

D a sh t i Ka v ir a nd D a sht i Lu t Onl y in S eista n wh ere th e
- -
- -
.
,

H el ma n d a nd o th er rivers fl o w fro m th e b etter wa tere d h ighl a n ds -

3 52 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

of Afgh a nista n , do es th e ma in ro u t e fro m Ka ndaha r t o H era t

fo llo w th e l o wla n d .

Co mmun ic a t io n dep en ds o n th e u s e o f mules a nd c am els c o n ,

dit io ns o f t ra nspo r t b ein g a s p ri m it ive a s in th e An d es o f S o uth

Am erica a wa y fro m m o d ern ra ilwa y s a nd except fro m T eh era n
,

to th e Ca sp ia n r o ads fo r wh eele d tr a ffic a re no n exi st ent

,
-
.

FIG . 50 .
—LAT EA U o r IRAN
THE P .

N o t e t h e m a rg ina l c ha ins o n t h e no r th t h e El b ur z a nd K h o r a ssan M o un

,

t a in s ( s ep a r a t ed fro m t h e H i n du Ku s h b y t h e va ll ey o f t h e H a ri
R u d ) a n d t he p a ra llel ra ng es o f lim e st o n e la g ro s o n th e s o ut h w est a n d
-

so ut h.

Climate and ProductsTh e g enera l cha ra cter o f th e cli ma t e

.

ha s a lrea dy b ee n m e nt io n e d (p bu t certa in ma rke d na tura l

.

reg io ns ma y b e d is t inguis h e d
(a ) Th e da mp h ea t o f th e Gulf Co ast with little ra in fa ll
,

( Bush ire
( b) Th e extre m e c o l d in wint er a nd h eat in s u mm er o f
th e pl atea u ( Is fa ha n wh ich lik e th e abo ve c o a s t
, ,

h a s a n a l mo s t c o mple t e abs ence o f r a i n fro m Jun e t o

Octo b er .
3 54 TEX T -
B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
6 . Desc ri b e Jo rda n Valley the co a st o f Syria the Sy ria n Desert
th e , . .

Acco unt fo r the p ro d u c ts and o cc up a t i o ns o f the inh a bi ta nt s .

7 De s cri be t h e c o urses of the T i g ri s a nd Eup h ra t e s Co m pa re th em wi th

. .

o t h er ri vers o f s im ila r c ha ra c t er .

8 Des c ri b e va rio u s m et h o d s o f i rriga t io n u s ed in S o u th W est Asia

.
-
.

THE INDIAN EMPIRE .

Government The In dia n Empire i s d ivi de d into t en la rge a nd

.
—

s evera l sma ller B enga l wa s fo r merly di vi de d int o

pro vi nce s .

B en ga l and Ea st ern B en ga l a nd Assa m but since 1 9 1 1 the pro ,

vince s h a ve b ee n rec onst itute d as B e nga l Assam a nd a new , ,

p r o vi nce Th e la r g e pr o vince s a re B urm a B e nga l Ma dr a s

.
, , ,

B o mba y t he Unit e d Pr ovince s th e P unj a b Assa m th e C e ntra l

, , , ,

P r o vi nce s the N o rth West Fr o nt ier Pr o vince a nd B eha r Ch o ta

,
-

Na gpur and Orissa Th e s ma ller pr o vi nce s a re C o o rg Aj m er

.
,

Merw ara B rit ish B a luc h is t a n a n d t h e An dam a n a nd N ic o b a r

, ,

Is l a nds Th ere are num er ous na t ive s t a te s a ll und er Brit ish

.
,

c o nt r o l t h ough t o a va ry ing de gree Th e principa l are Hyd era

, .

ba d M ys o re Ra j put a n a a nd C e nt ra l I n d i a K a shm ir a nd
, , , ,

B a luch ist a n .

INDIA .

Popul ation — The t o ta l po pula t ion is ( 1 9 1 1 ) 3 1 5 m illio ns of

.
,

wh ic h a la rge pro po rt ion a re in the den sely popula te d l o wlands

o f t h e Gan e s an d B ra hma ut ra ( B en a l ) a n d t h e Ea st C o a s t
g p g
Pla in The sma lle st populat ion s a re in the In dian De s ert and
.

No rt hern a n d We st ern B o rd erlands th e Hi ma la ya s a nd th e , ,

We st ern Front ier The la r ge st to wn s a re Ca lcut ta ( 1 2 mi llion s)

.
,

B o mba y (0 8 milli on ) Ma dra s (05 mi llio n ) Hy d erab a d (0 5 , ,

million ) Luckn o w (0 2 5 million) Delhi (02 3 million ) La ho re

, , ,

m illion ) .

In n o c o un t ry in t he w o rl d o f equ a l s i ze d o t h ere exi st so

many di st in ct c o mmun itie s a s in I ndia po sse ssin g n o c o mmo n ,

gro u nd in ra ce l an gu a ge reli gi o n o r s o ci a l cu st o ms
, , , .

Races — The ma in ra ce t y pe s a re
.

I The Turko I ra ni an (the Ba lu c hs a nd Af ghan s o f the

.
-

Wes tern Fron t ier ) There ha s pro bab ly b een a fu sio n o f

Turk
.

ish and Per s ian ele ment s .

II The Indo Ary a n (R a j put s Ja t s etc ) o f re ma rkab ly

.
~
, , .

un if o r m and pure type s Thi s extends t hrou gh R a j putana .

,

t he Pun j a b a nd Ka shm ir , .
 T HE IN D I AN EMPIR E 3 55

III Th e Scy th e Dra vi dian Thi s i s the ma in type o f the

.
-
.

B o mb a y Pre si de ncy .

I V Th e Ary o Dra vi di an o r Hindu stan i The se o ccu py the

.
-
, .

Unite d Pro vin ce s pa rt s of Ra j putan a and Bi ha r The Hin, .

du stani B rahman repre sent s t he hi ghe st st ra ta o f t hi s ty pe

-

V The Mongo lo Dra vi dia n o r B enga li ty pe of Lo wer

.
-

B enga l and Orissa .

VI Th e Dra vid ian ext e n ding fro m C ey lo n to t h e Ga n ge s

.
, ,

a nd o ccu
py i n g Ma d ra s Hy d era bad t h e Cen tra l P ro vin ces , , ,

and m o st o f C e nt ra l Ind ia Thi s was pro bab ly t he o rigina l .

ty pe of t he po pu l at ion o f India It i s mo d ifie d by Arya n .

,

S cyt h ia n an d Mon go l o i d ele m ent s

, The la b o urer s of t h e .

t ea p la nt a t i o n s o f Assa m a nd Cey lon a nd o f t he rice s wa m p s

-

o f Ea st ern B en a l a re la r ely Dra vi d i an

g g ,
.

VII The Mon go lo i d ty p e o f t he Hima l ay as Ne pa l Assa m

.
, , ,

a nd B ur ma .

It mu st b e understoo d tha t t he se ty pe s mer ge gra du a lly one

i nt o a no t her and a re n ot exclu sive even within the a re a s m en
,

t io ned. There a re nu m erou s va ria ti ons in In dia due t o o ri gin .

Ma ny ra ce s ent ere d fro m the no rth we st ( Greeks S cyth ian s Hun s -

, , ,

Af ghan s Mu gha l s a nd Per sian s) a nd Mo ngo lo i d p e eple s fro m

, ,

t h e n o rt h ea st -
In a dd iti o n t here are ma ny d i ff eren ce s wh ich
.

a re due t o en vironment A ha rdy ra ce ha s b een pro duce d in .

t he d ry cli ma t e o f the n o rt h we st wh ere o n ly t he fit t e s t ha ve -

s urvive d t h e st ru
ggle wi t h ma n a nd na ture while life in the ,

Gange s Delt a ha s b een fa vo urab le t o th e gro wt h o f a nu merou s

but un wa rlik e p o pula t io n wit h po o r phy s ique .

Religi ons — Th e b ulk o f th e po pula t ion o f Ind ia a re H in dus

.

( 70 per M o hamm e da ns fo rm a b o ut one fif t h o f the to t a l -

n u mb er o f wh o m mo s t a re in the no rth we st
,
Th ere i s a la rge -
.

gro u p whi c h fo rms th e ma j o rity o f t he p o pula t io n in th e e a ste rn

p o r t i o n o f B e nga l Pr o fe ss ing o th er r eligio ns are B u ddhist s
.
,

m o s tl y in B urma ; Anim ist s wh o pr a ct ice a kind o f nature w or ,

sh ip ; S i k hs in the Pu nj a b a nd pl a i ns in R a j p ut a na a nd Guj ar at ;
Chris t ia ns ( la r gely in th e Madra s P re s id e nc y ) a nd a sma ller ,

num b er o f Pa r s is ( m o st ly in B o mba y ) a nd J ew s ,
.

Lang uag es — There a re a la rge n u mb er o f d ifferen t la n gu a ge s

.

in Ind ia wh ic h ha ve b een gro upe d int o a few ma in d ivi s ion s b ut ,

e a c h of the s e c on ta in nu mero u s su b di vi sion s whic h a re n o t ,

un d er s t o o d o ut s id e t h e li mit s o f the c o mmun i tie s tha t u s e t h e m .

The Indo Aryan langua ge s spo ken by mo re t han three qua rt er s

-
,
-

o f t he po pula ti on a re d ivi d e d i nt o s o m e s eventeen t o n gue s ( Hi nd i

,
356 TEXT B OOK OF GE O GRAPHY
-

with m ore than 1 00 millions B enga li Ma ra th i Sa n s krit , , ,

i s the lit era ry langua ge o f the B ra hman s Hindu sta ni a dia lect . ,

of Hindi is t h e lingua f ra nca o f No rt h ern a nd We s te rn Ind i a

,
.

Of Eranian l angu a ge s th e mo st i mpo rt ant a re Pers ian n o t spo ken

, ,

in India b ut i mpo rtant in lit era t u re ; Pash to t h e l an gua ge o f

, ,

Af ghanis t an and th e No rt h We st Fro ntier ; a nd Ba lo ch th e -

la ngu a ge of Ba luchi stan Of Dra vi dian l angua ge s Ta mil has .

the wi de st exten sion It i s th e verna cula r o f So uth Ea st In d ia

.
-

a nd No rt h C ey l o n a nd has b ee n wi d el y s p re ad by e m ig r a nt s o ver
,

Fa rther In dia The Indo Chine s e l angu a ge s a re a ll m on o sy llab ic

.
-
,

o ne wo r d ha ving ma ny me a ni n gs a cc o r d in g t o t h e t o n e in wh ic h
it i s pron o un ce d o r it s po s iti o n in a se ntence Of t he se T ib etan .

a nd B ur me s e a re th e principa l .

Occupati ons — Th e b u lk o f t h e p opula tio n i s a g ricultura l

.

( 65 per cent ) a nd live s in villa ge s wh ic h fo rm ind ep end ent c o m

, ,

mun it ies Ab o ut 5 per cent live in to wn s

. The la n d i s mo stly . .

hel d by p ea sant pro prieto r s cult ivat in g sma ll p lot s and d e pen , ,

dent on ho rne d ca ttle fo r milk and transpo rt O win g t o a very .

m inutely divide d ca ste sy ste m and difl erences o f cli ma t e and ,

la ngu a ge t here i s little mo ve ment o f the popul a ti on In a recent

, .

censu s mo re t han nine tenths o f the inhab ita nt s were re sident -

in t he d i s tric ts in whic h they were b o rn

-
To th i s certa in regi on s
fo r m ma rk
.

e d exce ptions Assa m n ee ds l ab o ur for the te a plan .

-

ta t io ns a nd t h ree e ighths of t he entire p o pula tio n a re im migra nt s

,
-
,

mo stly fro m t he ha rdy ab o rigi na l trib e s o f the Chota Na gpur

Plat e a u in Ben ga l Na tive s o f the C entra l Pro vin ce s c o me to
.

t he mill s o f Ca lcutta and Ho wr a h ( jute ) a nd th e c oa l min e s o f ,

-

B ur dwan n e a r Ca lcutta Bu rma impo rt s m o st o f it s la b o ur for

, .

the ha rve st s a nd fo r the rice mills ( la rgely fro m Ma d ra s and C hi tta

go ng ) . Ce y lo n o b t a in s lab o ur f or th e te a ga r de ns fro m the Tam il -

c o o lie s o f M a dras A la rge nu mb er of India n la b o urer s e mi gr a te

.

to B rit i sh Gui a na Ma uritiu s Trin i da d a nd Fij i

, , , .

Climate .

°
Sun Force
-
India extends o ver ab o ut 3 1 o f la titu d e fr o m
.
-

°
a ppro xima t ely 3 7 no rth la tit u de in th e extre m e no rt h of Kash
'

mir t o 6 n o rt h la titu de in the so uth of C ey lon On ly t he Deccan

,
°
.

and t h e s o u t h o f L o wer B e nga l lie a ctu a lly s o ut h o f t he n o rt hern

tr opic He nce the sun th o ugh n ever quite vertic a l in a lm os t a ll
.
,

th e I ndo Ga ngetic Bas in is n ever low in th e h e a ve ns even in

-

winter a nd th e Sun F orce is a lwa ys h igh At 3 4 n o r th l a titud e

-
°

( Srinagar ) it excee ds 3 1 ?in winter a nd th e re s ult a nt S un Fo rce

.

excee ds 5 2 ( s ee Tab le II p .
, .
3 58 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

and Dece mb er The ra infa ll (a utu mn ) o f Ma dra s [ 1 3 6] and the

.

Co ro man del c oa st i s a tt rib ute d t o the in fluence o f the retre at i n g

So uth We st Mon s o on n o t t o t ha t o f th e M o rt h Eas t m o n s o o n
-

,
-
.

S UMM ER C O ND IT I O N S .

Tem perature — With the i ncre a se o f te mpera t ure a fter Ja n u a ry

"

. ,

the preva lent n ortherly win ds in the n o rt h of the B ay o f B en ga l

b e gin t o dimin i sh in int en sity and a ft ern o on sea win ds a re felt
,
.

The se gr a dua lly in cre a se in strengt h and b l o w o ver longer '

st ret ch e s o f wa ter a s the land wa rms a nd in Ma rch t hey a re ,

b l o win g wit h c onsi dera b le f o rce in the n o rt h e ast co rner o f the -

B a y o f B e n ga l At t h i s t ime t he pre s sure i s hi gher o ver t he bay

.

t ha n i nlan d a n d t he win d s a re b l o win g fr o m t he s o ut h we st

,
-

( clo ckwise ) The se b r in g a s li ght rainfa ll t o Ca lcutt a and a la rge

.

ra infa ll to eleva t e d re gions in Assam ( Cherra pun j i

The t e mpera ture st e a dily in crea se s o ver th e lan d fr o m Ma rch to
Ma y wh ic h in m o st o f No rth In dia i s t h e h o t t e st m ont h a nd pre s
, ,

sure fa lls mo re ra pi dly th an it d o e s o ver t h e Ara b ia n Sea o r the

Ba y o f B enga l In April th ere is wha t m a y b e d e s cri be d a s a
.

ridg e o f h igh pre ss ure tra vers in g th e Decca n a nd th e Ba y o f

B enga l b etween th e No rt h Ea st Mo nsoo n o n th e s o uth and th e
,
-

S o uth W es t win ds o n th e n o r th wh ich a re b e g innin g to b ring ra in

-

t o th e c oa sts o f B enga l a nd Orissa S ea win ds m o s t l y fr o m th e

.
,

west a re no w blo win g in to th e lo w pressure a re a wh ic h exists

,
-

in No r th In d ia e sp ecia ll y in th e No rth Decc a n wh ere i s th e

, ,

reg io n o f g rea t est h ea t .

G ra dua ll y a bo ut th e m i ddle o f Ma y th e ri dge o f h igh pressure

, ,

d isa pp ea rs a nd a lo w p r essu r e a rea is e sta b lish e d o ver No r th er n

,
-

In d ia with a min imu m in th e no r th we st to wa r ds wh ich th e a ir

,
-

is dr a w n in ( c o u nter cl o ckwi s e ) fro m th e o ce a ns

-

This a ir which .
,

is sat ur a t e d wi t h m o is t ure i s ri s i ng o ver a v a s t a re a a nd c o nd i

, ,

tio ns a re f avo ur a b le for r a infa ll A no t ice a b le fe ature o f the .

b egi nni ng o f the ra i ns is wha t is c a lle d th e b ur st O f t h e s o uth

west m o ns o on Th is o ccur s wit h gre at s u dd e nne ss and i s a c
.
,

c o mpa nie d by t o rre nt i a l do w np ours a nd elec tric a l dist ur ba nc es .

Its i nflue nce is m ost m a rke d o n t h e we s t c o as t ( B o mb a y a nd

e sp eci a lly o n t he h igh e st p ar ts o f th e Gha ts wh ere th e r a i nf a ll in ,

July is o nly a litt le less tha n a t Ch err a punj i a nd le ast in th e r a in ,

”
sha do w wh e n the wi nds de s ce nd t o w a r ds th e e a st ( P o o na
,

In t h e e a rlie r s t a g e s o f t h e m o ns o o n s c a rcely a ny r a i n re a c h es th e
Ca rna t ic ( Ma d r a s (s ee p Th e win ds bl o w c o u nter
clo c k
.

wis e into No rth Ind ia a nd a re so uth e a s t in B enga l Th e

,
-

p enetr a t io n o f s ea win ds i nt o th e interio r o f I n d i a is n o w very

'
 T HE IN D IAN EMPIR E 3 59

muc h grea ter tha n a t a ny o th er p erio d (except in th e eas t o f th e

Decc a n) a nd I nd ia g en era lly ha s a p erio d kno wn a l mo s t u ni
,

versa lly as th e Rains Th e ret rea t o f th e mo nso o n is much

.

mo re gradua l tha n its a dva n ce a nd c o ns equentl y in ma n y reg io ns

,

th e wet wea th er i s pro lo nge d into th e a ut umn It mus t b e re .

m e mb ere d tha t th e ra ins a re by no m ea ns co nt in uo us but o ccur ,

in d o wn o ur s o f ma rke d in ten s it C er ta in a rea s receive ver y

p y .

little r a in even during th e mo ns o o n

, Ra j puta na a nd th e
D es er t o f Tha r ( a l mo st ra in less ) wh ere th e win ds ma in l y c o m e
,

fro m th e l a nd ( Wes t a nd No rth We st ) a s th ey lie o n th e so u th

-

a n d ea s t s i d e o f t h e lo w
p ress ure m in i mu m o f t h e Pu nj a b Leh
-

in th e ra in shado w o f a n enclo s e d va lley ; th e Decca n ,

b eh in d th e W es tern Gha ts a nd in the ext re m e so uth ea st b eh in d -

th e Ca r da mo n H ills Th e Dec ca n genera lly ea s t o f th e Gha ts has

.
, ,

a s o m ewha t u n cer ta in r a infa ll th e

p a rtia l fa ilure o f wh ic h le ads
,

to fa m in e .

Rainf all and Veg etati o n — Th e in flue nce o f s e a so na l ra in fa ll o n

c ul t iva t io n is mo st ma rke d in India In th e P un j a b th e rice .

is so wn in Jun e a n d c u t in S ep t e mb er Ma ize is so wn a nd rea p e d

.

in t w o mo nt h s E qu a ll y ma rke d is th e influen ce o n na tura l

.

veg eta t io n Th e p re do mina nce o f mo nso o n fo res t ( rep res ente d

.

by tea k ) , wh ich is lea fl e s s in th e dry s ea so n , a ff o r ds a co ntra s t

to th e ever green tro p ic a l fo re st o f reg io ns with r a in a t a ll s ea so ns
W es tern C ey lo n (pa l ms a nd ru b ber ) Th e ma ngo es, figs , .

a n d pa l ms o f Lo wer B enga l , a nd t h e lu xuria nt fo res t o f th e

Ma l a ba r c o a st a re due less to co ntinuo us r ainfa ll tha n t o th e

,

a b u n da nce of wa t er On th e H ima la ya s t e mp era t e fo re st

.

( d eo da r s a nd p ines ) repla ce t rop ica l fo r ms The T era i , a d e ns e .

unh e a l t h y j un g le e xte n ds a l o ng th e s o ut h er n ba s e o f t he Him a

l a y as wh ere t he c han ge o f s l o pe c a us e s a n a ccum ul a t io n o f wa t er .

Th e W estern B orderl and .

Structure — At th e t i m e o f the d ep o s itio n o f th e O o lite s a nd

.

Ch a lk in th e B ritis h Is les th e penins ula o f I nd ia fo r m e d pa rt

o f a c o n t ine nt o f wh ich s urviving fr a g m e nts a re fo un d in Ma da

k
,

ga s e a r a nd So u t h Af ric a Li e t h es e reg ions , it c o ns is ts o f a

.

t ab lela n d o f m o re o r le ss ho riz o nt a l st r a t a wh ich ha ve b een ,

un d is tur b e d fo r lo ng g eo lo g ic a l p erio ds Th e sea o riginall y .

o ccup ied l a rg e a re a s t o th e n o rt h a nd no rth wes t Wh en e a rth -

.

m o ve m ents b ega n to th e no rth , wes t, a nd ea s t, p re ss ure wa s

exerte d a ga in s t th is a rea wh ich fo r m ed a ho r s t o r rela t ivel y
,

r es is ta nt mass (s ee p As a co ns e quence grea t fo l ding

. ,
3 60 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

of th e r o cks o ccurre d ; th e Hi ma la ya s were fo r m e d o n th e no rth ,

t h e e a stern r a ng es o f Assam B ur ma a n d Ar a ka n o n th e e a st
, , ,

a nd th e b o r d er mo u nt a in s o n th e wes t .

Th e res ul ts o f th is fo l ding a re s een in th e pa ra llel ri dg es wh ich

a re fo u n d t hro u h o ut t h e s e mo u nt a ins
g I n di a IS i so la t e d by no
.

s in le mo u nt a i n cha i b ut by a series of ra nges In a very la rg e

g n ,
.

nu mb er o f ca s e s th e r i ver s a re o l d er tha n t h e m o u n t a in s a n d ha ve
,

cu t go rg es t h ro u gh t h e m .In add it io n a l a r g e nu mb er o f va lle ys

, ,

esp ecia ll y in th e upp er c o urs es o f th e ma in river s o r in th e c o ur s es

o f t h eir t ri b u ta ries ru n in a
, p a r a llel d irec t io n t o th e ra n g e s a nd
ri dg es a nd a ff o r d ro ut es b etwee n th em A s tu dy o f rivers will
.

th erefo re g ive u s th e k e
y to th e c o mplic a t e d c o nfigura t io n o f th e
west ern bo r d er a nd th e ma in lin e s o f c o mmu n ica t io n .

T w o c o nven ie nt d ivis io ns m a y b e mad e o f t h e rivers o f th e

bo r d erl a n d to th e no r th a nd s o u th o f th e Ka bul R iver .

Vall ey s and Co mm u nic a tio ns North o f th e K abul River .

( a ) Th e Indus ris es in th e la ke regio n o f W estern T i b et , wh ere a

s ma ll a rea a b o u t 25 m iles in r a d ius , b e t ween t h e H i ma l a y a s a nd

t h e T ra ns l1 im a la y a , c o nta ins a lso th e s o urce s o f th e S u t l ej a nd

-

Sa np o ( Bra hm a pu t ra ) The In dus a nd B ra hma put ra b r ea k th ro ugh

.

th e we s t a nd e a st ext re m it ie s o f t h e H i ma la ya s . Th e Ju mna ,
G a nge s , a nd Go gr a ris e in gl a cier s a m o ng t h em Wh ere t h e .

river s ha ve cut th r o ugh th e Hima la y a s , th e dee p go r ge s a re

ge n er a ll y i mp a ssa b le fo r t r a ffi c , a n d in s o m e c a s es eve n u h
exp lo re d L itt le mo re is kno wn o f th e I ndus go rge s th a n o f
.

t ho s e o f th e B ra hma p u t ra . Th e sa m e m a y b e s a i d O f the d ifficult

mo u nta ino u s reg io ns in th e p ro xi mi ty o f th e s e pa rt s o f th e river
c o ur s e s Th e rela tive d epth o f th e river va lle ys m a y b e a ppre
.

c iat ed fr o m th e fa ct t ha t th e I nd u s Va lle y is feet at G ilgit ,

a nd Rak ap ush i, t o it s n or t h e as t , is o ver
-

feet, wh ile fa rt h er
s o ut h Na nga Pa r ba t fee t ) s l op e s t o th e I ndus G orge s in
o ne o f t h e s t ee p e s t m o u nt a i n wa ll s in t h e w o rl d
.

Th e pa r a llel a rra nge m ent o f ridg es i s well sh o wn in Ka shm ir ,

wh ere th e S h yo k ,
th e l a rg e s t no r th ern t ri b uta r y o f th e I nd us ,
runs pa ra llel t o it fo r a grea t dista n ce , a nd receive s a l a rge pa rt
o f th e d r a ina g e fro m th e K a r a ko r am , wh ic h h a s l a rg e gl a cie rs
a nd mo u nt a ins o f
g rea t h eigh t ( K2 excee ds feet ) Th e .

o nl
y pra c t ic able pa ss th ro ugh th is r a ng e o n th e e a s t is th e Ka r a
ko ram (o ver feet ) , wh ich le ads to Ya rka nd, o n th e Ya rka nd
R iver in Ea s tern T urkest a n Leh , o n th e I ndu s , is a c a ra va n
.

centre fo r th is ro u te , b y th e I ndus Va lle y to th e n o rth we s t and -

to th e so u th e a st t o T i b et a n d Lha s a , a n d t o t h e we s t fo r
-
3 62 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Srina ga r in Ka shm ir , th ro ugh wh ic h Ra wa l Pin d i in th e Pun j a b

is re a ch e d by Murree a nd th e n ew Jh ela m ro a d , o r by th e P ir
Pa nj a l Pass A ro ute fro m Srin a ga r lea ds no r th t o S ka r do a nd
.

th e Asto r Va lley, a nd a cro s s th e Indu s in to th e Gilg it Va lle y .

The Vale of Kash mir in w hi c h Srina ga r l ies o we s it s fer tility to the

, ,

d ep o sit O f all uvium o n a wi d e pl ain fo rm ed bet we en t wo a brup t ch ang es o f

s lo p e
. B efo re t he Jh ela m c u t t hro ug h th e g o rg e t h is w a s a n o ld lak e .

H ig h p la in s o f t hi s d e s c rip t io n O ft en o cc ur in t h e upp er c o ur se s o f river s ,

a nd p r ovi d e fa vo ur a b le s it es f o r s ett lem ent w it h fertil e so il Th e .

clim a te is a little c o ld er in w in ter bu t wa rm er in s umm er t ha n th e hill

, ,

sta t i o ns o f S im la [ 73 ] and M urree a n d is d ri er It is w ell sui t e d fo r p er

, .

m an ent Euro p e an s et tlem ent The p ro d u c ts a re t he f rui ts a nd g ra in s o f

.

t e m p era t e z o ne s a n d in a dd i ti o n ri c e
, , , .

Ea s t o f th e Ka r a ko ram a n o t h er g re a t ra ng e , th e T ra ns
H im a la ya , a nd th e l o fty a nd b ro a d Pla tea u o f T ib et ( a bo ve
feet ) prevent a ny c o mmu n ic a t io n to th e no r th N ea r .

wh ere th e I ndus b egin s to tu rn s o uth th e Gil g it R iver lea ds to

Gilg it a nd a no rth ern t ributa ry to Hun za th ro ugh wh ich lo ft y
, ,

pa ss es lea d t o th e Pam ir a n d th e T a ri m B a s in A difli c u lt p ass .

cro ss es th e Sha n dur Ra nge t o Ch itra l in th e Kuna r Va lley .

S t ill mo re d ifficul t pa ss e s le a d fro m th e h e a ds o f th e Gilg it a nd

Kuna r R iver s t o th e Upp er Am u D a ria ( Oxu s ) a nd th e Pa m irs,
a cr oss th e H in du Ku sh Fro m Ch itra l pa s s es lea d t o B a da ksh a n
.

a nd R u ss ia n T urke s t a n .

Gilgi t a nd Ch i tra l r egi c al im po rt a n c e a s a dvan c e po sts to

a re of st a t

co nt ro l th e m o unt a in t ri b es b ut no o rga n iz e d m o d ern inva sion s c oul d

,

cross t his p o rt io n o f the Hindu Kush o wing to t h e diffi culty o f t ra n spo r t

, .

Even in a n c ient a n d m e d ieva l da y s In d ia wa s n ever a pp r o a c h e d t hr o ug h

t his p a rt o f t h e fr o nt ier exc ep t b y B u ddh ist p il grim s fr o m T i b e t wh o
, ,

fo llo w e d the p a sses b et w een t h e Indus a nd Kuna r River .

C o mmun ica t io n with Ch itral is ea s ies t by th e Kuna r R iver b ut ,

a s th e l o wer p o r t io n o f t h is va lley lie s in Afgha n is ta n a r o u t e i s

fo llo we d fr o m Atto cko n th e Indus via Na o sh era in th e Kab ul

,

Va lle y f ro m wh ich a ra ilwa y no w ext en ds t o Da r ga i Fro m h ere

, .

th e Ma la ka n d Pa ss is fo llo we d t o th e S wa t Va lle y a nd th e ,

Pa n jko ra R iver to Dir fro m wh ich furth er pa ss e s lea d to th e

,

Ku na r R iver in B rit ish t errito ry .

On e furth er gro up o f pa s s e s m a y b e m e nt io n e d in th i s s ect io n ,

tho ugh th e y o n ly le ad to T i b e t Th es e a re th e r o ute s fo llo we d

.

by th e t rad e ro ut es fro m Amba l a th ro u gh S iml a wh ic h t r a ver s e ,

th e Ra mpur co u nt ry a nd lea d to th e Upp er In du s .

I t sho ul d b e no te d tha t no ne o f the t ributa rie s o f th e I ndu s

 THE IN D IAN EMPIR E 3 63

a re na vigable in th e mo un ta ins a nd tha t th ey ha ve a ll cut

.
,

t h e i r way th r o ugh ha r d r ock a nd ru n t hr o u h g or e s to th e P u nj ab

g g
PlaIn s o t ha t th e upper v a lle y s m us t b e re a c h e d b y circuit ous
,

r o ute s c o ntro lle d fr o m c o mp a r a tivel y few bas e s .

( 6) Valleys and Communications h om the Kabul River South .

— Fro m t h e M la k n d Pass t o t he I nd ia n Oce a

a a n th e frontier i s
a ppro xima tely 900 mi le s l ong— ta a go o d d ea l mo re than the,

t o t a l le ngth of th e B ritis h Is les a nd r at h er le ss tha n fr om th e

,

N o rth Cap e t o th e Ska ger a k H ere t h o ugh th e m ount a ins a re

.
,

lo wer t h ere is th e sam e a rr a ngem e nt o f r o ughly p a r a llel r a nges

, ,

t h ro u gh wh ic h t he river s cut ga t e s a t t he ir exit t o th e p la in s .

P ra ct ica lly the first line o f India n defence lie s a t the Kabul
Vall ey w h ic h i s c o mman de d by Pe sha wu r fro m whi c h th e
, ,

K hy b er and furth er passe s le ad t o Kabul .

The Kh y ber a voi ds the go rge s o f the Ka bul R iver by pa ssin g

thr o ugh spurs of th e S a fe d Ko h ; it re a ch e s th e river a ga in a t D a kka
o n th e pl a in o n wh ic h s ta nds Ja l a l ab a d ne a r wh i c h a ll r o ut e s ,

t h r o u gh t h e K ab ul V a lley h a ve t o p a ss Oth er pas s es are a ga in

.

f o ll o we d thr o ugh th e we st er n spurs o f the S a fe d Koh t o K ab ul th e ,

c ap it a l o f Afgha nist a n wh ich lie s in a well wa tere d a nd sh el -

t ered ) l a i n To t h e north we st o f K ab ul t wo up er v a lle ys o f t h e

Ka b u l R iver fo r m a rela t ively low t rench parafi
-

el t o th e Hindu

Kush fro m wh ic h t here a re m any pra cti c ab le tra ck s a cro ss

,

t he re la tively na rr ow th o u gh l o f ty r a nge and even well ke pt ,

-

roa ds w h ic h a re a va ilab le f or summ er tra ffic The stra te gica l .

im po rt an ce o f Kabul is very g rea t as it c o mma nds t h e s e ,

ro ute s to the no rt h and those t o th e so uth we st by Gha zni t o -

Ka n daha r .

It will b e no te d ( see Fig 5 1 ) t ha t the S a fe d Koh i s re a lly a co n

.

t inu at io n o f th e Shandur Ra n ge whi c h fo rms a fo rmi dab le o h

,

sta c le o n t h e e as t s i d e o f t h e Upp er Kun a r o r Chi tra l R iver The .

K ab ul R iver may b e de scribed a s cutting it s wa y thro ugh o ne

o f t h e Sp ur s o f t h e Hin d u Ku sh .

T h e c o mpli c ate d ch a ra ct er o f th e rang es a nd ridg es sou th o f th e S a fe d

Ko h is no t sho wn by th e c o nto urs s el e c t ed f o r u se in Fig 5 1 T ho ug h o nl y . .

th e Waz iri stan Rang e s whi c h fo rm a n i so late d mo un t ain gro up t he

, ,

S ul a im an Rang es whi c h culmin a te in the T a k

,
h t i S ula iman and th e iso la ted
- -
,

m o unt ain s round Quet t a exc eed, feet the co unt ry is g enerally
,

m o un ta ino u s ( exc eed i ng f eet ) exc ept at the Qu etta Gap (see the
,

o ro g ra p h i ca l ma p o f Ind ia ) .

Th e difficulty of cro ssin g thi s co un try c anno t b e me asure d by

eleva tion a lo ne I t is due la rgely t o the sha rp lim e stone rid ge s
.
3 64 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

with stee p e sc a rp m ent s t ha t m o stly run in a d irectio n a ppro x i

ma t ely pa ra llel to th e In du s As o nly t he l a rger river s ha ve cut
.

pra ct ic a b le ga t ewa y s t h ro u gh t h i s wa ll t h e fro ntier c a n b e ,

stra t e ic a lly c o mm a nd e d by military p osts a t t he exit o f t he

g
we st ern va lley s Ku sha lga r h c o mmands (by Ko ha t a nd Tha l )
.

t h e Kurra m R iver w h ic h ri se s o n th e sout h o f t he Sa fe d Ko h

,
.

The va lley le a d s by t he Peiwa r K o t a l and Shu ta rga rdan Pa ss int o

t he Upper Ka b ul Va lley To t he so u t h o f t he Kurram Va lle y is
.

t he ga t e fo rm e d by t he T o c hi Va lle y t o t he n o rt h o f Wa ziri sta n .

Dera Isma il K ha n c o mman d s the exit o f the Go ma l Kundur , ,

and Z ho b Va lle y s . Of the se the t wo first le a d t o the Lo wer

Gha zn i Va lley fro m wh ich Ka bul and Kan da ha r a re c o mpa ra
,

t ively e a s ily re a c he d ; whi le t he Z ho b ri se s in t he m o unt a in s to

t h e n o r t h e a s t o f P e sh i n a nd Q uett a a n d pr o vi d e s a r o ut e b e h i nd
-

t h e Sul a im a n M o u nt a i ns is o l a t i ng a nd t hus c o nt r o lli ng a n e a st er n

,

p o r t i o n O f th e b o r d erla nd In th is va lle y lie s F o r t S a n d e ma n

. .

Th e Go mal Pass i s tra ver se d by on e o f the o l de st ca ra van ro ute s

b e tween Afghan i stan a nd India .

T he di vi si o n b e t w ee n t h e N o r th W e st F ro n t ier Pro vin c e a nd th e B alu

-

c h is t a n Ag en cy lie s in t h e Z h o b V a lley b u t th e Pa t ha n o r Pa sh t o sp e a k
, ing
p eo ple s e x t en d g en erall y so u t h t o Q uet t a Exc ep t in Chi t ra l in the n o rt h
.
,

w here the p eo ple a re o f di ff erent o ri g in and ha ve no a ffi ni ties w i t h the

,

Af gh a n exc ep t t h a t o f reli g io n t h ere i s g e nera lly a c o m m o n la n gu a g e

,

t hro u g h o u t t hi s n o rt hern p a rt o f t h e B o rd er t ho ug h m a n y o f the t ri b es

,

a re n o t o f Afg ha n ra c e In th e so u t h o f t h e B o rd er ( a pp ro x ima t ely so u t h

.

o f Q e t t a ) t h e reli g i o n i s st ill M o ha m m e d a n
u b u t t h e c o n t ro l o f the t ri b e s
,

lies in t h e ha nd s o f t he cla n c hiefs a n d n o t in t ha t o f the m ull as Co nse

, .

quen tl y th e p e o ple a re f a r le ss fa na t i c a l a nd ea s ier to m a na g e

, B o t h in .

o ri g i n a n d c u s t o m s a l a rg e n u m b er o f t h e so u th ern t ri b e s a re Ara b .

Dera Gha zi Khan c o mman d s the end of an an cien t t ra d e ro ut e

t hro u gh Q ue t t a by th e Lo ra la i Va lle y pa ra llel t o b u t s o ut h o f , , ,

t he Z ho b a nd o th er va lley s in t he Sul a i ma n Ran ge s .

Sukku r an d Ja co ba ba d c o mma n d st ra te gic ra ilwa y s b ra n c h in g

a t S ib i o n e fo llo win g t h e B o la n R iver t o Quetta a nd t h e o t h er
, ,

t he S i b i R iver Ha rn a i a nd Pesh i n
, ,B ot h of the s e line s connect
.

wit h New Cha ma n o n t he we st o f the Kho j a Am ra n Ran ge— th e

n e a re s t p oi nt t o Ka nda ha r A re ma r k a b le t o n ue o f l o wl a nd
.
g ,

c o vere d by a lluviu m and sandy de sert st re tch e s fa r to th e we s t ,

fr o m the Indu s a nd fo rm s t hi s re ma rka b le gap in t he bo r der

,

range s wh ic h lea ds t o Quett a Fro m Kanda ha r a ro ute le ads .

th ro u gh t he i nla nd ba s in o f t he Helma nd a n d Sei st a n t o Herat ,

t he n o rth we stern gat e o f Af gha ni st a n

-
Thi s pa sse s t o the so uth .
3 66 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Th e Indo Gang etic Lowland -

.

The Indus Lowlan d The we stern po rtion o f thi s lo wland in

.

the Indu s Ba sin a ffo r ds a striking c ontra st to tha t on the e ast

in the Va lley o f th e Ga n ge s Want of ra in and grea t hea t in .

su mmer (cf : Fi gs 41 and 45 ) pro duce s emi de sert c on dition s

. .

Fo re st s a re sa i d t o ha ve once gro wn on t he Indu s with sufficient , ,

t imb e r t o e na b le Al exan d er to c on struct a fleet b ut the p la in s o f ,

t he P un j ab a re n o w treele ss The preva iling ve geta tio n i s scru b

. ,

mergin g on the so u th into th e de s ert which extends fro m the

Ara va llis t o th e front ier h ill s whic h b oun d th e Indu s Va lley .

Irriga tio n a s o n a ll d e sert ma rgin s i s e ssent ia l fo r cult iva tio n

, ,
.

In Sind wh ic h d e p en d s o n t he In du s a s Egy pt o n t he Nile a nd

, ,

to a le s s d e gree in t he Pun j ab ela b o ra t e c ana l sy ste ms ha ve b een ,

e stab lishe d wh ich su pp ly the mo i st ure for the gro wth O f the
,

whe a t expo rte d a t Ka ra ch i Fo rtun a tely in th e Punj a b ,

t h ere a re t wo s ource s o f mo i sture— t he s u mm er flo o ds o f t he

gre a t river s wh ic h ri se or ha ve tri b uta rie s in re gion s o f c on s i d er
a b le ra in fa ll suc h a s the Hima lay as and Ka ra ko ra m and the
, ,

winter ra in s ( s ee p .

Consequently there i s a c o mp a ra t ively de n se a gricultura l

,

p o pula tio n Sa lt qu a rrying is important in the Sa lt Ra nge

.
-
.

As t h e ea st ern a nd no rt h ern tri bu ta ries of the Ind us ri se in regi on s o f

p erm a nent sno w a nd g la ciers t h ey a re esp e c i a lly full a t th e m eltin g p eri o d
, ,

a nd b ring d o wn va st qu a nt i t ie s o f s e d i m ent ( sp ring a nd su m m er ) The .

w estern tri b uta ries ( Ka bul Kurram Z ho b B ol an gro up s ) va ry m o re in

, , ,

vo lum e being d ep end ent on t hund ersto rms The vio len t flo o ds a ctin g o n
, .
,

h ea t c ra ck
-
ed ro ck s a nd so ils b ring do wn va st quant it ie s o f se dim ent
, .

T h e Ka bul River fo rms a d el ta in i ts lo w er p la in T h e m iddle a nd l o w er .

co u rses o f the Ind us a nd Punj a b Rivers ( Sutlej Ch ena b R a vi B ea s Jhela m ) , , , ,

fl o w in va st a llu vi a l p la in s a nd a l t er t h eir c o urs e w h ere un restra in ed

,

a b o ve th e b rid g e s ( Ku sh a lg a rh Suk k ur ) In c ertai n rea c h es t here i s

, .

limi ted bo a t na vi gat io n a nd ferries Only the Ind u s is na vi ga ble fo r fl a t .

bo tto m ed river st eam ers and o n ly fro m Dera Ism a il Kh a n t o th e h ea d o f

,

th e d el ta exc ep t in t im e s o f fl oo d a nd ext rem e d ro ug h t

, .

The main t o wn s a re Am rit sa r the old Sikh c a pita l ; La ho re ,

‘

t he ma in milit a ry cent re o f th e n o rth we st ; Mult an o n ce th e -

grea te st tra de ce ntre o f We stern Ind i a Hy d era ba d th e n a tive ,

c a pita l of Sin d foun de d by Al exa nder t he Gre a t ; and K a ra c h i

, ,

the n e a re st po rt t o Ad en b ut le ss fa vo ure d by t he richn e ss o f it s

,

h in derland t ha n B o mba y .
 T HE IND IAN EMPIR E 3 67

Th e Gang es B asin .

PH YS ICAL FE AT URE S AN D PR OD U CTS The Unite d Pro vince s .

-

and t ha t o f B en a l lie wit h in t he Gan e s Basin wh ich inclu d e s

g g ,

th e la rge st a re a o f cult iva te d and populou s lo wlan d in India .

Th e so il o f th e pl a in is fo rme d o f a fin e river s ilt wh ich a cco rdin g , ,

t o b o rings excee ds s evera l hun dre d feet in d e th The who le

,
p .

re gion i s well irrigat e d either fro m c ana l s o r d irect ly fro m the

,

river s and mo st o f it i s c a pab le of b e a ring t wo cro ps in th e y e a r

, .

As in No rt h I ta ly s o m e d iffi culty i s fo un d in irriga tin g th e sl o pin g

,

surfa ce of the gre a t a lluvi a l fans fo rme d by the river s a t th e

e xit s of va lley s In B en ga l whi ch ha s a m o re un ifo rm ly m o i st
.
,

cli mat e than the we stern pa rt o f the Gan ge s Ba sin rice is the ,

ma i n fo o d o f th e pe o ple ; wh ile in the Un ite d Pro vince s winter

whea t is gro wn fo r expo rt and m illet a nd o ther gr a in s as th e ,

sta ple fo o d The clima te o f t he east ern lo wlan ds is e speci a lly

.

a da te d fo r ju t e whic h require s gre a t hea t and m o isture a n d a

p , ,

c onsta nt renewa l o f so il Te a i s gro wn in Assa m and on th e hill

.

s lo pe s of the Hi ma la y a s On the e ast o f the grea t pla in o f B enga l

.

t w o i mp o rt ant a re a s o f l o wla n d a re s e pa ra t e d by t he H i hla n ds

g
o f Assa m t h e Va lle
, y o f th e B ra hma putra a n d the Ba sin of th e ,

Ba ra k wh ic h j o in s the fo rm er river north e a st of Da cc a

,
-
.

On the e a st ern fro ntier mo un ta ins den s e fo re st and j un gle s , ,

a l mo st i mpo ssib le t o pen et ra te se pa rate Benga l fro m B urma ; ,

c o n s equent ly no ro a d o r ra ilwa y a s y et c onnect s the Va lley o f

,

t he Ira wa ddy with the we stern river sy ste ms ( see p In t he

n o rt h t he S ta te s o f Ne a l S ik
.

p ki m and Bhutan se pa ra te B en ga l
, ,

fro m t he Hi ma l aya s whic h it only directly touc he s in the a l mo st

,

u n explo re d re gion e a st o f Bhutan .

Him al ay an States .

Nepal ( a re a = 54 , 000 s qu a re m ile s ; po p ul a tio n = 5 m illio ns )

is a n ind e p en de nt Sta te , p ra ctica lly clo s e d t o Euro pe a n s , except
the B riti sh R e sident and hi s sta ff , but on the who le in clo se
S m a th
y p y wi t h th e m , a s i s sho wn by t he n u mb er o f Gur h a s k
w ho s erve in th e Ind i an Army The c a pita l i s Ka t mandu , a .

m o de rn civiliz e d t o wn, tho u gh i so la t e d by in diff erent ro a ds fro m

the p la in s o f India Mo st o f Ne pa l is moun tain o u s , b ut Ka t
.

man du lie s in a b ro ad va ll ey so mewha t re se mb lin g the Va le o f

Ka shm ir . On th e no rth e rn frontier i s Moun t Evere s t
feet )
Sik k im i s e ntirely un der B riti sh c ontro l Th rou gh it run the
.

ma in ro ut e s t o Lha sa Fro m the . Upper Ba sin o f the T i sta a n

3 68 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

e asy pa ss lea ds e a stwa rd to the Chu mb i Va lley tra ver se d by a ,

T ib etan trib ut a ry o f the B ra hma put ra wh ic h has cu t its w ay ,

ba ck t o a po int c onsiderab ly south o f the a vera ge lat itu d e o f the

Hi ma la y an wa t ershe d T o t h e s o u t h lie s D a rjeelin g t h e m o st
. ,

i mp o rt ant h ill sta tion in B enga l a t a n a lt itu de o f o ver

-
feet .

In No r th We st Sikk
,

-
i m is Ki n c h in j un ga ( o ver fee t ) Over .

Bhut an the In dian Go vernm ent has no d irect p o lit ica l c o nt ro l .

TOW NS
C O MMU N I CAT I O N S
AN D .

Calcutta o n t he Hu li a nd wi t hi n re a c h o f t he i mp o rta nt
g ,

Hu gli c o a lfield s w a s fo un d e d in 1 686 It a ff o rds an exa m ple o f

, .

a t ra d in g— sta ti o n ra i s e d t o
po litic a l su p re ma cy by fo rei gn in flu
enc es a nd d o e s n ot st and o n t he s it e o f a f o r mer n a tive c a p it a l
,
.

The nat ura l po sit ion fo r suc h wa s a t t he he a d o f the delt a 200 ,

mi le s or mo re to th e n o rth where un der Hin du a nd Mohamme dan, ,

ruler s many grea t cit ie s succee de d e a c h ot her wit h the shi ft ings
,

o f t he Ga nge s .

T h e in fl uen c e exert ed by th e c h ange o f river c ha nn el s is sho w n b y th e fa c t

t ha t Ra j m a ha l o n c e t h e M o h a mm e da n c a p it a l o f B enga l is no w 7 m iles
, ,

f ro m th e b a n k a nd th e old ci ty o f K ana uj in the Uni t ed Pro vinc es is

, , ,

4 m ile s fro m th e river Th e b a ttle field o f Pl ass ey ( 1 75 7 ) h a s b een en t irel y

.

wa shed a w ay .

The sec on d city in B en ga l i s Pa tna situa t e d on th e Gange s ,

b elo w t he con fluence o f th e Son Here i s the Go vernm ent f a ct o ry .

fo r a ll t he O piu m o f t he re gi on n o w a d i min i sh in g indu stry , In .

t h e U nit e d P r o vi nce s a re B e na res t he s a cre d cit y o f t he H in du s ; ,

Alla hab a d a t t h e c o nflue nce o f t h e Jum n a a nd Ga n e s ;

g
Ca wnp ore a nd Luckno w f am o us f o r t h eir c o nnec t i o n wit h the
,

M ut i ny in 1 8 57 a nd Agr a a n a ncie nt c ap it a l o f t h e M ugha l ,

Emp ire wi t h its f a m o us a rc h it ecture repre s e nte d b y t h e Ta j

,

M a ha l a nd ma ny o t h er h ist o ric ci t ies

,
.

Po lit ica lly in t he Pun j a b bu t in the Ba sin o f the Gan ge s lie s

, ,

Delhi one o f t he mo st a ncient citie s o f Ind ia surroun d e d by th e

, ,

ruin s of f o r mer c a p ita ls .

Delh i is sit ua t e d o n t he ea st ern slo p e o f a lo w ri dg e w hi c h m a rk s the ,

n o rt h ern ext remi ty o f t h e Ara va lli Ra n g e a nd c o m m a nds t h e so ut h er n ,

r o ut e to th e B a y of Ca m b a y w h i c h f o llo ws t h e desert m a rg in o f th e T ha r
,

w est o f th e Ara va llis an d t he w est ern g at e o f the Ga ng es Va lley b et w een

,

t h e d e s ert a n d t h e m o unt a in s It w o ul d b e p o ss i b le f o r an inva d ing f o r c e

.

t o ent er t h e Ga n g es Va lley fa rt her n o rt h b u t t o d o s o w o ul d invo lve t h e ,

c ro ssing a t right a ng les o f t he Jumna and Gang es and t h eir n um ero u s

3 70

FIG . 5 2 —~ T H E
. D E CC AN .
 THE IN D IAN EMPIRE 3 71

m ilita ry clan who se m em bers are stro ngly uni t ed by t ies o f k

, ins hip sym .

pa t hy a nd int erest
, T h ese c ha ra c teri st i cs a re mo st st ro ngly m a rk
. ed in th e

s em i d esert a nd mo re i so l a ted a re a s o f th e we st wh ere c l o s e pa rallel s c a n b e ,

d ra wn with the life o f the c om m unit ies o f Cent ra l Ara bia Befo re the .

M h amm ed an i nva si o n Ra j put influenc e ext end ed o ver m ost o f No rt h

o

We st Indi a and s ca tt ered cl ans a s in Cha mb a

, H imalay an ta t e are
, , a s ,

fo und alo ng the no rth ern m o unta in bo rd er Des ert s a re respo n si ble fo r .

b o t h st rengt h and wea k n ess in r c es w hi c h in ha b i t t hem a nd in spi t e o f

a , ,

th e dva nta g e s o f p o ss es sing f ert ile l a nd s to t h e e a st o f the Ara vall is the

a ,

R j pu t S ta t e s wo u l d have ha rdly b een st ro n g en o u gh t o p revent co mp lete

a

a b o rp t i o n by the M a r t ha Po wer bu t fo r t h e i nt er vent i o n o f the B ri t i s h in

s a

t h e M a ra tha wars ( 1 779 De c isi ve battles were fo ught a t Delhi a nd

Assay e After m ny vi c i s sit u d es th M a ra th a s e sta bli sh ed a f rm id ble
. a e o a

k ing do m a t the exp ense o f the M ug h l Empire who se p eriod o f g reatn ess a .

extend ed a pp ro xim tely fro m th e t im es o f Q ueen Eliza beth to tho se o f

a

Q ueen Anne In Cent ra l Ind i a Gwali o r wi th its ro c kf rtress and Ind o re

. , o , ,

o n t h e M l wa Pla t ea u w it h it s fert ile b la ckc o tt o n so il lie a t t h e i nt er

a , , ,

s e c t io n o i i mp o rtant ro u t es and w ere th e cap i tals o f S i ndhi a and Ho l k

, ar

resp ec t ively .

T o th e s o uth ea s t o f C entra l I n d i a lie th e Central Provinces a

-

b ro ken h ill c o u ntry t ra vers e d by t h e Upp er Go da va ri and Maha

nad i . A l a rger r a i nf a ll c a us e s t h e gro wth o f a rela tively d e ns e
fo res t Am ong ma ny of th es e lo w j ungle c o vere d hills wh ere
.
,
-

th e unh e a lth y clim ate has reta r ded th e sp re ad o f Eur o p e an

in fluen ce s till exis t prim it ive ra ce s s uch as th e Go nds so m e o f
, , ,

W ho m ha ve ad va n ce d little b e yo n d t h e Sto ne Age Th e Indrava ti .

Ba s in ( eas t o f th e Go da va ri ) is typ ica l o f th e leas t develo p e d

pa r t s o f th is reg io n In th e mo re o p en pla in o f th e Upp er
.

G o da va ri is Na gpur a n o ld Ma r a t ha c a p ita l Th e gre a t .

°
h e a t o f s u mm er ( 9 4 F Ma y) re nders th e h ill s tat io n o f Pa c marhi
.
,
-

in th e Mahad e o H ills i mp o rt a nt for s umm er re s i de nce , .

Th e re s t o f P en insul a r I n d ia is d ivide d in to the B omb ay

Presidenc y wh ic h in clu d e s Guj er a t o f wh ic h t h e c h ief to wns a re
, ,

Ba ro da and Ahmada bad th e Peninsul a o f Ka th ia wa r and S ind , ,

th e M adras Presidency and th e na t ive S ta tes o f Hyderabad a nd

,

Myso re
lhree a reas of mo re o r less d is tinct phys ica l typ es ma y b e noted
.

’ ‘

Th e W e s ter n Gha ts th e Decc a n or tab lel a nd whic h a l s o i n clu de s

, ,

m o s t o f th e C e ntr a l Provi nces a nd th e East C o as t Pl a in , .

Th e W estern Gh ats — Th es e do no t fo r m a dis tinct mo u nta in

.

ra ng e b ut a re th e h ig h er e dge o f a n e s c a rp m en t fro m wh ic h th e
, ,

la nd s lope s steeply t o th e c o as ta l pl ai n o n th e w es t and r ath er ,

m ore gr ad ua lly t o th e e as t d ow n t o a plate a u o f m o d er ate eleva

,
3 72 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

tion wh ence th ere is a steep de s cent t o th e lo wla nd p l a in of the

,

e as t c o as t The summ it of th e es c arpm ent of th e W es tern Gha ts

.

lies s o m e 20 t o 40 mile s fro m th e na rro w co as ta l pla in Th e .

s ea wa r d slo pe is s eam e d b y nu m ero us d eep va lle ys Th e cha r .

a c t er o f th e r o ck s tructure a s in t h e c a s e o f th e Ma lw a P l a tea u
, ,

th e Vin dhya and Sa tpur a Ra ng es i s tha t o f nea rly ho rizo nta l ,

sh ee ts o f basa lt ic la va wh ich ha ve been wo rn in to fl a t to pp e d

,
-

h ills with terra ce d s i d es So uth o f Goa th e Arch aean crysta llin e

.

ro c ko f wh ich mo s t o f P enin sul a r I nd ia i s co mpo s e d is no l o nger

, ,

c o vere d by l a va and th e h il ls a ss u me a d iff erent app ea r a nce

, ,

while th e cliff s g enera lly l o s e t h eir sha rp nes s o f o utl ine To th e .

s o uth o f Bo mba y th e s ea wa r d s10 p e o f th e Wes tern Gha ts is

clo th e d with d ens e fo res ts o f t ea k a nd s a nda l wo o d the re sul t o f -

t h e la rg e c o n d ensa t io n fro m th e S o ut h Wes t Mo ns oon Th e fo o t -

.

h ills ext end ih sp ur s alm o st t o th e co a s t wh ic h is san dy in the ,

s o uth o f Go a owing t o the dis integr at ion o f th e cryst a lline ro ck

by t he h e avy m o ns o o n r a i ns a nd t h e s et o f t h e curre n ts u p th e
c oa st ( cf th e La nde s Car d iga n B a y a nd th e c o as t of Lanc a shire)
.
, , ,

a nd o ver r o w n wit h c o c o nu t p a l ms
g In th e d is trict o f Ma lab a r
-
.

t h e Ghat s m er ge i nt o t h e r o u nd e d u pl a nds o f th e N ilgiris w h ic h ,

ris e t o o ver feet T o th e s o u th t he Pal gh at Gap c o mp let ely

.

s e a r a t e s t h e m fr o m th e is o la t e d Ca r da mo n Ra ng e o n th e we s t er n
p ,

s l o es o f wh ic h lie s
p T ra va nc o re A ra ilwa y fo llo ws th is de .

p r ess io n ( a l s o c a lle d th e Co i mba to re Gap to B eyp ur a nd

Ca licut a nd o n th e so uth to Co c h in
,
.

T h e Pal ghat Ga p is the lo w est o f th e t h ree gap s wh i c h m a rkc o n s id era ble

wi dt hs o f l o w er eleva t io n (fo r t h e n o rt h ern g a ps the Nasi kand D ha wa r , ,

see b elo w ) Fro m th e ea rlies t tim w it h a s a llowed of co m m un i ca ti o n

.

b et w een Ma d ras a nd the Cauvery Va lley on th e ea st wit h the M a la ba r ,

co a st o n the west T his is sho wn in the ext ension o f the M a d ra s Pre sid ency
.

a lo ng t he so u th w e s t c o a st a nd by th e ra il w a y c onne c tin g Ca li c u t a n d
-
,

Co c h in wi th the M ad ra s sy stem T he gen era l a pp e a ra nc e o f th e gap is t ha t

.

o f a va lley so m e 20 m ile s b ro a d b et w een th e to p s o f t he m o un ta in s n o r th

, ,

a nd so u t h It ri se s gradu a lly o n th e e a st to th e wa t er pa rting ( ap p ro xi

.
-

m a t ely 9 00 fee t ) a nd d e sc end s g ra d u ally to th e we st c o ast

, It is m o s t .

im po r ta nt du ring the S o u t h W e st M o n s o o n s fo r t he m o i stu re is c a rried

-

inla nd a nd p enet rat es to th e s o uth ern m a rgin o f the Nilgiri s and M y s o r e

,

Pla tea u a nd o wi ng to the h e a vy co n d en sa ti o n and c onse quent d enu da t i o n

, ,

ha s fo rm ed the impo rtant d el t a o f th e Ca uvery whi c h e xten ds f ro m T ri c h ,

ino p o l i to th e sea .

Th e lo wl a nds wh ich bo r der th e co as t fro m th e Ka thia wa r

,

Penins ul a to Ca pe Co mo rin fo r m e d in m e d ieva l da ys th e mo s t ,

p ro s p er o u s portio n o f In dia a nd fo reign c o mm erce wa s la rg ely ,

3 74 T EX T B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

i s pass e d th e surfa ce w a ter runs o ff th e h a r d cryst a lline r ock a nd

, ,

is s to re d in sha llo w ta nks to p ro vi de a ga ins t dro ugh t wh ere river

i rriga tio n is i mpo ss i ble ; bu t th e li m it e d a pplic a tio n o f th is p r .

vent ive m eas ure c a u s e s p a s t ure to p reva il o ver a g ric ul ture ,

e s pecia lly in th e na tive Sta t e o f Hyd e r aba d .

A ty pi c al soil c o verin g g re a t a re a s in t h e t ro p i c s is t hat k

,
no wn a s ,

l aterite so c alled f ro m its red b ri ck

, li k e c o lo ur ( La t l a ter= a b ri ck ) T hi s . .

is d u e to the rapi d d e co mpo si t io n o f vo l ca ni c ro ck s in r eg i on s o f t ro pi c a l tem

p era tu re a nd rainfa ll T he so il fo rm ed is n o t in i tsel f infertile o r d i ff eren t in

.

c hemic al co mposit io n to the so ils o f tem pera t e regio ns but lik e the lo ess is , , ,

exc ee d ingly po ro us and co vers th e surfac e t o a grea t d ept h Consequ ently

,
. .

it is a t hirs ty so rl a b so r b in g m o i st ure wi t h g rea t ra p idi ty a nd e xc ep t , ,

where c onstantly m o i st ene d by ra inf all o r ri vers un s ui t ed fo r the g ro wt h ,

o f fo re st o r fo r cul ti va t io n La rg e a rea s o f Afri c a and So ut h Am eri ca a re

.

c overe d by this so il whi c h extends o ver m u c h o f Peninsul a r Ind ia

,
.

In th e s o uth o f th e Decca n lie s th e na tive s ta te o f Mysore .

Ba nga lo re th e ch ief m ilita ry s ta tio n o f So uth I ndia s ta nds ,

o n a p l a te a u t o t h e e as t .

S e ri nga pa tam nea r the c ap i ta l M y so re is a s t ro ng fo rtre ss on an i sland

, , ,

in t he Cau ve ry Ri ver a nd is m e m o ra ble f o r its sieg e by the B ri tish troop s

,

in 1 779 wh en Tippu Hy d er Ali s so n a n ally of th e Frenc h was k illed

’
, , , , ,

a nd M so re c am e un d er B ri t i sh c o n t r o l
y .

To the wes t o f M yso re lie s C o o r g a sma ll mo u nta in s ta te in ,

th e Wes ter n Gha ts inha b ite d by a n indep end ent r a ce o f h ill

,

m en wh o were s pecia lly exe mpte d fr o m th e d is ar m ing a ct in

,

rec o gni tio n o f th eir l o ya l h elp in th e M ut iny On th e e as tern .

ma rgin o f th e N ilgiris lies O o ta c a m und ( s ee a nd

ab o ve 7 000 feet th e hill st ati on o f Ma dras B elo w th e r o lli ng
, ,
-

do wns wh ic h s urr o un d the s ettle m e nt lie fores t cl ad s l op e s in -

,

t erspersed wi t h te a a nd ci nc h o na p la nt a ti ons .

The East Co ast Plain .

Thi s i s much more ext en sive tha n th e na rro w strip o f lo wl and

on t h e we s t It i s se pa ra te d fro m t he Decca n tab leland by the
.

Eastern Ghats wh ic h f o r m a d e finit e e s ca rpm e nt o f s o me len gth

,

o n t h e e astern b o rd er o f My s o re wh ere th ey a re m o re than 50 ,

mile s inl and Fa rther n o rth t he li n e i s b ro ken b y the b road

.

river va lley s o f the Pe nn er th e Ki stna and th e Go da va ri The , , .

hi ghe st po rtion of the Eastern Gha ts lie s b etween the Go da va ri

a nd Maha nad i R iver s Here a few s umm it s ri s e o ver
. feet .

Th e lo wlan ds o f Madra s a re c o vere d by an a lluvia l so il o f gre a t

 T HE IN D I AN EMPIR E 3 75

fe rtility b ro u gh t d o wn by the river s wh ic h dra in the long slo pe

o f Pe n in s ul a r Ind ia The a vera ge ra infa ll i s much le ss tha n on
.

th e We stern Gha t s but wit h a h i ghly develo pe d sy ste m of

, ,

irrig ati o n e sp ecia lly in th e extensive delta s of th e Ca uver y ( ne a r

,

th e h e ad o f wh ich is Ta njo re) Kis tna a nd Go da vari river s th e l and , , ,

will s upp ort a lm o s t as d e ns e a rice ea ti ng p o pul a ti o n a s Lo wer -

B e nga l . Th e c o ast i s s i ngul a rl y deficie nt in har b o ur s pa rtl y ,

o wi ng t o th e s ilt f o r m e d ba n ks a nd sh a ll o w s wh ic h re a ch s e a wa r d
-

fr o m th e river deltas O p e n r o ads te ads as a t Madras [ 1 3 6 ]

.
,

a nd Viz a gapa t a m o fte n a ff o r d t h e o nl y a nc h o r a e b ut t h e s urf

, g , ,

due t o th e o u s h o re winds re nd er s la nding diffi cult An artificia l

-

, .

ha r b o ur has b een c o ns tructe d at Ma dra s .

T h e so u t h ern p a r t o f t hi s c o a s t p l a i n k
no wn a s t h e Ca rna t i c wa s t he , ,

s c e n e o f t h e e a rly s t ru ggle b e t w ee n Fren c h a nd En li sh in In d ia w hi c h

g ,

b ega n w it h th e e sta blishm ent o f t wo t rad ing posts o n th e ea st co a st Fo rt ,

S t Ge o rg e ( M a d ra s ) a nd Po ndi c h err y ( still Frenc h )

. T ri c hino p o li a nd .

Arco t ( d efend e d by Cli ve in 1 75 1 ) pl ay e d a n im p o rta nt pa r t in t h e co nfli ct .

Ceyl on .

C ey l on i s n o w n e a rly c onnecte d with the ma inla nd of Ind ia

b y Ad a m s B ri d ge a line o f san dba n k s b etween th e i slan ds o f
’

R a me swa ra m and Manaa r wh ic h ha ve p r o b a b ly b ee n fo rm e d ,

by t he s e di m en t d e p o site d in the e dd ie s o f o ppo sin g current s

fr o m n ort h and so ut h An a ctua l ca u s ewa y n a tura lly fo r me d
.
,

by ha rd sa n dst one fo rm erly j o ine d th e first n a m e d islan d t o th e

,
-

ma i n c o a st A few channel s exi st b et ween Cey l on and Ind ia

.
,

b ut t he y a re t o o sha llo w fo r an y but sma ll ve ssel s A cent ra l .

mo un t a in gro u p o f wh ich th e ch ief su mmit Pedrot alla galla

, ,

feet ) a nd Ada m s Pe a k fo rm fa mo u s lan dma rks for sh ip s lie s in

’
,

t he so ut h le a vin g o n ly a n a rr o w frin ge o f l o wla n d o n t he so ut h

,

a nd we st c o ast s To t he n o rth o f th i s stretch e s a spur o f c o m

.

pa ra t ively eleva te d la n d (a b o ut feet) wh ich s in ks t o th e ,

b ro a d l o wlan ds of t he no rth a nd no rth e a st Th e ra infa ll of the -

.

we st a nd so u t h i s st ron gly c ont ra ste d wit h that o f t he no rt h a nd

e ast It i s po ssible in a few mile s when the So ut h—We st M on so on
.
, ,

i s b lo wing t o pass fro m ra in and mi st a t Newa ra Eliya

,

a h ill st at i o n o ver
-
feet t o sun shin e and a d ry a t mo sphere ,

o n t he e a st s i d e .

The di ff erence o f ve geta tion i s as strongly ma rke d as tha t of the

ra infa ll Co co nut pa l ms fro m wh ich c o pra i s o bta ine d fri nge
.
-

, ,

th e we tter c o a st which with it s l a go on s and genera l tro pica l

, ,

luxuriance cl o sely re se mb le s the Ma la ba r co a st of South Ind ia

, ,

a nd c o c o a a nd cinc h on a a nd still mo re exten s ive te a plant a

-

,
 3 76 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

t ion s (fr o m s e a level t o 7 000 fee t ) fill the cle a ring of the mo unt a in
-

, ,

f o re st s wh ic h c o ver th e we stern and so uthern slop e s Here a re .

t h e m a in ce ntre s o f m o d ern p o pula t i o n a n d cult iva tio n Ka n d y .

,

t he o ld c a p it a l lie s in t he h igh lan ds while Cob mbo

, with it s
,

mo dern a rt ificia l ha rb o ur is t he mo st i mpo rtant to wn Even

,
.

t he a d va nt a ge o f a ma gni fice nt ha rb our c o m pa r a b le with th a t ,

o f Rio or Sy dne y c o ul d n o t ma ke u p f or the di sa d vant a ge o f

,

p o sit i o n p o sse sse d by T ri n c o mali [ 1 44] o n t he n o r th e a st The -

.

Admira l ty d o cky a r d wa s cl o se d in 1 905 The no rt h and e a st .

c o a st p la in s re se mb le the hot dry lo wlands o f t he C a rnat ic and , ,

w oul d pro b a b ly if irriga te d su ppo rt a simi la r po pul at ion

, , .

Th e rem a ins o f va st irrig a ti o n w o rk s a re to b e fo u n d in t h i s p a r t o f Cey lo n .

da ting ba ckto th e da y s w h en it wa s the cen tre o f B uddhist c ivi lizat io n ,

a nd fo rm e d o n e o f t h e ra n a rie s o f So u t h ern Asi a

g As sh o w in g th e clim at e . ,

i t is in t ere sti ng t o no t e t ha t vi n e s w ere s u cc e ssful ly c ul t iva t e d by th e

Dutc h w ho o verca m e the d i ffi cul t ies o f p erp et ua l sum m er by expo sing t he
,

r oo ts a nd t hu s p ro du c ing an a rti fic i al wi nt er
, .

The centre and we st e rn slo pe s of the lo w n o rth ern u pla n ds a re

c o vere d wit h dense fo re sts in which lie t he ruin s o f th e gre a t
,

Bu ddhi st cit ie s suc h as An ura dh a pura o f y e a r s a go .

BURMA .

Are a = 23 7 000 , sq u a re m iles , a li ttle m o re th an o ne -

fif t h of al l Ind i a ,

a nd n ea rly t w i c e t h e Un i t e d King do m . T he S ha n S ta t es a pp o r xim a t ely

Engl a n d a nd Wa les . T h e p o p ula t io n is a b o ut 1 2 m illio ns ( 5 3 o f In dia )
1
1
.

Ra ng o o n = 0 29 m illi o n
'
.

Relief .

Burma is encircle d on three s ide s by m ounta in s o f c on s iderab le

height and b rea dth .

On th e west t he Arak an Yo ma st a rting fro m Ca p e Ne gra i s

se pa ra t e s the Ara k
, ,

a n c o ast fr o m t h e Ira w a ddy Delt a In the .

s ou th t h i s i s a s in le ran e
g g bu t it ri s e s in h ei gh t a nd b roa d en s
,

o u t no rth wa rd s a n d i s cu t b
, y l o ngitu d ina l va lley s in to the Chilt
Hill s (b ehind Chit t a gon g) th e Lu sh a i Hills in the ce ntre a nd t he
, ,

Chin Hill s o n the e a st In thi s regio n t here a re no pla in s and

.

tab lelan ds a nd the rivers flo w in exce ptiona lly deep t renc h e s
, ,

the slo pe s o f whic h a re c o vere d with d en s e a nd a l mo st i mpene

t ra hle fo re st At t he h e a d wa t ers o f the B a ra k ( flo wing we st t o
.

t he B ra hma put ra Delta ) a nd o f th e Ma n ipur R iver ( a trib uta r o f

y
the Chindwin ) the eleva t io ns dro p t o well under
, feet a nd here ,

is a li ne o f le as t re si stan ce wh ic h ma s o me da b e u s e d t o c o nnec t
y y
3 78 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

2 Central Z one, th e m i dd le an d lo wer va lle y s o f th e

. The
Ira wa ddy and Chin d win , wh ic h m a y b e c on s i dere d t o ext e nd
so uth the Pegu Yo ma a hilly mass b etween th e Lo wer
to ,

Ira wa d d y an d th e va lley a t p re s ent o ccu p ie d by th e Sit t an g .

Here t he h e ad wa ter s o f the S it tan g d ivi d e s th e centra l

fro m th e so uthern zon e .

3 The Southern Z one t h e gent ly s lo p in g d elt a ic re gio n

.
,

o f t he Ira wa dd y and t h e S it tan g Va lley and so fa r a s p ro duct s , ,

a re c o n cerne d South Ara k

,

an
, .

The Irawaddy Delta in i t s l o w er p a rt re sem ble s t he Sun da rba ns

.

o f th e Ga ng e s It i s a j u ngl e c o vere d lo w land w i t h sa li ne so il a s y et

.
-
, ,

unre cl ai m e d fo r c ult iva ti o n i n t ers e c ted w i th c o untless ti da l c reek

,
s ,

o vergro w n w i t h m angro ve s M u d fl a ts and sa nd b an k . s rend er th e -

c ha nnel s unapp ro a cha ble fo r ship s o f a ny siz e excep t w h ere th e fo rce ,

o f t h e m a i n st re a m s k eeps a p a ssa g e cl ea r .

4The Eastern Z one wh ic h inclu d e s th e na rro w st rip o f

.
,

T ena sseri m fro m th e Kra Isthmu s t o the Sa lween Delta and , ,

o n t h e no rt h t h e Ka ren n i Hill s and P l a te a u a n d t h e h ill s

,
-

an d
pl a te a u s o f th e N orth ern a n d So ut h ern Sh a n St a te s .

Climate and Pro ducts .

°
Sun Force
-
The extre m e n orthern la titu d e i s 29 no rth b ut
.
—
,

th e ma ss o f Burma lie s on o r so ut h o f t he no rthern tro pic Hence , .

durin g su mmer th e sun i s ne a rly vertic a l fo r severa l weeks an d .

th e t h e o ret ica l Sun F o rce do e s no t fa ll b elo w 9 8 During Winter

-
.

th e a lt it u de o f t he sun i s no wh ere le ss tha n wh ich m ea n s

a the o ret ica l sun—fo rce of no wh ere le ss than 61 incre a s in g so ut h
wa rds The di st ribution o i mo i sture na tura lly d eter min e s t he
.

pro po rt io n o f t h i s sun fo rce wh ic h re a c h e s th e surf a ce

-
.

Winter Conditions — As wint er a ppro a c he s a hi gh pre s sure

.
,
-

sy st e m f o r ms o ver C ontinent a l Asia and re a che s it s height in ,

Janu a ry a nd t hen gradua lly d i min i she s in in ten s ity The winds
, . ,

therefo re a re out fiowing (cl o ckwi se ) Hence fro m m i d—No vem

, .
,

b er t o Fe b ru a ry the win ds a re N o rt h and No rth Ea st fro m the -

m oun t a in re gions t o the no rt h Co n se quently they a re c o l d and .

,

c ont a in little mo i sture As th ey de scen d to lo wer level s t hey.

a re wa r me d by c o mpre ss ion a nd t a ke u p mo i sture with a vidity .

Th e sat ura tion po int ri se s and th ey a re d ry winds a ll o ver

-

Burma O nly lo c a lly and on h igh grou nd c an mo ist ure b e c on

.

den sed a s sn o w o r ra in Thi s c onst itute s the col d or dry weath er

.

seaso n It i s ma rke d b y extre me s ho t da y s and c o ld night s

.
, ,
 TH E IN D I AN EMPIR E 3 79

in th e centra l zone a nd on the pla te au s ; on t he delta by mo re

.

e qu ab le c ondl t l ons b ut a c o mpa ratively lo w a vera ge t e mpera ture

,

(s ee Manda l ay [ 1 28 ] a nd R ango on
.
Spring and Summer Conditions — The ge nera l b re a k up o f th e .
-

hi gh pre ssure c o nd ition s in spring i s ma rke d by irre gula r winds

-

still mo stly o f c o ntin e nt a l o rigin a nd th eref o re dry The sun , .

fo rce da ily incre a se s The hot weather set s in in Ma rch and la st s

.
,

till a b o ut t he end o f April whe n t he lo w pre ssure b e gins to ,

e sta b li sh it self o ver No rth We st India and b ey on d Then the

-
.

we a ther b re a ks po we rful sea win ds b lo w t o rrent ia l ra in fa lls

,
-

, ,

a n d t he S o ut h We s t M o n so o n h a s b e u n As t he d irect ion o f th e
g
-

lo w p re ss ure i s very little n o rth o f e a st th e in fio win winds a re

g ,

S o uth and S o ut h S o ut h We st in t he rains and c onden s e th eir

- -

m o i st ure fir st on th e a lrea dy mo i st a tmo sphere of th e pla in s and

o n t h e s e a wa r d s l o e s o f T e n a ss erim t h e K a ren n i H ills t he Pe u
p g
-

, ,

Yo ma a nd t h e Ara ka n Yo ma
, .

The he a vie st ra in fa ll i s in th e no rt h we st on the Kha s i and -

o t h er h ill s in As s a m wh ic h a re the c ontinu a ti on o f the we st ern

,

ext en sio n o f t he Na ga Hills In t he lo wer groun d of t he central

.

z one t he a ir ha vi n g c o n d en se d muc h o f it s m o i sture d e s cen ds to

, ,

l o wer level s a nd wa rms a nd s ince the sat ura t ion point ri se s t h ere
, ,
-

i s rela tively little ra infa ll Thi s want of ra in pro duce s th e dry

.

zo n e wh ic h i s ma rke d by s a va nna s wit h few tree s exce t t h o rn

p y ,

a c a cia s This a rid ity is pa rt ly due t o the p o ro u s cha ra ct er of t h e

.

a lluvia l so il s in t h e river va lley s Tha t th e a ir c o nta ins m o ist ure .

even in thi s re gio n i s sho wn by the h ea vy d ew s and river mist s

o f e a rly m o rnin g a nd by the c o n s i d era b le ra infa ll
, wh ich is n o ,

d o u bt p a rt l y d ue t o eva p o ra t i o n in th e dry z o ne a nd c o nde nsa ti o n

o n t h e ri s i ng gr o u nd t o no r t h wes t n o r t h a nd n o rth e a s t
- -

, , .

As a b rief su mma ry it m a y b e sa i d t ha t t here a re th ree

,

s e a so n s The c old or dry weath er ( No ve mb er to Fe b ru a ry ) equ a b le ,

a n d s pr inglike o n t h e d elt a wit h extre me s in t he d ry zone a n d

, ,

a lo w t e mp era ture o n t h e mo unt a i n s a nd pla t e a u s t h e h ot

weath er ( Ma rc h t o Ap ril ) h o t and fa irly m o i st o n t he delt a (t he
,

d a y s ea b ree z e s b rin g m o i st ure ) At R an go o n [ 1 3 3 ] ra infa ll .

b e gin s t o dimini sh in No ve mb er i s a l mo st nil fr o m Dece mb er t o ,

Ma rc h and in crea se s in April cul mina t in g fr o m Jun e t o Au gu st )

, ,
.

Ho t in t h e dry p a rt o f th e ce ntr a l z o ne wit h a l o wer t e m p era ture ,

o n t h e h ill s a nd p l a t e a u s a cc o r d i ng t o elev a t i o n Ma nda l a y [ 1 28 ] ,

h as a s o m ewh a t s i m ila r s e a s o na l r a i nf a ll t o R a ngo o n Ra inf a ll .

te nds t o d im i nis h a nd a nnua l a nd da ily r a ng es o f t e mper a ture

,

t o i n cre as e fr o m t h e m o nth o f t h e Ira w a dd y n o rth w a r ds i nt o t he

dry z o ne ; th e Rains ( Ma y t o Oct o b er ) .
 3 80 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Pro duc ts The range o f elevat ion and ra in fa ll fro m th e m o i st

.
—

tro pic a l pla ins o f th e d elta a nd the lo wer pa rt s o f th e sea wa r d

sl o pe s t o the su b Arct ic ve geta t ion o f ran g e s o ver
—
feet
ive s re t v r ie t Th e s w a m p fo re st s a s el s ewh ere a re c o m
g a
g a a y . , ,

m erc ia lly u s ele ss The m o st va lu a b le z one s a re t he m ixe d

feet Teak
.

d ecidu ou s and evergreen f o re st s fro m 500 t o .

i s the mo st va lu a b le t imb er The lo gs a re dra gge d by elephant s .

t o t he f o re st stre a m s a nd flo a t e d in t h e ra i n s ,
Co nifer s a re a l so .

i mpo rta nt C e da r s and pine s gro w fro m

. to feet .

Fa r the la r ge st cro p is rice In Lo wer B ur ma the rice i s s o wn .

in Ju ne in t h e ra i ns t r a n spla nte d in Se pt e mb e r t o wa rd s th e end

,

o f the r a ins a n d re a p e d in Dece mb er t o Ja nu a ry

,
—
th e dry se a so n .

B urma expo rt s m o re t han twice as muc h rice a s t he who le o f

India t h o u gh t h e a ctu a l a crea ge un d er t hi s cro p i s le s s t ha n
,

o n e s event h o f t ha t o f a ll In d i a
-
Thi s is a cco un te d for by the fa ct .

t ha t t he dense p o pula ti o n s o f B e nga l a n d Ma d ra s ma in ly u se

rice a s fo o d Ab o ut five s ixths o f th e cr o p is o b ta ine d fr o m the
.
-

delta an d th e re ma in der fr o m th e e d ge s of th e dry z one where

,

irrigat ion is pro vi de d Mo dern cana l s add t o t he p o ssib ilit ie s

.

o f cult iva tio n In t he e a st the Ch i ne s e m e t ho d o f t erra ce d p a dd y

.

field s is ext en sively e m pl oy e d .

C otton m i ght b e la r gely cultiva te d fo r exp ort in the dry

z o ne a n d in t he S ha n S t a t e s wit h b ett er m eth o ds o f p la nt i ng

a nd c o llec t i o n Th e na t ive c o t to n i s o f ver y s h ort s t ap le

. .

Rubber pl a nta tio ns (cea ra in th e d rier pa r ts a n d pa r a in th e ,

t ro p ic a l m o is t reg io ns ) a re gro win g in i mp o r ta n ce .

M IN E RAL s — Petrol eum h a s b ee n kno wn a nd wo rke d fo r o ver

.

o n e h u nd re d ye a r s B efo re th e d is c o verie s o n th e C a s p i a n ( Ba ku )
.

a n d in P enns y lva n ia ; it w a s th e ma in s o urce o f s u Mo dern

p ply .

m etho ds (t a nk b o a ts et c ) a re no w b r in g ing raw oil fo r 275 m ile s

-

, .

fro m th e no r th ea st t o th e re fin eries o f Ra ngo o n Th e grea tly

-

increa s e d suppl y i s disp la cin g o th er so urces in th e In d ia n ma rket .

Th e Rubies in th e sa m e no r th ea st d istric t lie in th e s a n d a nd -

g r a vel b el o w t h e s urfa ce o f th e a lluvi a l p la ins Th ey a re wa sh e d .

o ut b
y wa ter Co a l ( m o s tl y lign it e ) o ccur s o n th e Upp er Ch i nd
.

w in a nd in th e Sha n St a t es bu t is no t ver y u s eful fo r fuel u nle ss , ,

”
b riquett e d Th ere a re ma ny va lu a ble m in era l s in d iff erent
.

p a r ts a wa i t in g d evelo p m ent Owing to th e di slike o f th e Bur ma n .

fo r m in in g l ab o ur is d e ficie nt
, .
3 82 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

T wo i mp o rtant t ra d e ro ut e s o nn e t B urm a i t h Chi na by B ham o and b y c c w ,

t h e Kunl on Ferry Fro m B h am o t o hi h t he Ira wad dy is naviga ble at al l

. , w c
s e a so n s a ro u t e p a s s e s by M o m ei n
,
feet ) a t the est ern edge of the , w
Pl a t ea u o f Yunnan t o T a lifu Fro m t h e Kun l o n Ferry o n the S a l een it
, . , w ,

w c
ha s b een p ro p o s e d t o b uil d a ra il a y bu t t h e exp ens e o f o nst ru ti o n in , c
t h di ff i cul t m o un t a in c o unt ry b et w een t h S l w een nd th e M ek
e o ng h a s e a a

p ro ved p r h i bi t ive u p t o t h p re s ent o w i ng t o t h e lo fty p a rallel ri d g e o f

o e ,
s

Ind o Chin a w hi c h di vi d e g re a t rivers u nn ing in d eep a nd unh eal t hy

-

,
r

g o rges T ra d e h a s exi te d f ro m e a rly d y s b e t w een Ch in

. s nd B urm a a a a,

bu t f ew b o d ie o f t ro o p h ve p s e d fro m o n e t t h e t her a n d t here h a s

s a a ss o o ,

b een litt le m ingling o f t y p es in c n s equenc e o f t he p hy i c l o bst cle o s a a s.

Q UES T ION S .

1 . On the o ro g rap h i a l m ap c
d ia na m e t he Ara valli Range the of In ,

M al w a Pla t ea u S a tpura Ran g e P a lg h a t Gap th e T era i Ind ia n De sert

, , , , ,

Ka ra k o ra m th e H ind u Ku sh Ara k
, a n T ena ss eri m Assam Raj p u t a na , , , , ,

S in d and Ka s hm ir
, N a m e t he fo ll o w i ng rivers : th e Ka bul S u tlej N ar
.
, ,

b ad a Ca uvery and Go d a va ri
, , .

2 Des c ri b e t h e p o s i ti o n s o f Del hi Cal c u tt a a nd B o m ba y

. T o w ha t do , , .

t h e y o w e t h eir im p o rt a n c e
3 De sc ri b e t he co ur se s o f t he Ira w a d dy Ind us a nd B ra hm a p ut ra
.
, , .

4 In w ha t pa rts o f In di a a re ri c e w h ea t a nd co tt o n cul t i va t e d
. Ex , ,

p la i n t h eir d ep en d enc e o u c lim a t e a n d so il .

5 Des c ri b e the d e f en c e o f t h e We st ern Fro n t ier o f Ind i a

. Na m e t h e .

m a in p a ss e s Acc o unt f o r th e li ne s fo ll o w ed by hi st o ri c a l i nva sio ns a nd

.

m i g ra t i o n s .

6 Des c ri b e t he na t ural regio ns a nd p ro d uc t s o f B u rm a

. .

7 Give a n a cc o un t o f t h e c a us es a n d e ff e c t s o f th e S o ut h W e st Mo nsoo n
. -
.

8 In w h a t p a rt s o f In d i a a re th e d en s e st p o p ul a t i o n foun d 2 Acc o u nt
.
‘

fo r t he d i ff erenc e s .

9 Des c ri b e s ho rtly Lo w er B en ga l a H im a l a y a n H ill S t a t e a d i stri c t in

.
, ,

t h e N o rth We s t Fro ntier Provin c e

-
.

THE MALAY PENINSULA AND EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO .

Th e Federate d a nd Protected M al ay S tates and

Straits S ettlem ents .

Th e r a ng e wh ich s epa ra t e s T e na sserim fro m S iam is pr o lo nged

a s m o u nt a ino us c o u nt r y in th e Ma l a
y P e n insul a b ut i s no t c o n ,

t inuo u s a s a s in gle well m a rke d c h a in t h o ugh so m e s u mm it s -

excee d feet A lo wla nd gap ext ends a cro ss the pen insula
.

a t th e I s thm u s o f Kra Owin g t o th e abu nda nt ra infa ll ( s ee

.

t ro p ic a l fo re s ts c o ve r mo st o f th e s urfa ce a nd s u l
pp y ,
 THE MALAY P ENIN SULA 383

va lu ab le t i mb er ru bb er ( no w l a r g ely cul t iva te d in pl a nta tio ns )

, ,

gums a nd bamb o o s Sp ice s a b o u nd a nd p epper and gamb ier

, .
,

are gr o wn in cle arings ( gam bler is a va luab le t a nni ng and

dyeing s ubs tance o bt a ine d by b o iling t h e le ave s of a shru b na tive
t o this re g ion) Tap io c a a nd c off ee a re a ls o pr o duce d R ice
. .

flouris he s in t h e s wamp s a nd river va lleys b ut m uc h has t o b e ,

impo rte d for th e Ch in es e wh o s upp ly th e pl anta tio n l ab o ur ,

.

Tin is th e m o s t i mport a nt exp o rt .

T he Fe d era t ed M al a y S t a tes co ns ist o f P era k S cl ang o r N eg ri S em b ilan , ,

and Pa h a ng whi c h a re p rac t i c a ll y un d er th e c o n t ro l o f B ri t i s h R esi den ts

,
.

Jo h ore in t h e ext rem e so u t h w h ere t h e p op ul a t io n is m a inly Ch in ese is

, , ,

sim ila rly c o nt ro lled by a B ri t i s h Advi ser to t h e na t i ve Sul tan a nd Kelantan ,

T ren ggan u on th e ea st and Keda h o n t h e w est to th e n o rt h o f the Fed era ted

, ,

S ta t e s s in c e a re c ent t ransferen c e o f S iam e s e rig hts a re co ntro lled by B ri ti sh

, ,

Advis ers a nd Ag ent s Th e to ta l a re a o f t h e M a la y S t a t es is a bo ut

.

s qu a re m iles a n d t h e p o p ula t i o n e x c ee ds 2 m illi o n s

, A la rg e p rop o r tio n .

o f t h e in h a b it a nt s a re Ch in e s e w h o h a ve im m i g ra t e d i nt o th e M ala y Peni n

s ula t o w o rkin m i n e s a n d t o s u pp ly t h e la b o ur ne c ess a ry f or t r o p i c a l

c ul t iva t io n .

Th e Straits Settlements a C ro wn c o lo ny a re P ena ng Is la nd [ 1 4 7]

, ,

wit h P ro vin ce Welles l ey o n th e ma inland Ma la cca (Po rtugue s e

o ccu pa t io n u nd er A l b uquerque 1 5 1 1 Du t ch a nd S in ga p o re
,

Is la nd Sing ap ore
. o n a n is l a nd

o pp o s ite Jc h o re h as a n excelle nt ha r b o ur a nd lie s a t t h e c o n

, ,

ver ging po int o f the grea t sea r o ute s t o the e a st I t has a Chine s e .
,

Ma l ay a nd Europ ea n qua r t er is a free p ort a nd po ss ess e s a

, , ,

c o sm opo lit a n tr ade Th e c o ns truc t i o n of r a ilwa ys a nd g o o d

.

r o ad s o n the we s tern s ide o f th e p e ni ns ula o n whic h lie th e B ritis h ,

s ettle m e nts a nd t he ce nt res o f indus try has made c o mmu nica tio n ,

p o ss i b le t hr o ugh w ha t were o nce a lm o s t imp as sab le j ungle s a nd

fo res ts Th es e r oa ds a nd ra ilwa y s a re b eing gener a lly exte nd e d
.

th ro ugh th e Fe d era t e d a nd Pro tected St a te s With t he St r a its .

Settle m e nts a re in clu d ed t h e Keel ing o r C o c o s Is l a nds ab o ut 500 ,

m ile s t o th e s o ut h we s t o f Ja va ; c o ra l is la nds c o vere d with co co

-

nu t p a lms wh ic h pr o d uce c o p r a ; a nd Chris t mas Is la nd ab o ut ,

200 m ile s s o uth o f Ja v a wit h its v a lu a b le ph o spha te of lim e

,
.

Lab ua n Is l and o ff th e no rth c o as t o f B o rne o is now i nclu de d in

, ,

th e Str a it s S ettlem e nts .

Th e Eastern Archip el ag o .

Th e Eas tern Arch ip ela go co ns is ts of a la rge nu mb er o f is la nds

° °
co vering 40 o f lo ngitu d e a nd 3 0
°
of la t itu d e ( fro m 20 no rth
°
t o 1 0 s o uth ) .
384 TEXT B OOK OF GE O GRAP HY
-

Th e is l a nds t o t he wes t o f Wa lla ce s line dr a wn b e t wee n B a li ’

a nd Lo mb o k a nd
pa ss i ng t o th e we st o f Cele b es s t a nd o n a su b
, ,

ma rine pla t fo rm a b o ve 600 feet ( 1 00 f at h o ms) ; wh ile t o th e e a s t

a nd s o u t h e a s t as fa r a s N ew Gui ne a a nd Aus t r a li a is a d ee
p s ea
-

, , ,

with d eep er d epre ss io ns Wa lla ce o bs erve d t ha t t he As ia t ic and

.

Aus tr a lia n m a mma ls a nd eve n m a ny b ir ds were s ha rp ly s e p a r

, ,

a t e d fr o m o n e a no t h er a t t h is li ne a nd i nferre d a n e a rl y is o l a t i o n
,

o f t h e Aus t r a li a n l a nd m a ss es wh ic h a ll o we d t h e d evel o m e nt o f
p
p eculia r t yp e s B i ol o gic a lly wit h t h e except io n o f C ele b es th e
.
, ,

e as t er n is l a nds a re Aus tr a lia n a nd ha ve t h e t yp ic a l fa u na (m ar

,

s u ia ls
p c a sso w aries ) a nd fl o r a ( euc a l yp t us ) of t ha t c o nt i ne nt
, .

Ma ny of th e is l a nds ris e t o c o ns i der a b le eleva t i o ns M o unt Kina ,

B a lu in B r i t is h N o rth B o r ne o re a ch i ng
,
fee t There a re
, .

m a ny d o r ma nt a nd s o m e a ctive vo lc a no e s Kra ka t o a b etwee n .

,

Ja va a nd Sum a tra in S unda Str a it is fa m o us fo r t he gre a t

, ,

erupti o n of 1 88 4 .

Cli mate — Th e cli m a t e i s ge ner a lly t r o p ic a l , t h o u gh o n t he

.
'

no r t h , fa rth est fro m t h e Equ a t o r , t h ere a re s e tt le m e nt s o f no

gre at elev a t i o n w h ic h h a ve a w a r m t e m p er a t e cli ma te s i m il a r t o

t h a t o f t h e u p l a nds o f C e y l o n ( see [ 104 ] Ph ilipp i ne s ) Th e re gio n .

h a s ge n er a ll y a l a r ge r a i nfa ll , t h o s e is l a n ds o n or ne a r t h e E qu a t o r
ha vi ng , a s a rule , r a i n a t a ll s e as o ns , with d o ub le m a xim a ;
wh ile in th e no rth a nd so uth s e a s ona l differe nces a re m o re or less
well in ark ed Ma nila [ 1 3 5 ] h as a w et s e as o n duri ng t he
S o u t h We st M o nso o n a nd a dry s e a s o n d uri ng th e No r th Ea s t
- -

M o ns o o n , b ec a us e it lie s in th e r a i n shad o w o f the m o u n -

t a in o u s i nt eri or B at avi a . o n t h e c o a s t o f Ja v a , a nd T o s a ri

a t a c o ns i d er a b le eleva t i o n, receive t h eir r a in d uri n

g t he
No r th We st ( o r Aus tra lia n) M o ns o o n A m o d era tely eleva te d
-

s ett lem e nt B uit e nz o r g

, has no dry s e a s o n It has b o th a .

m o ns o o n a nd tr opic a l ma xi mum It is t o b e exp ec t e d t hat .

is l a nds c o vering so c o ns i d er ab le ext e nt o f l a t it u d e with in wh ich ,

t h ere a re i mp o rta nt s e as o na l c ha nge s o f wind d irec t io n a nd ,

c o nt a i ning s uch ma rke d va riet ies o f c o nfigur a tio n a nd c ont o ur ,

s h o ul d sh o w im o rt a nt d i ff ere nce s o f r a i nf a ll
p .

Settl ement and Products reg ula r win ds a nd

.
—
Owing to t h e
ge ne r a l a bs e nce o f st o r ms in t h e na r r o w s t ra i ts wh ic h s ep a r a t e
th e s e i s la nds th ere ha s b ee n frequ ent i nt e r co ur s e by s e a b e t wee n
,

th e m fro m t h e ea rlie st da ys wh ile d iffere nt p a rts o f th e sam e

,

i sla n d ha ve b een iso la t e d by mo u n ta in ridg es a nd fo re s ts Th e .

a b u nda n t r a infa ll ( s ee a nd fert ile so il ( es ecia ll

p y in Ja va ,

wh ere it is la rgel y vo lca n ic ) wh ich c a us es a luxuria nt veg e ta t io n

, ,
3 86 T EX T B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

f arth er s outh for m m o re or le ss ind efi nit e ridge s o f h igh er l a nd

,

b etwee n th e l o wer river v a lle ys In t h e c a se o f Annam th e m o un

.

ta in r a nge f orms a m o re c o ntinu ous b oun dar y b etwee n th e c oas t

a nd th e i nteri o r .

Owing t o th e c o ns i derable r a infa ll o f th e mo unta in regio ns

in wh ic h th e y ha ve th eir so urce (s ee Fig th e river s a re o f .

re a t vo lu m e d urin g t i m es o f flo o d a nd ca rry do wn v as t mass e s

g ,

o f s ilt wh ic h h a s b een s p rea d o ver th e l o wer v a lleys a nd has

, ,

ca u s e d th e fo rma tio n o f d eltas Th e d ifficul t y o f co mmu nies .

tion fro m eas t to wes t o wing to wet jun gle s and fo re s t c o vere d
,
-

h ill s co ntri buted to th e g ro wth o f s epa r a t e kingdo ms in th e

,

fertile river vall eys a nd delta s S iam o n th e M e nam ,

Camb o dia a nd Co ch in Ch ina o n th e flo o d pla ins o f th e M eko ng ;

a nd T o ngkin g o n th e a lluvi a l la n ds o f th e R e d R iver
,
.

S iam .

Are a = 200 000 s qu a re Po p ul a ti on = 6 2 5 milli o ns in 1 909

m ile s 3 1 to
'

.
,

th e s qu are mil e ok
B an gk = 0 6 5 m ill i o n Th e p reva ili ng reli gion is B ud
'

. .

d hism .

Th e mo d ern res trict e d kin gdo m o f S ia m wh ic h rema ins s ince ,

th e d eli m ita tio n o f B ri t ish a n d Fren c h fr o ntier s i s c o nfine d to ,

th e no rth ern pa rt o f th e Ma la y P en insul a th e lo w pl a tea u s o uth ,

o f th e M eko ng and th e M e nam B a s in l a r g el y a lo w fla t p l a in , , ,

with a ris e t o th e no r th o f les s tha n o ne fo o t p er m ile Th is is .

tr a vers e d by s lugg ish s trea ms a nd c o nt a in s ma ny sa line la kes ,

a nd s w amps A l a rge pa rt o f t h is reg io n wh ich i s flo o d e d ex

.
,

t ensively in th e r a ins is c overe d with d ens e tro p ic a l fo res t

, .

C ultiva tio n i s c a rrie d o n a l mo s t entirely o n th e lo wer a lluvi al

pla in s o f th e M en am w h ere th e fo res t has b ee n clea re d
, R ice .

fo r ms th e ma in fo o d o f th e p eo ple a nd co ns ti tute s 83 p er cent , .

o f th e expo rts T ea k fro m Upp er S ia m is a n i mpo rta nt ih

.

dustry P epp er is a lso expo rte d S iam wa s fo rtuna te in pos

. .

s ess ing a river ( th e M enam) na vig ab le fo r 400 m iles and b efo re

, ,

th e co ns tructio n o f th e mo d ern r a il wa y (Fig a l mo s t th e .

s o le m e ans o f co mm un ica tio n t h ro ugh th e fo res t Owing to a .

ba r a t th e mo uth la rg e ve ss els go ing to Ba ngko k 3 8 m il e s up th e

, ,

river ha ve to d is cha rg e pa rt o f t h eir ca rgo e s in th e ro ads tead;

,

It i s b elieve d fro m th e p reva len t Ch in e s e t ype tha t th e S ha n o r

Lao a nc es t or s o f th e p re s e nt S i am e s e o rig i na lly c am e fro m t he
pl ate a u o f Yunnan in th e n o rt h b uil d ing t h eir c ap it a ls s ucce s ,

sively l o wer d o w n t h e M e nam t ill t h e y re a c h e d Ba n k o k

g ,

T h e imm igr a ti on o f Ch ines e has b ee n e nc o ur a ge d a nd th ey a re ,

sa i d to now form o ne fifth o f th e wh o le po pul a ti o n

-
.
 IN DO C HINA -

3 87

French Indo Ch i na -
.

Are a = 3 1 0 000 s qua re m ile s

, . Po pul a ti o n = 1 6 m illi o n s 5 2 to the u re
sq a

m ile .

Cambodia c o ns is ts ma inl y o f th e flo o d pl a in o f th e M eko ng a bo ve

th e d el ta C o tto n gro ws h ere s uccessfully P epp er is i mp o rta nt
. . .

On e o f th e p rin cipa l expo rts 1s sa lt fis h Cochin Ch i na o we s i ts .

exis ten ce t o th e recla ma t io n o f th e sa lt ma ngro ve s wamps o f th e

a ctua l delta R ice is th e ma in pro duct Th e ch ief to wn is
. .

Sa igo n As th e M eko ng d e s ce nds by a s eries o f t erra ce s ,

it is o n ly pa rtl y na vi gab le a nd th e h ill reg io n o f th e C e ntra l

,

M eko ng ( th e La o s c o unt r y) is s t il l la rg el y u ndevelo p e d in sp it e ,

o f Fre nc h e n er T ea k lo gs a re flo a t e d do wn th e Meko ng to
gy .

Sa igon Th e 1m p o rta nc e o f th e o ld kingdo m o f Cam bo d ia wa s

.

la rg el y due t o th e ph ys ic a l a dva nta ges o f its s itua t io n ( 1 ) in a

ba s in o n ce a ma rine g ulf fille d u p by a lluviu m b r o ught do wn by
, ,

th e M eko ng th e flo o ds b eing reg ul a t e d by th e To nl é S a p La ke

, ,

wh ic h i s excep tio na ll y rich in fis h (cf p 3 92 th e La kes o f th e . .

,

Ya ngts e ) ; a nd ( 2) o n a n extens ive a re a o f fertile lo wla n d nee di ng

no r ecl ama t io n fro m th e s ea .

In Annam th e po p ula tio n i s mo stl y o n th e e a st ern s i d e o f th e

mo u nta in s H u é [ 1 3 4] is th e c a p ita l a nd T o ura ne nea r wh ic h
.
, ,

c o a l is m in e d ha s th e o nl y h a rbo ur o n th e c o a st Th e ch ief
, .

expo rts a re su ga r r ic e co t to n s ilk a nd s ilk t issues

i ng th e So ngk
, , , , .

In T ong k o i ( R e d R iver ) is o nl y pa r t l y na vigab le ,

a s it d e s cend s fr o m Yu nn a n th r o u gh a s erie s o f g o r g e s a nd a s in th e , ,

c a s e o f th e Ya ngts e m a n y o f its ra p ids ca n o nly b e pa ss e d by

,

s t eam er s in th e ti m e o f s p rin g a n d s u mm er flo o ds A ra ilwa y .

ha s n o w b ee n c o ns truct e d t o Y u nna n—fu fr o m H a no i o nce

o n th e c o a s t n o w 60 m ile s i nl a nd Th e pres e nt p o s iti o n o f t his

t o w n is d ue t o t h e gre a t gr o wt h o f t h e Delt a o f th e S o n gk
.
,

oi .

R ice is th e m a in pr o duct a nd c ott o n a nd s ilk a re ma nufa cture d

,

l o c a ll y .

CHINA .

Th e Ch in es e Emp ire c o nsists o f Ch ina P ro per a nd th e b o rd e r ing

p r o vin ce s o f Ma n c h uria M o ng o lia Ea s t ern T u r kest a n a nd T i b et , ,

s qu a re m iles o f whic li m o r e tha n

, .

Its to ta l a rea excee ds 4 , ,

h a lf c o ns is t s o f th e lo ft y pla t ea u s o f C entra l a nd Ea s tern As ia .

Its ext re m e la t itu d es a re th e Amur R iver ( no r th o f 50 no r th

°

la titu d e ) a nd Ha ina n (so u th o f 20 s o uth la t itu d e ) It is clea r °

.
3 88 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

tha t a c o untr y with th i s ra nge o f la titu d e a nd eleva t io n mu s t

re s en t gre a t d iff erence s o f cli ma te a nd in co ns equence o f veg et a
p , , ,

tio n a nd p ro ducts .

Ch ina p ro p er ( in clu d ing Ma nc h uria ) has pro ba bly abo ut 95 per

cent o f th e to ta l po pul a t io n o f th e Ch in e s e Emp ire, wh ic h is
.

va rio u sl y est i ma te d a t fro m 3 00 to 400 m illio ns Ca n to n a nd .

S inga n h a ve ab o ut 1 m il lio n inhab ita nts e a c h Three well .

ma rk e d na tura l reg ions ma y be d istin guish e d by fo llo wing th e

bro a d cli ma t ic d ivis io ns s ugge s te d by Figs 3 9 and 41 , a nd .

Table VI .

Natural Regions— Cli m ate .

1 . North Co l d wint ers ( b elo w 3 2 F in Janua ry ) a nd

China.—
°
.
,
°
in th e lo wla n ds ho t s u mm ers (s ee P eking [ 5 6] Ja nua ry 24 F , .

Jul y 7 9 ,
Th e Tsingling Sha n fo rms a rea l mo unt a in
° -

bo u nda ry o n th e s o uth so fa r a s it extends in to th e grea t pla in

,

o f Ch in a cutt ing o ff th e Wei Va lley fro m S eoh wa n a nd th e

,

Ya ngts e R ice wh ich is little cult iva te d no rth o f th is lin e is

.
,

repla ce d a s th e s ta ple fo o d o f th e ma ss e s b y gra ins prin cipa lly ,

m illet and pul s es .

2 . ma inly th e Ya ngts e Basin C o o l win ter s and

Central Ch i na , .

ho t s u mm ers ( s ee Ha nko w a nd [ 100] a nd Th ree im

po rta n t p ro ducts rice te a a n d c a ne s uga r ( mo s tl y in th e Bas in
-

, , ,

of S eoh w a n ) d iff ere ntia te th is p a rt o f Ch ina w h ich fo r ms a

, ,

trans it io n regio n to So uth Ch in a fr o m th e no rth ern a rea , .

3 . Th e Va lle y o f th e Sik
S outh China .
—
ia ng a nd th e Co as t
Pla in W a r m winter s and h o t mo is t s u mm er s (s ee Ca nto n
.
,

T ypic a l pro ducts a re s uga r r ice a nd ba na nas , , .

Confi g uration, Towns, and Products .

Nor th ern China ma y b e d ivi d e d into a wes ter n m o unta in o us

reg io n a nd a n eas tern pla in .

Mo s t o f th e fo r m er lie s in th e l o ess a rea wh ic h is ma rke d b y a ,

fertil e yello w so il o f c o ns idera ble d epth Owing to th e po ro us .

cha ra ct er o f th e lo ess (s ee p th e river s a nd ro ads ru n in d ee p

.

ra vin es ( a s in th e Ca uss es th e li m esto ne regio n in th e so uth

,

ea st o f th e C evenn e s in Fr a n ce ) I rrig a t io n o f th e upp er pla t ea u s

, .

is i mposs i bl e a nd a gricul tu r e tho ugh c apab le o f b ein g ca rrie d

, ,

on up to feet o wing to th e fer t ile s o il is d ep end ent o n a n ,

u ncer ta in ra infa ll A typ ica l fea ture o f th e co untr y is th e s erie s

.
3 90 T EXT —B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
of th e river in flo o d p erio dic a ll y b rea ks th ro u gh th es e ba nk s a nd

ca us es d isa stro us inunda t io ns Th e H wa ngh o fo r m erl y re a ch e d

.

th e s ea a t a po int s o u t h o f th e S h a nt u ng Pen ins ul a Th e .

river is o f li tt le use for n a vi a t i o n o win g to flo o d s a nd th i s

g ,

t en d e nc y t o sh ift it s c o u r s e Its circuit o u s c o ur s e ro u n d th e

.

Or do s Des er t is na t ura ll y a disa dva nta ge esp ecia ll y a s it is ,

int err upt ed by ra p ids Pek i ng [ 5 6] is s itua t e d in th e Ba s in

.

o f th e P e i h o ,
wh ich with its nu m er o us t ribu ta ries fro m th e
,

upla nds o f Sh a ns i wa t er s th e l o wla nds o f Ch ili It po ss ess es

,
.

a go o d st r a t eg ic p o s i t io n c o m m a nd ing ro utes by th e Ma nch u r ia n

,

Ga t e a c o m pa ra t ivel y na rro w pa s sa g e b etween th e h ill s a nd th e

,

c oa s t a n d by Ka lga n t o Mo ngo lia (s ee

,
T ient s in [ 6 1 ] is th e
p o rt a t so m e d i st a nce fro m th e mo u th o f t h e Pei h o
,
.

Th e Pe n ins ula o f Sh a ntung i s m o u nt a in o us excep t o n th e no r th ,

wes t a nd wes t s ides wh ere it s in ks to th e l o wla n ds t h ro ugh

,

wh ich ru n th e Hwa ngh o a nd in wh ich th e Gra n d C a na l fo llo ws

a cha in o f l a k es It fo r m s a n iso la t e d u p la n d re g io n o f o ld ro ck
(la rg el y gra ni t e ) with s ca tt ere d fo rests in wh ic h o a kis i mpo r ta nt
.

g to th e u s e ma d e o f th e le a ve s by S ilk
, , ,

o win wo r m s The st ra t egic .

im po rta nce o f th e ha rb o urs fo r m e d by th e p ro j ect in g h ea dla nds

o f th e
p r ecip i to u s c o a st h a s le d t o th e a cquis it io n o f Wei h a i wei
- -

[ 66 ] by B r ita in a nd Kia o c h o u by Ger ma ny Ch ifu is th e ma in

, .

Ch ines e po r t a nd Sin ga n o n th e Hwa ngh o th e c a p ita l o f Sha n

, , ,

tu ng .

Centra l Ch i na — An exa m ina tio n o f Fig 53 s h o ws th a t th e .

ea st ern pl a in o f Ch in a extends with o u t a b rea k to a litt le so uth

o f th e L o wer Ya ngt s e bu t t ha t th e Upp er Ya ng t s e is b o und e d
,

o n t h e no r th by u la n ds , wh ic h s e a r a te it fro m t h e b a s in o f th e
p p
Hwa ngh o , ma king a cce ss t o S eoh w a n d ifficul t wh ile in th e
so uth a c o nt inuo us b el t o f h igh la nd ( th e S o ut h Ch ina Heigh ts )
s epa ra t es its ba s in fro m th e Va lle y o f th e S ik ia ng a nd th e c o a s t
l a nds o f th e so u th ea s t -
.

Th e i so la t io n o f th e Red B asi n of Seoh wan is a l mo st c o m

pl ete, a s no t o nl y do th e Ts ingl in g S ha n a nd T a pa Sh a n ( s o u th
- - -

o f th e Ha n Va lle
y ) fo r m o bs ta cle s in t h e no r t h , bu t th e r a p i ds
a bo ve I ch a n
g i nt erru pt na viga t io n o f th e Ya ngt s e Owing t o th e .

su m m er flo o ds ( see Fig th ere is a d iff ere nce o f a bo u t 50 fee t

.

b et ween th e h eigh t o f th e river a t I ch a ng fro m July to th e end o f

S e p te mb er a n d t h e w in t er m o n th s Th e r e is a ma rke d da y
.

bre ez e u ps tr ea m , a nd nigh t breeze do wn, esp ecia lly in s u mm er .

W ith much h a ula ge a nd th e h el p o f th e e a s t erl y winds o f

win t er , junks c a n ma ke th e pa ssa g e wh e n th e river is to o lo w
 C HINA 39 1

fo r s te am ers Th e d iffi culty o f river tra ns it fro m Ha nko w to

Chungk
.

mg th e po rt o f S eoh wa n, i s furth er c o mplic a te d

by th e fa ct t ha t th e ti m e o f lo w wa ter is mo s t sui ta ble fo r th e
t ra ns 1t fro m Ha n ko w to I c ha ng , o w ing to th e o ss i bil ity o f s ee ing
p
th e sh o a l s in th e river c o ur s e .

S eoh wa n, a pr o vin ce wh ic h in a re a is a l m o s t as la rge as Fra nce ,

1 8 as fertile a s t h e
y ello w lo e s s o f th e n o rth , and s uppo r ts a d ens e
po p ul a t io n It ha s a t e mp era te wint er in wh ich fro s t a nd s no w
.

a re unkno wn, except o n th e s u mm it s o f th e h ills ; a nd tho ugh

t h ere i s little ra in (exce pt in Fe bru a r y , wh e n fine sho wer s fa ll
tha t a re o f i mpo r ta nce fo r cro ps , th e sk y is clo u d e d a nd th e a ir
)
m o i st C o ns equent l y , th e vege ta tio n is a lwa ys green At no
. .

ti m e o f th e ye a r is th ere a gre a t ra in fa ll , but, o wing to th e wa ter

h o ld in g c a pa c ity o f th e sa ndsto n e, th e la nd is cul t iva t e d to th e
h il l to ps in t erra ce s by ha n d la bo ur ( spa de a gric ul ture ) Irriga
-

tio n is th e k
.

ey to th e fert ilit y o f mo s t o f S eoh wa n, e sp ecia lly t o

th e g a r d en cul tiva tio n o f th e P la in o f Ch engtu [ 1 00] (a b o ut
feet) , with its el a bo ra te dra in a g e c ha nnels Owing t o th e .

s t ee p s a n dsto n e and li mes to ne e s ca rp m ents, lo fty s to ne st a ircas es

ha ve been c o ns t ruct e d o n th e h ill s ide s u p wh ich ho rs es c a n b e le d
-

,
.

Th ere a re ma ny r a p ids o n th e rivers but th ey a re na viga ble fo r ,

sma ll b o a ts Th e north ern Min o ff er s a n im port ant r oute t o

.

Ch e ngt u Th e pr o duc ts i nclu de rice s uga r and t o ba cc o a s well

.
, , ,

as whe at a nd ma iz e Al s o o f no te a re r h u bar b s ilk a nd tea a nd

.
, , ,

a re ma rkab le i ns ect wa x o bt a ine d fr o m th e we s ter n m o unt a ins

, ,

a nd us e d t h r o ugh o ut Ch i na fo r c a nd le s .

Yunnan c o ns is t s o f a n eleva t e d lim es to n e plat ea u to th e s o u th

'
_

e a s t o f S eoh wan It h as a te mp era te cl ima t e with s umm er ra ins

.
,

a n d dry a n d s u nn y win t er s a nd its s o il is exce ptio na ll y well

,

s uit e d fo r th e g ro wth o f th e po ppy (us e d in Ch ina no t m erel y fo r

th e p ro ductio n o f o p iu m bu t a ls o fo r fee d in g live s to ck )
,
Muc h -

o f th e c o u ntry i s o nl y s uit e d fo r pa st ure a n d c a tt le a n d s h ee

p
,

( fo r m il k bu tter a nd wo o l ) a re kept in c ons id era ble nu mb er s

, ,
.

It sh o ul d be no t e d tha t th ro ugho ut Ch ina P ro p er a nd Ja pa n milk

p ro ducts a nd woo l a re ge nera ll y abs e nt in ma rke d di s t inctio n to ,

t he d ry pa s t o r a l pla tea u s o f C e ntr a l As ia Th ere a re nu mero us .

fertile p l a ins a nd va lle ys in Yu nna n (so me a t o ver feet )

in wh ic h bo th rice a nd t e m p er a te cerea l s veg eta bles a n d fruit s , , ,

c a n be gro wn ; bu t in s p ite o f its a gricultura l p o ss i bilit ie s a nd

re a t m in er a l we a lt h t h e r o vince is u n d evelo p e d Co m m un ic a
g p ,
.

t io n o n t o th e pla t e a u i s d ifficult o win g to th e go rge s o f th e

,

Ya ngt s e o n th e no rth a nd tho s e o f th e grea t rivers o f I ndo Ch i na

,
-

o n th e we s t a n d s o u th ( s ee pp 3 8 5 a nd .
392 TEX T B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Th e Lower Yang tse in whic h c o tt on a nd s ilk a re o f speci a l

,

imp orta nce has a c o ns i d er a b le a re a of low pl a in p er1 o di c ally

, ,

inu ndate d by th e Y a ngts e f o r wh ich th e T ungti ng a nd P o ya ng

,

La ke s f or m fl o o d re s ervo ir s On it lie nu m ero us i mp o rt a nt t o wns ;

.

Ha nk o w a t t he c o nflue nce o f t h e Ha n a nd Ya ngt s e a cce s ,

s i b le t o ve ss els of t o ns a n d c o nve ni e nt ly s tiu at ed b etwee n

,

th e t wo gre at so ut h er n t ri b ut arie s o f t h e Y a ngts e wh ich fl o w ,

th r o u gh t h e l ak e s a nd a ff o r d r o ut e s t o t he s o ut h th ro ugh o ne o f
,

wh ic h wi ll p ass th e future ra ilwa y t o Ca nt o n and Nanking ( an ,

o ld c ap it a l ) .To th e s o ut h o f t he d elt a lie Ha ngc h o w ( Kinsay ,

’
th e c apita l a t th e tim e of Ma rc o Po l o s vis it t o Chi na ) a nd Sh ang h ai
This impo rt ant p ort lies a t th e fir s t p o s it io n that c o uld be
utiliz e d for a to wn s o ut h o f t h e ma r sh e s of t he d elta and is 0 11 a ,

tri buta ry tha t runs into th e es t ua r y o f th e Ya ngts e Owi n g to .

t he gre a t am o u nt o f s ilt br o u gh t d o wn b y t h e river th e ti da l creek

,

o n wh ic h it s t a nds is c o ns t a nt ly in d a nger o f b eing fille d up a nd ,

el ab or ate a rtifici a l m ea sures h a ve t o b e t a ke n t o ma i nta in the

po rt .

S outh China has a c o m pa r a t ively sma ll a re a of lo w pla i n,

except in th e river va lle ys , s uch a s the s o uth er n Min, wh ich flo ws
th r o ugh th e up l a nds o f Fo k
ien t h e m a i n te a pr o duci ng regi on, to
-

Fuch o u , a nd th e Va lley o f th e Sik

,

ia n g at t he m o uth o f wh ich
,

s t ands Canto n
Cant on st ands ne a r th e he a d o f t he delt a fo r m e d by t hree navig a b le rivers :
t he S ik ia ng ( th e W est River ) t h e T un g k
. i an g ( t he Ea st River ) , and th e
Pek iang ( th e No rt h River ) T h e va lle y o f t h e la tt er is m ost imp o rt ant f o r
.

co mmuni cat io n, a cross a rela t ively l o w w at ers h e d w it h t ho se of t he

,
'

H engk iang in H unan an d o f t h e Ki a k ia ng in Kia n g si ( so ut h ern t ri b ut aries

-

o f th e Ya ngt se ) A r a il way is p ro je c t e d fro m Ca nt o n t o H ank

. ow .

Th e s outh c o as t h as num er o us p o r ts F o uch o u Am oy a nd

-

, ,

Sw a t a ll s itu a te d a t t he m o ut hs o f river v a lleys

, Th e m os t .

impo rta nt s outh ern p o rt is H ong k o ng [ 1 23 ] s it u ate d o n

a n isl an d a t t h e extre m it y o f t h e K o wl o o n P e nin s ul a w h ic h is
,

now a ls o c o ntr o lle d by B rit a i n Th e excelle nt ha r b o ur gives it

.

gre a t adv a nt a ge s o ver Ca nto n wh ic h is n o t a cce ss i b le t o th e

,

l ar ges t ve ss el s o wi ng t o th e s ilt b ro ugh t d o wn b y th e rivers

To th e wes t o f Ho ng ko ng o n t h e d el t a o f th e Sik
.

ia ng i s t h e o ld
Po rtugue s e to w n o f Ma c a o n o w o f l itt le v a lue as a
p ort .
3 94 T EXT —B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
a li m ite d no mad life o f pa st o ra l cha r a ct er de p end ent ma inl y o n ,

th e h er d in g o f ya k s On th e ea st a n d so u th e a s t th e p l a tea u 1s
.
-

c ut u
p in t o r a ng es by th e d eep go rg e v a lle y s o f t h e H wa ngh o ,

Ya ngt s e M ek , o ng a n d Sa lween No r th o f th e H ima la ya s the

, .

br oa d va lley o f th e Sa np o ( B ra h ma put ra ) flo win g e a s t and th e ,

Su tlej a n d In dus flo win g we st a nd n o r th wes t re sp ect ively g ive -

th e c h ief e a st t o we st r o u t e s Th e ma ss o f th e po pul a tio n lies in .

th e Ba s in o f th e M i dd le B ra hma p ut ra wh ere t h e pla t e a u is le ss ,

h igh a nd w h ere c o mm un ic a t io n by th e Chu mb i Va lley and the

T is ta in Sik k
,

, im is e a s ie st with I ndi a
,
.

Th e ma in to wns a re Gya ngt s e Sh iga ts e a nd Lh asa in a , ,

sh eltere d va lle y wh ich fa lls into the Sa npo Owing to th e dry .

a ir a nd cl o u dless s kie s th ere is s u ffi cient h ea t in su mm er to ripen

,

p e a c h es a nd a p ric o ts a n d ba rle y wh e a t a n d p ea s c a n b e gro wn

with irriga t io n tho ugh pa sto ra l pur suits ta k
, ,

,
e th e first pla ce .

°
Tho ugh th e t e mp era ture fa lls b elo w 3 2 F th e grea t rivers a re .
,

no t a s a rul e fr o zen in wint er Th ere is a mo dera te su mmer .

ra in fa ll c o rrespo n d ing to tha t o n th e no r th s id e o f the Al ps

,

(s ee Fig . Th e prin cipa l i mpo rt is t ea wh ich co m e s fro m ,

Ch in a by d ifficul t pa s s e s .

CHINESE OR EASTERN TURKES TAN .

Are a = 55 0 000 squa re m iles ; 4 ; t im e s th e Un it e d

, King do m . Po p ul at io n
1 2 m illi o ns .

Ch in es e or T urke sta n is a pla t ea u regio n much l o wer

Ea st ern ,

th a n T ib e t t ra vers e d by l o ft y mo u n ta in c ha in s s uch as the

, ,

Kw enlu n th e b o rd er ra ng e o f No rth ern T ib et a n d th e T ia n

, ,

S ha n . T wo a rea s o f c o mpa ra t ive lo wla n d a re i mpo r ta nt ,

th e T a r i m d ep re ss io n a n d Z u nga ria b et ween th e T ia n Sha n ,

a nd t h e Al ta i Th e Ta ri m Ba s in in wh ich cert a in s ink

. s a re ,

a ct u a ll
y b el o w s ea level i s cli ma t ica ll y is o la t e d by th e mo un
-

t a in ri m s wh ic h su r ro u nd it o n a ll s i d e s bu t th e ea st a nd ha s very ,

litt le ra in Life i s o n ly po ss ible in th e o a s e s— Ka shga r

.

Ya r ka nd K h o ta n etc —wh ich lie a t th e ba s e o f th e mo u nta ins

, , .
,

a n d th e li m i t e d a rea wa t ere d b
y th e T a ri m wh ic h is fina lly lo s t ,

in th e S wa m ps o f Lo b No r Awa y fro m th e rivers mo s t o f the

.

c o u nt r y is c o m p o s e d o f d eser ts o f sh ift ing s a nd such as the fo rm id

a b le T a kl a ma k
,

an -

R ecent d is co ver y has b ro ught to light th e

.

ruin s o f
p r o s p e r o u s cit ie s no w p a r t l y burie d be n ea t h th e s a nd In
, .

c r ea s ing sa lin i t y th e res ul t o f a n u ndo u bt e d d e s icca t io n o f th e

,

la n d ha s ren d ere d ma ny reg io ns no w u nin ha b it able Z unga ria

, .

is l a rg el y a st e pp e r e g io n wi th fer t ile va ll eys s uc h a s th e I li , .

wh ich lie s to the no r th o f th e T ia n Sha n .

 JAPAN ESE LAN D S 39 5

M ONGOLIA .

Mo ngo lia is a pla t ea u a bo ut th ree t i me s th e a re a o f Ma n

,

churia wh ic h de s cends in steps t o wa r ds th e so uth e a s t (see p

,
-
.

So m e o f it is d e s ert ( th e West ern Go b i) b ut in th e ea s t a nd no r th , ,

wh ere th e pl a tea u is h igh er a nd t ra vers e d by mo u nta in r a ng es ,

it c o ns is ts o f s teppe s ufficiently well wa tere d fo r c a tt le a nd ho r s es

,
.

Th e M o n go l inva s i o ns l a rg ely d ep end e d o n th e p o ss essio n o f a ha rdy

b reed of po nies cap a ble o f g re a t resi stanc e to col d It sho ul d b e n o t ed tha t
, .

K a ra k o r um t h e o l d M o ng o l c a p i t a l lie s in a m o un t a i no u s reg io n t o t h e
, ,

so u t h w e st o f La k e Ba i k a l w i t h a bu n da n t
p a s ture a nd sui t e d to th e keep
-

, ,

ing o f st o c k The Z un ga ria n Ga t e o n th e w e st co ul d b e rea c h ed th ro ug h

.

sim il a r up l a n d s w i t ho u t th e n ee d o f t ra versin
g d e s erts .

In th e drier po rt io ns o f Mo ngo lia a nd C ent ra l As ia th e c am el

ha s a lwa ys b een o f gre a t va lue fo r tr a nsp o r t bu t n o t a s in th e , ,

Sa ha r a th e s o le m e a ns o f c o mmun ic a t io n ( s ee [ 3 0] U rga a n d
,

f o r r o u t e s in C e nt ra l As ia Fig 4 8 a nd 3 3 0 sq ) , . .

JAPANESE LANDS .

Are a o f th e Jap an e s e Isl an d s exclud ing Fo rm o sa = l 48 000 s qu a re m ile s ;

,

1 2 t im es t he Un it e d King do m P o p ula t io n = 52 m ill io ns 3 3 6 t o t he

.

s qu a re m il e Tok y o = o ver 2 m illi o n s ; Osa k

. a = o ver 1 m il li o n .

THE JAPANESE ISLANDS .

Confi g uration Th e Ja pa n es e Isla n ds ( inclu d in g

and S oil — .

Fo r mo s a a cqui r e d in
,
fo r m a lo ng cha in s tret ch in g fro m
1 8 95 ) ,
° °
5 1 n o r th la t itu d e to 22 n o rth la t itu d e te a bo u t m iles —
,

( 29 x Th e g re a t est width o f th e ma in is l a nd is less tha n

200 m ile s Th e ma in gro up is s epa ra t e d fro m the ma inla n d o f
.

As ia by t h e S ea o f Ja pa n 5 00 m ile s in brea dth a t its wid e st exte nt

, ,

a n d na rr o win g a t ei t h er ext re m it y .

Th e isla nds a re g en era ll y mo unt a ino us a nd th ere a re nu m ero u s ,

vo lc a n ic pe a ks s uch as th e famo us c o n e o f Fu j 1ya m a Ea rth

,
.

qua kes a re o f freque nt o ccurrence a nd h o t spring s o ccur in th e ,

up l a nds Th e g enera l cha ra ct er o f th e c o nfigura t io n is tha t o f

.

l o ng r a ng e s d eepl y c ut by sh o r t na rro w va ll ey s wh ich t h ro w

, ,

o ff sp ur s to th e c o a s t Th ere is o nly a li m ite d a rea o f lo wla n d

.

in th e river va lle y s a nd n a rro w c o a st pl a in s Owing t o th e s teep .

s10 e s a n d l a r g e r a inf a ll o f a m o u nt a ino u s re g io n c o ns is t in g

p
l a rg ely o f sc h is ts a nd gra n ite (s ee pp 100 o nl
y a th in so il is .
,

left o n th e upla n ds ins uffi cien t fo r eit h er a gric ul ture o r pa sture

,
.
3 96 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

N e b e ce h ee o wing t o th e gro w h o f a gr a s s wh l ch
( o t t h e a s n o f s p , t
is u nsuita b le fo r fo o d ) Co ns eque nt l y th e h l gh er la n ds c a nno t
. , ,

a s in m a n a r t s o f Ch in a b e cult iva te d to th em s u mmi t s So m e

y p , .

fer t ile upla n d ba s in s exist with a llu v1a l o r vo lca n i c s0 1 1 but ,

.

a ricul t ure is e n er a lly li m i t e d t o th e l o wer v a lle ys a nd n e 1 th er

g g ,

s u ffi cient hi ll ric e o r lo wla nd ri ce a n d gra m s c a n b e gro w n fo r

th e n ee ds o f a n incre a s ing in du st ri a l po pula t i o n esp emally a s ,

FIG . 54 .
— CEN T RAL AN D S O UT H JAPAN .

A d eta il e d o ro g ra ph i ca l h o ws t h a t
m ap s t h ere is c o m p a ra t ively little
level gr oun d in Ja p a n .

th e li m i t e d pas ture—la n d invo lves a d e ficie n c y in do m e stic a n i ma ls .

Hen ce th e ex tre m e i mp o r ta nce fo r t he exp a n s io n o f Ja p a n o f th e

a gricul tura l a nd la n ds
pa st o r a l of K o rea .

Clim ate — . Th e cli ma t e o f th e ma in gro up o f isla nds va rie s

a cco r d in g to l a titu d e a nd eleva t io n bu t th e d ifferences a re not
,

so gre a t a s m i gh t b e exp ecte d fro m a c o ns i d er a t io n o f t h ese

fa cto rs T a ble VI s ho ws tha t the lo wla nds ha ve h o t su mmers

. .

th r o u gh o u t excep t in th e no r th o f Y ezo W h ere th e i n flue nce

, ,
3 98 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

s i des a re no w c o nnec t e d by r a ilwa ys wh ich a lso tra ver s e th e ,

wh o le length T yph o o ns o ften hi n der na viga tio n in s u mmer

.
,

a nd th e s t o r m y c ha ra c t er o f th e S ea o f Ja pa n l a rgely p revents

na viga tio n in winter Co ns equently th e p o rts lie in sh eltere d

.
,

po s it io n s as in th e so u th we st Na ga s a ki o n t h e I nl a nd Sea -

, , , ,

Ko b e th e po rt o f O s a ka
,
a nd wh ere th e s outh e as t c o as t ,
-

turns no rth wa r ds Yo ko ha ma Th e ch ief to wns T o kyo ,

.
,

Kio to a nd O s a ka o w e t h eir i m po rta nce l a rg ely to th eir ,

po s itio n o n t wo o f th e ma in a re a s o f lo wl a nd in Ja p a n .

KOREA .

Area = 8 6 000 squ a re m iles

, . Popu la tio n = l 3 m illions .

Ko rea ( a nnexe d 1 9 10) is a mo unta ino u s p eninsula with a ,

g enera l ri s e fro m we s t to e a st wh ere a precip ito us c o ast ra nge ,

o f fro m to feet s in ks to th e S ea o f Ja pan Th ere a re .

s ufficient a reas o f lo wla nd esp ecia lly in th e wes tern pla ins o n , ,

wh ich th e c a pita l S eo ul is s i tua t e d fo r th e gro wth o f rice and

, , ,

cerea ls Pas to r a l purs uits ha ve grea ter i mpo rta nce tha n in
.

Ja pa n A Ja pa nes e ra ilwa y no w c o nnects Fu sa n th e so uth ern

.
,

po rt with Ma nc h uria
,
Gens a n [ 63 ] is th e ma in po rt o n th e east
.

c o as t .

FORM OSA .

Are a = l 3 000 , sq u re
a m ile s . Po p ul a t i on = 3 4 m illions '
.

Fo rmo sa is tra vers e d by a mo u nta in ra ng e fro m no rth to so uth ,

wh ich ris es to o ver fee t in Mo unt Mo rri so n Th e sl op e .

to wa rds th e Pa cific i s s teep a nd th ere is little c o as t p la in wh ile , ,

towa r ds Ch in a it is c o mpa r a t ively g r adu a l Develo pm e nt th ere .

,

fo re has b een c o nfin e d to th e a lluvia l p la ins o n th e wes t The

, .

t e mp er a ture fo r fro m s ix t o eig h t mo nt h s excee ds 68 F a nd th e

°
.
,

ra infa ll i s grea t (s ee T ro p ic a l fo res t p ro ducts ,

s uch as c ampho r a re abun da nt a nd t ea flo urish es o n th e mo un

, ,

t a in s lo pe s R ice s uga r a nd g r a in a re gro wns in th e lo wla nds

.
, , .

Q U ES T ION S : S OUT H EAST AS IA -

.

1 .On th e o ro g raph i c a l map o f S o ut h Ea st Asia nam e the O rdo s Yunnan -

, , ,

Yezo , Seoh wan Co chin China S hantun g the M ek

, o ng Del ta , the Red River ,
, ,

t h e S i hia ng the W ei Ri ver , M a rkth e l o e ss re gi o n s, and i nd i ca t e wh ere

.

c o al ha s b een fo und .

2 Divi d e China Pro p er i nt o na tura l reg io n s wi th referen c e to clima te s

.

and p ro du ts c .
 JAPANESE LAN D S 3 99

3 .M a rk a n d n a m e W ei ha i w ei S i n a n Ch en tu T o ko Osa k
- -

g g , , y a Ban k
, g ok
, , .

S h a n g ha i H o n g k
, o n g Pe ki ng Des c ri b e the po si t io ns o f S hangha i Pek
, . i ng , ,

a nd Ca n to n a nd a cc o un t f o r t h eir im o rt a n c e
, p .

4 De sc ri b e th e c o urs es o f t h e Ya n gt s e a nd H w a ng h o no t ing t h eir to r

.
,

ren t ial ,valley a nd p l a in t ra ck

, s Expla in t h e i nfl uenc e o f s ea so n al ra in fal
.

o n t h eir fl o o d s .

5 Acco unt fo r the d en s e p o p ula tio n o f Chi na pro p er a nd Ja pa n

. To .

wha t ext ent d o t he Chin e s e o r J a p a ne se emi g ra t e

6 M a rkthe ca ra va n ro ut e s w h i c h lea d f ro m Chi na to Ka s h ga r t he Z un
.
,

ga ri an Ga te a nd La k
, e B ai k al Wha t ra il w ay s have b een l a t ely built in
.

T o ng k in g and China 1 ‘

7 W h y a re sh eep no t k
. ep t g en era lly in Chi na p ro p er o r Ja pa n In
Ind ia c a t tle a re use d fo r d ra ug h t a nd m il kin Chin a m a inly f or d ra ug h t
"
.
,

Desc ri b e t he u se o f do m es t i c a nim a l s in th e m o nso o n l a nd s .

 AF R I C A

Structu re .

IF th e l a nd s urf a ce o f Afric a were ra is e d as muc h as fathoms

feet) it w oul d m a i nt a in o n th e wh o le its pres e nt shape
a s a t ab lel a nd c o veri ng o n l y a s li gh tl y gre a t er a re a a nd woul d
, ,

s h o w s t ee
p e s c a r p m e nt s t o w a r ds t h e At l a nt ic a nd P a ci fic It is .

pro b a b le t ha t Afric a o nce f o r m e d p a r t ( if a l a r ger c o nt i ne nt

wh ich h a s no w s u nkb e ne a t h th e o ce a n Th e Afric a n t a b lelands .

re s emb le t h o se o f th e P e ni ns ula o f I ndi a in t h e a nt iquity o f the

r o cks wh ic h are c o vere d in ma ny p la ce s by th ic kl a y e rs of r o ck
,
s
o f s e d im e nt a r y a nd v o lc a nic o rigi n Th es e h a ve not b ee n dis
.

t urb ed f or l o ng p eri o ds .

On t he t a b lela n d a re the re mn an t s o f fo rm er m o un ta in range s ,

fo l de d a s in the At la s wh ic h is a t rue mo un ta in range somewhat

,

re se mb ling the Alp s in c ha ra cter o r vo lca nic , Ki limanj aro ,

Kenya a nd El go n o n th e Ea st Afric an Plat e a u Ra s Det chen

in Aby s sini a a nd Ka m erun P ea k A re m a rka b le fra cture the
, ,

.
, ,

Gre at R ift Va lley c an b e tra ce d t hro u gh t he la ke s a nd Aby ssinia

,

to t he R e d Sea a nd t h e J o r da n Va lley ( see pp 3 4 7 451 a nd Fig . , .

No m o re re m a rkab le exa mple o f e a rt h m o ve m e nt s exi st s in the

wo rl d .

In a dd it i on t o eleva ti on s c a u se d b y u phe a va l a nd de pre ssion s

d ue t o sub si dence a re t he plat e a u s f o rme d by l ong c ontinue d
,
-

river denu dat io n wh ich has wo rn a wa y and l o were d the c oun try
,

o n e a c h si d e. Suc h a re t h e Dra ken sb erg Mo unt a in s s e pa rat e d ,

by t he va lle y o f the m i dd le c o ur s e o f t he Li mp o p o fro m the

Ma sho na H ighlan ds wh ich a re a ga in di vid e d fro m the m oun ta in s
,

wh ic h surro un d La ke Nya sa by the simi la r b ut dee per canon

t re n c h o f t he M i dd le Z a mb e z i wh ere t he river ha s cut it s wa y
,

t h ro u gh t he t a b lela n d ri m To th e n o rt h we c a n d i stinctly t ra ce
.

t hi s l o ft ier e a st ern m a r gin o f th e ta b lelan d t h r o u h th e vo lc a nic

g
up lan ds e a st o f Vict o ria Ny anza a nd tho se o f si mila r f o r ma tion
in Aby ssin ia . Fa rt h er t o the no rth a re th e h eight s of Nub ia ,

e ast o f the Nile and to the ea st a nd n o rt h we st re spective ly the

,
-

4 00
40 2 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

O i o n s of
Th e N RT H WES R a rt i m ke d b t w v t re g
o a s
1 -
T E N
p s a r y
c o mp a rat ive lo wlan d o pen to th e no rt h exce pt wh ere th e Atla s
.

Moun ta in s p a ra llel t o th e nort h we st c o a st r i s e ab ru ptly from

,
-
,

t he d e pre ssi o n s o f t he Sah a ra .

Fm . 55 .
— AF RIC A : R ELI E F .

The WES T ERN region c onta ins th e Congo Basin th e Chad Ba sin , ,

t he U pper Ni ger Ba sin and t he We st ern S aha ra wit h th e de

, ,

pre ss i o ns o f T wa t a nd El Juf A serie s o f pla te a u s t he Lower

.
,

Guinea ( c onta ining the Ada ma w a Plat e au and th e K am e run s) the ,

So kot o an d th e Upp er Guine a Pla t ea us re sp ectively b r o ken ,

t h ro u gh by t he B e nue and t he Ni ger ma rk o ff th i s re gio n fr o m the

,

we st c o ast A grea t beltz

. o f hi h la nd runn in
g g in a no rt h we sterl y
-
 AF RICA 40 3

d irection f o r ms the Co ngo Nile Divi de a nd ri sin g to c on si der

-

, ,

a b le eleva ti o ns in t he Pla t e a u s o f T ib e st i and T a s ili s e pa ra te s o ff ,

the e astern re gio n c o mpri sin g t h e N ile Basin a nd Va lle y a nd t he

,

Li b ya n De ser t This re gio n is in it s turn c ut o ff fro m the

.
, ,

R e d Sea by the b r o ken line o f hei ght s of the Nu b ian De se rt and

Upper Egypt .

FIG . 56 .
-
AF RICA : RI V E R S YS T E M S .

N o t e t h e Inl a n d B a sin s . Cf Fig s 1 1 63 64 ( R a infa ll )

. . , , , a nd 66 ( V eg e t a t i o n ) .

2 The S O U T H EAS T ERN pa rt c onsi st s o f gre a t m a ss e s o f hi gh l ands

.
-

and l a te a u s , b ro ke n int o very d i s ti n c t pa rt s by river b a s in s an d

p
va lley s .

The M0 10 po Orange B a sin sepa ra te s t he pl at e a u s of th e Ka rr o o

-

a nd t he Dra ken sb er g Ra nge s fro m t he K a laha ri De s ert and t h e

Da ma ra a nd Na ma qu a Pl ate au s t o the no rth a nd e a st o f wh ich ,

lie s t he N ga m i de pre ssi on The Mashona Pla te a u i s i so la t e d

’
.
404 T EXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAP HY
by th e Lim po p o B a sin in t he sou t h and t h e Mi ddle and L ower
Zamb e zi Basin in th e no rth Th e Lun da Uru a P l ate a u hes
.
-

th e Z amb ezi N gam i Ba em and the

’
b etween the u pper p art of -

C ongo Bas in .

Th e N O RT H EAST fa r inl an d fro m t he c o ast i s o ccupi e d by the

-

, ,

Gre a t La ke re gion bo un de d by i s o la te d v olc an i c m oun tain

,

masse s and cont a ining a t e it her edge t h e t w o gre a t rift va lley s

,

le ad ing 11 ) t o the Aby ss in ian Pla tea u d eep ly s c o re d b y i ts huge

g o rge v a lle y s and ri s in g wit h st a rtl in g a b ruptne ss a t it s e ast ern
,

b utt re ss .

A cl o ser examin a tion o f th e o ro gra phi ca l map sh o ws that

cert a in cont our line s — th e 600 the th e and the
,

feet— ha ve b een selecte d t o b rin g out the sa lient point s in

th e o ro gr a phy of Africa The 600 feet c onto ur give s a m easure
.
-

o f t h e a cce ss ib il it y o f t h e in terio r fr o m t h e c o ast a nd th e value

o f t h e l o wer c o ur s e o f river s It will b e wo rth wh ile t o e xamine
.

thi s sta te m en t by a c onsi der a tion o f a few of th e main rivers .

Th e Conga — B etween Vivi ( 374 feet ) and Stanley P0 0 1 ( 920

feet) ra pi ds render na vi ga ti on o f the C ongo impo ss ib le and a
, ,

ra ilway ha s b een b uilt fro m Ma t a di on the so ut h ban k t o Le opold

ville . Oce an ste amer s c an re a c h Mat a di t ho u gh the d epths are ,

c on st antly chan gin g o wing t o sh ift in g sandba nks so tha t as a rule , , ,

t hey st op a t B o ma 60 mile s fro m t he c o ast where the river is

, ,

1 2 mi le s wi d e The c our se of explo ra t io n and th e mo dern d evelop

m ent o f the Congo B a sin b ot h illu st ra t e in a strik
.

in g manner the
poi nt s m e nti on e d ab o ve The l o wer c o ur se of the Congo was
well k
.

no wn b ef ore 1 8 70 a nd it s s ize a nd t h e Vo lu m e o f it s water s

,

had le d explo rers t o su spect t he e xist en ce o f an i mpo rta nt river

sy ste m in the interio r bu t a ll a tt e mpt s t o re a c h it fro m the we st
,

were un succe ssful a n d it wa s re s erve d f o r Stanley sta rting from

, ,

th e e ast c o ast of Af ric a t o tra ce t he river do wn to its mouth

, .

In 1 879 St an le y c on st ruct e d a r o a d ro un d t he ra p i ds on the north

ban k but the t ran s po rt o f go o ds pro ve d to o c o st ly for the needs
,

o f m o dern c o mm erce a n d c o n sequent l

,
y a r a ilwa y ( 250 m ile s in
le ngth ) has b een bui lt t o the so ut h o f th e river .

The sto ry o f the Co ngo ques t is so ty p i ca l o f Af ri can exp l o ra tion that i t

is u sef ul to give a sho rt ta ble o f the p o in ts a t i ssue in th e ro b lem
p .

Physical a nd O ther Adva n ta ges — (a ) A va s t n etwo rko f navi a ble wa ter

g
.

way s m iles ) in th e in t erio r b e hin d th e c a ta ra c ts .

(b) The p red om ina nc e o f Ara b t ra d ers o n th e e a st c o a st w h i c h rend ered it .

comparat ively easy to o rg ni e c ra v a z a a ns o f n a t ive p o rt ers , an a lm ost im

possi ble ta sko n the we st s id e .
406 T EXT B OOK -
OF GEO GR AP HY
On t he e a st c o a st n o rt h o f t he Z a mb ezi , m a n y sm a ll river s
,
,

suc h a s t he T a na t h e Ru fiji t h e Ro vu ma a re n a vi ga b le t o ab o ut
, , ,

t he s a me li m it a n d o n th e Z a mb ezi it self T é t é ab o ve whi c h t he

, , ,

ra p id s b e gin is a b o ut 600 feet The Sh ir e, o f gre a t i mpo rt ance

,
.

sh Ce nt ra l Afr i c a , i s n a vi ga b le a t a ll
.

a s a h i h wa l e a d in t o B ri t i
g y g
s e a s o n s t o Chir o m o .

It is cle a r f r o m t he a b o ve i n st a nce s t ha t t he lo w c o a st pla i n -

is fa irly w ell re p re se nt e d by t h e 600 fee t lin e Wh ere t he c o a stal -

.

st r i is ve r n a r ro w a s in t he ex t re m e n o rt h we st in t he sout h
p y
-

, ,

we st in t he s o uth e a st and a lo n g t he we st ern sh o re s o f the

,
-

Re d Sea t he river s a re unna vi ga b le o win g t o the n ea rne ss o f their

,

wa t ershe d t o t he o ce an and t he stee pne ss of th e slo pe s down

which t he y fl o w .

In th e extrem e n o rth o f Afri c a th e a rea o f l o w g ro und belo w 600 feet

i s e x t en s ive m erg ing b y very g ra d ua l sl o p e s in t o t h e d e s ert a t t h e south
,
.

Co ns e quen t ly c a ra van ro u t e s w ere ea sily e st a bli sh ed fro m t h e c o m p a ratively

,

f ert ile c oa st p l a in over the S a ha ra T he Ara b do m ina t ion o f N o rth Af rica

-
.

w a s d ep e n d en t o n th e fa c t t ha t th e Ara b w a s a ble to d rive th e B erbers

a nd o t h er H a m i t i c ra c e s i n t o th e hill s w hi le his ra i d i ty o f m o ti o n ( wi th
p ,

t he c a m el ) en a ble d h im t o do m ina t e t h e l a i ns T h e g rea t d ep ressio n s of

p .

B o d ele El Juf and T w a t an d t ho s e o f th e S ho tt s and o f th e No rthern

, , ,

Li by a n De s ert wh ere c ert ain p o rti o n s even s in k b elo w sea level are
,
-
,

m o st i m p o rtant a s hin t s t o t h e fo rm er c o ndi ti o n s o f t h e se p a r ts .

Th e feet c ontour fo llo we d o ver t h e so uth e a st ern pa rt o f

-
,
-

Af r ic a is u seful t o sh o w t he pla te a u fo r ma tion but in t he no rth

,

we st ern pa r t it give s t he k ey t o t h e c o n figura t i on Here t hree .

gre a t fingers o f m o re eleva t e d la nd p ro cee d n o rth wa rd s st andi ng ,

o u t m o st p r o min en t ly .

( 1 ) In t h e west a b r o ke n ma ss st a rt ing fr o m t he gr e at go rge

o f t he Co n o
g go e s first n o rt hwa r d s a n d t h e n a lm o st due we st ,

divide d by t he B e nue Va lle y a n d a ga in by th e Lo wer Ni ger int o , ,

t hree pa rt s— t he Lo wer Gui ne a P lat e a u in w h ic h t he Ada mawa ,

Pla t e a u in t he no rth a nd the Ka m erun s in the we st a re th e mo st

eleva t e d pa rt s ; t h e Sok o t o o r Ha u ssa P la t e a u a
pr o lo n gat i on of ,

which n o rt h wa rd s e ndin g in t he P la t e a u o f Air o r As b en divides

, ,

t he We st ern Sa ha r a f r o m t he Cha d r e io n a nd la st l
g y t h e Upper , ,

Gu i ne a Plat ea u whic h t ermin a te s in th e ext re me we s t in the Futa

,

Ja llo n Hi gh lan d s .

( 2) In t he centr e a lo ng c ont inu ou s b elt o f u plan d s st retches

a no r t h we st d irec t i o n fro m t he n o r t h ern e d e
n g o f the la ke
i -

o .

di stri ct for a di sta n ce o f o ver mile s wit h c o n siderable ,

b re adth ri sm g mo re ab ru pt ly fro m the we st ern t ha n fro m the

.

,
 AF RICA 40 7

e astern ma r gin In th e sou th it f o r ms th e Congo Nile an d Nile

. -

Chad Di vi de s b ut the slo pe i s so gradu a l tha t the wa t e r she d is

,

perce pt ib le o nly by th e c han ge d d irectio n of the stre a m s Th e .

Je b el Ma rrah i s th e fir s t o f t h e mo re ele va te d a rts wh ic h a re so

p
ma rke d in th e Ta r so Moun ta in s ( T ib e st i) th e War Mo untains and , ,

the Pla t ea u s o f Tas ili and Aha gga r To th e no rth an d we st o f .

thi s lin e o f u p lan ds lie the grea t depre ssions and on eit her si de ,

the mo st a ri d p o rt ions o f the S ah a ra and Lib ya n De serts in ,

wh ich i s f ound every va rie ty o f p la in va lley go rge hill e sc a rp , , , ,

m ent m o st ly devoi d of ve ge ta t io n exce pt in th e o a se s where

, ,

under gr oun d wa ter re a ch e s t he surfa ce or where dew pro vide s ,

su ffi cient mo i sture to su ppo rt a few stun te d shrub s o r t uft s o f

gra ss Only in certa in pa rt s a re the s e irre gula rit ie s fille d u p by
.

win d d riven sa nd giving the fo rm s su gge sted by the c on ventiona l

-

no t io n o f th e Saha ra a s
gre a t ro llin g pla ins o f san d b ro ken by
shift in g san d dun e s -
.

(3 ) In the east i s fo un d the no rt hern pro longa t ion of the lo fty

Aby ss in ia n Pla t e a u I t c on s i st s o f irre gula r and muc h b ro ken
.
-

line s o f hi ll s b roade st and mo st c o nt inu o u s in the cen tre and

, ,

ext endin g a s fa r n orth a s t h e c o mm ence ment of the Nile Delta .

The g ra d ie nt s a re on the wh o le m o re or le ss gent le fr o m the

, ,

Nile bu t muc h m o re a b ru pt fr o m the R e d Sea exce pt in t he

, ,

so ut h .

La s tly (4 ) in the north west t he At la s grou p ri se s a b ru ptly

-

fro m a ll s i de s but it s b rea dt h va rie s gre a tly a s it run s fro m

,

we st t o ea st Th e mo un ta in cha ra ct er i s m o st ma rked a t either

.

ext re mity t he pla t ea u cha ra ct er in the centre and the co a st

, ,

l an ds o f Al geria di ff er in a strikin g ma nner fro m tho se o f Ma ro cc o

a nd T un i s .

Th e feet c o ntour b est s h o ws th e fo r ma tio n o f th e s o ut h

-

e a st pa r t o f t h e c o nt in ent In th e n orth western pa rt o n l y a few

.
-

is o la t e d ma ss es rea c h th is eleva t ion— viz in th e At la s gro up .

, .

in pa r ts o f th e L o wer Guine a Pla t ea u in th e h ill y reg io n o f Ha ussa

,

in th e S o ko to P la te a u a n d in t h e t wo extre m it ie s o f t h e Upp er
,

Guinea Pla t ea u In th e cent r e o f th e no rth ern p a rt a cha in o f

.

h ills runs fro m th e Co ngo N ile Divi de thro ugh th e Je b el Ma rrah

-

a nd th e T a rs o Mo u nta ins to th e P la t ea u o f Tas ili S i m i lar h i ll s .

o ccur in th e m o u n ta in s o f Nu b ia ea s t o f t h e N ile Th e d ifferent .

cha ra ct er o f th e At las i s sho wn by th e grea t ma ss o f eleva te d

l a nd in Ma ro cc o and th e Mo u nta in s o f Aures to th e ea st o f th e ,

centr a l h igh p l a tea u o f Al g eria In c o ntr as t t o t h i s we find in

.
.

th e s o uth eastern pa rt a va st reg io n o f h i gh pla t ea u s ext end i ng

-
,

ro m S o u t h Eas t Ca e C o lo n y t o t h e Abyss m ia n Pl a t ea u th e
p
-
,
 40 8 T EXT —B O O K OF GEO GR AP H Y
h igh es t po rt io ns b eing at th e extre m it ie s a nd a lo ng th e e a s tern
ma r g in With in th is a rea ris e all th e i mpo r t a nt r i vers of Afri ca
. ,

except th e N ig er Th e Co ngo a nd th e Ni le fl o w a lo ng i ts e dges

.

wh erea s th e Ora ng e L i mp op o Z a mb ez i a nd ma ny o t h er r i vers

, , ,

ha ve e a t en th eir Wa y th ro ugh to th e s ea lea ving grea t va lleys ,

d ivi din g th e p l a t ea u in to mo s t d is tinct pa rts Mo reo ver th e .

,

N gam i d ep re ss io n— tha t o f La ke Ru k
’
w a a nd t h o s e W i th in th e ,

La k
.

Grea t R ift a r ea e R u do lf— rema i n a s sa lt o r bra cki sh

reg io ns po int ing t o s o m e fo r m er c o n d it io n o f th e c o nfigurati o n
,

o f Afric a .

Co ns idere d t o g eth er th e ,
a nd feet c o nto ur s illus
tra t e clea rl y th e pl a t e a u fo r ma tio n o f Africa N0 s ingle co nto urs .

c a n sh o w fo r t h e wh o le o f Africa t h e e d e o f t h e c o as t
g pla in
wh ere th e lo west es ca rp m ent o f th e pla t ea u c o mm ences but , ,

a s h a s b ee n
p o in te d o ut it is n e a rl y rep re s en t e d by th e 600 feet
-

lin e Abo ve tha t th e c o untry r is es in t erra ce s to a ppro xim a tely

.

feet Th e es c a rpm ents wh ich fo r m th e fro nt o f th e ter

.

r a ces a re b ro ken by river go rge s wh ich ha ve b een c u t ba ckwa rd

into th e p l a t ea u a nd so m e o f th e l a rg es t ca t a ra ct s in Af ric a a re
,

na t ura ll y fo u n d a t th e u
pp er e dg e o f th e p l a t e a u Suc h a re th e .

Vic to ria Fa ll s o f th e Z a mb ez i a t a n eleva t io n a bo ve th e s ea o f

,

feet a nd th e Murch iso n Fa lls a t

, feet wh ere the , ,

N il e ent ers Al b er t Nya nz a Th e int er m e d ia t e t erra ce s o f th e

.

p la t e a u a re rep re s en te d by th e S t a nle y F a lls o f th e Co ngo

feet ) Th e N ile b eco m es na vigab le a t abo ut
. feet
a ft er its d es cent fro m th e pla t e a u (at Lado feet ) It is , .

t rue t ha t t h ere a re ma r ke d c h a ng e s o f level wh ere e s c a rp ments

a nd t er r a ce s o ccur a t ma n
y p o in t s a b o ve t h e a ver a g e l evel o f
th e Upp er Pl a t e a u
( a pp r o xi ma t el y feet) a nd tha t the ,

ge nera l level o f m uc h o f th e p la t e a u fro m Ca p e C o l o ny t o Abys

s ynia is o ve r feet bu t th e s lo p e except o n th e eas tern
, ,

es ca rp m ent is m o re o r le ss gradua l
, .

CLIMATE .

Position and Extent —

Th e fo llo win g po in ts sho ul d b e no te d
E rtrem e Long itudes 1 7 we st t o 5 1
h
° °
, ea s t ( centra l
m er i di a n abo u t 20 e a st ) °
fro m n e a r th e central
m e r i d ia n o f Icela n d to tha t o f th e C a sp ia n (a p p ro xi ma t ely) .

C o ns equentl y a t Ca pe Ve r d e it will b e m i dda y ra th er mo re

,

t ha n o n e ho u r a ft er Gree n wic h a nd a t C a e Gu a r da fui it

p ,

i s m i dda
y ra th er mo re th a n th ree h o urs b efo re Gree nwic h .
4 10

FI G . 57
.
— AFRICA : S E A L EV E L IS O T H E RM S ( JAN UAR Y )
-
.
 41 1

FIG . 59 .
— AF RIC A : S E A LEV EL IS O T H E RM S ( JUL Y )
-
.
41 2

FIG . (51 .
— AF RICA : IS O B ARS ( JAN UAR Y ) .
 414 T EX T B OOK OF GE O GRAP HY
-

It ho ul d b e no te d tha t th e t ro p ica l po rtio n o f Afric a is mo re

s

t ha n twice th e wh o le a re a o f Euro p e a nd c o ver s by fa r th e ,

g rea t es t l a nd a re a with in th e tr o p ic s It i s th erefo re a pa r .

t ic u la rly go o d o b j ect lesso n fo r t h e u n d er s ta ndi ng o f th e c a us es

-

o f cli ma te a nd it s infl ue nce o n veg eta t io n .

Ar ea — Th e e s ti ma te d c o nt in ent a l a re a = 1 1 § m il lio n s qua re m iles

.
,

o n s qu a re m il e s o r
o r in clu d in
, g a ll i s l a nds 1 1 5 m illi 3 ti m es ,

Eur o p e 3 2 m illio n s qu a re m ile s o r 95 ti m e s Un ite d King do m ,

.

Surroundi ng Parts — Afric a m a y b e l o o ke d u po n as a h ug e

.

p e n ins ula o f t h e vas t Eur a s ia n c o nt in ent I t i s s urro unde d by .

s ea s o n a ll s i d e s exce t in th e n a rro w is t hm u s t h r o u h wh ich i s

p , g
c u t th e S ue z Ca na l .

1 Wa sh in g th e wh o le le ngt h o f th e no rth co as t lie s th e lo ng

.
,

na rro w l a nd lo cke d M e dit erra n ea n s epa r a ting it fro m the

,
-

s o u t h ern c o u n trie s o f Euro e wh ich a ppro a c h it clo s ely in the

p ,

ext re m e we s t wh ere Spa in is o n ly d ivide d fro m it by th e na rro w

,

S tra i ts o f Gib ra lt a r a nd in th e cen tre wh ere S ic ily fo rm s th e

, ,

c o nnec t in g link b etween So uth ern It a l y and T un is ia

-
.

2 To th e no rth e as t th e na rr o w R e d S ea s ep a r a tes Afric a fr o m

.
-

th e g re a t p enin s ula o f Ar ab ia with wh ich h o wever th ere is , , ,

c o nnectio n in th e Is thmus o f Suez .

3 Th e e as t a nd s o ut h c o a st s a re wa sh e d b y th e Ind i a n Oce a n
. .

4 Th e wh o le o f th e we s t c o a st b el o ngs t o th e Atla nt ic Oce a n

.

a re a .

Th e s ignific a nce o f th es e va rio us po in ts o f c o nverg ence o f

la nds a nd ad j a cent o cea n ic a rea s will b eco m e clea r in co nnectio n
with th e p reva iling winds a nd re sulta nt r a in fa ll o f two typ ica l
mo nt hs— Ja nua r y a nd Jul y .

JAN U ARY C O N D IT I O N S .

Temp er ature On Dece mb er 2 1 t h e sun wa s vertic a l o ver the

.
-

so ut h ern tr o ic
p As th e no r th extre m ity o f Afric a is abo ut
.

a n d th e s o uth extre m ity ab o ut 1 5

°
d ista nt fro m th e reg io n o f th e
vert ica l sun th e re s ul ta nt t e mp era ture mu s t b e much less in
,

th e no rth t ha n th e s o uth .

An exam ina tio n o f th e is o th er ms sh o ws tha t th e l ine o f 6 8 F °

.

is o nly a little s o uth o f th e la tit u d e o f 23 4 s o uth l a titu d e a nd °

,

extends to th e so uth o f Ca p e Co lo n y A po rtio n o f th e so uth .

wes t co a s t is co o le d bel o w tha t te mp er a ture b y th e c o l d current ,

a nd t h e S o uth Wes t win ds wh ich blo w as in So ut h Am erica , ,

fro m th e south eas t o f th e hi g h —p re ssure a rea Th e a ctua l

-

t e m per a ture difl ers little fro m th a t re duce d t o s e a level The -

.
 AF RIC A 415

mo st no t ice able mo d ifi c a t io ns o f t e mp era ture a re in th e h igh

la n ds wh ich ext en d fro m Ab yss inia to t h e so u th Th e h igh er .

r a nge s in So ut h Afric a S o uth We st Afric a a nd Ma da ga s ca r ,

-

, ,

a l s o mo d if
y t e m p er a ture .

A c o m pa ri so n o f the sea l eve l a nd ac tual te mperatur es o f 75 F is -

°
.

in st ru c t i ve ( see Fig s 5 7 T h e Up p er Nile t h e l o wla nd s o f the e a st c o a s t

.
, .

a nd t h e Va lle y s o f t h e Z a m b ez i a n d Lim p o p o t h e c en t ra l b a si n o f t he Con o

g , ,

th e Lo w er N i g er a nd t h e c o a s t t o S ierra L eo n e a re a c t u a lly a b o ve 75 F
, .
, .
,

while th e grea t er p a rt o f the pl a t ea u is bel o w it Only t he hig her la nds o f .

N o rt h W e st Af ri c a are a b o ve 5 0 F It is im po rt a n t t o n o ti c e t he a c tua l
°
-
.

t em p era t ure b e ca u s e it h elp s to expl a in the rela t ive s i e a n d i nt en si ty o f

,
z

t h e S o u t h Af ri c a n lo w p ressure a re a w hen c o m p a red w it h t ha t in Asia in

-

Jul y It m us t a l so b e rem em b ere d t h a t th e so ut h ern p o rtion o f Afri ca is

.

s urro un d e d b y o c e a n i c a re a s .

Press ure — In . dd it io n t o th e lo w p ress ure a rea wh ich ex t ends

a -

fro m th e so ut h o f Ab y ss in ia t o t h e Ora n e R iver

g ( b elo w
t h ere a re a re a s o f h igh p re ss ure in th e In d ia n a nd At la n t ic
Ocea ns t o th e so ut h west a n d so u t h ea s t a n d a grea t h igh p r ess u re
- -

,
-

a re a o ver t h e n o r t h c o verin g M a ro cco much o f th e M edit er

, ,

ra n ea n l a n ds a n d C en t ra l Eu ro p e
, As a r e sul t o f th is d is t ribut io n .

'

o f b a r o m e t ric p ress ure t h e re a re inflo wt ng win d s o ver th e wh o le

,

o f Af ric a Owing t o th e h igh g ra d ient s o ver C ent ra l As ia th e

.
,

No rth Ea st win ds mu st ha ve a m uch g r ea t er ra nge th a n th e

-

S out h Ea s t d ue t o th e In d ia n Ocea n h igh p ressure a r ea

-

,
-

Th e p reva ilin g d irec t io n mus t b e in No r th ern Af r ica No r th

W es t No r th a n d No r th Ea st ; in S o u th e r n Africa S o u th wes t
, ,
- ~

S o u th a n d S o ut h Ea s t
,
-

Lo c a l w ind s due to lo c al d i ff eren c es o f p re ssure s u c h a s l and and s ea

, ,

br eez es a re c h a ra c t eri st i c o f al l c o a stland s in s ettled s um m er c ondi ti o n s

,

bu t su dd en s to rm s s u c h a s th e S c iro cco a n d S im eo n f re quen tl y u ps e t t h e

, ,

g en era l d i s t ri b ut i o n ei th er st reng t h enin g w e a k

, enin g o r reversing pre , ,

va iling wi nd s W h en the l o ca l d i st urba n c e h a s p a ssed a wa y the p reva iling

. ,

win d rea sserts its elf T he se dis turban ce s a re m o st frequen t a t int ermedia t e
.

sea so n s a n d w h e n t h e i n fl uen c e o f a h i g h o r a l o w p re ssu re a re a b e gin s t o

w ea k en .

°
Rai nf all —
Afric a, North of Latitude 20 North .

( )
a N O R T H W E S T A N D N O RT H Co Asr — Th e c o l d wi n ds fr o m
-
.

Eur o p e t a ke u p li tt le m o i s ture in cr o ss i ng t h e M edi t err a ne a n ,

a nd b l o w o n t o rel a t ivel y wa rmer l a n d so tha t muc h c o n d e n sa ,

t io n c a n o n ly t a ke p la ce wh ere th e l a nd is h igh es t— n a m el y in ,

th e Atla s gr o u p es p ecia lly in th e ea s ter n en d

,
In th e lo wl a nds .
41 6 T EXT —B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY

and th e interio r t h ere c a n b e lit t le c o nd ensa tio n except as

in ,

dew a t night Th e winter ra in s a re to a c o ns i derable extent

.

due t o cy cl onic sys te ms pass in g fro m th e wes t (s ee Fig 58 Actua l .

,

T e mp era ture Ja nua ry) As th e W es te rn M e d iterr a nea n for ms

,
.

a tro ugh o f rel a tivel y lo wer p res sure b etween th e h igh press ure -

a reas o f Spa in and t h e Al g eria n Pla tea u Ma ro cco lie s in th e tra ck ,

o f s t o r m win ds wh ic h a re d ra wn in to it fro m th e Atl a ntic ( s ee

-

g en era ll y p , .

b
( ) I N T H E N O RT H E A S T — Th e dry l a n d wi nds b l o w fr om the
-
.
-

h igh pres s ure a rea o ver As ia a n d brin g little mo is ture to Af rica

-

, .

Lo wer Egyp t has s o m e ra in in cy clo n ic s to r ms fro m th e no rth .

Rainf al l— Equatori al Afric a .

EAS TC O — Wh ere t h e s ha e o f Afric a a llo w s o f th e

( )
a AS T p
a ug m ente d n o rth ea s t t ra d e ( mo n so o n) pass ing o ver th e India n
-

Oce a n b efo re b ein g dra wn in wa r ds a s ha ppens in th e neighbour ,

h o o d o f th e Equa to r t h e win d h as b ec o m e m o is t ; but th e la nd

,

it firs t rea c h e s ( the c o a sta l p la in ) is h o tt er tha n th e wind (o ver

°
75 F a ctua l te mp era ture ) s o t ha t c o nd e nsa tio n c a n o nly ta ke
. ,

pl a ce wh en th e W in d re a ch e s th e e a st ern b uttre ss o f th e pla tea u .

Th is is grea te s t in an ea st to wes t l ine wh ic h inclu de s th e upper

- -

c o urs es o f t h e Co ngo and Z a mb ezi a nd c o rres po nds to th e centre ,

o f th e lo w p re ss ure a re a
-
.

( b) WES T C OAS T Th e W i nds b lo wi ng o u t w ar d from t h e South

.
-

At l a nt ic h igh press ure a re a a re d ra wn in t o wa r ds th e lo wer

-

pres s ure a re a o f So ut h Af ric a an d a re c o nd e ns e d fir s t b y th e ,

Lo wer Guine a Pl a tea u a nd a ll a lo ng the equ a to ria l b elt and to a

, ,

c o ns id era ble degree o n th e l o ft ier e dg e o f th e Grea t La ke Pl a teau ,

but th ere is litt le ra in in Wes t Afric a No r th o f abo ut 1 2 no rth .

°

th e trad es preva il In t h e Gulf o f Guin ea t ho ugh th e pre

.
,

va lent win ds a re so uth a nd so ut h wes t th e la n d win ds a re much -

,
-

s trength ene d by th e extens io n o f th e Atla ntic h igh p ress ure a rea -

to th e ea s t o ver No rth Af ric a b et wee n No ve mb er a nd Ma rch ,

a nd th e H a r ma tta n res ul t s— a ver
y dry win d b ring ing re d dust ,

fro m th e d es ert Th i s blo ws mo st frequently in Ja nu a ry

.
.

Rainf all— S outh of Latitude 20 S outh

°
.

( ) RAM :
a C ou r—
Th e W inds a re c o o l a nd m o is t b ut the ,
co as ta l pla in 1s hot (o ver 75 F to so uth o f 23 5 so uth ) and co n °
.
°

d ensa ti o n ca n o nl y ta ke p la ce o n th e s lo p es o f th e Dra k
,

ens bergen ,

di minish in g ra pidly as th e winds descend to th e ho t pla teau

b eyo nd .
418 T EXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAP HY
excep t ,
will be clea rly s een by exa m ina tio n o f th e o ro gra ph ica l
as

m a p wh ere up la nd regio ns m o d ify te mpera ture

,
Except o n .

l o fty mo unta ins o nly in th e extre m e s o uth a re th ere a ny a reas

,

belo w 50 F °
.

Pressure — Th is d is tri bu t io n O f te mp er a ture n ecess ita tes a

hig h pressure area wit h g rea t la tera l ext e ns io n e as t to wes t o ver
-
. , ,

So uth Africa a nd th e Atla n tic a n d Pa cific with ma x im a o n the ,

la nd a nd o n e a ch o f th e o c ea n s ; a nd a la rge l ow pressure belt -

o ver N o r th Eas t Afric a a nd So u th We s t As i a

-
in crea sing in -

int ens ity f r o m we s t to e ast .

As a re s ult O f th e s e pre ssure c o n d it io ns m o s t o f th e winds are ,

infio win g in Jul y exce pt (a ) in t h e no rth e as t wh ere th e influence

,
-

o f t h e As ia t ic lo w pres s ure a rea is felt a nd ( b) in th e extreme

-

so ut h in clo s e pro xim ity to th e h igh pressure a rea (o ver -

Th e p reva iling d irectio n o f th e winds mus t be— in No r thern

Afric a N o rth W e s t No rt h W e st a nd So uth Wes t ( Nigeria
,
-

, , ,
-

S o m a lila n d) ; in So uth er n Afric a S o uth Wes t N o rt h W es t and -

,
-

S o ut h —East ( Z amb ez i m o ut h ) .

Ra i nf all
°
—
North of Latitude 20 North .

( ) N O RT H WES T AN D N O RT H C O AS T — Th e winds t h o ugh th ey

a -

.
,

blo w fro m h igh er l a titu d es a re wa r m and mo ist a nd t a ke u

f urth er mo is ture from th e M e d it erra n ea n but th e l a n d th e y rea ch
, ,

i s so in tens ely ho t tha t th ere ca n b e little o r no co n d ens ation

n ea r th e c o a st .

b
( ) IN T H E N O R T H EAS T — At t his s e as
on t o o-
th e winds are , ,

l a n d W inds b eing dra wn in to wa r ds th e As ia tic lo w p ressure a rea :

-

,
-

Rai nf al l— Equatori al Afri ca .

( )
a EA S T C O AS T — Th e s o u t h e a s t a nd s o ut h wi nds o f the
.
-

s o uth ern pa r t o f th is regio n a re dra wn inl a nd but a s th e y have ,

‘

a lrea dy p a ss e d o ver th e h ighla n ds O f Mada gas c a r th e y a re co m ,

pa ra t ively dry win ds , a nd a re c o n d ens e d o nl y o n t h e h igher

pa rt s o f t h e La ke Pl a t ea u bu t fa rth er no r th , wh ere th e winds
pa ss o ver n o l a n d b efo re rea c h ing Afric a , th e r a in fa ll is p lentiful,
es p ec ia l ly o n th e P la t e a u o f Ab s s in ia
y .

( b) WE S T C O AS T —Owing t o th e a ltere d p o s iti o n O f th e low

.

pre ssu r e a rea , th e s o u th ea s t tra d e s a re d r a wn no r th o f the

-

Equa t o r a n d i nwa r ds to fo r m a so uth wes t m o nso o n C o us e -

quentl y grea t ra infa ll o ccu rs o n the co as t fro m Ca p e Verd e to

,

eas t O f Ca e Pa l mas
p d i min i sh ing inl and As th e win ds are
, .
 AF RICA 419

dra wn s tro ngl y to wa r ds th e lo w pre ss ure a re a a bel t O f c o n -

sidera bl e r a in fa ll exte nds t o Ab y s s in ia Th e sma ll r a infa ll o n th e .

G o l d C o as t is d ue t o an upwelling o f c o l d wa ter .

Rainfall
°
—
S outh of Latitude 20 S outh .

EAS T C OAS T — Th e three hig h p ress ure are as in th e s o uth

.
-

ma ke th e win ds un certa in in dir ectio n o wing t o in t erferen ce , .

Wh ere th ey a re in sho re th ere will b e ra i nfa ll as a lo ng th e so u th

, ,

co as t b ut t h ey a re mo s tly dry win ds fr o m th e interio r o n b o th

,

th e ea s t a nd we s t co as ts .

Genera l S ummary — In Jul y th e o n l y pa rt o f Afric a wh ich is

.

vis it e d by ra in is th e b elt b et ween th e Equ a to r t o 1 0 no rth °

la titu d e ( excep t in th e extre m e s o uth ) .

Th e Infl uenc e of W arm and Cold Currents on Rainf all — Ia .

th e no rt h wes t th e g rea t h ea t o f th e S a ha r a is th e ma in fa cto r in

-

th e sma ll ra infa ll in Jul y In So uth Wes t Afr ic a ho wever r a in .

-

, ,

m ight b e exp ecte d as th e l a n d is co o l but th e win ds a re no t dr a wn

, ,

inla n d a nd o nly th e a ctu a l co a s ta l s trip is muc h c o o le d by the

,

c o l d curre nt ( s ee p On t h e so ut h we s t c o as t Of Som a lila nd

.
-

th ere is a re ma rkab le upwelling o f c o l d wa ter due t o Offs h o re ,

w inds whi c h is s upp o s e d t o b e the c aus e o f th e s c a nty ra infa ll

, ,

as t he n o rma l infl owing wi n ds a re c o o le d As th e se a re w arm .

a nd m o is t a m o d er a te r a i nfa ll m igh t o th erwis e b e exp ecte d in

, ,

sp it e o f th e fa ct tha t th is reg io n is mostly very ho t in this m onth

°
( ab o ve 75 F ) ( s ee Fig . Not e ho wever tha t the winds te n d
.
, ,

t o fl o w m o re a nd m o re p a ra llel t o t he c o as t to wa r ds t he no rth
( Fig .

WORK ON CLIMATE
PRACT ICAL .

The fo ll o win g exerci ses on the us e o f clim a ti c map s m ay p ro ve o f s ervi c e .

In o rd er to a ssi st referenc e the m a in p o ints d e a lt wit h in the quest io ns have

,

been s um m a rized in a k ey .

1 Ill us tra t e t he i nflu enc e o f clima te o n na tu ral veg eta ti o n and s e ttle
.

m en t .

2 .Give exampl es of pla ces whi c h lie in th e l ee o f sea win ds a nd ha ve -

less ra infa ll a nd o f p lac es whi c h ha ve t h eir ra infa ll a t s ea so ns when the

,

t ra d es a re l eas t strong Exp l a in th e ca uses of t h ese di ff eren c es

. .

3 Illus t ra t e fro m the t a ble th e in fl uenc e o f seasona l ra in fall on the

.

Nile flo o d s M ent ion o th er exa m ple s o f flo o d s d ue to thi s ca u se a nd

. ,

exp l a in th e ca uses .

5 Gi ve illus t ra t ions o f regio n s w hi c h ha ve t h eir ra in in (a ) winter and

.

( b) sum m er and e xpl ain the e ff e c t o n c ul ti va ti on

,
.

6 G i ve a n e xa mple o f the d ep end en c e o f vegeta tio n o n rainfall

.
.
4 20 T EXT B O OK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

7 . in fluen c e O f eleva ti o ns in m o di fy ing t em p era t ure wi th

Ill us t ra t e t he ,

s p e c i a l ref eren c e to Al g eria a nd t h e H ig h Vel d .

8 De sc ri b e t h e c ha ra ct erist i c s o f a t ro p i c a l clim a t e
.
.

9 Co n tra st th e c l in
. i a t es o f M o m ba sa [ 1 1 0 ] a nd Leo p o l d ville Wal
visch B ay [ 27] and B eira Acc ra [ 1 00] and S a la ga Wha t o t her
in fluen ces b es id es la t itu d e h ave to b e c o nsi dere d

KEY TO C LIMAT I C EX ER C I S ES .

[ T he numbers in s qu are k
bra c ets ref er to the p osition s o n Fig 65 .

o f the p lac es f or whic h the temp era tu res a nd ra inf a ll a re given in

T a ble VII
Anexa m ina t io n o f Figs 5 7 to 6 5 S h o ws tha t th e cla ss ifica t io n
.

int o zo ne s wh ich illu s tra t e th e nu mb er o f m o n th s a b o ve o r b elo w

,

s elec t e d w int er a nd s u mm er te m p er a t ure s is va lu a b le even wi th in ,

th e t ro p ic s wh ere t h e d i ff ere n ces O f th e a l t i tu d e O f th e su n a re

n ece ss a ril y le ss ma rk
,

e d th ro ugh o u t th e y ea r tha n in extra

t ro p ic a l re g io ns (s ee T a b le
N ea r th e Equa to r th e t er ms winter a n d s u mm er ha ve
no s uc h m ea n ing a s is a tt a ch e d t o t h e m in no r th ern o r so uth ern
l a t itu d es a nd sea sona l diff erence s clea rl y d ep en d o n mois ture th e
, ,

y ea r b ein g d ivi d e d i nt o dry a n d wet sea sons ; but it sh oul d be

no te d t h a t th e p o s i t io n O f th e H e a t E qu a to r ( p wh ich lies .

p er ma n en tl y no r th o f th e Equ a to r ca us es th e Ja nua r y t e mp era ,

tures t o b e gener a ll y s o m ewh a t h igh er tha n th e Jul y (see [ 1 10]

Mo mba sa ) .

T emp era ture Z o nes — Afric a h a s no l a rg e a re a , li e As ia , with

°
. k
°
c ol d wi nters ( u n d er 3 2 F ) o r c ool s umm ers ( 3 2 to 50 °
.

t h o u gh b o t h in N o r th Wes t Africa , Ab yss in ia , a nd S o u t h Africa ,

-

th er e a re c o ns idera ble a rea s wh ere eleva t io n mo d ifie s t e mpera

ture in win t er , a nd wh ich ha ve sno w o n t h e h igh er p la t e a us a nd
k
.

r a n g es th e Atla s , th e Ab yss in ia n Al p s , a n d t h e D ra ens

b erg en In th e t ro p ica l reg io n th e h igh es t m o u nta in s even on
.

th e Equa t o r ( Ruwenzo r i) h a ve p er ma n ent s no ws , b ut th e s no w

l ine is na t ura ll y much h i gh er tha n in t e mp era t e regi o ns .

° °
Cool wi nter s ( 3 2 t o 5 0 F ) a re rep re s e nt e d m o re wi d el y , and
.

o ccur th r o u gh o u t th e wh o le o f th e eleva t e d re io n o f No rth

g
Wes t Afric a , w h ich fo r ms a n a rea o f rela t ivel y h igh p res s ure,
a s c o m p a re d with th e W e s t er n M e d it erra n ea n
(s ee p in .

Ab yssin ia , a n d th e High Vel d in S o uth Africa C o ns ta ntine .

in th e Al geria n T ell , a t o ver feet, h a s a s i m ila r tem

p era t u re ra ng e t o N a p le s a nd B l o e m fo ntein a t o ver
feet, to Geno a In th e re g io n s wh ic h ha ve c o o l win ters
 423

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 AF RICA 4 27

W arm temp erate c d i t i o ns a t a ll s ea so n s ( 50 to 68 F ) a re

on
° °
.

illus tra ted by upla nds with in t h e tro p ics, s u ch a s and

th e temp era te h igh la n d b elt o f t h e Ug a n da Ra ilwa y [ 4 4]
(see p . On th e wes t c o a s t, o n o r j u s t o u ts id e th e m a rgin o f
th e tro p ic s ( s ee Wa lvis c h B a y th e c o o lin g influen ce o f th e
c o ld c u rrent is well sho wn (see a l so Cap e Juby [ 40] in th e W estern
Saha ra ) Except in th e so uth wes t (see Po rt No llo th
.
-
t h is
zo n e ha s su mm er ra ins .

Mo st o f th e c o n tin en t ha s warm Wi nters and h ot summ ers, a nd

°
m u ch o f it is ho t (o ver 6 8 F ) a t a ll s ea so ns . Except No rth
.

West Africa a nd th e so uth wes t o f Ca p e Co lo ny , all th is zo n e h a s

-
'

re do m ina nt s u m m er ra ins — th a t is , ra in s wh ic h o cc u r eith er

p
a bo ut th e p erio d o f grea t es t h e a t , o r in la te s p r ing , o r ea rly a u tu m n ,

for wh ich a num ber o f illus tra tio ns will be fo und in T a ble VII .

Ra ins o ccu r a t a ll s ea so ns o n ly in th e equ a to ria l b elt fro m th e

Niger Delta to th e Co n go River , no rth o f th e E qu a to r , a n d in
th e la ke regio n o f Victo ria N ya n z a , a n d o n th e ea s t c o a s ts f r o m
th e Equ a to r t o so u th o f Z a n ziba r , a nd in Ea s t Ma da ga s c a r .

Th e ch aracteristi cs of a trop ic al clim a te c a n be excep tio na lly

well stu died in Africa , wh ich ha s th e la rgest la nd a rea with in th e
tro pics .

The Trop ic a l Z o n e is dis tinguish ed fro m t h e o th er z o nes o f

i ns ol ati o n (p 3 8 ) by th e hi gh a ngle o f th e s u n a nd th e sm a ll
.

variati o n o f m idda y a ltitu de th r o u gh o u t the yea r Even o n th e .

extrem e m a rgins the m idda y a ltitud e c a nnot fa ll b el o w or

the th e oretic a l su n f o rce b el o w 6 8 p er ce nt

-

Mo re o ver , at t he
.

so ls tices t he m idda y su n is vertic a l o r n e arly s o fo r s o m e th ree

, ,

weeks , a nd ever yw h ere els e twi ce in th e ye ar th e m i dda y s u n is

vertica l o r n ea rly so , f or s ever a l days Co mp ens a ting t o a cert ai n
,
.

extent fo r th e su n f orce is the sm a ll v ari a tio n in th e length of

-

da y a nd nigh t On th e Equ a t o r th e da y a nd nigh t are pr a ctic a lly

.

equ a l , a nd o n t h e margi ns th e d iff erence b etween th e m a xi m um

a nd m i nim um le ngth o f t h e d a
y is le ss th a n th ree h o ur s (m id
is 1 3 h ou r s 3 0 m inutes m i dwinter da y
°
summ er d a y o n 23 4 ,

1 0 h o urs 40 m inu t es ) H e nce , in t h e Tr op ic s th e d o m ina nt f a ct o r

.

in th e clim ate is th e wa ter v a p o ur in t h e a tm os ph ere

-
Every .

poss ible va riety is m et with b etwee n t h e t w o extrem es .

1 The m o ist, h ot, equable, trop ical c lim ate wh ere th e hu m idity
.
,

is high , the qu a ntity o f wa ter v ap o ur is gre a t a nd exte n ds t o

-

c o ns ider ab le elevati ons U nd er s u ch circum st a nces t h e p rop or

.

tion o f direct h e a t th a t is us e d u p in w arm i n g t h e l o wer l a yer s

o f the atm o sph ere is gre a t , a nd th e p rop orti o n wh ich p e netr a te s
to th e surf a ce is sm all ; yet si nce th e th e oretic a l su n f o rce IS h i gh -

,
 428 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
the a unt wh ich rea ch e s the su rfa ce is c o ns id er ab le
ctua l am o
a nd its efi ec t c um u la tive M o reover at n igh t th e s urfa ce h ea t
.
, .

p ass es a wa y o nly s l o wly by ra di a tio n b ec aus e of th e c o mp a rat1vely

sm a ll diff ere nc es in temp er a ture b etwee n t h e s urfa c e a nd t h e
lowest la yers of t he a tm osphere .

2 Th e dry h ot extreme trop ical climate wh ere th e h um i dity

.
, , , ,

is low t h e qua ntity o f wa ter va p our rela tively sm a ll ( th ough o f

,
-

c o urs e c o ns iderable a s co mpa red with a dry cold climate) Wh ere

, ,
.

th es e c o nditions h o ld th e pr opo rtio n o f sun force us ed up in

,
-

warm in g th e la yers o f t he a tm os ph ere is sm all a nd th e propor ,

ti o n whi ch re ach es a nd h e a ts th e s urfa ce is great M oreover

‘

.
,

t he h e a t p ass es aw a y r apidly by r adia tio n at ni ght b ec aus e o f ,

th e gre a t d i ff ere nce o f te mp er a ture b etwee n the surfa ce a nd the

layers o f the a t mosph ere .

It is o bvious tha t th e chief s o urce o f m o is ture is eva p ora tio n

from th e o cean c arri ed l andwar ds b y the wi nds and distributed
, ,

inla nd a l o ng lines l argely d eterm i ned by o ro gra hic a l fe atures .

B ut it m u st be rem e mb ere d t ha t evap ora tio n t a es p l a ce from

a ny surfa ce tha t is not co mp letely d es icc a te d La kes rivers .
, ,

s wam s f o res t a re a s sa v a nna s a nd s o f o rth a ll s u pp ly th eir

p , , , ,

qu otum o f m oisture in v aryi ng degrees a nd in do i ng s o p r o f o u ndly ,

m o dify the eff ect of su n fo rce and o f rad iati on in th e neighbo uring
-

pa rts .H e nce in c o ns i deri ng t he eff ect o f wi nds we h a ve no t

,

o nly t o c o nsider th eir origin a nd th eir d irectio n bu t als o the ,

h um idity o f t he a rea i nt o wh ich th ey are b lo wing .

Th e variations in p ressure with i n the T r o p ics a re n o t ne arly

so
gre at o r s o sudd e n a s in oth er z o nes Th e b elt of l o w p ressure .

is asso ci a te d with t h e belt of h igh te mp er a ture and th eref ore ,

os cill a tes wi th the b elt o f vertic a l s u n In th e Atla n tic Oce an .

t he l o w p ressure b elt v aries f ar less th an i nl a nd

-

A c areful .

exam i na ti o n o f the m o nthly p ressure c harts in B arth o lo m ew s ’

”
Atla s o f M ete o ro l o gy will clear up m a ny d oubt fu l poi nts .

At th e No rth ern S o lstic e th e b elt o f high pres sure r u ns rough ly

so uth wes t to n orth e a s t a cr oss t he N o rth er n S u d a n
- -

Air is .

th en dra w n in over t h e Gui nea c o ast s a nd p l a tea us a nd o ver the ,

Upper Co ng o c o a sts a nd north er n part o f t he B as i n T h e c or .

resp onding ra i nf all c h arts clea rly i ndic ate th e i nflue nce of th ese
wi nds At the S outh ern Solstic e t he low p ressure fo rms a centre
.

c o verin g a la rge area in S o uth East Africa a nd winds a re drawn -

i nto it fro m t he India n Ocean a nd al so fr om t h e Gulf o f Gui ne a , .

Co nsi d er a ti o n o f B u ys —B a llot s la w will sh o w why th e Atl a ntic

’

S o uth Eas t Tr a des a re no t dr a w n in f arth er s o u th tha n t h e Guinea

-

Gulf This is the rainy seaso n of th es o uthern p a rt o f the Co n go B as in

.
.
43 0 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

On the e a stern sid e o f Af rica , wh ere t he So uth Ea st tra de s

a re the reva lent wind s, it is n o tice ab le tha t the dry sea son
p
o ccur s when t he S o uth Ea st tra d e s a re str onge st , a n d the rai ny
-

s ea s on with ca lm s and chan ge ab le winds (cf B orum a . .

in the Midd le Za mb ezi Va lley , wh ich ha s no ra in fro m Ma y t o

Augu st) .

Th e Infl ue nc e of Clim ate o n Natural Veg etatio n and Settl ement .

—Tw o ex am les a re give n o ne o n e ach co ast

p ,
.

1 M adag ascar (see [ 1 1 9] a nd

. As th e is land lies between
1 2 a nd 25 s o uth , th e win ter sun fo rce ( Jun e ) c a nno t fa ll bel o w
° ° -

66 . Even in th e extre m e so uth th e s umm er sun f o rce ( Ja n u a ry) -

is no wh ere les s tha n 9 8 As th is is ca lcu la ted a t th e u pp er lim its

.

o f th e a t mo s h e re, th e s urfa ce d istri bu tio n h a s to be e sti m a te d

p .

Where the hu m idity is grea t, 70 p er cent or m ore o f th e sun .

force a va ila ble a t th e u pp er li m it is a bso r bed, wh ere sma ll

fro m 40 to 50 p er cent Thus th e ea st c o a st and th e l o wer
.

s lo es a re a lwa ys equ a ble ; th e no rth wes t co a st a nd va lleys

p
-

a re equ a ble in sum m er ; th e so uth west a nd interio r a t all

-

s e as o ns tend t o extrem es a cc o r d in g to h u m id ity a nd eleva tio n .

Pressure durin g th e ye a r o s cilla tes b etween extrem e W inter

(Jul y ) a nd extrem e su mm er (Ja nu a ry) d istri butio n .

In winter a belt o f c o m pa ra tively h igh p ressure lies o ver the

island and m a inl a nd o f Africa , with th e ma xim um centre n ea r
to th e so uth east th eref o re th e south ea st tr a d es a re ligh t, a nd,
- -

a s th ey ha ve d e s cend e d n ea r t o th e is l a nd, a re fa r fro m th e

sa tur a tio n p o int , es p ecia lly o n th e so u th ea s t co a s t

-

Mo isture -
.

a nd c o nd e nsa tio n in cre a s e no rth wa r ds , bu t a re li m ite d to th e

s ea wa r d slo p es ( th e grea tes t a mo unt o f

precip ita tio n is fro m
to feet ) thu s th e in terio r a nd th e wes t a re d eficient
in m o is ture excep t n ea r th e c oa st, wh ere da ily s ea breezes bring
m o is tu re a lo ng th e lo w level s o f th e a t mo sph ere, wh ich ma y be
extend ed by da y va lley winds .

In sum m er ( Ja nu a ry) th e s o uth ern h igh p res s u re ha s m o ved

east towa rds Austra lia Th e no rth ern h igh p ressure is o ver
.

Asia thus th e so uth ea s t tr a d es a re s o uth o f th e Equa to r a nd

-

the no rth ea s t tra d es no rth of t h e Equ a tor ( N B —th e no rth east

-

. .
-

m o nso o n ) A lo w —pressure a rea is fo r m e d in S outh Africa , into

.

wh ich th e winds a re dra wn clo ckwis e c o ns equently both tra des

a re d ra wn co as twa r ds The s o uth ea s t tra d es b ec o m e m o re
.
-

easterly, wh ile th e no rth ea st tra d es c o ntinue th eir directio n

-

By th ese winds m o is ture is c a rried o n to t h e ea s t, no rth a nd

,
no rth west c o a sts, a nd in to th e interio r by valleys, wh ile th e
-
 AF RICA 43 1

so u th wes t c o as tla nds a re s till in the r a in sha do w

-

Th e pl a tea u .

in th e so u th is s till d efi cien t in m o is tu re .

Even wh ere th e a tm o sph eric m o is tu re is d e ficie nt th e lo w ,

coa st receives wa ter by river s a nd sp rin gs H en ce th e 1 0 to .

1 5 mile wid e tro p ica l c o a s t fo rest ( s ee Fig wh ich fo rm s a .

zo ne all ro u nd th e co a st bu t is m o st l u xu ria nt o n th e eas t a nd

,

no rth ea st c o a sts wh ere it sp rea ds h igh e s t o n th e s lo p es a nd u p

-

th e va lleys In th e west a nd no rth wes t th e c o a s t fo rest extends

.
-

th e va lleys bu t no t t o a n y grea t h eigh t In th e so u th west

u
p
-

, .

th e c oa s t belt is so o n repla ce d by sa va nna o f th e dry typ e ( gra ss

and scrub ) a nd excep t wh ere the va lleys exte nd f a r i nt o t he
,

interio r in the no rth — th e p la te a u is c o vere d by sa va nna ,

and wh ere t he m o isture a nd so il a dm it f o res ts a nd th e veget a tio n , ,

is of th e wa rm temp era te t yp e .

To th es e d iff eren ces o f clim a te a re t o be a ttributed th e va rie d

o ccu a tio ns o f t h e is l a n d
p Th e lo w c o a s t a nd s lo p es h a ve tro p ica l
.

fo rest pro du cts (no w tr o p ic a l c ul tiva tio n ) Th e p la tea u is p a s .

.

tora l ( ca ttle ) a nd is th e centre o f s ettlem ent o f tribes m o r

,
e

a da te d t o civiliza tio n a n d
p p redo mina nt r a ces ( no w Frenc h ) .

2 Th e Gold Co ast
. Th e fo llo win g m a in d ivis io ns o f vegeta
.

tion from th e co a st inl a nd illu s tra te clim a te .

On th e c o a st fo r a bo ut 40 m iles in la nd a re t h e savanna f orests

, ,

wh ich are gro ups o f tro p ica l trees s c a ttered a m o ng gra ss es (a

pa rk fo rm a tio n) Th ere is no t eno u gh ra in fo r th e tr o p ic a l ra in
.

fo res t bu t th e o cc u rrence o f frequ ent sh o wers a t th e end o f th e

,

dry s ea so n (th e to rna do s ea so n with thu nd ersto r ms a n d sh o wers ,

Ma rch to Ma y ) is esp ecia lly fa vo ura ble t o gra ss es a s th is ra in ,

c omes a t the b eginning o f th eir veget a tive s easo n It sh o ul d be .

note d th a t du ri ng th e North Ea s t wi nd
p eri o d regula r sea b reezes
-

a lter nate with la nd breeze s a nd bri ng m o is ture t o t h e c o a st

, A .

circum stance unfa v o ur a ble t o trees is th a t t h e dry Har m a tt a n

bl o ws fro m No vem b er t o Februa ry ( m o s t in Ja nu ary t en d a ys ) , ,

wh ich are the resting s eas o n o f gra ss es In a dditi o n f o rest fires .

,

are frequ e nt at th is tim e .

B eh in d th es e c o m e th e rain f orests wh ich o n ly rea ch th e c o a s t ,

nea r Axim Th es e a re ma rke d by ta n gle d creep er s a n d lu xu ria nt

.

gro wth o f th e upp er branch es wh ich excl u d e a l m o s t a ll su n sh in e

,

fro m th e gro u nd Th e a ir is s till a n d sa tu ra ted with m o isture

. ,

and th e dr
y s ea so n is sho rt Fa rth er inla nd th e tru e ra in f o res t
.

pa ss es into a m o ns oo n f ore st a s d iff eren ces o f s ea so na l r a in fa ll be

,

com e mo re m a rked Wh en th e p la tea u is rea ch ed s avanna f orests

. ,

reapp ea r a nd pa ss n o rth wa r d into th e drier zo n e o f pu re savanna

,

much ( grassla nd with f ewer trees ) a nd fina lly i nto th e desert , .

43 2 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Veg etati on .

( Of . a m ean annua l ra infall with Fig

ma p o f .

Owin g to th e geo gra ph ica l po s itio n of Afric a o nly the tro p ic a l ,

a nd s u btr o p ic a l z o n e s a re ful ly rep res ente d a t m o d era te eleva

FIG . 66 .
— Arm 0 A : VEGETATI ON .
( AFT ER Sommrnn AN D H ARD Y )
.

Of with Fig 1 3
. .
( o ccup a tio ns in Ad ) . No te th e p erm a nent infl u enc e
of d es ert a nd f o res t o n occ up a tio n s .

tio ns But in th e m o re eleva te d pa rts th e a ltitu d e re duces th e

.

tem p era ture to th a t ch a ra cteristic o f c o l d er clim a t es a nd th e ,

ran ge of pla nt lif e is s imila r to tha t found in tem p era te regio ns .

T h us o n th e u pl a nds a nd t he h igh er moun ta in s o f th e La ke

,
434 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Its wo o d is spo ngy so ft a nd j u icy a nd fo r m s a vas t wa ter

, , ,

reservo ir to wh ich th e tree owes its exis tence in th e dry s ea so n

,
.

It a vo ids u ndu e tra nsp ira tio n by sh edd in g its lea ves .

An impo rta nt eco no m ic p ro du ct is th a t o f c o tto n wh l c h ha s .

,
.

been l o ng c ul tiva ted by t h e na tives in Nig er ia a nd is no w a lso ,

b eing grown fo r expo rt in Eas t a nd Centra l Afric a es pecia lly ,

Uga nda and N yasa l a nd .

In th e so u th t h e sa va nna pass es in to th e s tepp ela n d o f the

So uth Africa n vel d wh ere th ere a re cold er win ters a n d trees a re
, ,

less frequent .

3 Th e scrub or semi desert regio n wh ere th e ra infa ll dim in ish es

.
-
,

a nd th e s e a so n o f d rough t is m o re pr o l o nged Th e sc a ttered .

trees o f the sa vanna are h ere repla ced by th o rny shru bs a nd

tusso ck gra ss and o th er p la nts capa ble of pus h in g th eir ro o ts
,

in to th e so il a nd res istin g drough t in th eir dried up bra nch es -

.

A typ ic a l tree is th e d wa rf a ca cia a ls o fo u nd in th e sa va nna with , ,

its cha ra cteris tic u m brella sha p e It mus t be rem em bered tha t .

th e s a v anna gra du ally m e ges into s cru b a n d tha t a d efin ite

r
,

l ine ca nnot be dra wn a nd tha t th ere is a grea t diff erence in th e

,

extens io n o f th e sa va nna in th e dry and ra in y s ea so ns Pastora l .

a nd n o m a d ic co n d itio ns ge nera lly re l a ce a gricul tu re sh eep

p , ,

h o r s es a nd c a m els fin din g s ufficien t no u rish m ent excep t d uring

, ,

th e p erio d o f dro u gh t wh en th e s cru b b ec o m es a l mo s t true

,

d es ert . Imp o rta nt ec o no m ic pl a nts a re g u m s a nd a ro ma tic

sh ru bs s uch a s fra nkin ce ns e a nd ba l sa m
, .

4 Th e tru e desert th e regio n o f dry h ea t o f sa nd y o r sto ny

.
, ,

wa stes of dry torrent be ds a nd a rid go rges in treeless pla teaus

, ,

wh ere th e o nly for m s o f vegeta tio n a re s tu nted sh rivell ed pla nts ,

extra cting sca nty m o isture fro m th e nigh tly dew or fro m sudden ,

a nd terrific th u nd er st o rm s m ost uncerta i n in th eir o ccurre nce

, ,

excep t W h ere u ndergr o u nd w a ter rea ch es th e s urfa ce in c ases a nd

tur ns the d es ert int o fertile gard ens sh ad ed b y groves of date
p a lm s o r in the h igh e st p a rts s u ch as Ti be sti in t h e Sahara
, , ,

wh ere sufficient m o is ture is c o nd ens ed t o fertiliz e the so il .

The d es ert co nd itio ns in No rth Afric a a nd to a less extent in ,

S outh Afric a gradua lly give pla ce to scru b a nd sa va nna as the

,

ra ms a ga m in creas e tho ugh the tru e d es ert like th e tro p ica l fo rest
, , ,
is p er ma nent in cha r a cter .

Outs id e th e tro pics is th e subtrop ical z o ne ma rked by dis tinct ,

s easo ns a rea l W in ter a nd s u m m er with a ra in y
,
p erio d o f no great ,

length fo llo wed by d ro ugh t durin g wh ich th e h ea t is te mp ered

, ,

by the V i c ml t y of th e sea .

To th is z o n e eith er na tive or cultiva te d b elo ng th e cork o ak

, ,
-

,
 AFRICA 435

the olive , the a lm o nd, th e m ul b erry, th e o ra n ge , the lemo n,

th e fig, th e vin e , m a ize , rice , a n d th e suga r

ca ne as well as t ea -

a nd c o ff ee a nd wh ea t a nd o th er cerea l s a cc o rding a s th e r ange

, ,

o f tem era ture a nd th e a m o un t o f m o is ture

p p ermi ts .

A sp ecia l typ e o f th is b elt is th e M ed iterra nea n vegeta tio n ,

co ns is ting of dry summ er evergreens wh ich flourish es in North ,

Wes t Af rica a nd th e so uth wes t o f Cap e Co lo n y

,
-
.

Communic atio ns .

Th e ecret o f th e ra p id ity o r s lo wn ess with wh ich a c o u ntry

s

is explo red a nd d evelo p ed lies in th e ass is ta nce o r res is ta nc e

which it o ff ers to m ovem ent eith er in th e fo rm o f tra vel o n wa ter
,

o r o f a nima l or h u ma n tra n spo rt o verla nd In th e no rth ern pa rt .

o f North Am erica la nd a nd wa ter tra vel— by sle dges a nd ca no es

was suffi ciently eas y t o s tim ul a te th e fur tra d e wh ich d ep end ed ,

o n th e tra ns ort of va lu a ble p ro ducts o f little bul k In th e

p .

so uth ern p orti o n in th e expa ns io n fro m ea s t to west m ou nta in

, ,

tra ils and o p en pra iries wh ere wa ggo ns co ul d pass without roa ds
, ,

too k th e pla ce of rivers a nd l a kes .

In South Am eric a th e Am a z o n a ff o rd e d a ma gnificent waterwa y

into the interio r bu t its u pp er rea ch es were ba rred by rap ids wh ile
, ,

impenetra ble fo res ts lin ed th e ba n ks Hence th e Spania rds .

rea ch e d th e An d ea n Pla teau fro m its d ry western s ide by m eans

o f mo unta in mul e tra cks In th e m o d ern d evelo pm ent of th e
-

Argentin e b efo re ra ilwa ys were m a d e tra n sp o rt was d epend ent

, ,

o n ho rs es a nd bul lo ck wa ggo ns wh ich c o ul d c ross th e Pa mpas,

without made ro ads .

In Africa th e co u rs e a n d h ea ds trea ms o f m igh ty rivers such

a s th e N ile N ig er a nd Co ngo were th e g oa ls o f ea rly exp l o ra tio n
, , ,

but ph ysica l o bs ta cles p reven ted th eir na viga tio n fro m th e sea
th e ra p ids a nd s udd o f th e N ile th e bra n ch in g cha nn els of th e,

Niger D elta a nd th e d ens e tro p ica l fo res t a nd the ra p ids o f th e

,

Lower Co ngo .

H ence th e ro u t es t aken w ere by la nd no t wa t er T he Saha ra was cro ssed

, .

to rea ch th e Suda n th e d rier b el t o f Ea s t Af ri ca a ffo rd ed ac c ess to th e

,

y firs t c ro sse d Af rica fro m ea st to

— S ta nl e
sa vanna la nd s o f th e p la teau

west sa il in g d o wn th e Co n go — a nd in S o u th Af rica the Bo ers trek

,
ked

o ver the v eld f ro m t h e so u th w es t whil e Livings tone foll o w ed m uch the

-
,

sam e ro u t e sta rtin g f ro m Ca p e T o w n to rea c h Centra l Af ric a instead o f

, , ,

f oll owing the Z ambe z i .

Owing to the grea t extent o f O p en dry pla ins in Africa— s avanna ,

s cru b a nd d es ert— three means of l and transp ort ha ve pla ye d a

,
43 6 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY
grea t pa rt in its d evelo pm ent In th e Saha r a th e use o f c a mels
.

ena bl ed th e Ara bs to extend th eir influence t o th e Su dan Wh ile ,

— th e o rigin of th e sla ve tra d e

o n the eas t c oa st h u ma n po rte rs

Fre . 67 .
— Arc : CO M M UNI C ATION S .

No t e, t
o u sid e th e regio ns rea ch ed by riv ers and ra il wa y s th e u se o f camels,

i n t h e n orth , p o rt ers in t h e t s et se fl y area s ( la rg ely Cen tral East

Af ri c a ) a nd o x en o n t h e S ou th African Pla t ea u ( incl uding Angola
.

, ,

b u t ex clu ding mo s t of Po rtu gu es e Ea st Af ri c a ) .

were necessa ry to bring do wn ivo ry fro m th e in terio r Over a .

c o ns i derable po rtio n O f Ea st Africa fro m Uganda to th e Li mpopo

.

, ,

th e ts ets e fly preven ted the u se o f h o r se s a n d oxe n .

43 8 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPH Y
ma ne n t o bs ta cle t o c a m el c a ra va ns . T h e ext e n s io n o f th es e
ra ces beyo nd th e no rth ern bo rd er o f th e S uda n wa s ch ecked
befo re th ey rea ch ed th e cli ma tic ba rrier o f th e W es t Africa n and
Co ng o fo re sts by th e d ens e n egro po p ula tio n o f th e pla tea u
sa va nna la nds a t th e so uth o f th e d es ert Tho ugh th e S u da n
.

is p red o m ina n tly n egro , th ere is m uch a dm ixture of ra ce . Th e

Ha m ites see m to ha ve o rigina lly centred in the Egyp tia n Suda n
a nd to ha ve d es cend e d th e N il e, wh ile th e S e m ites entered A f ric a
fro m Ara b ia Abyss in ia wa s o rigina lly Ha m itic , but it received
.

a la rge S em itic e m igra tio n fro m So uth Ara bia The Arab .

do mina tio n o f th e ea st co a s t o f Afric a a nd Za n zi ba r wa s purely

co mm ercia l, a nd has o n ly left a s a p erm an ent m a rk th e use O f
t h e Swa h il i la ngua ge, wh ich is th e l ingua f ra nca o f Ea st Afric a
fro m th e Zam bezi t o Victoria Nyanza The pure S em itic o r
.

Ha m itic typ e is ra re, th ough fo und a mo ng t h e a gric u ltura l

B er bers ( Ha m itic ) o f th e Atla s a nd th e n o ma di c Tua regs ( B erber
a nd Ha m itic ) a nd th e n o m a d ic B e da win s ( Ara bs a nd S e m itic ) .

Religi o n ha s extend e d mo re wid ely tha n ra ce as is sho wn by ,

th e sprea d o f M o ha mm eda nis m in to th e S u da n a nd o n t h e east

c oast Th e h o e p eo ples o f th e Niger a nd Upp er Nile were
.

O fte n c o n quere d by pa s t o ra l h er d s m e n, a n d th e g o vernm ent o f the

a gricultura l tri b es of th e S u da n a nd t h e s a va nna l a nds o f East

Africa fro m th e ea stern b o rn t o th e Za mbezi, includ in g the

Gre at La kes , h a s been l a rgely in th e h a nds of pa s tora l n o ma ds
o f a n a lie n ra ce . A pa ra llel is p ro vid ed by th e H yk so s co n quest
o f Egyp t (th e Sh eph er d K ing s ) , t h e Ta rta r a nd Ma n ch u c o n quests

o f Chin a , a nd t he de s ce n t f ro m Ir a n o n No rth er n In di a a nd

M eso po ta m ia .

Th e true neg ro ra ce is a l m o s t entirely c o nfin ed to th e Suda n,

but a n egroid ra ce sp ea kin g d ia lects o f a u n ifo r m to ngue ( B antu )
ha s sp rea d over th e wh o le o f S o uth Africa A c o mpa ra tively
.

recent d isp ersa l fa cilita ted by th e co ntinu o us sa va nna la nds has

a llo wed little ti m e fo r d iff ere n tia tio n . Two o th er ra ces mus t
be m entio n ed in S o uth Africa — th e Hotte ntots, la rgely d isp la ced
a nd a ss i m ila t e d by th e B a ntu s ea kin g
p p eo ples, a n d th e no m ad
-

B ush m e n, no w la gely extin ct excep t o n th e Lo wer O ra nge River

a nd in t h e Ka la h a ri . Bo th th es e ra ces a re proba bly th e rema ins
o f p rim itive s tock s wh o fo r m e d th e abo rigin a l inh a bita nts of

Afric a . To th es e mus t b e a d ded th e recen tly d is c o vered ygm ies

p
o f the Co ngo c rests T h e do m inant r a ces o f Ma da ga s c a r— the
.

Ho vas— ha ve a Mala yO Po ly nes i a n o rigin

-

.
 NO RT H -
WEST AFRICA 43 9

NORTH -
W EST AFRICA (s ee Fig .

Ma ro cco , Algeria , a nd Tun is , if th e S aha ra is exclud ed , ha ve

a n a rea a pp ro xi ma tely equa l t o tha t o f Fra n ce Switz erla n d,
,

a n d Ita ly . Th ey ha ve gen era l res em bla n ces in co nfig u ra tio n

a nd cli ma te , es ecia lly in th e
p p re do m in a nce o f w inter r a in s .

Cli m ate .

Th e who le regio n lies with in th e lim its o f va ria ble o c ea nic

p ressure c o nd itio ns Th e d is tribu tio n o f p r essu re is ch iefly
.

influ en ced by th e h igh w in ter p res su re o f So u th ern Eu ro p e a nd

the lo w su m m er p ressu res o f th e Ea stern S a h a ra Th e M edit er .

ra n ea n is a dis t urb i n g ele m e nt in i ndu ci ng l o c a l lo w

p ress ure
-

centres t owa r ds wh ich a ir is dra wn fro m a ll s id es ( see p .

Th e m o u nta in ous m a ss s ep ar a ti ng th e S a h a r a fr o m the c o as t

la rgely directs th e i ndra u gh t t o t he low pressures o f t he Medit er
ra nea n a nd a s t h e eleva ti o ns fr o m wh ich t h e a ir is d r a wn a re
,

c o ns idera ble th e va lley a nd c oa s t wi nds f rom the s o u th a nd

,

s ou th e as t a re dry a nd o f te n o f
grea t vi o le nce ( cf t h e fo e h n)
-

. .

The s ciro cc o in fa ct is p ra ctic a lly a fo eh n a l o ng th e wh ole O f the

, ,

Algeria n c oas t .

Tem p erature — As m o s t o f th is regio n lies no rth o f th e Tro p ic

.

O f Ca n cer , t h e d iff ere nce b etwee n s u mm er a nd win ter beco m e s

gra du all y m o re m a rked to wa r ds th e no rth, tho ugh no t very

s tro ngly, exce t wh ere th e eleva tio n in tens ifies th e d i m in is h e d
p
win ter sun fo rce A m os t ins tru ctive ta ble o f th e m idda y su n
-

fo rce is given in Ta ble II ( p by th e h elp o f wh ich a go o d

. .

id ea c a n be fo r m ed o f th e s ea so na l cha nges , es p ecia ll y if o th er

fa cto rs eleva tio n , slo p e, a nd hu m id ity— a re a ls o ta ken in to
co n s id era tio n Fo r ins ta nce, th e m idda y su n fo rce a t th e s u m m er
.
-

so l s tice no wh ere fa lls belo w 9 7 p er cen t o f th e m a xim u m , .

wh erea s, a t th e winter so ls tice in 3 74 no rth la titu d e, it fa ll s to

°

4 8 p er cen t Th e eff ec t o f eleva tio n is to d i m in is h th e tem p era

.

tu re ; th a t o f slo p e is to di m inish o r increa s e lo c a lly th e a ngle

o f in cid en ce o f th e s un s ra ys
’
wh ile th e g rea ter hu m id ity o f th e
co a st , es p ec ia lly in co as ta l pla ins , p revents a la rge p ro po rtio n
O f t h e di r ec t r a ys fro m rea c h ing t h e s u r fa ce , a nd a t t h e sa m e

tim e a bs o r bs th e ra dia ted h w t , so tha t th e da y te m p era t ures

a re no t so h ig h a s m igh t be expec ted , a nd th e n igh t te m p era tu re s

do no tfa ll grea tly .

Fro m th es e co ns id era tio ns it is ob vio us tha t , e

o n o r n ar th e
440 T EX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY
442 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Area = 2 l 9 000 re m il es Population = 5 mill ions

, s uaq . .

Reli ef — Th e Me diterra nea n c o a s ta l pla in is very na rro w a s

.
,

th e Rifl Mo u nta in s fa ll steep ly t o th e sea a nd is bo r d ered with ,

la go o ns a nd sa nd du nes It ha s no goo d ha rbou rs Th e Rifl

-
. .

co a st was o ne o f th e stro ngh o l ds o f th e corsa irs a n d w a s lo ng a ,

m ena ce t o th e W es tern M e d iterra nea n The m a in towns o f the .

no rth wes t a re T etua n 6 m iles inl a nd at a gap in th e c o a s t range

-

, ,

with Tangier a nd Ceuta o n the m o re ind ented p eninsul a wh ich

fa ces th e S tra its o f Gibra lta r .

The Atla ntic c o a sta l p la in h a s a lso no goo d ha r bo urs a nd the ,

rivers a re blo cked by sand ba r s Th ere is least lo wla nd wh ere -

.

the sp ur s o f t h e Atl as ne a rly re a c h th e sea in t h e s o uth we st -

Ge ner a lly th ere is a m uch l arger a re a o f low grou nd th a n o n the

M e diterra n ea n c oa s t e sp eci a lly in t h e Pla i n of t h e S eb u River
,

s outh o f t he Rifl in t h e upp er va lley of wh ic h is Fez

, B ehind .

the c oas ta l p l a in wh ich extends in la nd t o a b o u t t h e 800 feet

,
-

co nto ur and f o r a n a ver age Wid th o f 3 0 m iles is a p l a te au region ,

s o m e 300 f eet h igh er m arke d b y a fa irly steep s l o p e

, .

Fro m th e co as t to th e Al tas th ere is a co ns id era ble d im inution

o f ra infa ll th e in terio r o f th e pl a tea u b eing o ccu ie d b
, p y a steppe
belt in wh ich th e gro u nd is qu ite bur nt up in su mm er and is
,

only sui ted for pasture ( c attle wh ere there is s ufficient m o isture , ,

sh eep g o a ts a nd c a m el s) exce t r o u nd c ases su ch as Ma rocco

, , p ,

City wh ere frui ts a nd cerea ls a re cul tiva ted with irriga tio n At
, .

t he fo o t o f th e Al tas is a fertile z o n e wh ic h is well s uite d for the

cultiva tio n o f fruit ( olives figs etc ) with irriga ti o n and also
, , .
,

cereals (ma iz e wh e at barley rye) High er up o n th e m o untai ns

, , , .

thes e latter cr ops c an be gr o wn with o ut speci a l irriga tion The .

s tre a m s fr o m t h e Atl as n eve r ru n dr

y a nd the m eltin g of the ,

snow d s a dd iti o nal water in e a rly sum m er wh e n it is m ost

need e(p
o
,

r vi e
On th e c o a s t th e summ er is dry a s is sh o wn by th e cha ra cteris tic ,

vegeta tio n— th e M ed iterra nean tree gro wth o f o lives a nd la urels

but owing to th e bla ck e arth wh ich c o vers a c o n s id era ble art
p
o f th e c o a stl a n ds cereal s c a n be gro wn with su ccess This
, .

fertile so il res em bles tha t of So u th ern Russi a and ha s a re mark ,

a ble
power o f reta ining mo istu re Ba rley is th e principa l c rop .
,

s own a t th e b egin n ing o f th e win ter r a ins in Octo b er In March .

,

wh en th e ra ms begin to fa il su fficien t mo istu re is p ro vid ed by ,

th e h ea vy d ews till th e c r0 p is rip e Th ere is a no ticea ble hu .

midity of th e a ir o n th is c o a s t o f Ma ro cco es pecia ll y in s umm er ,

,
 N O RT H -

WEST AF RICA 443

and in co ns equence mo is tu re is c a rried inla nd by th e s ea breeze s

and co nde ns e d a s d ew a s th e l a n d c o o ls a t n igh t Th e c au s e of .

th e hum idity o f th e a ir o n th e c o a s t h a s b een a ttributed to th e

increa sed co ndensa tio n (s ea m is ts) c a u s ed by th e c o o l current
wh ich certa inl y m o difies temp era ture o n th e coa st ( see Moga do r
[ 6 1] a nd Ca pe Juby [ 40]
The ma rk ed impo rt anc e o f the humidi ty o f the west c o ast o f Maro cco
in in c reasing the de w sho ul d be n o ted b u t it m us t be bo rn e i n mind tha t
,

heavy d ew is a fea ture o f n early a l l regions whi c h ha ve dry summ ers a nd

periods of cal m o r wea kwind s wh en land and sea bree zes can ha ve f ull
scop e
.

In No rth West Afric a the c o n figura tion is fa vo u ra bl e to the prod uc tion

-

of mountain and vall ey wind s w hi ch a ssis t the w o rk

, of land a nd sea b ree zes

in carryi ng mo isture into th e in t er io r a nd c o ntribu t e to th e d eposition of

dew ( see p . W here th e c o ast is l o w a s in W est M a ro cc o and the
,

east coa st o f Tuni s th e da y w ind m u st c a rry inl a nd larg e qua ntiti es o f

,

wa ter vapou r which by in c rea sing the h umidity rend er po ssible an evening
, ,

dew at the perio d of calm .M o reo ver th e l and breez e thou gh preventing
, ,

the c o ndensa tio n as d ew whil e it is blo wi ng y et by c o o ling th e air l eads t o

, , ,

surfac e mists and c o p io us ea rly m o rning d ew so c ha ra cteristic o f ho t sea

coa sts. The vall ey wind s a re well m a rk ed o n either slo pe of the Atlas ,

and whether they c o ntinu e t h e s ea breez es o r no t d ep end s o n th e d istanc e

from the co ast Whe re the c o a st i tself is rugged wi th many deep vall eys
.
,

l eading into th e hea rt o f th e m o un tain s the effect s o f the two are combin ed
,

and pro p ortionally int ensified . The mo is t sea air is c arried into the upp er
stra ta o f the a tm o sph ere so tha t wh en t h e t em p era ture fall s by rad ia tio n
, ,

the po int o f satura tion m ay a t a ny t im e be rea ch ed a nd m uc h night rain ,

be prec ipita ted wi tho u t grea tly a fl ec ting general co nditions

'
In the vall ey s .
,

wherever there is c o mpa ra tive calm m is ts a nd d e w m ust fo rm in suitable

,

pla ces pa rticularly in th e e venin g a nd ea rly m o rni ng

, .

The Atl as rises in so m e p ea ks to o ver feet, and ha s ,

wherever th ere is su fficien t ra in, d eciduo us trees a nd co nifers .

It fo rm s na tural ly a s epa ra te clima tic regio n To th e ea st o f the .

Middl e Atlas th e s10 p e is m o re gra dua l to th e Sh ott Pla tea u , c o ld

in winter, with much sno w, wh ere a lfa is th e cha ra cteristic gro wth
and th e
pasture of sh eep a lm o s t th e o n ly in dustry Th e H igh .

Atla s slo p es in a s im ila r ma nn er to th e interior lowla nds o f th e

Saha ran Pla tea u , wh ere th ere is very little p recip ita tion in th e
ra i n sha dow o f th e m o u n ta ins , a s th e winds tha t brin g r a in
co me fro m th e Al tant ic , a nd cu ltiva tio n is o nly c a rried o n a lo ng
the banks of wa d/is su c h a s t h e Dra a a n d th e Zie, wh ich flows
into the po pulo us o asis o f Ta fil et , with its da te pa l ms .

In two regio ns o f M a ro cc o esp ecia lly cli ma te e nc o ura ges s e m i

444 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

no m a d ic c o nd itio ns— th e stepp e regio n of th e pla tea u wes t o f

th e Atla s wh ere ma ny o f th e in h a bita nts go up into th e m o un ta ins
,

in su m m er a n d in the des ert wh ere a d es cent is ma d e t o c a s es

, ,

for th e da te o r c erea l ha rv es t .

Popul atio n — The Ara bs fo r m a bo ut o n e th ird of th e p o pul a tio n

.
-

in Ma ro cc o Th ey a re th e rulin g ca s te but a re confin ed m o s tly

. ,

to th e to wns a nd th e d es ert o r s tepp es wh ere th ey a re no ma dic ,

in ha b its T h e B er b ers are m a in ly in th e m ou nta in s a n d a re a

. ,

s e d e nt a ry p eo ple ( no n no ma d ic ) a n d a re enga ged in a gric u ltu re

-
.

It is in teres tin g to no te tha t in th e M iddl e Atlas th e l a ng ua ge

is no t Ara b ic a nd th e religio n no t M o ha mm e da n The o nly .

a re as o f rel a tively de ns e po pul a tio n ( 11 to on e s qu a re m ile ) in

Ma ro cc o a re in e sp ecia lly fa vo u red a rea s o n th e c o as t a nd in th e

c ases .

ALGERIA .

Area = 3 43 000 s qua re mil es Po p ul a tio n = 5 5 millio ns

’

, . .

Reli ef Th e centra l po rtio n o f th e eleva ted la nd o f N o rth

.

W es t Af ric a is fo r m ed by th e Al gerian Sho tt Platea u bo rd ered ,

o n th e so u th by th e S ah a ra n bo rd er ra n ge s This so uth ern es c a rp .

m ent is bro ken by th e gorge o f El Ka nt ara for m ed by th e Wadi -

B iskra t o th e e ast o f wh ich ris e th e Aures Mo unt ains

,
O n th e .

Sho tt Pla tea u a re d epress ed bas ins with s a lt o r bra ckis h l a kes , ,

dry o r fo r m in g m ar sh es in th e s u m m er and flo o d e d in a utu mn ,

a nd win t er Th e no rth ern m a rgin o f th is pla te au wh ich a pp ea rs

.
,

a s a m o un t a in r a nge fro m th e sea form s th e Tell Th is h illy , .

regio n ris es a bruptly fro m th e a ll u via l pl a ins beh ind th e Algeria n

co a s t ranges This is th e mo s t f ertile po rtio n o f Al geria and is
.
,

h igh ly cul tivate d with wh ea t ba rley and th e vin e , Th e S ah el , .

o r c o a s t ra nges for m e d o f h a r d vo lc a nic a nd c rys t a llin e ro cks

, ,

are inter s ecte d by d eep go rg es fo r m e d by to rre nts wh ich render

, ,

co m mu nic a tio n difii cul t between th e co ast and th e in terio r .

To wns and Rail way s — Th em a re m a n y excelle n t h arbours ,

sh eltere d by th e r o cky h ea d l ands f o r m e d o n th e c o a st Oran .

co mm ands th e Sig Pl a in and th e Sh elif Val ley Algiers th e M etij a ,

Pla in B ougie th e Sah el Va lley a nd B o na th e pla in o f the sa m e

, ,

na m e Ra ilwa ys fo llo w th es e o p en ings in to th e interio r th e

.
,

m ain lin e c o nn ecting Oran Al giers Co ns tantine an d Tun is by

, , , ,

east to wes t va lleys beh ind th e co as t ra nges B ra nch es lead to .

th e o th er c o a st p o rts and to B is kra ( fro m Co nst a ntin e ) a nd Ain

Sefra (fro m Ora n) o n th e de s ert m a rgin .

Produc ts — Th e ch ief pr o ducts o f Algeri a a re win e wh ea t a nd

r

oth er cerea ls fru l t to ba cco o live o il and co rk fro m th e o ak

,

, , ,
446

The Peak !.

T he rainfall is sm all
TEX T B OOK

0 Tenerifi e
di stin c t cl ima tic z ones a re fo un d

spec ies o f tree hea th

-
.

c o nd ense m u c h m o is tu re
.
,
-

,
OF
temperature (see p 4 24 ) a llo w th e gro wth of th e vin e and Medit er
ra nean fruits
.

The Canaries wh ich a re Spa nish lie farth er south

a nd a re drier o n a cc o u n t o f th e m o re p reva lent tra d es

f ee t ) is a n ext in ct vol ca no
GEO GRAPHY

f eet
inclu d e bananas fig s o rang es co ff ee to ba cc o a nd t em p era te c ereals
, ,
On thi s t hree
o n th e no rth or windwa rd sid e

(a ) T he se ttl ed a nd cul tiva ted z o ne up to a bo u t The produ cts

( b) Th e f o res t z o ne with ches tnu ts la urels and a

,

This i s the clo ud y a nd ra iny bel t where th e trad es

(c ) Th e ba rre n z o ne abo ve the clo uds where
.
,
,
,

,
.

,
,

he AM I tra d es ha v e o f t en c on sid erabl e f o r c e

-

NORTH EAS T AFRICA -

.

Egyp t : Area = 400 000 , s quare mil es . Po p ul a t io n = 1 0 millio ns .

S u dan : Area = 9 50 000 s qu a re mil es Po pul a t ion = 2 3 mil li ons

‘

, . .

EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIAN SUDAN .

Eg ypt and th e Nil e — Th e N ile ris es ne a r th e Equ a to r in regio ns

.

wh ich h a ve a do u ble r a in y s ea so n, a nd receives th e waters

o f th e gre a t l a kes , Victo ri a Nya n z a , La ke Edwa rd , and La ke

Al bert The m o u nta in m a ss o f Ru wenz o ri , with p ermanent

.

snows a nd gla ciers , lie s with in th e dr a in a ge a re a It m ight .

th erefore be exp ecte d tha t a c o ns id era ble vo lu m e of water woul d

reach Lo wer Egyp t fro m th es e so u rces , even th o ugh much were
evapo rate d o r lo st ben eath th e d es ert But o win g to th e a brupt .

change o f level a fter Go ndo ko ro , bel o w th e Upp er Ca tara cts

th e river falls o nly t wo inch es p er m ile fo r o ver m iles
s ed i m e nt is d epo s ite d in th e u
pp er re a ch es , a nd la rge la goo ns
are fo r m ed, wh ich f a vo u r th e gro wth o f m a r sh vegeta tio n the
(
s udd) . Co ns equently, o nly a lim ited, tho u gh p erm a nent, s upply
rea ch es th e lo wer river .

Th e fl oods of th e Nil e, o n wh ich Egyp t d ep ends, a re c a us ed by

th e Abyssin ia n rivers, wh ich brin g d o wn in th e r a in y s easo n a bout
twe nty ti m es as m uch wa ter a s the Bah r el J eb el (the m a in N ile )
a nd its u As th e Abyss inia n r a infa ll is tha t o f
pp er tributa ries .

the s u m m er m o ns o o n, th e flo o d is h igh es t a t As w an abo ut the

m iddle of S epte mber, a nd a t Ca iro th e m i ddl e o f Oc to b er .

In the d ay s of the Pha rao hs , wh n t he e fl oo d retrea t ed , t he inha bi an t ts

l it eral ly c ast th eir b rea d u o n th e w a t ers
p they let the wa ter
drain o ut o f t he a rtific ia l bas ins wh ic h ha d b een flo o d ed , a nd sowed the
seed s o f c ro p s that wo ul d
gro w in winter su c h a s wh ea t , ba rley ,
, et c . This
 NO RTH EAST AF RICA -

44 7

land was therefo re unused fo r ha l f th e y ea r being either un d er wa ter o r ,

bak ed by the summ er sun Perennia l irriga tio n w a s o nly p o ssibl e o n a

.

limite d sca l e by wa ter wheels o r wa t er l if ts (aha duf s )

- -
.

Th e im po rta nt c otto n and sug ar cro ps o f m o d ern Egyp t a re

planted in th e spring a nd re ap ed in th e a utu m n , a n d d ep end
entirely o n th e stor age o f wa ter fo r th e dry and h o t su mm er .

Th is is no w p ro vid ed fo r by da m s a nd re s ervo irs o n a l a rge s c a le

(As s iut, As wan, Th e wa ter is ba n ke d u p in th e river , a nd
dra wn o ff fo r th e irriga ti o n c a na ls By o ne o f th es e th e Fa yu m
.

depress io n is supplie d B y a ro t a tio n o f cro ps, la nd c an no w

.

be us ed th ro u gho u t t h e ye a r, bu t a s th e fertilizin g s ed i m e nt,

wh ich is l argely bro u gh t do wn by th e At ba ra fro m Abyss in ia ,
is depos ited in th e res ervo irs, t h e so il o f th e fi elds h a s t o b e a rti
fic ially enrich ed Th e ch ief fo o d o f th e p eo ple is m il let a n d
.

ma ize Th e h a bita ble po rtio n o f Lo wer Egy p t is a va lley o f ric h

.

allu vial s o il, 5 to 1 0 m ile s wid e a nd 600 m ile s l o ng , fro m As wa n

to th e d elta Th is is s urro un d e d by des ert, wh ich h a s lim ited

.

hum an o cc u pa tio n t o th e na rro w va lley, a n d res tricte d th e in

h a bita nts t o a gric ul tu re .

M esop o ta m ia with its scru b la nd s and l ess m ark

,
-
ed river c hannel s co uld ,

relapse into pa sto ral co nditions bu t in Egyp t thi s w a s im possibl e There

,
.

were no wid e gra zin g la nd s o n eith er sid e o f t h e Nil e It m a tt ered l ittl e .

to the perm an en ce o f a g ri c ul ture in Egy p t wh o rul ed t h e l and T h e Nil e .

ro se a nd d epo sited it s s il t T he c ro p s were so wn a nd rea p ed and th e

. ,

fellahin w aited till the cy cl e reop ened Th e reg ul a rity o f sea so n s and
.

the c onsequ ent un ifo rmity o f l if e ex pla in s m u c h in t h e c o nserva t ism o f the

Egyptian c hara c te r and civi l iz a tio n Af t er the earli er stages o f hun tin g
.

and fishin
g in the m a rshes and l ago on s bey o nd whi ch th e D in k , a s h a ve

not yet passed in th e sw a m

p d is t rict o f the B a h r el J eb el a gri cul ture ,

seem s to ha ve b een c o n tinu o u sl

y p ursued from th e ea rlies t k no w n hi sto ric al
tim es The s k
. ill req uired fo r irriga tin g t h e l and and the n eed o f a ccu ra cy
in the rem ea s urem ent o f field s a f t er ea ch fl oo d m a y be m en ti oned a s t w o
amo n
g m any po ints in whi ch ph y sic al c onditions ha ve directly influenc ed
civiliz a tion .

Towns Ro utes —In th e d elta t h e o nly na vig a ble m o u th s ,

and .

Ros etta and D a m ietta , are lia ble t o o bstructio n by s a n d ba rs -

.

Al exa ndria (fo und ed by Alexa nd er th e Grea t ) , in th e w est is th e ,

m a in po rt Po rt Sa id is a t th e n o rth ern entra n ce o f th e Su ez

.

Cana l .The c apita l is Cairo, at th e h e a d o f th e d elta , wh ere

ro utes co nverge fro m th e wes t by Al exandria a nd fro m th e ea s t
by Po rt Sa id Th e m a rsh es o f th e d elta tu rn e d tr a ffic so u th wa rd ,
.

and ga ve i m o rtance t o th e fir s t cro ss ing

p p l a ce o f th e N ile , n e a r
-
4 48 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

wh ich s to o d M emph is A littl e to th e so uth Th e bes a no th er

. ,

a n cien t c a ita l was s itu a te d a t o n e end o f a d ep re ss i o n wh ch

p , i ,

ga ve eas y a cc ess to Ko sseir o n th e Red Sea H ere n ea r th e Ni le .

, ,

a re th e tem le s o f Ka rna k a n d Lu xo r built like th e Pyra m i ds

p , , ,

o f a h a r d s to n e wh ich h as s u r vived d ec a y in th e dry cl i m a te .

As wa n (th e ancient Syene ) is a t th e ba s e of th e firs t c a ta ra ct ,

a nd c o m m a n ds a natur a l r o u te th ro ugh th e Nu b ia n Ranges to

th e a n cient B erenice o n th e Red S ea Wad i Halfa at th e s ec o nd .

,

c a ta ra ct is c o nnected with B er ber by a des ert ra ilwa y wh ich

, ,

is c o ntin ued east a nd so u th by bra n ch es to Port Su da n a nd

Su a kin a nd t o Kh artu m a nd beyo n d ( s ee p
,
.

Th e S u dan — South . of v a lley o f the Lo wer Nil e is

th e f ertile
t h e d es ert th rea de d by a na rro w va lley o bstructed by c a t ar a c ts
, ,

wh ich extend to Kha rtum H ere begin th e sa vanna la nds at the

.

co n flu en ce o f the B lue and Wh ite N il es the habita ble p ortion o f ,

th e Ang lo Eg yp ti an Sudan wh ich in clu d es th e d es ert zo n e so u th

-
,

o f Wa d i Ha lf a a nd th e s ec o n d c a ta r a ct Tho ugh wid e tra c ts .

were d epo pul ated dur ing th e Dervish o ccupa tion ( 1 88 2

th e c o u ntry is no w rec o verin g un d er Britis h a dm inis tr a tio n .

Th e va riety of resources is c o ns id er a ble In th e drier p la ins .

o s trich fe a th er s a re o bt a ine d a n d sh ee
p a nd go ats reared c a ttle
,

a re ke t o n th e b etter w a tere d gra ss la nds ; gums fo u nd in th e

p
-

wo o ds o f Ko r do fan ; fibres and t annin g ma teria l procured fro m

t h e fo rests o f th e Abyss in ia n b o rd er ; ru bb er fro m t h e B ah r el
Gha z a l . Millet is gro wn in flo o d ed a reas n ear th e rivers a nd ,

co tto n pro m is es success An im po rta nt ce ntre south of Kha rtum

.

is Fa sh o d a north o f th e co nflu en ce of th e S oba t

, .

ABYSSINIA .

Area = 4 32 000 , s q uare miles . Po pulatio n = 8 milli ons .

Reli ef .
— Abyss inia is
l o fty vo lca n ic pla teau a co ns id erable
a ,

a rea o f wh ich excee ds f eet wh ile so m e of its m o u nta in s

,

a re
pro ba bly o ver f eet .

It is d ivid e d in to t wo pa rts by th e c o ntinua tio n o f th e Rift

Va lley fro m La ke Rudo l f to th e Red Sea fro m eith er sid e o f ,

wh ich th e buttress ris es a s a s teep a nd c o mpa ra tively unbro ken

wa ll rea ch ing o n its eas tern s id e to a h eigh t o f
, feet The .

wes tern a nd so uth ern bu ttress es a re bro ken up by rivers wh ich ,

ha ve cut d eep a nd wind in g go rges s im ila r to th e ca no ns o f th e

Co lo ra do th e win din g va lley o f th e B lue N ile th e m o s t ,

im po rta nt o f th e Nile tribu ta ries wh ich ris es in La ke Ta na a nd

,
4 50 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Towns and Routes — Add is Abebba is th e p res ent c ap ita l

.
It .

lies o n a trad e r o u te between th e Red S ea and th e Nile a t a

m a rked brea k in th e ra mp a rt wa ll o f th e p la tea u wh ere 1 t fa ces
th e R ift Va lley Co m m u n ic a tio n is e as ies t o n th e e astern S i d e
.

fro m th e Red Sea A ridge o f elevated a nd fertile la nd fo r ms a

.

h igh wa y between th e s ca n ty p a stu re la nds o f th e dry p l a in wh i ch

-

bo r d ers t h e Abyss in ia n p la tea u o n th e e ast a nd th o s e o f S o m all

l a nd o n th e so uth Al o ng th is th e ra ilwa y, wh ich h as a lready
.

been c o nstructed fro m Jibu t i in Fren ch So m a lila nd t o Ha ra r ,

will be extend ed to Add is Abbeba Fro m th is to wn tw o ro u tes
.

co nverge to th e no rt h o ne p ass es Anko ber a nd Ma gda la alo ng

th e e dge o f t h e lo fty ea s tern bu ttre ss, a nd keep s m a inly at a n
eleva tio n o f f eet til l it d es cends s teep ly t o Ma ssa wa ; th e
o th er cro ss e s t h e d ee p Va lley o f th e B lu e N ile, a nd cro ss e s th e

p la tea u o f Go j a m t o Go nda r , th e eccles ia stic a l c ap ita l , no rth o f

La ke T a na Th e ro a ds a re m a in ly tra cks o n ly s u ited fo r p a ck
.

a n im a l s
. Ca m els a re u s e d in th e e a s t, wh ere th e c o u ntry is
s u ita ble
.

Eritre a ( a re a = s qu a re m iles o ul a tio n = 0 45 m illio n)

p p
is a n Ita lia n Pro tecto ra te o n th e co a s t o f th e Red S ea It is .

p a rtly a ba rre n s a nd y p la in , p r o du cing s a lt , t h e princip a l curre ncy

o f S o u th Ab yss i n i a , a nd p a rtly a p ast o r a l u p l a nd t h e n o rth er n,

extens io n o f the Abyss inian H igh lands Owin g t o th e dry clim a te

.

th e pas to r a l p o p ul a tio n is no m a di c Ma ss a wa is o n a c oral

.

is l and with a go o d h arb o ur Pe arl fishing is c a rried o n

.
-

Fre nch S o m alil and ( a re a = 6 , 000 s qu a re m iles ; p o p ula tio n =

0 1 8 m ill io n ) is o f va lu e o n a cc o u nt o f th e tra ffi c b etween it s p o rt,
J ibut i, a n d So u th Abyss in ia , with wh ich it is c o nn ected by
r a ilwa ys .

Th e Eastern H orn of Africa .

British S o m alil and ( a re a = s qu a re m iles ;

po pul atio n
0 3 m il lio n ) , o f wh ich B er b er a is th e ch ief p o rt, and Itali an
S o m alil and (a re a = s qua re m il es
p o p u l a tio n = 0 4 m ill io n)
a re s cru b a nd s e m id es ert regio ns , with th e p ro du cts o f th e
S ah a ra n bo rd ers— h id es, o strich f ea th ers , c a ttle a nd sh eep , and
m yrrh , fra n kin cens e , a nd o th er g u m s Th e clim a te a nd ch a ra cter
.

o f t h e c o u ntry m u ch res e m ble s S o uth A r a bia M ea t is expo rted

S ok
.

t o Ad en . otra , wh ich is 1 50 m iles f ro m Ca p e Gu a rda fu i , is

no te d fo r a lo e s .
 EAST AF RICA 45 1

EA S T AF R I CA .

Confi g urati o n .

Fro m 200 to 3 00 miles fro m th e ea st co ast ris es a pl a tea u

of an a vera ge eleva tio n o f o ver feet (s ee Fig Of this .

a co ns iderable a rea is at lea s t feet h igh er and its ,

stud y gives th e key to th e c o mp lex wa tersh eds o f th e N ile t h e ,

Co ngo th e Z a mbezi a nd th e sh o rter rivers o f th e e a st c o as t

, , .

Above th is a re s til l h igh er eleva tio ns no tably to th e no rth o f ,

La ke N yas a and to th e wes t a nd e as t o f La ke Victo ria On th e .

west lies Ruwen zo ri (Ptolem y s Mo u nta ins of th e Mo o n red is

’
,

co vered by S tanl ey) a n is o la ted m o un ta in syste m ris ing to a bo ut

,

feet Its po s itio n is o n th e Equa tor but its grea t h eight

. ,

a nd its ex o s ure to equ a to ria l ra ins e na ble it to m a inta in gl acier s

p
a nd p er m a nent s no ws ( th e s no w lin e is appro xi ma tely
-
feet
o n th e p e a ks a nd feet in th e va lleys ) .

On th e ea st a re a s eries o f lo fty vo lc a no es no w extinct— Elg o n ,

feet ) Kenia ,
feet ) Kili manj a ro , feet ) .

Th es e stand o ut a s c o n es fro m th e vast a ccu mulatio n o f vo lc a nic

materia l wh ich past eru p tio ns ha ve p iled o n th e pl a teau o f o ld
ro cks .

Th ree distin ct lin es o f a n cie nt m o u nta in ra nges c a n be m a d e

o ut. Th e first n ea rest to th e e a s t c o a st wh ich repres ents th e
, ,

firs t step of th e m o re eleva ted p la te a u ; th e centra l (still o n th e

eastern margin ) ma rked by th e grea t vo lc a nic p ea ks th e th ird
, ,

to th e wes t fo rm ing th e ea s tern wa tersh e ds o f th e Co ngo a nd

,

Z a m bezi At th e p res e nt d a y th is a pp ea rs as a dou ble ra nge

.
,

tho ugh it was p ro ba bly o n ce co ntinu o us Th e d epress io n between .

th e r a nges fill ed by La kes Ta nga nyika a nd Nya sa is du e to th e

for ma tio n of a cra ck or va lley rif t sim ilar t o tha t whi ch occurs a t
the e as tern m argin o f t h e p la tea u a nd is kn o wn by the n a m e o f
,

the Grea t Rift Va lley The la tter is c o ntinued to t he n orth

.

through S outh Ab yssini a a nd fo rms th e d epres s i on o f the Red

,

Sea a nd the ce ntra l va ll ey o f S yri a Th e U ga nda Ra ilwa y .

d es ce nds int o th e hi gh er po rtio n o f th is rift b efore it s inks t o

La ke Rud olf in th e no rth Th e s teep s id es o f th es e rift va lleys
.
,

as yet little wor n d ow n b y er os i o n p o i nt t o t h eir for m ati o n a t a

,
’
c o mpa ratively recent p erio d in t h e e a rth s h is tory .

A very d iff erent a sp ect is p res e nte d by th e bro a d va lleys ,

wh ich are du e to th e ero s ive a ctio n o f rivers .

On th e south th e Z ambez i is s till cutting its wa y ba ck into a

vo lc anic pla tea u at th e Victo ria Fa lls feet m iles ,
4 52 T EX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

fro m th e co a st ) er re a ch e s lie o n a t a blel a n d ( a bo u t

It s u
.
pp
feet ) a nd are na vigab le a t interva ls far i nt o th e i nteri o r of
,

Afric a . Th e d ivid e b etwee n t h e Co n g o a n d Z a m b ezi is f or m ed by

a ba nd o f ris ing gr o u nd stretch i ng in a n irregul a r li ne fr o m th e

Fro . (39 — CE N T RAL EAS T Arnroa

. : REL IEF .

Not e t h e im p orta nc e o f ra il way s a nd t h e rif t va lley la kes f or

c o mm u ni c a tio n .

T a ng a nyika Nyasa Pla tea u wes twa r d a lm o st t o t h e Atla ntic

-
.

Th o u gh va ryin g in elev a tio n fro m to feet , th e d is ta nces

a re s o gre a t a nd t h e ris e s o gra d u a l th a t in m a ny p la ce s t he divide

is no t very d istin ct, a n d in th e ra iny s ea so n (su m m er, D ece m b er t o

454 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

co m pa ra tively sm all ra infa ll T here is co n se qu en tly a m a rk

. ed un ifo rm ity
in t he c o nfigu ra tio n o f th e terra c ed u pla nd s whi ch ris e f ro m th e lo w
c o a st pl a in to th e high er pl a tea u T here a re n o h ill s suffi ciently l o fty
.

to c o nd en se m o re tha n a sm a l l p a rt o f th e m o istu re b ro u gh t by the

win d s f ro m the Ind ia n O cea n a nd no rivers wi th va ll ey s d eep a nd
,

bro a d eno u gh to do m o re th a n l o c ally influ en c e the d istribu tio n o f vege

ta t io n . Co n se qu en tly beh ind th e l o w c o a st pl ain with it s p a lm s and
,

m a ngro ve swam p s and i t s int en si ve c ul tiva tio n o f t he m a ngo t he banana , ,

o r ru bb er lies a
,
p o o r p a s to ral regio n in pla c es p ra ct ic ally d es ert a nd o f
, ,

l itt le ec o no m ic u s e
.

BRITISH EAS T AFRICA .

Th is regio n c o m p rises th e British Ea s t Afric a Pro tecto ra te

( a rea s qu a re m iles ; p o p u la tio n = 4 m ill io ns ) a nd
Ug a nda (a rea s qu a re m iles ; p o pu l a tio n 3 5 m illio ns ) .

The s e t w o c o u ntries a re s epa ra te d o n t he so u th fro m Ger m an

Eas t Afric a by a lin e wh ic h p a ss es no rth o f Kili m a nj a ro d ivid e s ,

La ke Victo ria in to a p pro xim a tely t w o p a rts a n d exten ds we s t ,

wa rd to a po int a little so u th o f La ke Edwa rd pa ss ing t o th e ,

no rth o f th e Kagera River wh ich is no w c o ns i d ere d t h e m o s t

,

d ista nt tri bu ta ry o f th e N ile On th e we s t La ke Ed wa rd

.
, ,

Ru wen z o ri a n d La ke Al bert lie o n th e fro n tier b etween B ritish

,

Eas t Afric a a n d th e Co ngo Sta te On th e n o rth a lin e fro m a l ittle

.
,

no rth o f Lado s ep a r a te s it fro m th e Anglo Eg

yptia n Su da n
-
.

Th i s is c o ntin u ed th r o u gh th e no rth o f La ke Ru do lf a n d fo r m s ,

th e bo u nda r y with Abyssi n ia till it re a ch es th e ea s tern fro ntier

a t th e T a na River .

Natural Divisio ns — A ref erence to Fig 6 9 ( Co n fig u ra tio n o f

. . .

Ea s t Centra l Afr ic a ) sh o ws th a t B ritish Ea st Afric a c a n be d ivid ed

into certa in well ma rked p h y sic al divi si o ns
-
.

Th e East Co ast Pl ai n a nd th e l o wer s lo p es ( t o a bo u t 80 0 feet ) ,

wh ich fro nt th e Indian Ocea n , are m a rked by m o ist e qua to ria l
he a t. S ince t h e p reva ili ng wi nds during t h e r a i ny s e as o n ( p .

a nd th e sea breeze s duri ng t he re st o f t h e ye a r , b l o w o ver wa r m

c urrents , the ea st c oa st o f Afric a , fr om the s o uth o f B ritish S omali

l a nd t o t h e Z amb ezi , h as a n a vera ge temp era t ure of 8 0 and very
°

little r a nge ( c ontr as t th e west c oa st with i n s im il a r l a titu des) Its .

clima t e a nd na tu r a l veget ati o n res em ble th at o f t h e west c oast

o f S o u t h er n Indi a It s pr o ducts a re tr o p ic a l
. Pa lm gro ves , .

m a ng o es , b a n a na , a nd ru bb er pl a nt a ti o ns fl o u rish in this b elt ,

wh ich is c ap a ble o f c o ns id er a b le ec o no m ic devel op m e nt The .

p o rt is M o m ba sa s itua te d o n a c o r a l is la nd
, It is c o nn ecte d by .

a b ri d ge with t h e m a i nla nd T h e ha r bo ur is o ne o f th e b es t o n
.
 EAS T AF RICA 455

the c o as t a deep opening lea di ng i nt o the i nterior a nd well

,
,

pr o tecte d from storms To t he s o uth of it lie t he cora l isla nds

.

of Z anz i bar a nd Pemba u nder British protectio n They a re

, .

la rgely d evoted to the gro wth of clo ves .

Z anziba r is o f hi sto ri c al im o rtan c e a s t he ba e fr

p s om whic h th e Ara b s
exercised their influen c e o ver Ea st Af ric a T his was in no small d egree .

d epend ent on the o ssession o f a f ertil e isl and situa ted thirt m il es fro m a
p y
m alarious trop ic a l co a st It sho ul d b e n o tic ed that the o rt is o n t he west
.
p
of the isl a nd— i s , it f a ces th e m a in la nd .

B etween th e tro p ica l ea s t c o a s t a nd the dens e fo res ts of th e

Co ngo o n t he wes t lies t h e p l atea u reg i on, ma rked b a south erly
y
wedge o f th e sa vanna co un try o f th e S u da n ( cf Fig 66 a nd p
This i s m o s tly a p a rk
. . .

la nd co un try co nsis ting of grass with iso la ted ,

a re as of wo o dla nd , tho u gh d e ns e fo re st s a re to be found o n th e

sl o p es of th e grea t m o un ta in
p e a ks On t he no rth, round Lake .

Rudo lf, a nd in th e ea s t it m erge s in to a po o r scrubl and, with t h e

typ ic al fo r ms o f dry a rea s s u ch a s the euph orbia So m e of th is .

is pra ctic a lly de s ert ( Of the nitr a tes o f La ke Ma gadi )

. . .

T he M ombasa Railway t o U ga nd a pa s ses th ro u gh a m o no to nous sc ru b

c o untry , th e T a ru ( 4 1 m iles fro m t he c oa s t ) im m e dia t el
y b ehind t h e luxu ,

ria nt c oa st veg eta tion T h is c o ntain s a pric kly bush , wh ic h has no sha de
.
.

bu t is t oo high to see o ver a n d t oo d ens e t o see thro ugh f or m ore th an a few

y a rds a h ead ( co m pare th e sp inif ex o f the Au stralia n deserts) The a bsenc e .

o f w a ter in this region w a s a grea t o b s ta cl e t o th e

pro gress o f c ara vans
and t he co ns t ruc tio n of th e ra il w a y .

T o th e w es t a s the ra il wa y m o un ts the slo p es o f the pla teau there

, ,

su c ceed s a typ ic al sa va nna c o un try o f un d ul a ting gras s pla ins with big g am e , ,

suc h a s th e lio n , the hin o c r

ero s the an tel o p e a nd the z ebra It is also the
, , .

ho m e o f th e M a sai a pa sto ral and n o m adi c ra c e d ep end ent o n ca ttl e and

, ,

hun ting who inha bit the rif t vall ey a nd t he ad j o in in g p a stu re la nd s

, In -
.

fo rm er da y s this wa rl ik e ra c e wa s m u ch d read ed by ca ravans whic h c rossed

their territo ry .

At th e edg e o f this pla in lies N a iro b i f eet ; 3 27 m iles fro m th e c o ast ) ,

which is no w bec o min g a n imp o rta n t s ettle m en t a s th e c lima t e o f th e higher ,

p o rtion o f th e pla teau is suit a b l e f o r E u ro p ean resid en c e Th ese t em p era t e .

upl a nd s fro m a bo ut
, t o 7 000 f ee t a bo ve w hic h elevat io n t he c lim at e
, ,

is in pl a ces t o o wet f or settl em ent a lrea d y p o ssess a va lu e a s pro vidin g

,

s a nat oria ,like Oota c a mu nd in S o u th Ind ia Whea t ca n be grown and . ,

Eur o p ean anima ls an d v eg et a bl es t hrive As th e t setse fl y is a b sent c a tt le

. ,

a nd sh eep can b e su cc essf u lly rea re d On t he lo w er slo pes ( fro m

. to
f eet ) th ere are possibilities f o r t h e gro wt h o f suc h plantat io n prod ucts
a s c o tto n co ff ee a n d t o ba c c o
, , Ivo ry a nd hid es a re imp o rta nt exp orts
. .

From N airo bi to a bou t fifty m iles from Po rt Flo rence on Lak e

 45 6 T EX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Victoria railway p asses for 200 miles through c ountry whi ch exc eed s
, th e
feet Exc ep t in t he d ri er rift vall ey wh ere pas to ral co nditio ns
. ,

recur m o st o f the ro ute lies thro ug h woo ded up land s T he impo rtanc e
, .

o f this lin e c a n b e estimated f rom t h e f ac t t h at f orm erly trans p o rt b y

p orters fro m Ug an da c o st £ 300 p er to n .

UGANDA .

The cou ntry o f Uganda is o p en with few fo rests but th e fertil e , ,

so il a nd fa vo u ra ble cli m a te of th e up land s ( mo stly a bo ve

f eet ) ha ve m a de it suita ble fo r th e subs istence o f a d ens e na tive

p op ul a tio n (a bo u t d ep en d ent o n trop ica l agriculture .

T h e ban a n a is o n e o f th e ch ief p ro ducts The p ro sp erity o f the .

co u ntry ha s b een o f l ate year s grea tly di min ish ed by the ra vages
o f slee in g s ickn e ss
p wh ich has b een tra ced t o th e ts ets e fly
, .

Th ere a re o nl y a f ew h undred Euro p ea ns a nd tra d e was fo r m erly ,

c o nfined t o th e exp ort of ivory and hid es Cott o n a nd t o a small .

,

extent c off ee a nd rubb er a re now b eing grown , .

The a dm i nistr a tive centre is Entebbe to wh ich s te am ers run ,

fro m P ort Fl orence Th e native c ap ita l is Kampa l a . .

Fro m J in j a o n Victoria N y an za a ra il w ay r uns no rt hward f or a b ou t

, ,

5 0 mil es A st ea m er is t h en t ak
. en to t h e shallo w a nd s wa m py La k e Kiog a ,

ro u nd whi ch cotto n is gro wn Fro m th e la k e a m ot or ro a d is b ein g m a de

.

t o Alb ert N y a nza Owing t o the M u rc hiso n Fa ll s a nd o t h er o b sta c les th e

.

N il e is u nn a vi ga bl e f or m o st of th e d istan c e b etween Lak es Kio ga and

Albert Fro m t he la tter l ak
. e 8 st ea m er can b e tak en t o a bo ut 1 00 m iles
.

so u th o f Go n d o k o ro Th e N il e wh ere it p a sses t hro u gh t h e rim of t he

.

Afric an pla t ea u is unnaviga ble Th e l and ro u t e o v er wh ich c ara va n trans . ,

p o rt ha s t o be o rg a nized is lik ely t o p ro ve o ne o f t he mo st difl icult ‘

s e ctio ns o f t h e f u t ure thro ugh ro ut e by rail m o tor a nd stea mer fro m the , ,

Ca pe t o Ca iro .

GERMAN EAST AFRICA .

Area = 3 8 4 000 , s q ua re mil es . Pop ula tio n = 10 millio ns .

Th e ch ief po rt is D ar es Sa l a a m , at a ga p in the cora l reef wh ich

- -

s kirts th e c o as t ( cf the o p e n ing s in th e B a rrier Reef of Aus t ral ia

.
,

p . Th e h o t c o as tl a nds are o ccup ied by trop ica l pla n ta tio ns ,

esp ecially c o co nut palm s a nd ru bb er Th e dry clim a te and soil o f
-

t h e interio r is fa v o ura ble t o th e gro wth o f s isa l h em p ( cf Y u c a ta n

)
-
. .

Ca ra vans tra de with Ujiii o n La ke Ta nga n yika , t o which a ra ilway

is proj ected fr om Tab o ra , the pres e nt term inus o f th e li n e fro m
D a r es S a l a a m
- -

Anoth er ra ilw a y runs fr o m T a n ga o n t h e c o ast

.

o
p po site Pem b a t o a little s o uth o f M ount Kilim a nj a ro .
45 8 TEXT B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

No rth Rhod esi a : Area = 1 9 1 000 , s q ua re m il es . Po pu la tion = l millio n

na tives , m ill io n whites .

S o u th Rho d esia Area = 14 4 000 , s quare m il es . Po pul ation = 7 mil l ion s

na tives, m ill ion whit es .

Rho des ia is d ivid e d in to th ree pa rts, all und er th e a dminis

t ra t io n of th e British So u th Afric a Co m pa n y .

NO RT H EAS T RHOD ES IA exten ds fro m th e so uth o f La ke

T a nga n yika a nd Ger ma n Ea s t Afric a to Po rtu gues e Eas t Africa
in th e Lo wer Za m bes i Va lley, a nd 1s p a rtly bo rd ered by th e Co n go
S ta te o n th e west a nd N ya s a la nd o n th e east It in clu des th e .

m a rsh y basin of La ke Ba ng weo lo a nd th e Lo angwa Va lley ,

”
es p ecia lly suita ble with its dry clim a te a nd rich bla c
‘‘
so il fo r

co tto n and pro ductio n o f va lua ble fi bres Th is was fo rm erly o n .

th e m a in ro ute o f th e Ara b s la ve tra d e Fife and Abercorn, o n .

'
the_ Steve ns o n ro ad b etwee n La kes N ya s a a nd Ta ng a nyika a nd
F o rt Jam es on o n the p l a tea u west o f Lake Nyasa, are th e chief
centres . The pl atea u l a nds ha ve a wa r m , te mp era te climate ,

a nd are sui te d f o r c a ttle Ma ize , wh e a t fibre s, cott o n, a nd coff ee

.
,

a re gro wn Lea d a nd zinc are m in e d a t B ro ke n Hill , o n the

.

r a ilwa y , wh ich extends north t o the Co ng o St ate .

N O RT H WES T RH O D ES IA i s bo u nd e d o n th e wes t a nd so uth by

th e Z a m bezi River , a nd by th e w a ter sh e d between th e Co ngo
a n d Z a m bezi B as ins o n th e no rt h , wh ich s e a r a te s it fro m th e
p
Co ngo Sta te It fo rm s a c o m p a ra tively level pla tea u o r h igh
.

pla in , a bo ve 3 , 000 feet, o f typ ica l sa va n n a ch a ra cter The pro .

du cts a re mo s tly p as tora l , th o u gh a gric ul tu re , esp ecia lly cotto n .

is b eing develop ed Livings to n e 1s the Europ e a n h e ad quarters

. .

S O U T H ERN RH OD ES IA i s a ta blela n d between th e Z a mbezi a nd

Lim po po Rivers The m o re eleva ted po rtio n, o n wh ich a re
.

Sa lis bu ry o n th e no rth a nd B ula w a yo o n t h e south wes t, excee ds -

4 , 000 feet, a nd is a n un dul a t ing do wn l a n d co m p o s ed m a in ly o f

gra n ite, wh ich wea th ers into i so la ted h ills (lropjes) , res embling on
a l a rger s c a le th e to rs o f D artm o o r Abo ve th e pl a te a u rise
.

th e Mat op po Hills, so uth of B u l a wa yo a nd th e Inyang a Pla tea u ,

( 7 000 feet ) , o n th e bo r ders o f Po rtu gu es e Ea st Africa Owing

, .

t o u n d ergro u nd res ervo i r s in t h e gra n ite , the h igh er po rti o n,

wh ich is mo st suited to Eu ro p ea n s ettlem ent , is well watere d,
in sp ite o f th e fa ct th a t ha r dly a n y ra in fa ll s fro m M a y to Augus t .

Th e d ry s easo n ( win ter ) is wa rm eno u gh fo r M e d iterra nean

p ro du cts such a s ora nges a nd le m o ns ( of S icily) Th ere are no . .

fro s ts , s uch as o ccur eve n in Flo rida , a nd a bunda n t su nsh in e .

 RH OD ESIA 45 9

W h ea t, ba rley, o a ts a nd Eu ro p e a n vegeta bles gro w well with

1rrig a t io n In a dd itio n fr u it, in clud ing p in e apple s, flo u rish es
.
, .

Th e m a in p ro du ct o f th e wet s ea so n ( su m m er ) is m a ize , m o s t
i m po rta nt a s a fo o d fo r c a ttle, s win e, a nd fo wls , a nd a s fo dd er .

The cli ma te su its t o ba cc o Th e gr a ssla nds a re a dm ira bly su ite d

.

fo r ca ttle a nd sh ee p wh erever th e ra n ker na tive gra ss es h a ve

,

bee n gra zed do w n Th e m o s t va lu a ble p ro du ct is go l d, a n cient

.

m in es h a v ing b ee n w o rked by th e civilize d eo les wh o built

p p ,

th e re ma rka ble fo rtress o f Z i m ba bwe

p oss ibly t h e S a baaa ns o f ,

Ara bia A va l u a ble c o alfield lies in th e Wa n kie d istrict , th ro u gh

.

wh ich ru ns th e ra ilwa y fro m B u la wa yo to the Victo ria Fa lls .

Iro n is a lso m ined .

A wa rlik e Zulu c la n the M a ta b el e a p a sto ral p eo pl e l ik

, e t h e M a s ai , , ,

fo rm erly d o m in a t ed th e p l a t eau a nd raid ed thei r m o re p ea c efu l nei hbo urs

g
,

on t he N o rth ( M a s h o na l a nd ) .

Trop i ca l Pl ateaus and S ettle m e nt (of pp 8 0

. .
,

Th e im p o rta n c e of el eva ted u p l a nd s fo r o ld c iv il iz a tio ns a nd m o d ern

Eu ro p ea n s ettlem en t in t he tro pic s is w ell em pha siz ed b y S o u thern
Rho desia . It s h o ul d be n o ted tha t S a l isbu ry (a t a bo ut f eet ) h a s
mu c h th e sa m e t em p era t ure as An t ana rivo in t h e u pla n d s o f M a d a ga s c a r
(a littl e er) a n d is 4 t o 6 d egree s co o l er
lo w , Z tha n o m ba in th e Shire Hig h
la nd s . Bo rum a o n t h e Za m b ez i ( 60 0 f e et ) is 3 d egrees ho tt er tha n Fo rt
, ,

J o hn s to n T he l o wl a nd val l ey s o f t he Z am b ez i a nd Lim p o p o a re m alaria l

.
.

a nd inf ested b y t he ts e tse fl y It is in teres tin g to n o te th a t t h e B o ers

.

w ho s ettl ed in N o rth T ra n s va a l we re p reven ted f ro m trek king in to Rho d esia .

by the cl im a ti c ba rrier o f th e L im p o p o cf t he d iffi cul ty o f rea c hing Y un nan .

in Ch ina by th e unh ea l th y go r ges o f t h e Red River p , .

MADAGASCAR .

Area = 23 0 000 , s qu a rem il es ( = 1 v} Fra n c e l ess t ha n 2 Un ited Kingd o m )

abou t 23 0 m il es fro m Af ri c a Po p ula tio n = 3 m ill io n s
. .

Ma d a ga s c a r c o ns is ts o f a ta blela n d o f fro m to f eet

s l o in g t o wa r d s t h e wes t to a lo wla nd co as ta l pl a in Th e ea s tern
p .

es c a rp m en t is c o ntin u o u sly exp o s e d to th e tra d es a nd is clo th ed ,

with d en s e fo rests (p T h e ta blela n d wh ic h is c o m po s ed

.
,

o f gn eis s a nd crys t a llin e ro cks is in its h igh er p o rtio n a treele s s , , ,

m o o rla nd wh ere c a ttle re a rin g is t h e p rin cip a l indu s try Th e .

ea s tern fo rests pro duce ru bber a nd fine c a binet wo o ds .

Tha t M a d a ga s c a r wa s l o ng i sol a ted fro m Af ric a is cl ea r fro m the a bsen c e

o f t he la rg er Af ri ca n a nim a l s a nd th e o c c u rren c e o f p e cul ia r typ es su c h a s th e
,
4 60 T EX T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

lemr u
.
ra c e is th a t o f th e H o va s
The d o m in an t a p eo pl e w ith M a la y ,

a flinit ies wh o in ha b i t t h e m o re h ea l thy pla t ea u .

Th e c a p ita l is Anta na na rivo o n th e ta blela nd a n d th e c h ief

, ,

o rt T a m a t a ve o n t h e ea s t c o a s t A r a i lwa y h a s been c o n structe d

p ,
.

between th es e to wns by t h e Fre nch .

Isl ands of th e W est Indian O c e an .

°
Th e Sey ch elle s a re v o lca nic is la nds in 4 so u th l a titu d e, a bo u t
930 m iles no rt h o f Mau ritius Th ey a re surro u nd e d by c o r al
.

reefs Th e p rin cipa l p ro du cts a re c o co nu t o il and va n illa

.
-
.

M auritius is a m o un ta ino u s isl a nd ( l a rgely a bo ve feet )

a bo u t 500 m ile s e as t o f Ma d a g a s c a r It w a s c a p tu red fro m th e .

Fren ch in 1 8 10 Th e p rin cipa l h a r bo u rs a re Po rt Lou is in th e

.

n o rth wes t a nd Gra nd Po rt in th e s o uth e a s t

-
Th e l o wla nds a re -
.

well wa tered by nu m er o u s river s fro m th e u pl a nds, o n wh ich th e

s o uth e as t tr a d es d e o s it th eir m o is ture , a nd a re p rin cipa lly
p
-

d evo ted to th e cu ltivatio n o f s ug a r by H in du c o o lies .

An o th er B ritish isl a nd Rodrig uez , lies 3 50 m iles e as t o f

,

Ma u ritius .

Th e Ch ag os Arch ip el ag o , fro m 6 }j t o 10 s o u th , is a lso no te d

o °
a

fo r c o c o nut o il-
Diego Garci a is a c o ra l a t o ll with a go o d harbo ur ,
.

which forms a c o a ling st ati on -

Reuni o n, n ea r M a uritiu s, b elo n gs t o Fra n ce T h e ch ief p ro d u ct .

is su g a r .

UPPER GUINEA AND THE WESTERN SUDAN .

B ro a dly th e firs t o f th es e regio ns co ns ists o f th e so u th er n s lo p e

o f th e h igh l a nds wh ich fo r m th e w a ter sh e d o f th e Niger a n d t h e
coas t rivers o f th e Gul f o f Gu in ea ( m a in ly tro p ica l fo rest ) and th e
u l a n ds o f th e N iger B a s in a nd o f th e U pp er S e n eg a l a n d Ga m b ia ,
p
wh ich cu l m inate in th e Fu ta Ja llo n H igh l a nds, wh ere th es e
rivers ta ke th eir ris e ( m a inly sa va nna pa ss ing o n th e no rth into
s cr u b a n d d e s ert ) .

Th e l a rge st p o litic a l a re a is th a t o f Fre nch W e st Africa Th e .

mo s t wes terly o f it s d ivis io n s , S e neg a l ( a rea = s qu a re

m iles po pu la tio n = 1 m illio n ) , is tra ns itio na l b etween d e s ert a nd

sa va nna ,
p r o du cin g o il fr o m s esa m e , a h er b o n ce gr o wn in Egyp t
a nd M e so o ta m ia ( bo th dry regio ns ) , a nd gr o u n d nu ts ( o ds wh ich
p p
-

rip en u nd ergro u nd ) , a nd expo rtin g gu m a r a b ic fro m th e French

Su da n T h e S en eg a l is na vig a ble t o Ka yes in th e r a in y s ea so n ,
.

fr o m wh ich a r a ilw a y re a ch es th e N iger , su ita ble fo r s m a ll s te a m ers

t o T i m bu kt u in th e Fre nch S udan , th e m a rket o f d es ert p ro d u cts
4 62 T EX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

o cean s tea m er s to th e l a go o n in si de th e s ur f bea ten bar A -

.

ra ilwa y (see p 43 7 h as been c o nstructe d by Iba da m t o th e N iger

. .

An in dic a tio n o f th e exi s te nce o f a rela tively dry b elt o n th e

Gu ine a c o as t (cf p 43 1 ) is th a t th ere a re a rea s o n th e c o a st in
. .

wh ich co tto n ca n be su ccessfu lly gro wn Th e Nig er Delta is th e .

u nh ea lth ies t pa rt o f Afric a o wing to it s grea t h ea t a nd ra infa ll ,

.

Ma n gro ve s wa m ps bo r d er th e ba n ks o f th e nu m ero us br a nch es

o f t h e d elt a Th e expo rts a re grea ter th a n fro m a ll th e rest o f t h e
.

British c o a s t c o lo n y Th e m o st i m po rt a nt a re th e pro ducts o f

.

th e o il pa lm wh ich is m o re a bu nda n t th a n in a n y o th er regio n

-

,
.

North ern Nig eri a —As th e N iger is c o n tin u o u sly n a vig a ble
.

o nl y bel o w th e ra ids a nd t h e B e nue is in f es te d with t h e ts ets e

p ,

fly and will o nly flo a t bo a ts dra win g 2 feet in the dry s easo n

, ,

it is cle a r th a t th e La go s Railwa y is ess entia l fo r th e d evelo p m ent

o f th e interio r Excep t t he lo w va lleys o f th e m a in river s— th e
.

N iger is o n ly 400 f eet a t Je bba W h ere th e ra ilwa y cro ss es it ,

th e c o u ntry b etween th e Niger a nd B e nu e is ge n er a lly a bo ve

f eet ris i ng in t h e B a u ch i Pl a te a u t o a b o ve
, feet This .

elevatio n w ou ld no t in itself be sufficient t o pr o vid e a h ea lth y

clim a te in th e tr op ics were it no t f or the d ecre as e of r a infa ll ,

t o wa r ds the i nteri o r pr o du cing sa va nna la nds o n which a gric ul

, ,

ture a nd pa st or a l purs uits t a ke th e pla ce o f f o res t indus tries .

T he riv ers o f N ig eria u s u a lly h a ve t h eir p l a in tra c k n ea r t h e so urce

( t he u p p er c o urse ) wh ere th ey fl o w o n eleva ted fl a t a nd sw a m py p la in s
, , ,

va ll ey tra ck
,

wit h n o trees th eir , s ( t h e m iddl e c o urs e ) o n u nd u la ting

pl a in s in wh ich th ey sk
, ir t iso l a t ed m o un ta in s and th eir m o u nt a in o r ,

t orrent tra ck ( t h e lo w er c o urse) in na rro w tren ch ed va ll ey s bo u n d ed by ,

p rec ip it o u s wa lls flo o d p lain in stea d o f b eing n ear t h e m o u th

”
T he . , ,

th eref ore lies in t he u p p er a n d m id dl e c o urses ( cf pp 21 4 . . ,

Fr om th e Niger Delt a (in So uth Nigeri a ) t o t he d es ert pr o ducts ,

m a y b e a rra nged in clas s es c o rre sp o nd i ng ge n er a lly t o r a infa ll

,

l m o il a nd ker n els ; k o l a nuts a nd gr o u nd nu t s r u bb er a nd

—
p a - -

, ,

ivo ry esp ecia lly nea r La ke Cha d ; cotto n indig o t o ba cc o live

, , , ,

s t o ck sh ee p g o ats a nd os trich es ; s a lt a nd b or a x
, , , .

Amo n g th e p rin cipa l towns a re So ko to th e Mo ha m m e da n ,

centre o f th e West Su da n ; Ka no th e d es ert m a rket o n wh ich , ,

co nverge th e Sah ar an ca ra va n r o u tes Th is is th e centre o f .

m a n y na tive indu s tries su ch a s bra ss le a th er p o tte r y and gla ss

, , , ,

wo rk a nd a bo ve a ll th e fa mo u s co tto n clo th lo ng u s ed th ro u gh o ut
, , ,

the wh o le o f N o rth Afric a Oth er im po rt a nt t o wns are Zu ngeru

.
,

t he a dm inistr a tive ce ntre ; B au ch i in th e no rth e a s t n e a r wh ich ,

-

t in is f o u nd ; a nd Lo k o j a a t t h e c o nflu e nce o f th e N iger a nd

,
 L O WER GUINEA 4 63

B e nue . Ku ka n e a r Lake Chad is a centre o f c ara van r o utes a nd

, ,

a n i m o rt a nt m a rket
p .

T wo d is tin c t ra c es inha bit Nig eria The Hausas a re a c ivi liz ed negro id
.

ra c e o f fa rm ers c ra ftsm en and trad ers a nd the Fulas a pa s to ral peo pl e

, , , , ,

who c o n q uered them i n t h e ei h t eenth c en tu r a re o f m ix ed H am itic a n d

g y ,

N eg ro o ri g in B o th a re M o h a mm eda n in rel ig io n a nd represent a rela

.
,

t i vely high ty p e o f c i vil iz a tio n .

Th e a rea o f N igeria is s qu a re m ile s po p u la tio n a bo u t

1 3 m illio ns .

LOWER GUINEA .

Th e Lo wer Guin ea Pla te a u c o n s is ts o f eleva te d la nd a t th e

e ge o f th e interio r p la tea u s lo p ing s teeply t o na rro w co a s ta l
d
p a ms .

In th e no rth is t h e Ger m a n K a m erun ( a re a = 200, 0 00 s qu a re

m iles p o p ul a tio n = 4 m illio n s ) , ris ing o n th e ext inct vo lc a no o f
Ka m eru n P ea k to f eet Up t o o ver
. f eet , o win g to
th e grea t r a in fa ll (see p th ere is dens e tro p ica l fo rest Th e
. .

p r o d u ct s a re ru bb er a nd
p a l m— kern els a n d
pa lm o il In th e -
.

in terio r th e co un try pa sses in to sa van na , a nd c a ttle are kept .

Ca c a o is gro wn with su ccess o n th e vo lc a nic so il Of th e vo lc a n ic .

is l a nds in th e Gul f th e m o st imp o rtan t are Fernando Po ( Spa n ish )

,

Th o m as a nd Pri nc e s Is l and ( Po rtu gu es e ) , no ted fo r

’
a n d St .

c a c a o c o ff ee ru bb er a nd cin ch o na
, , , .

Th e Fre nch Cong o ( a rea = 5 6 8 000 s qua re m iles ; po p ul a tio n =

,

9 m illio ns ) gr o ws co ff ee a nd c a c a o Ivo ry, r u bber , a n d o il

.

p r o d u cts a re o bt a in e d f r o m th e fo res ts Libreville is th e ch ie f .

p o rt o n th e c o a s t B ra zza vil le is o n S ta n ley Po o l o n t h e Co ng o

. .

O n t h e no rt h t h e Fren c h p os s ess io ns i nclud e the S uda n s ta tes

o f Ka n e m a nd Wa da i Mo di fic a ti o ns in t h e b o u n d a ries o f th e
.

French Co ngo h a ve b een m ad e in f a vo u r o f Germ a n y in retur n

fo r freed o m o f a cti o n in Ma r o cc o .

THE CONGO BASIN .

Th is is m a in ly o cc u p ied by t h e B elg ian Cong o (a rea =

s qu a re m ile s p o pul a tio n = 15 m illi o ns ) It c o ns ists o f undul a ting .

pla in s s urro u nd e d by th e e dges o f h igh p la tea us , th ro u gh wh ic h

th e Co ng o brea k s its w a y o n th e we st As in t he Am a z o n B a s in,.

th e regio n is la rgely tr o p ic a l fo res t, th ro u gh wh ich t h e rivers

fo r m the h igh wa ys, a nd ru bber is th e m a in p ro du ct Th e m o st .

i m po rta n t s ettlem ents a re Bana na a nd B o m a (s eapo rts ) , Leo po l d

4 64 TEX T B OO K -

OF GEO GRAPH Y

ville a bo ve th e fa lls o n Sta nley Po o l a nd Sta n leyville bel o w

, , . ,

Sta n ley Fa lls (river p o rts ) .

T ho u gh S ta nl ey in hi s c ro ssin g o f Af rica c u t hi s w a y fo r five m o nth s

, ,

thro ugh co n tinuo u s fo rests this wa s largely du e t o th e fa ct tha t h is ro u te

,

in t h e Aru wimi Ba sin f ol lo wed the wet b el t n o rth o f t he E q ua to r wh ere ,

veg eta tio n is m o st l ux uriant Awa y f ro m t h e ri vers there a re la rg e a rea s

.

o f sa v a nn a w h ere o x en tra n sp o rt i s p o ssib le

, T h ese gra s sla nd s are pro b a bly
.

d u e t o th e p o ro u s sa nds t o ne so il w h ic h i s u n fa v o u ra bl e t o th e sprea d o f
u n d ergro wth c a p a bl e o f c h e ck in g eva p o ra t io n T h es e m u s t h a ve b een a n
.

im p o rta nt fa cto r in t he wid esprea d d is tribu tio n o f t he el ep ha n t a n a nim a l ,

th a t c a n m a k e tra c k s t h ro u g h t ro pi ca l f o re s ts b ut is n o t a n in ha bita n t o f ,

t he d en ses t j ung le s M u ch o f th e Co ngo wa s d e va sta t ed by t he Ara bs

.
,

wh o u sed sl a ve s a s p o rters to c a rry t h e i vo ry to t h e ea s t c oa s t As a .

f urth er in di c a tio n o f t h e l ess d ense c h ara ct er o f t h e Co ng o f o res t a s c o m

p ared with t h e Am a z o n it sh o u ld b e n o t e d t h a t B a n t u l a ng u a g es sp rea d
,

thro u gh m o st o f th e c o un try a n d th a t n a tive k

, ing d o m s ex is t ed in th e Co ng o
B a sin whi c h th o u gh l ess c ivili ed th a n th o s e o f t h e S u d a nese Em p ires
, z ,

were f a r in a d va n c e o f th e is o la t ed sa va g e gro u p s o f t h e Am a o n z .

Only in t h e d ep th s o f the fo rests a re f o un d wh a t m a y p er ha p s be rega rd ed

a s th e l o wes t h u m a n g ro u p th e py gm ies— wh o lik
-
e t he B u shm en o f t h e ,

d eserts o f S o u th Afric a pro ba bly rep resen t t he su rvi vo rs o f t h e p rim iti ve

,

h un ting p eo pl es .

T ill t h e ra ilwa y su rm o u nted th e d iffi c ul tie s o f th e c a ta ra cts

(s ee p 404 ) th e Co ngo B as in was very d iffi cu lt t o e nter It
. .

fo r m erly to o k a t le as t th irty da ys t o c u t a tra ck th ro u gh th e

d e ns e fo res ts wh ich lie no rth a nd so u th o f th e un na viga ble p o rtio n
o f th e river wh ere it bre a ks th ro u gh th e e d ge o f th e t a blela nd

(the Crys t a l Mo u nta in s ) No w th e ra ilwa y (s ee Fig 6 7) h as

. .

redu ced th e j o u rn ey t o less th a n th irty h o u rs S team er s a bo ve .

th e fa lls na vig a te a l a rge pa rt o f th e interio r ba sin ( s ee p .

Fo rest pro ducts ( ru bber— wil d and p la nta tio n— pa lm nuts and -

o il , c o a l , a nd r a re ti m b er
p ) a nd ivo ry, a nd th e g o ld a nd co pp er
o f th e Ka t a ng a Ra nges
(see p 458 , Rho d es ia n r a ilwa y) a re m ost
.

im po rt a nt , th o u gh c a c a o , c o tto n , c o ff ee , a nd t o ba cc o a re su ited
t o th e va riety o f clim a te a nd so il .

PORTUGUES E WE T AFRICA .

Ang o l a (a rea = 48 4, 000 qu a re m iles ; po p ul a tio n = 4 m illio ns )

s
rises fro m a dry c o a s t to a sa va nna up la nd ( fro m t o o ver
feet ) o n th e so u th o f th is c a ttle a re kep t (Of th e ra infa ll . .

a nd t em p er a tu re o f Lo a n d a th e c a p ita l o n t h e c o a s t a nd
, ,
,

Ca c o nda ) Th e wes t s lo p es o f th e p l a te a u receive a c o ns id era ble

.
4 66 TEX T B O OK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
 S O UT H AF RICA 46 7

ho les a nd s
prin gs Th ere a re m a ny sha llo w d ep re ss io ns ( pa n s) ,
u su a lly with bra c k
.

ish wa ter Th is regio n c o nstitu tes th e m o st .

im po rta nt fa r m ing co u ntry in th e T ra ns vaal o win g to its g o o d ,

gra ss and h e a lth in ess fo r sto ck .

In t h e T ra nsva a l er ra in s ( m a x im u m J a nu ary ) a re pro lo ng ed

th e su mm ,

int o t h e a u tu m n ( M ar c h ) w h en t h e c o ld er s ea s o n is a ppro a c h ing a n d d ry

.

wea t h er is n eed ed t o rip en w h ea t T his cro p h a s t heref o re t o be g ro w n in

.
, ,

t h e wint er ( M a y t o O ct o b er ) w h en irriga t io n is ne c e ss a ry , In s p rin g .

( S ep t em b er a n d O ct o b er ) w hen t he wea th er is gett ing wa rm er t h e ra inf a ll

, ,

is v ery s m a ll t ho u g h n ee de d t o c a u s e t h e gro wth o f cr0 ps a n d gra s s

, T he .

dry w ea t h er h o w ever ena bl es w h ea t t o b e h a rves t ed

, , T h es e p e c u liarit ie s .

o f t h e cl im a te a cc o u n t f o r t h e l a rg e a rea o f th e B o er fa rm s a s m uc h g ra z i n g ,

l and wa s ne c es sa ry Iso l a t io n in t h e ea rl y d ay s c o m bined in m any settl e

.
,

m en ts w ith a n a tti tu d e o f p erm a nen t d ef en c e ag ain s t m a n a nd Na ture

( th e Zul u s a nd th e cl im a t e ) m a y well ha ve b een p a rtly respo nsibl e f o r th e
,

ind ep end enc e o f th e B o er c ha ra ct er .

Th e lo wer pa rt o f th e pl a te au is so m ewh a t diff erentia te d by

”
th e o cc u rre nce o f lo n g s to n y ridges k no wn a s r a n ds Th ere .

is m uch m o re runn ing wa ter a nd m i m o sa tree s gro w in th e ,

-

lo wer va lleys Th e so il is rich er fo r a gric u ltu re bu t th e clim a te

.
,

is less h e a lth y fo r s to ck o win g to th e p o ss i bilitie s o f d is ea s e

, .

Th e Witwa ters ra n d o n th e e as t o f wh ic h l ies Jo h a nn es bu rg

,

( with inh a b ita n ts o f wh o m m o re tha n h a l f a re wh ite)

, ,

is th e centre for t h e g o ld m in es Pret o ria t he c ap ita l lies o n

-
.
, ,

th e p la tea u s l op es t o th e n o rth .

Th e Z o u tp a ns berg in th e n o rth fo r m s a n i so la te d po rtio n o f

th e p la te a u wh ere th e cli m a te eve n a bo ve
,
f eet is le ss , ,

h ea lth y fo r s to ck .

Th e slop es o f th e p l ate au a re better wa tered by s trea ms wh ich ,

bre a k th ro u gh th e s tep s o f th e ta blel a nd in th e ch a ra cteris tic

a nd h a ve m o re fo re s t e s p ec ia lly o n t he e as t wh ere th ere
”
o o rts
p , , ,

is a l a rger ra infa ll bu t th e c o u ntry is less su ite d fo r s to ck ( except

,

o l d er a n d s e a so n e d c a ttle ) a nd th e l o wer va lleys beg in t o be ,

m a la ria l .
Owin g to th e li m ited a rea o f th e va lley bo tto m s ,

th ere is c o mpa ra tively little a gricultu ra l la nd but th e clim a te ,

a nd so il is e sp ecia lly well su ite d to to ba cco .

Th e l ow vel d begins a t a bo ut f eet in th e no rth a nd

f eet o n th e e a s t It co vers a bo u t 45 p er cent o f th e wh o le
. .

c o u ntry It is gen era lly fl at a nd la rgely co vered with s cru b

.

( m i m o sa a nd th o r n bu sh ) T h ere a re nu m ero u s sa nd rivers a nd

.

dry river be ds T h e r a infa ll is s m all bein g m o stly d e p end e nt o n

. ,

th u nd ersto rm s Th ere a re few eleva tio ns to c au s e relief ra infa ll

. .
46 8 T EX T B OOK -

OF GE O GRAPH Y

Th o u gh th e p a s tu re is go o d , th e c o u ntry is u nh ea lth y fo r m a n
a nd b ea s t , a n d ge n er a lly u n su ita ble fo r wh ite o cc u p a tio n .

It sh o uld b e n o ted th a t bo th th e Lim po p o a nd th e Va a l h a ve

s u mm er flo o d s , bu t a l m o s t d ry u p in t he winter As th ey ru n be .

tween h igh ban ks , th ey a re o f little us e fo r irrigatio n (cf p 245 , . .

Spa in ) . Th e s e a so n a l dro ugh t m a kes th e e a s tern rivers o f little

u se fo r p o wer (see p .

THE ORANGE FREE STATE .

Area = 5 0 000
,
s qua re m iles . Po pul a t io n = 5 m ill io ns .

Th e co u ntry s itua ted between t h e Va a l a nd t h e Orange Rivers

is entirely high veld Except in th e e as t n ea r th e Ca ledo n River
.
, ,

wh ere th e ra infa ll is grea ter it is to o dry fo r a gric u ltu re a nd is

, ,

ma in ly p a s tora l Dia m o nds are fo u nd in th e wes t o n th e bo r der s

.
,

ne ar Kim b erley a nd s o m e c o a l is m i ne d in t he n o rth

,
B l o em .

fo ntei n is in a ce ntr a l p o s iti o n o n t h e r a ilw a y fr o m t h e Ca p e o f

Go o d H op e t o Pret o ria Fr om th is br a nch lines cr oss the
.

Dra k ensb ergen o n th e e a s t by Ha rris m ith t o La d ys m ith Pieter

, ,

m aritz bu rg a nd Durb a n ; a nd o n th e s o u th d es ce n d o ver t h e ,

s o u th er n terr a ces o f t h e t a b lel a nd t o Ea st Lo n d o n a nd Po rt

Eliz a b eth Th ere is no d irect c o m mu nic a ti o n t o t h e e a st a s

.
,

b etween th es e t wo lin es lies t he m o u nt a i no u s a re a o f B a su t o l a nd .

It is t o b e no te d th a t t h e r a ilwa ys f o llo w a pp r o xim a tely the

na t u r a l g a ps wh ic h c o ntr o lle d t h e c o urs e o f t h e B o er treks
th e d rifts o f t h e Or a nge River t o t h e wes t o f t h e j u ncti o n o f

t h e Ca led o n a nd Or a nge a nd t h e pa ss es by wh ich t h ey d es cend ed

,

fr o m t h e m o re b a rre n h igh veld int o th e well w a tere d d o w nla nd -

o f Na t a l .

BAS UTOLAND .

Are a = 10 000
, s qu are m iles . Pop ul at io n = 0 4 m illio n
'
.

B a su t o la n d h a s o n its ea st th e h igh es t p o rtio ns o f th e Dra k ens

b ergen , Mo n t a u x So u rces f eet ) c o nta in in g th e h ea dwa ters

,

o f th e Tu gela , th e Ora nge , a n d a tri bu ta ry o f th e Va a l Th e .

B asu to s , a w a rlike mo u n ta in ra ce , m a in ta in e d th eir in d ep end en ce

in th eir s tro n g n a tu r a l fo rts a ga in st th e Zu lu h o rd es wh ich d eva s
t a t ed m u ch o f So u th Afric a In th i s d ef ence th ey were a ss isted
.

by th e n a tur a l a d va n ta ges o f th e c o u n try wh o s e well wa tere d a nd ,

-

f ertile va lleys h a ve a lwa ys a ff o rd ed spa ce fo r a c o m p a ra tively d ens e

po pu l a tio n Owing to th e l a rger ra infa ll a nd a bu nd a n t river s,
.

ca ttle a re nu m ero u s, a nd excellent wh ea t is gro wn O n ly na tives .

a re a ll o we d t o s ettle o n la nd , a nd Eu ro p e a ns fo r m a bo u t
A
; p er
ce nt o f the to ta l po pu la tio n
. .
4 70 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

(mostly Moh am m e dans fro m W es t Ind ia ) than Eu ro p ea ns .

Ma ny oftho s e who c am e to wo rk in th e sug ar pla nta tio ns ha ve

s ettle d o n sm a ll fruit far m s o n th e c o ast o r o bta in e d e m pl o ym ent
-

in th e to wn s .

CAPE O F GOOD HOPE .

Area = 206 000 s qua re mil es Popul a tion = 2 5 6 millions

'
.
, .

Cap e T o wn

Relief Rivers — As fa r a s th e co nfluence o f th e Va a l , th e

a nd .

Or ange River h as nu m ero u s tributa ries, such as th e Ca ledo n and

th e rivers wh ich fl o w fro m Ba su to la nd a nd th e Dra k ens bergen .

O nly very sho rt rivers fl o w so u th wa rd fro m the Ora nge Free

Sta te . On th e so uth th e Sto rm bergen a nd Zuu rbergen fo rm
th e wa tersh e d between th e rivers wh ich d ra in no rth to th e
Orange a nd the Grea t Kei a nd Grea t Fish Rivers, wh ich fl o w to
,

th e Ind ia n Oce a n To th e wes t o f a bo ut 24 eas t lo n gitud e no n e

°
.

o f th e tri buta ries o f th e Ora nge a re

p erma n ent, a nd th ere is no
runnin g wa ter except a fter ra in To th e no rth is th e dry s em i .

d e s ert o f B ech ua nal and, wh ich is i nclude d in Ca p e of Go o d H o p e

as fa r a s t he M o lo o River , a nd th e B echu ana l a nd Pr o tect o r a te ,
p
which extends t o th e Z amb ezi In t h is is i nclud ed th e K a laha ri
.

Des ert o n the west , with u nd ergr o u nd water Th is is m o stly .

u ni nha bite d except by nom ad ic bus hm en, wh o live by hun tin g .

On th e e as t, wh ere t he r a ilwa y r u ns t o Rh o desia by Vryburg, the

l and is b etter wa tered , and m a ize c a n be gro wn .

Th e K arroo — To th e so uth o f th e Ora nge is th e c o n tinu a tio n

.

of th e h igh veld, to wh ich th e gen era l nam e o f Ka rro o is given .

Th is is d ivid e d o n th e s o u th by th e N ieuwvel d Range f ro m th e

Grea t Ka rro o , th ro ugh wh ich th e Go u rit z a nd Ga mto o s Rivers ru n
s o uth wa rd , c u ttin g th ro ugh t h e
p a r a llel ra nges ( Th e po sitio n .

o f th es e r a nge s is well sh own b feet co ntou r o n th e

y th e
oro graph ica l map ) Th e Go u rit z flo ws through a ga p in the
.

Zwa rt eberg en a nd th e La ngeberg en , between wh ich ra nges lies

th e Little Ka rro o Th is is tra vers ed by lo ng valleys fro m ea st
.

to wes t, wh ich d eter mine d th e c o u rs e o f ea rly treks eas twa r d .

Many pa ra llel r anges cro ss th e h igh veld, gen era lly with a n east
to wes t d irectio n .

M u ch of t hery is a h igh f ea turel ess undul a ting pla tea u rising

c o unt , , ,

gently t o bu il ts between wh ic h a re l in es of ul c ers ( fl o o rs ) l ev el flats

,

of c a k
,

ed m u d with no veg eta tio n ( see p 46 7 Trans vaa l ) T h e term .

, .

klo of is g enerally applied t o t h e na rro w pa sses th ro u h ro c k ra n es

g y g
whic h a re num ero u s in S outh Af ri c a U sua lly th ey are th e vall e s o f
y
.
 S O UTH AF RICA 471

occ a sio na l to rren ts bu t so m etim es th ey a re c o m pletely

, d ry ( wind —ga p s ) .

M a ny sy mm etrica l c o ni cal hil l s f o rm k

o p j es whic h a re , t
o f en su rro und ed
by a l o w p rec ip i to u s cl iff kra ntz ro u nd th e su m m it .

Th e vel d is
c o vered with scru b wh ich is excellent for fa tten ing
,

sh ee
p bu t o wing t o th e u ncerta in r a infa ll in pa rts b elo w 2 inch es
, ,

( th is is m a in ly p recip ita te d in s tor m s ) a nd th e o ccu rren ce o f lo ng ,

d ro ugh ts even p as to ra l pu rsu its a re so m etim es i m p oss ible

, Cul .

t iva t io n is o n ly c a rrie d o n wh ere river wa ter c o llec ts in d epress io ns

-

o r c a n be a
pplie d to irrig a tio n by s to r a ge M imo sa a nd willo ws .

repres en t th e o nl y tree gro wth a nd a re co nfined to th e banks o f

,

th e la rger rivers Th e d es ert ch a ra cter is well sh o wn by th e

.

o cc u rre n ce o f ty ica l a l o e s a n d ca cti

p .

In th e so uth we st o f t h e Ca p e o f Go o d Ho p e th e p a ra llel r a nge s

-

ru n ge n er a lly n o rth a nd so uth Th is is illus tr a ted by the va lleys

.

in th e Olifa nts River B a s in a nd t h e H o tte nt o ts H o lla nd M o u n

t a ins wh ich a re s epa ra ted by th e s a nd y Cap e Fla ts fro m the
,

rem a rka b le sa nds t o ne pl a tea u o f Ta b le M o u nta in .

O ccup atio n and Pro duc ts —The Pr o vince o f t h e Ca p e o f Go o d

.

Ho p e m a y b e d ivid ed in t o th e c o mp a ra tively d e ns ely p e o p led

na tive pr o vi n ces o f Ka fl raria , wh ere a little m o re tha n 2 p er ce nt .

a re wh ite , a nd Ca p e o f Go o d H o p e p r o p er with B ech u a na la nd ,

in wh ic h n e a rly 40 p er ce nt a re Eur o p ea ns
. Ka fl raria res em b les .

Na t a l , a nd is m a inly a c a ttle regio n T o t he wes t th e c o u ntry .

b ec o m es drier , a nd t h e c a ttle a nd m a ize ( su ite d f or wa r m , r a i ny

s um m er s) o f t h e c oa stl a nds n e a r Po rt Elizab eth a nd Ea st Lo nd o n
give p l a ce t o t h e t o b a cc o a nd l u cer ne ( fo r ostrich feeding) of the -

O u dst h o o rn d is trict , th e wh e a t o f th e Lo wer B reed e River s a nd

Ma lm esbury, a nd t h e vin e s o f t h e h ills e a st o f Cap e T o wn St o n e .

fruits , s uch a s p e a c h es , n ecta rin es a nd p lums , gro w su ccessfully

,

in th e dry clim a te Irriga ti o n is la rgely n ecessa ry

. .

Th e clim a te o f the so u th wes t o f th e Pr o vince res emb les tha t

-

o f t h e M e d iterr a n e a n , in h a vi ng wi nter r a i ns , th o u gh th e h e a t

is les s in su m m er Ca p e T o wn , as rega r ds th e m e a n temp er at ure

.

in Ja nu a ry a n d Ju ly a nd m e a n a nnu a l ra i nfa ll , h as a very sim ila r

cli m a te t o Sa lis bury o n the Rh o des ia n Pl atea u , tho u gh th e r a i nfa ll
s e as o ns a re q u ite di ff ere nt ( see p N o rth o f th e c o a st b elt
.
-

t h e c o u ntry is m uch drier , a nd is e n tirely past o r a l , o stric h f ar m i ng

-

b eing im p o rt a nt , wh ile vas t num b er s o f m erin o sh eep a nd Ang o ra

g o ats a re kept fo r w o o l a nd m oha ir For the for m er th e Great .

Ka rr o o , a nd fo r the latter the region r o u nd Gra a f Reinet , a re the

main ce ntres .
4 72 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

T o wns . Th e ch ief to w n is Cap e T own, a t th e fo o t o f Ta ble

—

M o u nta in , wh ich o wes it s h is to ric a l i m p o rta n ce t o t h e fa ct th a t,

in th e da ys o f lo n g sa ilin g vo ya ges, it p r o vi d e d a c o n ve n ient h a l f
w a y c a llin g sta tio n o n th e w a y t o th e In d ies It w as a l so th e
.

firs t p o i nt o n th e h arb o urle ss so uth wes t c o a st wh ere fresh f o o d

-

a nd w a ter c o u ld b e e a s ily o bt a in e d In l a ter da ys its d evel o p

.

m e nt w a s du e t o it s p os iti o n a t t h e s o ut h er n m argin o f th e b arre n

west c o ast , wh ere a ccess c o uld b e o bta i n ed t o th e i nterior thr o ugh
a m o re fertile b elt Th e Cap e Fla ts t o th e e a st o f Cap e To w n ,
.

f o rm erly u n inha b it ab le o n a cc o unt o f s h ifti ng sa nds , h a ve bee n

p la nte d with a sp ecies o f Aus tr a lia n w at t el a nd b r o u gh t u nd e r
c u ltiva ti on for fa rms a nd m a rket ga r de ns .

O n t h e so u th a nd s o uth e a st c o a sts t h e c h ief p o rts o f th e

-

Pr o vi nce are Po rt Eliz ab eth , o n Algo a B a y , a nd Eas t Lo nd o n ,

i mp o rta nt fo r th e tra ns it tra de t o t h e Rand , a nd t h e wo o l p ro du cts
o f Gra a f Rein et a n d th e Ka rro o Th e d ia m o nd m in e s o f Kim
.
-

berley p ro vid e th e m os t va lua ble exp o rt Oth er m in era ls a re

.

c o a l ( in sm a ll qu a ntities ) a t Ind we in th e Sto rm berg en sh ipp ed ,

fr o m Ea st Lo n do n , a n d c o pp er t a ke n t o Po rt No llo th in th e dry
no rth we st
-

History — Tho u gh the Ca p e w a s d isc o vere d b y B a rth o l o m ew

.

Dia z in 1 4 8 7, a nd vis ited by bo th Po rtu gu es e, D u tch , and English

fo r w a ter a nd p ro vis io ns, no s ettle m ent w a s m a d e till a fter 1 64 8 ,
wh en th e d isas ter to a D u tch vess el , th e Ha a rlem , p ro ved th at
a sh ip wrecke d crew c o u l d live in c o mfo rt by c u ltiva tio n a nd
tra ffic with th e Ho tten tots .

The Ca p e b ec a m e B ritish in 1 806 B efo re th a t da te th e trek

.

h a d b egu n It w a s in evita ble th a t a n ind ep en d en t r a ce o f

.

s ettler s, d erive d f ro m th e Dutch e m igra nt s a n d th e H ugueno ts,

wh o a rrive d in 1 6 8 8 , sh o ul d with dr a w th e m s elve s fro m centr al

c o ntro l a t Ca p e To wn To th is va rio u s ph ys ic a l circu m sta nces
.

co ntribu te d ( 1 ) The f ertile b elt to th e c ast wa s s u ited to cattle,

a nd th e dr
y cli m a te led to a s e a rch fo r m o re lu xuria nt p a sture .

( 2) Th e lo ngitu dina l va lleys o f th e Bree d e, Gro o te , Olifa nt s, etc , .

with a gen era l ea st and so uth ea s t d irectio n, p ro vided a ro u te

-

b etween th e pa ra llel r a nges a nd so u th o f t h e m o re ba rre n h igh vel d .

Th e su bs equ e nt a d va nce a cro ss th e Ora nge , a nd t h e fo r m atio n

o f th e Ora nge Free S t a te a nd th e S o u th Afric a n Re u blic , was
p
du e t o th e n o rth er n c o ntinu ity o f t h e p a s to r a l b elt o n th e e ast
o f Ca e Co l on y a n d t o t h e d i s c o ntent o f t h e B o er f a r m ers An
p .

i mp o rta nt fa cto r w a s a lso th e p ressu re o f Ka fir tri bes f ro m th e

ea st, wh ich h a d been th e in evita ble resu lt o f the d evas ta tio n o f
Na ta l by Ch a ka s Z u l u wa rrio rs
’
.
 AUS T R ALIA

Structure .

T H E wes tern p a rt o f Au s tra l ia is c o mp o s ed o f a ta blela nd o f

o ld r o cks , u nd istur b e d du rin g l o ng p erio ds In th e e a st a re .

th e grea t p la ins, wh ich s ink a ctua lly t o b elo w s ea level i n th e l a ke -

regio n A la rge pa rt o f bo th th es e regio ns fo rm s a n inl a nd dra in

.

a g e a re a ( see Figs 7 1 a nd
. Ma n y iso l a ted t a blela nds are
fo rm e d by th e d es ert s andsto n e On th e e a s t a re th e h igh l a nds,
.

th e re m na nts o f wo rn m o u nta in s wh ich sho w s ig ns o f grea t p ast

vo lca n ic a ctivities a nd ea rth m o vem ents Th es e no w fo r m a .

d eeply d iss ected p l a tea u , with its s teep s id e to wa rd s th e e ast .

Th e c o a s ts a re rem a rka bly u n ifo r m , esp ecia lly in t h e so u th ( th e

Grea t Aus tra lia n B igh t ) A rif t va lley fo rm s Sp en cer Gu l f, a nd
.

o n t h e no rth we st th ere a re ind ent a tio ns o f t h e f j o r d typ e

-
The .

east c o a st ha s th e best h a rbo u rs a t th e m o uth s o f river es tua ries .

Relie f .

Area = nearly 3 m il lion s qu a re m il es .

It will be s een fro m a n o ro grap h ic a l m a p tha t Au stra lia is

d ivis ible into fo ur ch ief regio ns (s ee Fig 7 1 ) .

1 Th e Ea s tern H igh la nds wh ich ext end fr o m so u th t o no rth

.
, ,

a p pr o xim a tely p ar a llel t o th e e a st c o a st a t v a ryi ng dis t ances

-

fro m it .

2 Th e Lo w Interio r o ccup ie d by th e M urr a y D a rling Ba sin

.
,
-

a nd th e L a ke Eyre B a s i n .

”
3 Th e Fl ind ers Ra nge s ep a ra tin g th e
.
, Gre a t Va lley of

So u th Au s tr a lia fro m th e Murra y .

4 Th e W e stern Pla tea u with its p a tc h e s o f h igh gr o u n d a t

.
,

th e e dges .

1 Th e Eastern Hi gh l ands — It is s i m p lest t o c o ns id er th is

. .

s eries o f r anges in five gr o u p s : T h e Vict o ri a n Ra nge s th e ,

Au s tra lia n Alps th e B lu e Mo u nta ins th e Q u ee ns la nd Pla te au

, , .

th e No rth er n Ra n ges ,
 AUST RALIA 47 5

TH E V ICT O R IAN RAN GES .

Abo ut m idwa y betwee n th e Murra y River a nd th e c o a st ,

though s o m ewha t n earer to th e co as t lies th e wa tersh ed o f ,

th e Victo ria n s tre a ms Th is p arting lies mo stly o n h igh

.

grou nd In th e ma n y m ino r ranges wh ich for m th e gro up .

The Gra mp ians lie fa rth e s t to th e wes t a nd ru n n ear ly a t ,

r i gh t a ngles to th e o th er ra nges Th ey s ink do wn no rth .

and we s t in to a s a ndy
p la in with m a ny s tre a m s o f th e,

wa d i typ e Th e Pyren ees a nd th e Grea t D ividing

.

Range fo llo w to the east Al l are o f a ncient ro ck m uch

.
,

wea th ered and sh o wing m a ny signs o f ancient vo lc anic

,

a cti o n, esp eciall y in th e neighbourho o d o f Balla ra t Thev .

end in a
g ap o f l o w grou nd giving e a s y a ccess t o the in
t erl o r ; it is ind eed la rgely to th is na tura l r o ute th a t th e
, ,

i mpo rta n ce o f M el bo urn e is du e .

AU S T R ALIAN ALPS .

To th e e as t of th is gap ris e the first ra nges of the Au s tra lia n

Alps Th es e
. fo rm a m ost c omplicated s eries of ridges a nd
m ou nt a i n groups o f whic h the m ost eleva ted art is the Kos
c ius k
,

o mass s itu a te d to th e no rth o f th e 1rre ul a r wa ter

g
interlo c k
,
”
parting wh ich in th e ce ntre is
, ing so th a t th e ,

so urces o f th e Mu r rum b id gee are a ctua lly to th e s outh we s t -

o f tho s e o f th e S no wy River The Vall ey o f th e Y a rra Ya rra

.
-

h as fo r it s s outh ern m a rgin a lo w r a nge wh ich ter m in ates ,

in t h e s ea to t h e e a st of Po rt Ph illip B etwee n th is r ange .

a nd t h e Alps is a b ro ad p l a i n exte nd i ng e a stwa r ds to t h e ,

”
S no wy River Th is is c a lle d
. Gipps la n d a nd is th e m o s t ,

fertile part o f Victo ria B eyond th e Snowy Ri ver rea ch in g

.
,

n o rth t o B ot an y B a y th e e a s t co a st is a m a s s o f ridges a n d
,

valleys co m ing do wn clo s e to th e sh o re with many p ro mo n ,

tories wh ich m ad e the co ns tructio n o f a co ast ro a d d iffi cul t

,

a nd exp e ns ive Th is a cc o u nts fo r t h e co mp a ra tive s ec lu

.

s i o n o f S ydn ey in e a rly d a ys The Pla te a u o f La ke Geo rge

.

m a y b e c o ns id ere d as th e no rth ern extrem ity o f the Alp s ,

togeth er with th e Va lley o f the Ha wkes bury River .

T HE B LU E MO U N T AIN S .

Th e B lue Mo u nta ins exte nd fro m th e pla tea u of inla n d

dra in a g e in wh ich lies La ke George, a nd th e h ea dwa ters
o f th e Ha wkes b ury, up to th e k no t o f h igh gro und lying
ju st with in th e Queensland bounda ry Th e ch ara cter o f .
4 76 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

the e wa rd fa ce is that o f th e a b rupt edge o f a pla tea u

s a ,

c u t in to by m any river va lleys Th es e va lleys are p ecu lia r

.
,

in th a t th ey are c o nstricte d a t th eir lower e nds but wid e n ,

o u t b eh ind th e gorge s in to fl a t va lleys o f grea t s ize richl y ,

clo th ed with fo rest and bo u nd ed by cl ifis o f grea t h eigh t

,
.

FIG . 71 .
— AU S T R AL IA : RELIEF .

Fig s . 7374 ( Act u al Iso th erm s ) a n d n o t e t h a t th e el ev at io n s o f t he

, ,

W es tern Pla t eau are no t h ig h en o u g h t o mo dify grea tly t he grea t h ea t

o f J a n u ary , b u t t h e Ea s t Au stra lia n H ig hla nd s are m u c h c o o l er t h a n
t h e int erior Lo wla nd s o f N ew S o u t h W a l es .

r is in g l m o st p erp end icul a rly In ea rly da ys S ydney w as

a .

c u t o ff bo th fro m th e i nterio r a nd fro m th e m o re a ccess ible

s o u th except by s ea Even no w the c o as t r o a d do es no t

,
.

rea ch b eyo nd th e co a l dep os its to th e so uth o f Wo olo ngo ng ,

o r no rth wa r ds fa r b eyo n d th e es tua ry o f th e H u nter

, .
47 8 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

gives a ccess to th e e dge o f th e pla tea u h ere na m ed th e ,

Liverpool Range a n d so o n to th e Liverpo o l D o wns a nd

, ,

no rth war ds t o t h e D a rlin g D o wns th e Queensl and s ys te m ,

o f r a ilwa ys a nd Bri s ba n e
, .

(c) The Blue Mo u nta in zigz a gs a re rea ch ed by as cen d in g

th e Pa ra m atta cro ss in g the Ha wkes bu ry Va lley a nd follow
, ,

ing o ne of the s id e vall eys The cliff like va lley ma rgin is .

-

as ce nd ed by a s eries o f zig z a gs a n d th e
pla tea u level is ,

a tta in e d no t fa r fro m Ba th urs t f ro m wh ich lines sprea d ,

westwa rds o ne o f wh ich rea ch es to Bo urke o n the D a rling

, .

T HE QUEEN S LAN D PLATEAU .

A cha nge in th e geo lo gic a l fo r m a tio ns a nd a lso a h e a vier

ra in fa ll mo re evenl y d is tribu ted th ro ugh o ut th e ye a r has ,

c aus ed th e rivers to ea t ba ck t o th eir h ea d and to c arry ,

th eir valleys ba ck t o co ns id er a ble d istances fr o m th e c o ast

Fitzro y B u rdek in B ely a n do a re fro m 3 50 t o 400 m iles
, , ,

long ) It S h ould be n oted tha t the rivers ha ve cut th eir

.

way thr o ugh m a rke d Coa st Ra nges wh ic h lie well to the e ast
”
of the Gre a t Dividi n g Ra nge a m isleading term applied ,

to a sc arcely perceptible wa tersh ed o n th e plateau The .

s e aso na l cha r a cter o f th e r a i n e s p eci a lly in the s outh ha s , ,

c aus ed the river va lleys t o h a ve the p eculiar chara cter of

dry riverS —viz a sh ort t o rre ntia l c o u r s e a lo ng and evenly
.
, , ,

grade d m iddle cour se with wi d e va lley a nd steep sides a nd ,

a sh ort lower cours e Th e typ ic a l tr o p ic a l vegetation is

.

co nfined to the c oas t wh ere th e h umidity of the a ir a nd the

,

ra infall are suffi cient In the in terio r th e undergrowth dis

.

app e a rs a nd gr ass so o n d is p l a ces eve n t he tree s exce t in

, p ,

th e vici nity of the rivers a nd o n th e s e a wa rd slo p es wh ere

, ,

th ere is sufli c ient eleva ti on t o indu ce c o nd ensation .

T H E N O RT H ERN HIGH LAN D S .

Th e lo ng p eninsula wh ich ends in Ca p e Y ork has its

eleva ted land clo s e to th e ea st co a s t a n d th ere is o ne range ,

o f co ns id er a ble eleva tio n s ta rtin g n e a r th e m o uth of the

Bu rdek in a nd exte n d ing t o Ca p e M elville so m e 400 m iles , .

Th is forms th e g a th erin g gro u n d o f a ll th e river s o f th e

-

p en in sul a in clu din g th e B u rd ek

,
in a nd t h e Ca rp e nta ria
Rivers . The no rth o f th is r a nge a lo w s a ndsto n e pla tea u , ,

gra du a lly s inks do wn t o th e c o a s t wh ich is o f a c o rallinc ,

and very porou s na t u re T h e lo w gr o u n d al l ro un d the Gulf

.
 AU S T RALIA 47 9

of Carp ent aria is mo s tly s wa m p y, a n d fo r m ed by the sedi m e nt

brough t down by th e m a ny s tre a ms , tho s e fro m th e e ast
bein g far m o re p erm a ne nt th a n tho s e fro m th e so uth bu t
th e l a tter a re f ed by th un d er s to r ms a n d are lia ble to te rrific
,

floo ds , bringing va st qua ntities of d etritus In the interi or .

of Arnh em La nd t o t he west o f th e Gulf is a sa nds to ne plateau ,

i i g t o ne arly
rs n feet .

2 . Th e Low Interior — Th e sp a ce between th e e astern c o a s t

.

range and th e western p la tea u is o ccu p ied by th e m iddl e a nd

l o wer co urs e o f th e Mu rra y D a rlin g, a nd th a t of the Ba rcoo , o r
-

Co o p er River, a nd th e D ia m antin a (th e La ke Eyre Bas in ) Th es e .

two ba s in s a re s epa r a te d by a l o w r a n ge, wh ich ma y be sa id to

belo ng to the Queensl a n d Pla tea u , wh ile ea ch gro up is d ivid ed
in to two parts by a finger o f h igh er gro u nd Th u s th e Ma c qua rie
.

(a so uth ern tribut ary o f t h e D a rling ) is sepa ra ted fro m th e

h ea d wa ter s o f th e La ch la n (t h e no rth ern tributa ry o f th e Murra y )
by a lo ng p ro j ectio n fro m th e e a stern ra nge Th e slo p es o f th is
.

risin g ground for m th e D o wns o f Riverin a o n th e so uth and th e

La ch l a n Downs o n th e no rth It is i m p o rta n t to rea lize th a t th e
.

eastern ranges a re, in th e B lue Mo u nta ins, o nly th e edges of a

pla tea u , wh ich S lo p es gra du a lly d o wn o n to th e D a rling Vall ey,
excep t wh ere river va ll eys h a ve m a d e th e initia l slop e mo re rap id,
a nd th e a ll uvia l p l a in m o re exte ns ive Th is is sp ecia lly th e ca s e
.

in th e tributa ries o f th e Mu rra y, wh ere th e upp er c o ur s e of th e

k
river s is go rgeli e, a nd a ssu m es th e ch a racteristics of dry
regions In a ll th e interio r river s, h o wever, th e m iddle course
.

h as the sa m e typ e . Th e lo n g p erio ds o f d rough t a nd th e grea t

va riatio ns of temp era tur e lo o s en th e so il a nd th e rock faces, so
tha t wh en th e h e a vy th und ers to rms b rea k, a pro d igio us a moun t
o f s e d i m e n t is wa sh ed d o wn to th e p la in Wh ere the current is
.

ch ecked, d epos itio n fo ll o ws , a nd th e p res ent pla in level is the

res ul t of th e fil lin g up o f o l d er river va ll eys .

Th e n orth wes t tri bu ta ries o f th e D a rlin g ris e in th e pro j ecting

-

finger o f h igh la nd wh ich sta rts fro m th e western end o f th e

D a rlin g D o wns and s tretch es in a so u th wes terly d irectio n as-

fa r as B roken H il l . Fo r th e m o s t p a rt th e s trea ms n eve r rea ch

th e D a rl ing , but end o ff in s wa m p s, wh ich are for ma n y m o nths
dry a nd e ncru ste d with sa lt, excep t a ft er th e thunders torms
wh ich occasio na lly vi s it th is regio n in summ er, wh en th e mo isture
is bro ugh t by th e d eflecte d s o u th ea s t tra des fro m th e Pa cific
-
.

The lo wer cours e of t h e M u rra y D a rlin g tr avers es a s im il a r regio n,

-

wh ich extends fr o m th e Gr a m p ia n s to Bro ken Hill a nd th e

48 0 TEX TB O OK
-
OF GE O GRAPH Y

eastern s10 p es o f th e Flind ers Range Th e so u rce o f th e th u nd er

.

s t o r m s o f t h is
p a rt is h o wever t h e S o uth er n Oce a n a nd th ey
, , ,

therefo re o ccur m os tly in winter wh e n th e westerly wind a nd the

,

la nd a nd sea breezes bri ng t h e m o is ture inl a nd It is h o wever .

, ,

o ne o f t h e m o st a rid p a rt s o f t h e wh o le c o nti n e nt .

T h e wes ter n d ivis io n o f th e lo w interio r th a t o f th e fee d ers ,

o f La ke E re d erive s it s w a ter a lm o s t e ntirely fro m th e no rth

y , ,

s o th a t th ey are ful l o nly d u ring th e s u mm er m o n s o o n ; bu t a s th e

no rth er n l o w
p ressu re wh ich c a us es th e m o nso o n va ries very
, ,

m u ch in intens ity fr o m ye a r t o yea r so do es th e wa ter br o u gh t

,

do wn by th e s e strea m s va ry In so m e yea r s th e wa ter wh ich

.

re a ch es Lake Eyre is pra ctic a lly n il wh ile o cc a s io na lly fro m , ,

N o vem b er t o Feb r u a ry th ere m a y b e a p le ntiful su pp ly

,
In a ny .

c as e f or th e o th er ni ne m o nth s th e su pp ly d ep ends o n th e w a ter

, ,

o f s rings a nd o n som ewh at r a re s t o r m s wh ic h c o m e m os tly a t

p ,

t h e ch a nges o f t h e s e aso ns .

Th e strea m s wh ich c o m e fr o m th e e dge o f th e wes ter n p l a tea u

h a ve n o reg ul a r r a infa ll a nd d ep end e ntirely u po n sto r m s wh ic h ,

s ee m t o be m o re frequ e nt th a n in m o s t o th er regio n s o win g t o th e ,

s u eri o r h eigh t o f th e r a nge s wh ic h s u rro u nd La ke Am a d e u s

p .

3 .Th e Flinders and M ount Lo fty Rang e s — Th e r a nges s ta rt

fro m th e ris in g gr o u n d t o th e so u th o f La ke Eyre , a nd s epa r a tes
th e l a ke d is trict o f S o u th Au s tr a lia f ro m th e interio r ba s in o f
La ke Fr o m e , a nd fa rth er so u th , fr o m th e l o wer c o u rs e o f th e
M urr a y River ; ind ee d , th eir e a ster n spurs tu r n t h e M urra y
a br u ptly s o u th w ar ds .T o th es e r a n ges , a nd esp eci a lly t o th eir
so uth er n m em b er , is d u e t he f ertility o f th is regi o n , in th a t it is o f
s ufficie nt elev ati o n t o c o nd e ns e t h e m o is t u re br o u gh t in winter b
y
the we s terly wi nds , a nd a ls o t o dr a w in t he s ea breeze during th e
res t o f th e yea r Th u s it po ss ess es th e sa m e p ec u lia rities a s th e
.

M e d iterra n e a n regio n— viz , a sh o rt, wa rm winter , with p ro ba

.

bilit y o f ra in , a nd a l o n g , d ry s u m m er , wh en s to r m s a re th e o nly
so u rce o f ru nn ing wa ter , bu t wh ere t h e h u m i d ity o f t h e a ir is

c o ns id era ble , a nd th e m o rn ing a nd evening d ews a grea t fa cto r

in th e su pp ly o f m o isture t o vegeta tio n Th e o live , vin e, o ra nge ,
.

lem o n, a nd fig gro w to even grea ter p er fectio n th a n in th e Medit er

ra n ea n regio n . It is i m p o rta n t to c o n tr a s t th e f ertility o f th e
wester n slo p es o f th is r a nge a nd th e extra o r dina ry a rid ity o f the ,

lo w gro u nd to th e e a s t Th e lo w a llu via l p la ins u p th e c o a s t a re

.

th e grea t wh e a t d is tricts , a n d th e s e exte n d u p t o th e Gre a t La kes ,

a s fa r, in fa ct , a s th e m o is tu re s u ffice s fo r th e gro wth o f th e

p la nt a fter th e so win g ti m e
-

.
48 2 T EX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

CLIMAT E .

Po siti o n and Exte nt — Th e . fo llo wing po i n ts sh o u ld be no ted

°
1 . Extrem e Long itu des . to 1 5 3 ea st lo ngitud e = 2 400 ,

m iles .

° °
2 Extrem e La titu des
. 1 1 to 3 9 so u th l a titu d e =
.
—
m iles .

fr o m no rth o f
o
( Ta sm a n ia exten ds t o 43 % so uth l a titu de )
Lim a , in Per u , t o n o rth o f V a ld ivia , in Ch ile , o r fro m th e cen tre
o f La ke N yasa , in Afric a , t o 4 s o u th o f Ca p e Agul h a s ( ce ntr a l
°

lin e, 25 so u th l a titu d e )
°
.

3 . th e S outh ern Trop i c — No rth o f a lin e fro m th e

Inci de nc e of .

Fitzro y River , in Q u eens l a nd , pa ss in g th ro u gh th e Ma c do nnell

Ra nge o f Centra l Au s tra lia to th e wes t c o a s t between th e Ash
bu rto n a n d Ga s c o yn e River s, th e c o ntin ent lies with in th e
tro p ics .

AL T IT U D E OF T HE SU N AN D PE RC E N T AG E S U N F O R C E -

(m PAR EN T H E S I S )
IN AU S T RAL IA AN D AT GR E E N W IC H .

L at i t u d e . M arc h 21 . J u n e 21 . S ep t . 23 . Dec 21
. .

) 15 S
° °
(1 . 75 ( 96 ) (78 )
°
75 (96 ) ( 99)
'
Au s tralia b)
°
25 S . 65
°
(9 0) 4 15
°
(66 )
°
65 ( 9 0 ) o
8 8§ ( 9 9 )
°
0)
°
40 s
°
. 50 ( 76 ) 265 ( 44 )
°
50 ( 76 )
°
73 5 ( 9 6 )
°
5 8g N
o
Greenwic h . 38) (6 2 ) 62
°
(8 8 )
0
3 8 5— ( 6 2 ) 15 ° ( 26 )

Th e s e figu re s sh o w th a t— ( a ) In th e no rth o f Au s tr a lia th e a ltitu d e

o f t h e s u n is gre a ter du rin g th e wh o le ye a r
( excep t fo r a brief
p erio d o n eith er s id e o f Ju n e 21 ) th a n th e m a xi m u m a ltitu de
a t Lo n d o n ( b) in Centra l Au stra lia th e a ltitu d e fo r a bo u t seven
m o n th s is gre a ter th a n o u r m a x im u m , wh ile a t m idsu m m er th e
s u n is n e a rly vertic a l
(c ) in th e extre m e so u th o nly in win ter do es
th e a ltitu d e o f th e su n fa ll m u ch b el o w tha t o f o u r ea rly s ring
p
o r l a te au tu m n , a nd o f c o u rs e n ever fa ll s a s lo w a s o u r winter

a ltitu d e So fa r a s S un F o rce is a m ea su re o f cli m a te , th e c o rre

.
-

sp o nd in g c o ndit io ns c a n be fo u n d in th e no rth ern h e m is h ere :

p
No rth Au s tra lia = S u da n ; Cen tr a l Au s tr a lia = Sa h a ra ; So uth
Au s tra lia th e M ed iterra n e a n
:
An exa m in a tio n o f Figs 73 .
.

a n d 74 , s h o wing a ctu a l te m era t u res bea r s o u t th e c o n cl u s io ns

p ,

o f th i s th e o retic a l s u m ma ry .
 AUS TRALIA 48 3

S U M M ER ( JAN U ARY ) CO NDIT IO N S .

Fro m co a st o f New So u th Wa les the line o f 75 F

th e n o rth
°
.

b end s no rth wa rd o n a cc o un t o f th e eleva tio n o f th e Ea s tern

H igh l a n ds turns s o u th to includ e th e i nt erio r lowl a nds o f th e
,

D a rlin g and Murra y a nd is a ga in d eflected no rth by th e Flind ers

,

Ra n ge . Perth in West Au s tra lia lies o n th e m argin of th is lin e

, , .

Exce p t S o uth Victoria th e Au stra lia n Alps a nd B lue Mou nta ins
, , ,

a n d th e So uth Wes t U l a nds th e who le co ntin e nt is a bo ve 6 8

°

p
-

, F .

(m in o r tempera ture isla nds h a ve been o mitte d in Figs 73 a nd 74 .

,

th o u gh so m e ranges are cert a inly bel o w 75 Th e centre a nd

°

wes t o f Aus tr alia c o ns ist o f a p l a tea u fro m to f eet ,

in eleva tio n bu t th is is ins ufficien t t o d i m in ish th e h ea t o f

,

s u m m er to a n T h ere are h owever as in th e

y grea t exten t
'

.
, ,

Sa h a ra grea t extre m es o win g to th e dry clima te

, , .

Pressure — Th e res ult o f th is d is tributio n of temp era tu re is

.

th a t a l ow pressure system is fo rm ed in th e no rth west, towa rds

- -

wh ich th e o cean winds a re dra wn in wa r d The high pressure .

-

b elt h a s its centre no w a bo u t 3 5 so u th l a titu de

°
As th e cyclo n ic .

m o ve m en ts a re in th e d irectio n o f th e h a nds o f a clo ck in t h e

so u th ern h e m i sph ere , th e no rth e a st tr a d e is dra wn in fro m-

th e No rth Pa cific , a nd bec o m es th e no rth we st m o nso o n, a n d t h e -

s o u th e a st tra de s o n th e e a s t c o a s t te nd to
-
bec o m e e a st o r
no rth ea st
-
On th e so uth c o a s t th e preva lent winds a re so u th
.

a n d o n th e we s t c o a st ( Perth ) s o u th wes t H ence th ere is a gre a t

-

rai nf all in th e no rth wes t , no rth , a nd no rth e as t ( th e reg u l a r

- -

tro p ica l ra ins extend to a bo u t 1 7 so uth la titud e ) , a nd o n th e

°

ea s t co as t This d ec re as es to wa rds th e interior

. The in crea si ng .

d ro u gh t is a cco mp a n ie d by grea t h ea t, so th a t a s m all ra in fa ll

c a n b e of very little va lu e fo r vegeta tion Co ns equen tly, a s .

th ere is little r ain in winter excep t o n the so uth wes t, so u th , -

s o u th e ast, a nd e as t co a stl a nds , m u c h o f th e in terio r is d es ert

-

o r d ry pas tu re l a nd Th e p en etra tio n o f su mm er ra ins in la nd is

.

s o irre g ul a r th a t grea t l o ss es o cc u r in th e sh eep ru ns Fo rtu n -

.

a tely th e s a lt bu sh , wh ich flo u ri sh e s o n sa line so ils , is adm ira ble

fo r sh eep , so th a t extens io n is p o ss ible into the drier zo n e Th e .

u s e o f un d erground wa ter in th e drier pa rts o f N ew S o uth Wa le s ,

a n d t h e growth of s uita ble f o dd er , h a s re duce d th e a re a n ecessa r y

fo r a s ingle sh eep fro m 10 a cres to gl a a cre , but in m uch o f th e

interio r no wa ter ca n be o bta ined except fro m prec a rio us ra ins .
 FIG . 73 .
— AU S T RAL IA : ACT U AL Is o rnnnms ( JAN U ARY ) .

, k
T he temp erature lines are li e t h e el eva tion s o f Au strali a m ore or less
.

oonject ura l o v er t h e W est ern Pla t ea u o wing t o wa nt o f rec ord s .

48 6 T EX T B OO K -

OF GE O GRAPHY

WIN T E R ( JU LY ) CO N D IT I O N S .

O nly th e ex trem e no rth o f th e co ntin en t is a bo ve 6 8 F wh ile °

.
,

th e so u th e a s t in clu d in g th e Flind er s Ra nge th e pla ins o f N ew

-

, ,

So u th Wa le s a nd th e Ea stern H igh la nds to th e l a titu d e o f

, ,

B ris ba n e a re b elo w 50 F
,
An a rea o f h ig h p ressure is fo rm e d
°
.

in th e so uth e as t a n d cen tre o f Aus tra lia

-
S in ce th e l ow pre ssures .

lie bo th to th e so uth a nd no rth th e winds m ust be no rm a lly ,

o u t fl o wing f ro m th e c o nti n e nt As th e d irectio n o f th e winds .

is c o u nter clo ckwis e we fin d s o uth ea s t winds t o th e no rth o f

-

,
-

th e centr a l lin e o f th e h igh p re ssure a nd no rth wes t a nd no rth ,

-

ea st winds to th e so u th Th e res ultant ra i nfall is very sm a ll in

.

no rth er n tro p ic a l Au s tra l ia wh ere th e dry so uth ea st winds ,

-

bl o w o verl a nd : s ligh t a t B risb a n e [ 23 ] ( T a b le VIII a nd Fig . .

j us t o u t s ide th e tr o p ic s ; m o dera te a t Sydney [ 3 8 ] ( m a i n ra infa ll

in spring ) a nd a t M elb o ur n e [ 3 ] ( r a i n ge ner a lly d ivi d e d thr o ugh
,

t he ye a r ) ; a nd rela tively l a rge a t Ad el a id e [ 4 1 ] a nd Perth

which h a ve m ost r a i n in winter Th e h igh press u re area o f the .
-

Ind i an Ocea n is no w fa rth er n o rth a nd t h e winds wh ich bri ng ,

t he r a i n a re m ostly fro m the n o rth wes t ( of Chile p 607 -

.
, .

Th e wh e a t o f S o uth a nd W es t Au stra lia d ep ends o n ra in in

th e winter h a lf yea r wh en th e te m p er a tu re is h igh e no u gh to
-

a llo w gro wth wh ile th e sligh t s u mm er r a ins a re h a r d ly e no u gh

,

to wet th e pa rch ed l a n d H ence o win g t o th e un certa in ty o f

.
,

winter r a in s wh ea t h a rves ts a re lia ble to fa ilu re a nd th e vine

, , ,

o live a n d fruits a re gro wn with irrig a tio n

, .

As te m p era te Au s tra lia lies in th e wes t wind regio n a very ,

im po rta nt fa cto r in th e r a infall is tha t a su ccess i o n o f a nti

cyclo n es cro ss th e c o ntin ent fro m wes t to ea s t In su m m er .

th eir p a th is fa rth er so u th a nd o n th eir p os itio n d ep ends th e

,

extent to wh ich wa r m m o ist win ds c a n p en etra te in to Centra l

Au s tra lia a s fa r so u th a s No rth ern Victo ria
, In win ter th ey .

a re fa rth er no rth a n d th e so u th ern p o rtio n o f Au s tra lia es ec iall v

, p ,

Victo ria lies o p en to th e pa ssa ge o f lo w press ure a re as wh ich

,
-

bring r a in .

PRACT ICAL W OR K O N CLIM AT E .

T he fo ll o w ing ercises on t he u se o f clim a tic m a ps m ay p ro ve o f s ervice

ex .

In o rd er t o a s sist referenc e th e m a in p o in ts d ea l t w ith in t he qu estio ns

,

h a ve be en sum m a riz ed in a k ey .

1 Ill u stra t e f ro m t em p era tu re a nd ra in fa ll t he resem bl a n c e o f re io n s

.
g
o f Au s tral ia t o t h e M ed iterra n ea n a rea t he S ud a n a n d t h e S a h a ra , , .

2 Il lu s tra t e a nd expl a in t h e d ec rea se o f ra infa ll a n d t h e i n c rea se o f

.

su m m er tem p era tu re inl a nd f ro m t h e c o a s t .

 AUST RALIA 48 7

3 . W here a re winter ra ins im po rta nt fo r a gric ulture

4 .S ho w h o w th e general dire ct io n o f w ind s ca n be d ed u c ed fro m m a p s
o f t em p era tu re a n d p ressu re o f Au st ral ia .

5 .S el e ct f ro m t he ta bl es pl a c es th a t m ay be sa id t o be in trans i tion
reg io ns a nd ex pla in t he u se o f this t erm
, .

6 D is c us s th e c o nse qu en c es o f m o is t a ir being c a rried into t he interio r

.

o f Au stra l ia m o stly a t p erio d s o f grea test hea t a nd e va p o ra tio n .

FI G . 77 .
—AU S T RAL IA : K EY To CLIM AT E EX E R C IS E S AN D VEG ET AT IO N .

KEY TO CLI M AT E EX E RCIS E S .

T he num bers i n s qu a re bra ck f

ets re er to the p ositi o ns o n Fig 7 7
[ .

a n a ll are g iven i n
of the p la ces f o r which the temp era tu res a nd r i f

T a ble VIII
Th e fo llo win g p o in ts sh o ul d be no ted
Th gre a t s u m m er h e a t o f th e i nterior lo wl ands o f Ea s t
( )
a e

Aus tr a lia sh o ul d be c o ntra s te d wi th th e m o d era te wa r m th o f

t h e h igh vel d, in S o u th Afric a ( Bl o em fo n tein Ta ble VII , .
 AU S T RALIA 49 1

At s i m il a r eleva tio ns a nd a t th e sa m e l a titu de the h ighla nds of

So uth Afric a a nd Au stra lia h a ve m u ch th e sa m e su mm er te mp era
ture ; so ha ve th e e a st c o a sts
l o
a s Th e d ec rease o f r ainf all,
.

l
i n and to th e wes t is s i m il a r in bo th c o n tin e nts
, ; b ut, wh ile in
th i s p art of So uth Af rica n ea rly all th e ra in fa ll s in s u mm er, in
the p la ins o f Ea s t Aus tra lia it is d is tribu ted m ore evenly through
o u t th e ye a r see Bo urke a n d is o ften insu ffi cien t in su m m e r
(
to m o is ten th e pa rch e d la nd Th is is prej u d icia l to a gricul ture
.

excep t wh ere irriga tio n is po ss ible Ma ny o f th e rivers dry up,.

tho ugh in th e Eas tern H igh la nds th ey a re p erman ent .

(b) Th e west coast o f Australia is no t a ppreciably coo ler th an

th e e as t c o a s t (qf th e te mp era tu res o f Ro ttn es t Is la nd
. at
so m e d is ta nce fro m th e wes t co as t P erth a nd Po rt Ma c
,

qu a rie H ere, a s els ewh ere c a utio n mus t be exercis e d in

,

es tima tin g th e pro ba ble influ ence o f co l d a nd wa rm currents

o n tem er a ture a nd ra in fa ll , eve n wh e n th e
p preva iling winds
bl o w to wa rds th e l a nd .

Th e exceptio na lly co l d c u rrent o f So u th W est Afric a cool s th e -

c o ast abno rma lly ( con tra st Walvisch Ba y, 23 so uth latitu de,
°

with 20 t o 22 south la titu d e , o n th e west c o ast o f Au stralia

° °

( Ta ble V II . see a l so p Th is is a t a ny rate pa rtly

.

°
th e c a us e o f th e r a in less c o a s t, o n wh ich , fro m a bo ut 3 3 s outh
la titu de, a little no rth o f Ca p e To wn, agriculture is no t po ss ible
with o ut i rriga tio n On th e o th er h and, tempera te Wes t Australia
.

h a s m o d era te win ter r a ins , s o tha t t h e co astla nds, s outh of

s o uth l a titu d e a re s u it a ble fo r a griculture— a t a ny
°
a bo ut 28 ,

ra te , for ab out 1 50 m iles inl a nd It s ho ul d be n ote d that t h e

.

win ds , except the da y sea breez es do n ot no rma lly blo w into t he

,

c o as t
.

A c o mpa ris o n of Perth [ 3 7] with Ca p e To wn ( Ta ble VII .

a nd o f th e S o uth W es t H ighl a nds o f Au s tra lia with T a ble M oun

-

ta in ( Ta ble VII sh o ws th e clo s e res em bla nc e o f regio ns o n th e

.

wes t co ast o f Aus tra lia a nd So u th Africa wh ich h a ve winter

ra ins Th e m ore exte ns ive h igh lands o f So uth W est Australia
.
-

receive s u fli c ient ra in fo r th e gro wth o f va lu a ble h a r d wo o d fo rests

-
.

( 0 ) B etwee n the win ter ra ins o f th e so uth west a nd th e summ er

-

ra ins o f th e no rth wes t th ere is a dry bel t Owing to th e po sitio n

-
. .

o f th e h igh p ressure s ys te m o f th e Pa c ifi c ( s ee Figs 75

-
o nly .
,

s outh and s outh we s t win ds fro m higher a nd colder l atitu d e s

-

no r m a lly re a ch th i s regi o n in wi n ter ( fa rth er s outh — Perth

north wes t win ds fro m l o wer a nd wa r m er l a titu d es flow c o u nter

-
,

clo ckwis e to wards th e l and and bring ra in ) wh ile in su mm er it

, ,

lies b eyo nd th e m argin o f th e no rma l tro pic al ra ins .

49 2 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

Th e cli m a te n o tes illu s tra te clea rly t h e tra nsi ti on ch a ra cter

o f m a ny o f th e l a ce s s elec te d C o ss a ck a nd O n s l o w [ 1 5 a n d
p
o n th e m a rgin o f win ter a n d s u mm er ra ins , a nd [ 29] in th e

interio r Ad ela id e [ 4 1 ] a nd Cl a re [ 9] h a ve win ter ra ins bu t

. ,

n e a rly 40 er ce nt m o re r a in in su m m er ( N o ve m ber t o Ma rch )

p .

th an Perth ]
Veg etation .

Th e l o ng c o ntin u ed isol atio n o f Au s tra lia is ind ic a te d by th e

-

p ec u lia r typ e s o f na tive r a ces fa u na a nd flo ra ( s ee p 3 84 Wa l , ,

.
,

l a ce s line ) Th e prim itive na tive trib es c o rrespo nd to no kno w n

’
.

typ e and h a ve m os tly no t a dva nced b eyo nd the d evelo pm ent

,

o f t h e h u nti ng trib es o f t h e S t o n e Age Th e fa una is m arke d by .

m a rs u p ia ls s u ch as t h e ka nga r o o a nd d is tinctive b irds like the

, , ,

em u ( c ass o wa ry) a s i nc a a b le o f fligh t a s th e N ew Z ea la nd m o a

p ,

a nd kiwi Th es e a re t h e surviva ls o f a d is ti nctive f a una o f

.

rel a tively e no rm ous s iz e — the Aus tra li a n elepha nt a nd lio n a nd

gi a nt ka ng ar o o which flo uris he d a t a p erio d o f gre a ter ra infa ll
, ,

wh en th e s a lt swa mps o f t he interi o r f o rm ed fresh wa ter l akes -

.

A m oa exis te d sim ila r t o tha t fo u nd in h is to ric a l tim es in N ew

Z ea l a nd Th e fl or a in sp ite o f t h e gre a ter p oss ib ilities o f dis
.
,

p ers io n tha n in t h e c a s e o f t h e fa u na is l a rgely p ec u li a r t o Aus ,

t ralia The intr o ductio n o f Eu r o p e a n g r a ss es a nd a b o ve a ll

.
, ,

t he gr a zing o f c a ttle a nd s h eep h a s l a rgely m o d ifi ed a nd impr o ve d

t he ch a r a cter o f t h e na tive gra ss es O n t h e o th er h a nd gre a t .
,

ha vo c h as b ee n p r o du ce d by th e W id e exte ns i o n o f r a bb its wh ich ,

h a ve t o be kep t o fl th e sh eep r u ns a s far as p oss ible by ela b orate -

wire fe nces .

Fo rest grassla nd scru b a nd d es ert a re all represented in

, , ,

Au stra lia bu t o win g t o th e ge n era l o r s ea so na l wa n t o f ra in o f

,

m o st o f th e la n d th e tree s a n d gra ss es a re a da p ted t o d ry c o n

,

dit io ns S o m e o f th e m o st ch a ra cteristic trees a re th e d iff eren t

.

kin ds o f euc a lyp tus o r gu m trees ( gro win g to o ver 400 feet ) ,
-

Th es e a re esp ecia lly no tice a ble in th e Victo ria n A l ps th ey sh e d

th eir ba rk instea d o f th eir lea ves wh ich h ang e dgewa ys to redu ce ,

tra nsp ira tio n Like m a n y o f th e tree s o f Au stra lia th es e gu m s

.
,

ha ve a very h a rd wo o d (of th e j a rra h o f We s t Au s tra lia wh ich .

,

a l o n e c an res i s t th e W h ite a n t ) a nd a re in va lu a ble fo r h a r bo ur ,

p iles a nd m in e ti m bers As th ey a re lia ble t o s in k in wa ter.

,

little use c a n b e m a de o f rivers f or tr a nspo rt A va riety o f th e .

”
euc a lyptus o rms th e m a llee scrub spread o ver a la rge pa rt
f ,

o f th e i nteri o r M a ny Eu r o p e a n trees a ls o gr o w o n t he b etter

.

wa tered Easter n High l a nds s uch as ceda rs wa lnu ts p i nes and , , , ,

49 4 TE X T B OO K
-
OF GEO GRAPHY

w h ich so m e o f th e ea rly j o u rneys to o k p la ce Grea t pl a in s .

,

o ff eri n g n o s eri o u s o bs t a cle t o tra ns it exce p t t h e d is t a nce b etwee n

wa terho les n ecess ita ted th e e m p lo ym en t o f h o rs es and la ter

,

ca m els (cf the s i m ila r explo ra tio n a nd d evelo p m en t o f th e

.

W es tern Un ite d St ate s) Wa ggo ns and th e m o d ern m o to r

.

fa cilita te th e d evel o p m e n t o f new l a nds wh ere o wi ng t o dry , ,

c o nd itio ns tra ns it is po ss i ble with ou t m a d e r o a ds su ch c o nditio ns

,

la rgely m a d e u p fo r th e a bs ence o f na vig a ble rivers . .

Th e r a ilwa ys no w c o nn ect th e e a stern pl a in s with t h e m a in

p o rts o f th e e a s t a n d so u th c o a s ts a n d p en etra te t o th e go l d m in es
-

o f W e s t Au s tra lia in o r o n th e m a rgin o f th e d e s ert ( Co o lga r d ie )

, , .

Des ert ra ilwa ys a re p ro j ecte d t o c o nn ect Ad ela i de a nd Perth

a n d t o fo llo w t h e lin e o f t h e o verl a n d telegra ph c a ble a cro s s t h e

centre o f Au stra lia fro m so u th t o no rth .

Ra ilwa ys ha ve b een d iffic u lt t o c o nstru ct o n th e e a s t c o as t

o win g t o th e fa ct tha t t h e p la tea u h a s b ee n c ut u p int o s eg m e nt s ,

s e a ra te d b y l o ft y p recip ices
p wh ich ris e in terra ces o ne a bo ve
,

th e o th er . The lin e fro m S ydn ey t o B ris ba n e a fter cro ssin g th e ,

c o a s t lo wla n d fo r 3 6 m iles h a s t o cli m b , feet in a s i m ila r

d is ta nce ( th e o ld zigza g s h a ve b een rep la ce d by t u nn el s ) It .

w a s o win g t o th e d iffic u lties o f cr o s s ing a nd fi nd ing a s u ita ble

st o ck ro u te a cr o ss t h e B lu e M o u nt a ins th a t exp l o rers d id no t

find th eir w a y t o t h e in terio r lo wla n ds till 1 8 1 8 twen ty five yea rs ,

-

a fter th e firs t s ettle m e n t o n t h e c o a s t a n d a s t o ck r o u te w a s o nly

,

fou nd t o th e D a rlin g D o w ns in 1 8 28 Owin g t o th e na rro w go rges

.

o f th e Eas tern H igh l a n ds in wh ich a re c o n ce ntr a te d th e

, p erio d ic a l
flo o ds grea t bridges a nd e m ba nk m ent s h a ve ha d t o be c ons tructed
,

to c a rry t h e a bo ve lin e wh ich a vo ids so m e o f t h e l a byrinths by

,

fo llo w ing th e su mm it o f th e t a blela nd a bo u t 20 m ile s fro m th e

ea stern e dge o f th e es c arp m ent .

VICTORIA .

Area squa re m iles ( = é of New So u th W a l es a nd 3 5 of

1
the c o ntinent ) .

1 9 1 l Po p ul a tio n 1 3 m illio n s M el bou rne

’

Like New So u th Wa les a n d Quee ns lan d, th e c o u n try m a y be

gen era lly d ivid ed into c oa s tla nds, h igh la nds, a nd in terio r pl a ins .

Th e c o astl ands c o n s is t o f th e Vict o ria n Va lley, l a rgely a n a rea

o f u ndul a tin g l o wl a nd , ext end in g e a st a n d we s t o f M elb ourne
,

o f wh ich t h e drier we s tern p l a ins a nd do wns a re extens ively

c o vere d with vo lc anic so il , and o cc up ied by sh eep fa r m s and -

da iry fa rm s ( Geelo ng o n t h e wes t o f Po rt Ph illip h as wo o llen

-
 AU S TRALIA 49 5

m a nu fa ctu res ) , a nd th e wetter e a s t ( Gippsla nd) with c a ttle

bree d in g a nd d a iry fa r m s T w o upl a nd regio ns a re fo u nd o ne
.
,

o n e a ch s i d e o f Po rt Ph illip — th e Otwa y H ills o n th e we st,

la rgely c o vered with d ens e fo res t a nd th e wo o d ed Gippsland H ill s,
,

with da iry fa r ms in th e clea rings

-

M elbourn e l ies on ern ex trem ity o f Po rt Phill ip a bro a d inl et

t he no rth ,

whi ch bring s the t o wn 40 m il es inl a nd T h e Vi cto ria n H ig hl an d s a re

.

na rro w es t a nd l o w es t t o t h e n o rth in th e H u m e Ra n e whil e to th e ea s t

g ,

th ey rise in to a c o m pl i ca ted m o u n ta in m a ss— th e Au stralian Alps .

T h e Vic tori an Hi g hl ands c o ns is t o f a pla teau , t o th e no rth o f

M el bo u rn e , no t exceed ing f eet , a n d e a s ily cr o ss ed , a nd t h e
h igh er Au stra lia n Al p s o n th e e a st wh ich are s no w cla d in win ter , -

ris in g t o o ver feet In th e h igh l a nds a re th e go ld m ines,

.
-

o f wh ich B a lla ra t a nd B e nd igo are th e cen tres Th e d is c o very

.

o f g o l d in 1 8 5 1 c a u s e d a grea t in flux o f
po p ul a tio n to Victo ria ,
bu t th o u gh m in ers a re s till a t w o rk, t h e m a j o rity h a ve
em igra ted t o th e m o re p ro fit a ble go ldfields o f Wes t Austra lia .

A grea t p a rt o f th e h igh la n ds is o nly s u ited fo r sh eep, th o ugh

a gric u ltu re is c a rrie d o n in th e va ll eys In t h e e a s t th e fo res t is
.

d ens er , a n d t h e w a ttle is u s e d fo r ta nning .

T he interi or p l ains c o ns is t o f th e no rth ern s lo p e o f th e h igh l a n ds

t o th e M u rr a y a n d th e W im m era , wh ere t h e river s dry up a n d
th ere a re nu m ero u s s a lt l a kes Abo u t h a lf o f th is is o ccu p ied by
.

m a llee s cru b , a d en s e eu ca lyp tus fr o m 8 t o 1 2 feet h igh Wh en .

clea red, th e la nds a re s u ited fo r wh ea t The rem a in der is tree .

less, a nd is pa rtly o cc up ied by sh eep run s The dry cli m a te o f

-
.

th e n o rth ern p la ins n ea r t h e Mu rra y, a nd wh erever irrig a tio n is

p o ss ib le fr o m t he p ere nn i a l s tre a m s o f the high l a nds Re nma rk
a nd M il d ura ) , is well s uite d f o r Me d iterr a n e a n p ro ducts— th e
vi n e , o lives , ra is ins , a nd st o ne fru its o f dry la nds ( cf Per sia ) ,
-
.

s uch a s a p ric o ts a nd p e a ch e s .

Abo ut th ree fift h s o f t h e p o p u la tio n live in to wns, a m a rke d

-

co ntra st to th e co nditio ns in Cana da M el bou rn e ha s n ea rly .

inh a b ita n ts , n ea rly o n e h a l f o f the to ta l p o p u la tio n

-

As m igh t be e xp ected f ro m th e ch a r a cter o f th e co u ntry, t h e m a in

p r o du cts a re a gricul t u ra l , a nd a bou t equa l in va lu e th o s e o f th e
pa s to ra l a nd da irying i n d us tries .
49 6 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

NEW SOUTH WALES .

Area , o f t h e co n tinen t )
qua re
m il es ( = a bou t 2
s
: 4
.

19 11 Po pul a tion = 1 64 m ill io ns ; Syd ney = 62 1 000 1 9 1 1

'

: , , .

The co u ntry m a y be d ivid ed into c o a stla n ds u p l a nd p la tea u s ,

a nd m o u nt a ins ( th e Ea s tern H igh l a n ds ) , and t h e we ster n pl a in s

( pa rt o f th e i nterio r l o wla nds ) .

Th e c o astl ands a re fro m 3 0 to 100 m iles wi d e a nd a re fo r m e d ,

o f un dul a tin g pl a in s with a llu via l va lleys s ep a ra ted by lo w wo o d e d

spu rs .The m a in ha r bo u rs a re S y dney with th e m a gnificent ,

a nch o ra ge o f Po rt Ja cks o n , p oss e ss in g m o re th a n o ne th ir d o f -

th e po pul a tio n o f th e s ta te , a n d N ewc a s tle, th e c o a l p o rt Th e .

no rth ern po rtio n o f th e c o a stl a n ds is wa r m eno u gh fo r th e

gro wth o f su ga r c a n e a nd m a ize wh ile th e so uth is o ccup ied by
-

c a ttle indus tries a nd da iry fa r m in g Ora nges flo urish a t Pa ra -

m a tta Th e lo wla nd a re a s a re excee din gly f ertile o wing t o the

.

so il br o ugh t do wn by t h e t o rre ntia l river s o f t h e e a s tern s l o p e .

Th e hig hl ands ris e a brup tly fro m th e c o a stla n ds As th e .

s tr u ctu re is th a t o f a n o ld
p la te au levelled by d enu da tio n a nd
ra is ed a ga in at s evera l p erio ds, river eros io n ha s p ro du ced grea t
c o m plex ity Gen era lly a s teep es c a rpm ent fro nts th e east
.
,

th ro u gh wh ich th e rivers ru n in go rges Th es e a re les s ma rked .

o n th e west .

Sydney is thern sh o res o f Po rt J a c k

on t he so u
so n a m a gn ific en t l a n d ,

lo c k ed inl et with d eep w a t er a nd n a rro w en tra n c e Sy d ney H ead s

s o m e 3 00 m il es no rth o f Ca e H o w e t h e so u th e a s t ex trem i t
p y o f Au s tral ia
-
, .

T he River Pa ra m a tta ha s a sh o rt c o u rs e a n d brin gs l ittl e sil t in to th e ,

h a rb o u r Th e im p o rtan c e o f S y d n ey d u e to it s inl a nd c o m m unica tion

.
, ,

is o f m o d ern g ro wth A co m pa ra t ively lo w a nd bro k

. en c o a st range

( so u rc es o f Param a tta ) sep a ra tes t h e c o a st f ro m th e l o ngi tud inal vall ey

o f th e H a wk esbury River whi ch runs ro ughl y so u th to no rth to its sil t
,

c ho k ed e stua ry B ro k en B ay T he Upp er Vall ey o f the N ep ea n branch of

, .

t h e H a wk esbu ry a nd f arther so u th the Upp er Vall ey o f the H a wk

, esbury ,

f a cil ita tes rail way c o m m uni c a tio n with S o u th N ew S o u th W al es the La k e ,

G eo rge Pl a t eau t h e M u rrum b id g ee Vall ey and th en ce to th e Victo ria

, ,

p y f ro m th e wes t o f t h e H a w k
s y s t em s T he B l u e M o u n t a in s risin a b ru tl
g , es

b ury Va ll ey w ere fo r l o ng a n im p o sing ba rrier o win g t o thei r re ci ito u s

,
p p
sid ed in tri c a te val l ey s
, A w ind ing sto ckrou t e and ro a d a z igz ag railway
.
, ,

a nd e ven tu a ll y a tunn el c o nne ct ed t h e c o a s t w ith B a thu rs t a nd t he M a c

,

qua rie D o wn s On th e n o rt h a rail way follo ws the c o a st l o wl and s to

.

Newca s tl e and th en by th e Va l l ey o f t h e H un t er River c l im b s o n to the

, , ,

Li verp oo l D o wns a nd follo ws the New En la nd Pla tea u in t h e d ire ct ion o f

,
g
B ri sban e (see p .
49 8 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

QUEENSLAND .

Area = 668 , 000 q re mil es (m o re than twic e N ew So u th Wales and m ore

s ua

than one quarter o f t he c on tinent) 1 9 1 1 : Popul ation = 0 6 million

.
‘

B ri sbane
°
The Queensl and Pl ate au Queens la nd extends fro m 1 1 so uth
.
—

la titud e to 2 8 so uth , a n d is th erefo re a lm o st entirely in th e

°

tro p ics But o n th e la rge a reas o f eleva te d upla nds temper atures
.

a re no t excess ive th is is in d ica ted in Fig 73 by the is o th er ms o f

( .

a nd in the so uth res e m b le tho s e of the H igh

° °
5 0 a nd 6 8
Veld in So uth Africa (To o wo o m ba a nd W a rwick o n th e Da rling ‘

Do wns ha ve s im ila r su mm er and W in ter tem p era tures to Blo e m

fo ntein and Kim berley) Wh ea t is gro wn h ere in the upp er pa rt
.

o f the D a rlin g B as in , wh ile m a ize e x ten ds to th e c o ast over the

wetter eastern slo p es Th e sh eep d istricts lie in th e wes tern
.

a nd s outh ern o rti o n o f th e Upp er D a rlin g Bas in in th e e astern

p
p o rtio n o f th e inl a nd dr a ina ge a re a (see Figs 7 1 and 72) a nd in
‘

th e so u th ern p a rt o f th e Ca rp en ta ria Ba sin A reference to .

Fig 77 (m ean annu al ra infa ll ) an d Fig 75 (ra infa ll o f Janu ary)

. .

will sh ow tha t th is region is very dry in su mm er , and h as a much

s m a ller ra infa ll th a n th e area t o th e e a st in clu d e d with in th e lin e
o f 3 0 i nch es o f a nnu a l r a i nfa ll m o stly with in th e co ast dra inage
(
a re a ) Co ns equently, th e dis c o very o f und ergro und water and
.

the c o nstructio n o f a rtes ia n wells h a s p r o ve d o f th e great es t im

porta nce fo r th e p as to ra l in dus try Th e w a ter is stored in th e
.

p er m ea ble sands to n e wh ich un d erlies t h e imp ervio us cla y surfa ce .

Ca ttl e a nd h ors es t a ke th e p la ce o f sh ee p o n th e wetter no rth

eas tern
po rtio n of th e p la tea u .

The c o ast l owlands a re na rro w bu t th e rivers h a ve cut bro ader

“

va lleys o n the eastern ma rgin o f th e p l a tea u th an in New South

Wa les , and the intervening sp ur s o f the h ighlands are more
c omplex ( see p 478 , th e Coa st Ra n ges ) S ubtrop ica l a nd tropical
. .

a griculture is c arrie d o n f r o m m aize in the s outh t o sugar c ane -

k
,

north of Roc ham ptio n ( a t M a ck a y ) , and tro ic al

p products ,
bananas , arrowroot , c o c o nut s , a nd c o fl ee, in the regio n of greater
-

r ainfa ll f arth er north ( nea r Ca irns th e ra i nfall is 1 50 i nch es) .

Owing t o th e difficulties o f o bta ining la bo ur, du e to the exclus ion

of Asiatic s, all thes e pr o ducts a re a t present cultivated o n a small
s c ale For th e sam e re a s o n th e gre a ter pa rt of trop ic a l northern
.

Australia is still undevel op e d .

T owns on th e Co ast — Th e ch ie f o f th es e is Bris ba ne , with a bout

o ne -
qu art er o f th e t o ta l p o p u la tio n A ra ilwa y p a ss es th r o ugh
.
 AUSTRALIA 49 9

Ips wich , th e ch ief co a l centre, a nd clim bs the e sc a rp m ent to

To o wo o m b a in the D a rlin g D o wns Fro m h ere o ne bra nch .

fo llo ws th e New England Pla tea u, eventua lly d es cend ing to

Newc as tle, a nd fo llo wing th e c o as t to S ydney, and a noth er p en e
tra tes th e pa sto ra l pla ins no rth o f th e D a rling To the no rth .

of B ris ban e the line passes Gym p ie and Marybo rough to Ro ck

ha m p to n , n e a r wh ich is th e Mo un t Mo rg an gold m in e, no w pro -

du c ing m o s tly copp er Fr o m Ro c k ha mpton a no ther l ine ru ns

.

i l d to th e upp er po rtio n o f th e river kno wn a s Coop er s Creek,

n a n
’

wh ich flo ws into Lake Eyre Oth er ra ilways, fro m To wn sville .

to Ch a rter s To wer s, o ne of th e m o s t import ant goldfiel ds o f

Queens la n d, a nd Cloncurry, and fro m Ca irns and Cookto wn p ene ,

tra te th e Q ueensla nd Pla tea u Th e Great B arrier Reef s tretch es .

fo r m iles a lo ng the co ast o f Queensl and Na viga tio n o n .

th e co a s t is a ss isted by th e sh eltered cha nn el b etween th e c o ra l

reef and the land (of p 1 97, th e sk ”
ja erga ard, No rwa y) Man y o f
Townsville a t th e m o uth o f the Burdek
. . .

th e to wns in River )
pa rtly o w e th eir imp o rtance to the f a ct tha t th e rivers o n wh ich
th ey s ta nd are o ppo site to o p enin gs wh ich allow a ccess t o th e
in terio r ba sin .

T hi s f o rm s vast co ral reef ex tending som e

a mil es al ong th e no rth
ea s t c o a st o f Aus tralia f ro m T o rres S trai t to 23 south la tit ude
°
, It i s .

a b o u t 70 m il es wi d e and its ed g e lie s a t va ry in g d ista n c es f ro m th e c oa st

.

( 1 00 m il es in the south ) The in terio r c hannel is from 5 to 1 5 m il es w id e

.
,

b u t is da ngero us on ac co un t of reefs T he co ral insec t o nly th rives in f ree

.

o c ea n w a t er wh ere th ere is a b un d a n t su pply o f c al ciu m c a rbo na t e a n d

, ,

c o ns equ ently a reef is buil t up o nl y o n t h e o utwa rd edg e o f land no t bel ow ,

30 f atho m s no r above lo w tide As t h e d ep th s eawa rd f alls a b rup tly t o

.

f eet where the bottom co ns i sts of bro k

, en coral it is a ssum ed tha t t he ,

la n d h a s b een gra duall y su bsidin g a nd t h a t t h e ba rrier mark s th e e d e o f

,
g
t h e o ld Co n tinent a l Shelf It ha s p ro ba bly a lso ex t end ed sea wa rd by gro w ing
.

u p o n t h e t a l u s f o rm ed b y c o ra l bro k en o ff by the wa ves which are s o im ,

p o sing a ll a lo ng t he reef T h e s u b sid en ce o f

. f eet is c o rro bo ra t ed by
t h e w o rk of
g eolo gists inl a nd Th e d ea d c oral con sists of calc iu m c a rbo na t e
.
,

whi ch is so luble in water a nd c arb onic a cid g as Co ns equently w h ere t h e

, . ,

ri ver wa ter flo ws the cha nn el has b een kep t cl ear sinc e early d ay s a nd
-
, ,

t h e d eep cha nnel s s ea wa rds c o rresp on d w ith th e mo uths of big rivers —e g .

t h e B urd ek in Within the limits of t h e reef sol utio n of the cal cium c a r
. ,

b o na te f o rms the c ha nnels a nd grea t p ool s an d pro ba bly h elp s to c o ns o li da t e,

t h e c o ra l b elo w by p erc ola tio n a n d recry st a lliz a tio n Many p a rt s o f t h e .

reef f orm isla nds o n which s eeds bro ugh t by bird s hav e g erm inat ed a nd
.

p ro d u c ed a p ec ulia r veg eta tio n At oll reefs a nd cora l reef s g enera lly
.

p ro ba bly ha v e a sim ila r o rigin Da rwin s t heory of coral reef s is pra ctica lly
’
.

un c h all eng ed t ho ugh m o di fied by re c ent o bservers

, .
5 00 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY .

S outh Aus tral ia Area = 3 8 0 000 s qu a re m il es (abo u t J

. r of th e co n tin en t ) .

191 1 : Po pu la tio n = 4 m ill io n ; Adela id e = 192 000 , .

N orthem T erri tory Area = 524 000 s qu a re mil es (a bo u t 1

, ; of th e c on ti
e

n en t ) 1 9 1 1 : Po pul a tio n = 0 003 m illi on

'

. .

( Sinc e 1 9 1 0 und er th e Co m mo nwea l th ) .

The North ern Territory is a s yet u nd evelo p e d, excep t fo r a little

m ining a nd p earl fishing Po rt D a rwin is th e term inu s o f the
-
.

o verla n d telegraph c able , wh ich cr o ss es th e dry interio r t o

Ad el a id e A tra nsco nt inent a l ra ilwa y is to be built
. Th e c e ntral .

p ortio n is p artly d esert and partly up la nds , s uch as th e Ma c do nn ell

Ch a in . Th i s c o ns is ts of m a n y p a ra llel ranges wh ich ris e from
‘

to feet a b ove the gen er a l level of the t ab lel a nd Dis .

conn ected ra nges c o ntinue t o t he s o uth e ast to t he Denis on -

Ran ge t o t h e we st o f La ke Eyre Th es e upla nds th o ugh low ,

.
,

precip itate s ufficient m o istu re f or t h e d evelo pm ent o f sh o rt rivers,

a nd f o rm a s crub b elt betwee n t he d es ert fl a ts n orth o f La ke

Eyre a nd t h e wester n desert , a re o f s upre m e imp o rta nce for the

p e netr a ti o n o f s ettlem e nts int o t h e interi o r Round La ke Eyre , .

o fte n a ch a in of salt l ake s a nd sw a mps, is a n a re a b el o w sea

level Owing to the existen ce o f wa ter b elow an i mp erm eable
.

cl a y c a p , as in Queensland a rtesia n wells provi d e irriga ti on over

,

lim ited a reas , which rend ers cultiv a tion possible O strich es are .

rea red a s in Cap e Colony .

Wh ea t is gro wn o n th e Flin d ers Ra n ge, and th e vin e is im po rtant

(see p . Owin g to th e extent of dry la nds o nl y su ited for
pa s tu re, th e m a in pro duct is wo o l Co pp er is m in ed ro und .

Sp encer Gul f .

WEST AUSTRALIA .

Area = 9 76 000 squa re mil es ( k

, o f t h e c o n tinen t a nd 8 tim e s th e United

Kingdo m ) 1 9 11 : Po pul a ti o n = 0 28 millio n Perth = 5 4 000

'

. .
,

Th e c o u n try is pa rtly tro p ic a l a n d p artly wa r m te m p era te .

In th e no rth the Kimberley regio n is a mo un taino us co un try

( belo w feet) , fertile a nd well wa tered, but little o p ened up,
excep t fo r m in ing and p ea rl fish in g o n th e co ast , wh ere th ere are
-

m a n y ind enta tio ns and na tu ra l ha rbo u rs In th e north wes tern .

-

and we s te rn d ivi s i o ns th ere is a s c a n ty r a in fa ll b etwee n

°
1 8 a nd
28 so u th la titude , but owing t o th e eleva tio n o f t h e r a nge s a nd
°

l a te a u s , th ere are la rge river s (s ee t he o ro gra ph ica l m a

p p ) wh ich ,

fl o w in d eep go rges b etween ba rren u pl a nds , wh ich a re o ften

502 TEX T B O O K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

Go ld is m i n e d , d
c o a l of a g o od qu ality
an is t i e d for l o c a l
ob a n

p urp o s es A r a ilwa y c o nn ects Str ah a n o n

.
,
M a cqu a rie Ha rb o ur ,

with Emu B a y o n th e no rth c o ast

,
.

FIG . 78 .
—
T AS M AN IA : R EL IE F .

N o t e t h e c o nn ect io n b etw een c o nfigura tio n a nd ra inf a ll The p lat ea u ,

lik
.

e t h a t o f S c o t l a n d is tren ch ed by rive rs T h ere a re n u m erous

gl a cia l l ak
, .

es .

O n th e e a st is
rel a tive depressi o n not m uch a bo ve
a feet ,

( see Fig . f o rm ed b y th e M a cqua rie River a tribu t ary o f the ,

T a ma r a t t h e m o uth o f whic h st an ds Lau ncest o n a nd b y the

, ,

Jor da n River wh ich fl o ws int o t h e D erm ent es tua ry o n which

, ,

H o b art is s itu a te d Th e m a in li ne o f c o mm u nic a ti o n fr o m n orth

.

t o so ut h f o ll o ws th e va lleys o f th e M a cqu arie a n d t h e Co a l River ,

which fl o ws i nt o a b a y e ast o f t he Derwent Th e eas t c oast is .

 AUST RALIA 503

b ord ered by a n irregula r r a nge o f m o u nt a i ns , of whic h B en

Lom o nd j us t excee ds feet Owing t o th e preva iling wi nds
.

a nd ge ner a l c o nfig ura ti o n th ere a re m a rke d d iff ere nces b etwee n

the wet western a nd t he drier e as ter n s lopes of the pla te au,

whi ch a re s uited fo r sh eep Fruit gr o wing ( especia lly a pples)
.

is i m po rt ant in th e dr s o uth —e a s t
y The clima te of Hobart [ 6] .

is ve ry s i m il a r to tha t o f Pe nza nce .

NEW GUINEA .

Area a bo u t q
s ua re mil es (la rg er tha n B o rn eo ) B ritis h New Guinea
.

( Pa p ua ) = a bo u t s q u a re m il e s .

New Guin ea is entirely tro p ica l b eing s itu at e d between th e ,

Equ a tor a nd I0 so uth la titu d e a nd o w ing to th e gre a t ra infa ll

° '

is l a rgely co vere d with d ens e fo res t A lo f ty ra nge of m o unta ins,

.

s o m e o f wh ich ris e a bo ve th e lin e o f p erm a n en t sno w , ex tends

fro m east to west, but mo s t o f th e interio r is still unkno wn The .

la rgest river is the Fly, o n th e western bo r der o f the British

sph ere , wh ic h is na viga ble fo r 50 0 m iles British New Guinea .

is no w c o ntro ll e d by th e Au stra lia n Co mm o nwea lth The ch ief .

s ettle m ent is Po rt Mo re s b y Sandal wo o d a nd o th er va lua ble

.

tim ber and cop ra are e xpo rted Th ere is so m e cultivatio n o f

.

rubber and co ff ee, bu t a s yet tro p ic a l a griculture h as been l ittle

d evelo p e d .

Q U EST ION S .

1On th e o ro g rap hi c al m a p o f Au st ral ia d ra w the region of inl and

.

d ra ina ge Nam e th e B l u e M o un ta in s Au stral ian Alp s Flind ers Range ,

. , ,

D a rl ing Do wns , a nd t he Ri vers M u r ray La chl a n Condamine Burd ek ,

in , , ,

a nd H u nt er .

2 Ind ic a te o n th e m a p th e m a in a rea s whe re wh eat is gro wn a nd where

.

sheep a nd ca ttl e a re p as tu red M a rkth e regio n s wh ere su ga r is c ul tiva ted

. .

Expla in t h e c o nne ctio n b etween cli m a t e a nd p ro d u ct s .

3 Dra w the ra il way s f ro m M elb o u rn e to Sy dn ey and f ro m Sydney to

. ,

B risbane Expl ain wh y th ey d o no t f o l l o w t he co a st a nd a cco unt fo r th e

. ,

ea rly iso la tio n of Sy d ney Wh y i s there a t pres ent no c o ntinuou s line

.

fro m B risb an e to Co o k t o wn
4 D esc rib e t he p o sitio n o f S y d ney an d M el bo u rne and ac count for thei r
. ,

im po rtanc e .

5 Gi v e exam pl es o f th e in flu enc e o f a ba rri er ra n ge in c hec k

.
ing explo ra
tio n To wha t ext en t were exp l o ra tio n and settl em en t hindered by
.

d es er ts Desc ribe m o dern m e th o d s o f o b ta inin g wa ter in d ry regions

-

6 W hat u se is b ein g m a d e o f t h e t ro pic al po ssessio ns of Au stralia ?

.

Wha t problem s a re invo l ved in th eir d e velo pm en t

7 Describe t wo d iff erent typ es o f Pa c ifi c Isl and s
.
Can y ou d istinguish .

at all between the pro duct s that c an be cultivated lin eac h

504 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

NEW Z EALAND .

T he to tal a rea N ew Z ealand = 1 04 75 1 s qu a re mil es

of o f t he B ritish
,

Isl es ) . 1 9 1 1 : Po pul at io n = l m il lio n Au ck

l a nd = 1 00 000 .
, .

Co nfig uratio n .

North Isl and — Co ntin u o u s ra nges ext end fro m Wellin gto n to
.

th e Ea s t Ca p e na rro w exce pt in th e centre a nd no rth a nd

, , ,

no t m o re th a n f eet h igh a nd a pa ra llel r a n ge o f lo wer ,

eleva tio n ru ns n ea r th e co a st fro m th e so u th ea s t extrem ity to -

Ha wke s Ba y B etwee n th es e lines o f m o u nta in th e Wa ira ra pa

’
.

a nd Ha wke s Ba y Pl a in s
’
like th e Ca nter bu ry Pla ins o f river ,

o rigin a re fo llo we d b y th e ra ilwa y fr o m W el lin gto n t o Na p ier ;

,

b o th a re o cc u p ie d by da iry fa r m s wh ich flo u rish o n th e clea red -

bu sh la nd .

In th e so u th west o f th e is l a nd is th e W a n ga nui Pla i n a t a ble

-

l a nd w ith a n eleva ti o n n ea r Mo u nt Ru ap eh u o f a bo u t feet .

Th o u gh th is p la in c o nta ins m a n y a rea s o f c o m p a ra tively level

l a nd it is tra versed by d eep g o rges wh ich rend ered th e c o nstruc
, ,

tio n o f th e m a in line very d iffi cu lt b etween Au ckla nd a nd Welling

ton . O n t h e b o r d ers are t w o l o fty volc ani c a re as M o unt Egm o nt , ,

o r Ta r a na ki a p er f ect c o n e o f a b o u t
,
feet which ris es t o ,

t h e level o f p erm an e nt s n o w a nd t o t h e n o rth th e m o u nt a ins of ,

Ru a pehu f eet ) N gauruh o e a nd T o n ga rir o ,

Th e s e c o nes ,
.

lie o n th e s ou th er n m argin o f t h e v o lc a nic p la te au to

feet ) whic h extends t o th e B a y o f Plenty It is spread
,
.

with l a va p um ice a nd v o lc a nic a sh a nd th e so il is gener a lly

, , ,

p o r o us a nd i nf ertile b ei ng c o vere d b y a th i n gr o wth o f br a cke n

,
.

La ke Ta u p o Ro torua a nd m a ny o th er la ke s lie in d epre ssio ns

, ,

f o r m ed b y sub s id ence d u ring v o lc a nic erupti o ns Th ere are .

nu m er o u s geys er s— a s in t h e Y ell o w st o n e Na ti o na l Pa rk— a nd

th e regio n is s ub j ect t o e arth qu a ke s .

On t h e wes t a re t h e Pla ins o f th e Wa ika to a n d Th a m e s Rivers ,

wh ich lie co m pa ra tively lo w ( 1 00 f eet ) a nd are a lso c o vered by

pu m ice wh ich h a s b een br o u gh t do wn b y th e river s fro m th e
,

vo lca n ic d istricts ; bu t th ere are co ns idera ble a rea s o f go o d so il ,

wh ere th e fin er pa rticles h a ve been d epo sited in th e fo r m o f cla y

o wi ng to t h e sl a cke n ing o f th e c u rre nt s Th e nu m ero us s wa mp .

l a nds a re du e to th is m o re fin ely d ivid ed a nd less po r ou s so il

wh ich u nd erlies th e pum ice The No rth er n Pe ninsu la which .
,

s tretch e s f or m o re th a n 20 0 m ile s t o t h e n o rth e a s t o f Auckl a n d -

is rem a rka b le fo r its d eep ly i nd e nte d c o a s t with nu m er o u s creek s

506 TEX T B OO K-
OF GE O GRAPHY

S o uth Isl and — If a lin e is d ra wn fro m Pelo ru s Sou nd , in the

.

no rth we st , to th e so uth c o a s t, s ep a r a ting th e rivers tha t fl o w

-

west, no rth west, and so u th west fro m th o s e th a t flow east a nd

- -

so uth it will be f o u nd th a t in t h e n o rth th e wa tersh e d is a bout

,

equid is tant between eas t a nd wes t ; th is is m arked by a lin e of

h igh m ou nta ins, th e So uth ern Al ps T he B uller River is th e .

o nly c o nsid era ble wes t co a st s tream In t h e north east the

-

.
-

pa ra llel Va lleys o f th e Wa ira u a n d Cla ren ce are s epara ted by

mo unta in ra nges, with a genera l so u th wes t t o no rth east direc - -

tio n The Gorge o f th e Cla rence, b etween th e inland and sea

k
.

wa rd Kai o uras, is excep tio nally d eep a nd p recip itous To the .

so u th th e wa tersh e d tren ds towa r ds th e wes t c o as t , to wh ich

o nl y sho rt rivers fl o w, wh ile co m p a r a tively lo n g rivers d ra in the

Canterbury Plai ns a nd Ota go Of th es e th e Cluth a is th e m ost

.

important ; it cuts thro u gh th ree o f th e m o unta in ridges wh ich

ext end th ro ugh Otago in a no rth no rth ea s t t o so uth so uth west - - - -

d irectio n, genera lly par a llel to th e m a in ch a in .

Nu m ero us l ak es, so m e o f wh ich a re o f great d epth and re

s e m ble th e so uth we st fj o r ds in str u ct u re , lie to th e e ast o f th e
-

wa tersh ed Amo ng th es e m a y be m entio n ed T ekapo feet ),

Wak
.

at ipu, Te Ana u , a nd M a na po uri Th e S o uth ern Alps (see .

p 5 09 , North We st wi nds ) ha ve l a rge gla cier s, are h igh e st in

-
.

th e ce ntre , wh ere Ao r a ngi ( M o unt Co o k ) is o ver feet .

Comm unic a ti o n a cr o ss th em is genera lly diffi cul t , though the

Otira Gorge a llows a ccess b etween th e Canterb ury Pl ains and
the Westl a nd Pla i ns ; th is is cr oss e d b y a co a ch ro a d In the -
.

s outh a touri st route le a ds f r om La ke T e Ana u to th e we st co ast .

In a dd itio n to t he exte ns ive So u th l a nd Pl a ins , t h ere are num erous

sm a ller p l a i ns in Ot a go b etwee n t he m o u nt a i n ra nges Many of .

th es e are dry eno ugh t o n eed irrig ation ow ing to th eir sh eltered
po sitio n (see p .T h ey are well a da p te d f or fruit .

S tewart Is l and ( 664 s qu a re m iles ) lies a bo ut 25 m iles to th e

so uth a nd is s epa ra te d f ro m th e m a i nl a nd b y Fo vea u x S tra it .

It is ro cky a nd fores t cla d a n d h a s m a n y fj o rds

-

It was o nce a .

fa mous wha lin g and s eal in g res o rt It is m uch vis ited by .

to urists in sum m er Amo n g t h e o u tlying is lands, wh ich are all

.

relatively sma ll , a re th e Ch a th a m Isla nds ( 53 6 m iles east o f

Lyttelt o n) , us e d fo r sh ee p gra zin g , a nd the v o lc a nic Kermadec
Isla nds ( 600 m iles no rth e a s t fr o m Au ckla nd) -

The Auckla nd .

Isl a nds in t he s outh a re u s e d as a d ep ot for supplies for sh ip

wrecked sa il o rs Oth er is l a nds a re the Antipo des, B ounty Island,
.

a nd Ca m pb ell Is l a nd In the north of the North Isl a nd are the

.

Three Ki ngs .
 NEW ZEALAND 507

Coast and H arbours .

North Isl and — The m o st i mpo rtant ha rbo urs are Wellingto n
.

a nd Auckl a nd . W elling ton, o n Po rt N ich o l so n, is a la rge l and

l o cke d h arbour, with a d eep wa ter ba s in Auck -
l and has a .

S i m i la r ha r bo ur Bo th will a dm it sh ips d ra wing a bove 3 0 feet

. .

Th e vo lc anic cones wh ich su rro un d Au ckl and are of c o ns ider able

s ervice as la ndm arks .

Th ere a re m a ny go o d ha rb o urs o n th e in d ented coa st no rth

k
wes t of Haura i Gul f, bu t o wing to th e co n centra tio n of sh ipp ing
in Auckl and th ey a re o nl y o f lo c a l im o rta nce On th e no rth
p .

wes t co ast th e inlets a re blo cked by sandban ks, bro ugh t fro m
th e n o rth wes t by tida l c u rrents
-
Ma nu kau Ha rbo ur is of va lue
.

for lo c al traffi c to Oneh unga so u th o f Au ckl and To th e no rth

.
, .

of It, Ka ipara Ha rbour h as a la rge a nd d eep basin , but th e bar and

sh ifting sho a ls New Plym o uth
p revent it s b eco m in g im p o rta nt .

i s a n a rtificia l h a rbo ur
p ro tected by a brea kwa ter it is i mportant
a s th e outlet for th e Ta r a na ki d a iry In the B igh t of
p r o du ce
-
.

Ta ra na ki th ere are o nly s m a ll river h a rbo u rs with ba rs On th e .

e st co as t are Nap ier, o n Ha wke s Ba y, with an a rtificial brea k

a
’

wa ter, and Gisbo rn e, o n Po verty B a y a ro adstead with fa ir ,

p ro tectio n fo r shipping .

South Isl and — On th e no rth e a st o f th e So uth Isla nd are a

.
-

s eries of re m a rka ble s o u nds wh ere m o un ta in spurs and islands

,

s ep a ra te dee p win d in g inl ets T h e s e a fl o rd typ ic a l ins tan ce s o f

.

the s ubm ergence o f a h igh m o unta in o us la nd d eeply trench ed by

river va lleys The ch ief po rt is Picto n, a t th e h ead of Queen
.

Cha rlo tte S o und, th e cen tre fo r th e e xp o rt o f wool , ba rley, a nd

m utto n fro m th e Wa ira u Pla ins a n d Ma rlbo ro ugh H ills Th e .

country has a dry clim a te (see Fig mo s t of the ra in fa ll ing .

in win ter a nd sp ring Th e m ildn es s o f th e winter a llows o ra nges

.

lemo ns, and figs to be gro wn in fa vo urable p os itio ns alo ng the

sh ores of th e so un ds English fruit trees, s uch as the a pple ,
.
-

p lum , p ea r, ch erry, etc , flo u rish th ro u gh o ut th e low country

. .

Nelso n, o n Tasm a n B a y, lies a t th e c o m m ence m ent of a lo w

gra nite co as t with sha ll o w inl ets Th e h a rbour, wh ich is the .

o utl et o f th e Wa im e a Pl a ins , is fo r m e d by a sh ingle ban k, th rough

wh ich an o p ening ha s been cut At th e no rth west extrem ity .
-

of the So uth Isl a nd is th e 1 4 m ile sa ndsp it o f Cap e Fa rewell ,

-

fo r m ed fro m th e ma teria l bro ugh t by th e currents wh ich sweep

north alo ng th e wes t co a st .

B etwee n Cap e Fa rewell a nd M ilfo rd So und th e co ast is little

i ndente d, and the o nly inlets a re a t river mouths, which are
5 08 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

us ua lly sh a ll o w o wing to th e la rge a mo un t of sed im ent brough t

,

do wn fro m t h e Al p s Greymo uth a n d We stpo rt t h e ch ief co a l

. ,

ha rbour o f N ew Z ea l a nd a re sm a ll a rtificia l ha rbo u rs ,

Gravel .

be a ch e s fo r m ba rs wh ich tend t o bl o ck th e river m o u th s till th e

,

fj o r ds are re a ch e d so uth o f M il fo r d Sound ( 1 3 0 f eet a t m o uth ,

feet a t h ea d ) Like all tru e fj o r ds th ese are shallo west

.
,

n ea r th e m o uth As in No rwa y s teep wa lls o f s ever a l th o u sand

.
,

feet in eleva tio n co m e do wn to th e wa ter level Owin g t o th e -

.

grea t ra infa ll gl a ciers surro und ed by a luxu ria nt evergreen

, ,

fo re st rea ch to with in a bo ut 700 feet o f s ea level

,
-
.

On th e so u th c o ast th e Blufl is a go o d tho ugh s m a ll ha rbo ur .

It is the po rt o f Invercarg ill th e centre fo r th e expo rt o f m utto n ,

a nd w o o l Stewa rt Isl a nd ha s go o d ha rbo ur s wh ich fa vo ur

.
,

fish ing .It is m u ch frequente d a s a ple asure reso rt Th e ea st .

c o ast is reg u l a r in outline excep t fo r th e Ota go a nd Banks ,

Pe n insula s c o m p o s ed of vo lc a n ic ro ck wh ich s tand o u t pro m i

, ,

n ent ly o w in g to its grea ter po wer o f re s is ta n ce D unedi n a nd .

,

its outer po rt Po rt Ch a lm ers a ccess ible fo r la rge vess el s is th e

, , ,

centre of th e Ota go expo rt o f fro zen mutto n Po rt Lyttelto n .

,

co nnected with Christch urch by a ra ilwa y exp o rts wh ea t fro m ,

th e Ca nter bu ry Pl a in s a s well a s m u tto n Aka ro a Ha r bo ur a .

,

sple ndid na tu ra l inlet o n th e so u th o f th e Ba nks P e n insula is , ,

like th e S o u nds a nd the so uth wes t fj o r ds little u s ed o wing to -

its di s ta nce f ro m th e ma in la nd B anks Pen insu la is well suite d .

fo r da iry p ro du ce Ar tificia l ha rbo u rs h a ve b een co ns tructe d at

.

T i ma ru and O a m a ru t he o u tlets o f Centra l Ota go

, .

Climate — Th e two islands lie o n th e c o nfine s o f th e So uth

Pacific a nd So u th er n Ocea n , so m e m iles s o u th e a st from -

So uth East Aus tra lia , fro m wh ic h th ey are s epar a ted b y d eep sea
-
.

Th eir ge ner a l d irectio n is no rth e a st to so uth we st ; 40 so uth

° - -

l a titud e appr o xim ately d ivides t h e North a nd S o u th Islands .

The Sun Fo rce , th erefo re , is tha t o f th e Pe ninsul a o f Ita ly, with

-

s e as o ns revers e d, bu t th e i nsu l a r ch a r a cter of New Z ea la nd a nd

th e col d cu rre nts from t h e So uth ern Oce a n re du ce th e a ver age
tempera ture o f the S outh Isl and As the islands are a pproxi .

m ately
°
m iles l o ng ( 12 o f l a titu d e ) , a c o nsidera b le d iff erence
o f te mp er a tu re m igh t be exp ecte d b etwee n th e no rth a n d so uth

extrem ities (see Ta ble IX , wh ere it will be no te d th a t th ere is .

°
o nly a d i ff ere n ce o f 1 0 F in 1 1 o f l a titud e b etwee n M a ngo nui [ I]
°
.

( Table IX a nd Fig 80) a nd D u n e di n

. . in bo th su mm er a nd
wi nter .

Th ere are o n ly sligh t d iff eren ces of temp era ture betwee n th e
510 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

FIG . 80 .
— NE W Z E AL AN D :M E AN AN N U AL R AIN FALL AN D KEY TO
CLIM AT E Ex nnors ns .

N o t e th e infl u enc e of relief on ra infall a nd th e ra in sh a d o w in O t a go .

5 12 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Octo ber ) bu t no regio ns h ave rea l dro ugh t in su mm er a nd as

, ,

th e win ter te m p era tures n ever fa ll very lo w th e growth of ,

vegetatio n is ha r dly interrup ted by a p erio d o f rest In the .

North Isla nd fo ra ge p lants a nd gr ass e s gro w th ro ugh o ut th e yea r

with little interm iss io n Even h ere th ere a re fro s ts in th e more
.

el eva ted in terio r of W ellingto n a nd in the S o u th Island the h igh er ,

pla ins of Ca nterbury a nd Ota go wh ich are m o s tly co ntin enta l in ,

chara cter have lo w tem p era tu res in win ter In mo st regio ns

,
.
,

ho wever sto ck c a n live with o u t win ter fo o d th ough in varying

, ,

co nditio n English grass es th rive wh erever th e na tive grass

.

a nd fern h a s been cle a re d o r burn t On the who le gra zing la nds .

,
-

ha ve much grea ter va lu e th a n in Aus tra lia a s the re sult o f the ,

temp era te o ceanic cli ma te .

T e mp er atu re pr o duces c o ns id era ble d ifferen ce in p ro ducts a s ,

is to b e exp ected fro m th e len gth o f th e isl a nds ( 1 2 appro xi

°

m a tely) . Fruits su ch as apples plu m s p ea ch es and apric o ts

, , , ,

rip en well in th e Wa ika to Valley a nd Ha wke s B a y (Nelso n is ’

t he ch ief centre o f fr u it c a nn ing a n d ja m m a king ) wh ere the

- -

so il a nd drier su mm er with abu nda nt su nsh ine ( well marke d

,
-

generally in New Zea la nd ) is fa vo u ra ble fo r fruit Even ,

.

o ra nge s a nd gra p e s will gro w su cce ss fu lly in th e No rth Auckl a nd

Pe ninsul a a nd a c o ns id era ble a m o un t o f m a ize is pro duce d

, ,

esp ecia lly by Mao ris in th e well sh eltere d c o a stlands o f the Ba y

,
-

o f Ple nty New Z e a la nd fl a x (P horrmu rn tena nt) gro ws a bunda ntly

'

in th e s wa mpl a nds esp ecia lly in th e No rth Isl a nd th is p r o vide s

,

a valu a ble ma teri a l fo r c o r d a ge bu t it s exp o rt is re stricte d by ,

the c o mp etitio n o f M a nill a h em p A very v a lu a ble timber is .

th e k auri wh ic h s o m eti m es rea ch es 60 feet in girth

, .

This is fo und ma inl y no rth o f 3 9 so u th la titud e c hi efly in Au ck

°
la nd ,
.

It is a sl o w g ro wing tree whi ch is in grea t d em a nd fo r the pl ank

-
ing and
dec k ing o f ships for m a sts and h ous e b ui lding It is fl oa te d do wn the rivers
, ,
-
. .

o r d ra wn by o xen a l ong rou g h c o rd u ro y ro a d s co m posed o f l o gs laid c ro ss

way s . Kauri g um is a resin derived from d eca y ed trees which is l argely ,

ex po rted fro m No rth Au ck l an d fo r th e m a k

in g o f o il va rnishes .

Th ere are m a ny va lua ble tim b ers th ro u gho ut th e is la nds .

The wh ite pin e is u s e d l a rgely fo r m a kin g butter bo xes for th e

flourish ing dairy ing regi ons o f Ta ra na ki a nd Wellin gto n wh ere ,

the l arger ra in fall p ro d uces a rich er gr a ss m o re suite d fo r ca ttle

than sh eep Butter in th e No rth Isl a n d a nd ch ees e in Otago
.
, ,

a nd So uth l a nd
pa y b etter th a n a gricu lture tho ugh wh e at a nd
, ,

c a ts a re gr o wn extens ively in t h e Canterbury Pl ains and Ot a g o .

In bo th isl a nds sh ee p ( wo o l a n d fro zen mutto n) fo rm fa r th e

514 TEXT B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

wes t lo ngitude and 23 a nd 8 so uth l a titu de Th e n e a res t t o

° °
.

th e m a inla nd is N iue o r Sa va ge Is l and wh ich lies a bo u t

m ile s f ro m Auc k
, ,

l and It h as a n are a o f a bout 100 s qu a re m iles

.
,

a n d is th e l arge st o f th e isl a nd
poss ess io ns It is c o mpo sed .

e ntirely o f uph e a ved c o ra l ris ing to a bo u t 220 f eet and is su r , ,

ro u nd ed by a f rin gin g su rf bea ten reef th ro u gh wh ich th ere is

,
-

o nly a p a ss age fo r sm a ll bo at s Th ere is m uch fo rest o f e bo n y .

a nd h a r dw o o d but it is a s yet little us e d

,
Th e ch ief indu stries are .

co nnected with th e ma kin g of h a ts fro m a k ind o f panda nus and ,

co pra As in th e Bah a m as and Bermu da s (see p 588 d rin king)

. .
,

wa ter is d iffi cul t to o bt ain o win g to the po ro us so il ,

.

The l a rgest o f t he CookIsl ands is Raro tong a ( 22 s quare m iles ) ,

wh ich rea ch es feet Th is belo ngs to the vo lc anic gro up o f

.

i sl ands The prin cipa l pro ducts are c o pra and bananas Th e
. .

s m a ll ha r bo urs a re in s ecure d u rin g hu rric an es ( Dece mber t o

Ma rch ) .

M ang ai a (30 s qu are m il e s ) h a s a re m a rka ble stru ctu re It is .

s u rro un d e d at a sh ort d ist a nce i nl a nd fr o m t h e sh o re b

y a n a l mo s t
p erp en d icul a r w a ll o f d e a d c o r a l p ro ba bly r a is ed by vo lc an ic ,

a gen cie s a bo ut 1 00 feet h igh wh ich s lo p e s gr a du a lly do wn to a

, ,

rich sw a mpland with t a r o pla n t atio ns The in terio r ris es to a

, .

lo w pla te a u ( 650 feet ) well wa tere d by s tre a ms

, Citrus a nd o th er .

f ruits a n d c o ff ee are gro wn in po ckets o f fe rtile so il o n th e to p o f

th e c o r a l w a ll wh ich a vera ge s a mil e in width
, Oranges ba nanas .
, ,

a nd c o c o nuts a re a m o ng th e Th e i sl and is
p rincip a l expo rts
-
.

entirel y surro un ded by a fringing reef with no o p en ing Co m , .

m u nic a t io n is c a rrie d o n by m e a ns o f native c a no e s Bo a t .

p a ssa ge s a re being o p e n e d .

S ix to s even h un dred m iles to t he no rth are th e north ern atolls ,

lo w rings of c o r a l enclo s ing tid a l l a go o ns an d d ens ely covered ,

with c o co nuts Suwarro w 53 0 m iles north o f Raro to ng a a nd

-
.
,

500 m iles e as t o f S a mo a is th e o nly s a fe h ar bo u r between Tah iti

,

and Pan go Pa n go
(Sa mo a ) P ea rl sh ell and co p r a a re th e .
,

princip a l pro du cts An o th er a to ll is Pe nrh y n It is a r ing o f

. .

c o ral 4 8 m ile s r o u nd o n th e m a rgi n o f wh ich a re a nu mber o f

, ,

lo w is l a nds o nly a few h undre d yards in wid th Th e l a g o o n .

insi de th e frin ging reef covers 90 s qua re m iles of which area ,

ne arly o ne thir d co nt a i ns p e arl sh ell

- -

.
 NEW Z EALAND 5 15

Q UEST ION S .

1 . D esc ribe ty p es of h a rbo urs fo un d o n t he c o a sts o f New

t he m a in
Zealan d W ha t c o a sts ha ve the best na tural harbo u rs I
.
‘

2 D es c ri be a vol c an ic a rea in th e No rth Isla nd the fj o rd s th e so und s

.
, , ,

and a lak
e regio n .

3 W hy is th e cl im a te o f New Zealand f a vo u ra ble ( a ) t o the

.
gro wt h of

g ra s s ( b) to f rui t
,

4 Wh a t a re th e m a in t ro p ic al p o ssessio ns o f Ne w Zeal a nd
. Give an

a cc o un t o f o ne o f t h e island s .

5 W h a t in fluenc e do th e So u thern Al p s h a ve o n clim a te a nd c o m m unica

.

tio n
6 . Wh a t ad v a n t a g es of po sitio n a re es sed
p o ss by W ell in gto n an d Ch ris t
ch u rc h
7 . Wh a t d iff eren c e of clim a te wo uld yo u expe ct at B eal ey M a ngo nu i ,

[l] , a nd Ho k
i t ik
a [ 7] Give rea so ns f o r th e d iff eren c es o f t em p era tu re and
ra inf all .

8 . Co m p a re a ny o f th e rivers o f New Zeala nd with tho se o f o ther co un tries .

Ho w fa r c an you rec o gniz e t he m o un ta in valley and pla in

,
”
,
”

c o u rs es

THE PACIFIC IS LANDS .

Th es e isl a nds lie al m o st entirely with in th e tro p ic s th e gre a tes t ,

ext ens io n fro m e as t t o west b eing so uth o f the Equ a to r Eas t o f .

1 3 0 wes t l o n gitu d e th ere are o nl y a few iso l a ted is l a nds s uch a s

°
,

Ea s ter Is l a n d .

T h ree p h ys ic a l typ es m a y be d is tin g u ish e d ( a ) Isl ands c o m

p ose d o i sedimentary ro ck wh ich at so m e ti m e pr o ba bly fo r m e d ,

p a rt o f th e l a rger Aus tr a lia n c o ntin e nt Th is typ e is rep res e n te d .

by N ew Ca ledo n ia us e d by th e Fre nch as a p en a l s ettle m ent

, ,

with its rich m in er a l wea lth o f n ickel a nd ch ro m e ( b) Vol c ani c .

isl ands (th e h igh s uch as th e New H e bri d es

“
th e ,

Fij i Is l a nds S a m o a the So ciety a nd M a rqu es as Is l ands a n d th e

, , ,

Ha wa iia n o r S andwich Isl a nds Th e s e are o ften m o u nta ino us .

,

Ma una Kea in Ha wa ii ris ing t o n e a rly feet Owing t o .

t h e va riety o f s o il a nd d i ffere nce o f eleva ti o n b a na na s su ga r , , ,

c off ee c o tt o n a nd va nill a a re cultiva ted ( c) Coral isl ands

, , ,
.

( the lo w isla nds o r a t o lls ) which are o ften o nly a m an s

“
,
’

h eight a bo ve t he sea T h es e pr o du ce na tura lly c o c o nut pa lms

.
-

a nd s crew
pin e s wh ich s up ply nuts a nd a kind o f fl o ur fo r f o o d
,
.

The s o il is o fte n very sc a nty a nd ta ro a nd bre a d fruit are cul ,

-

t iva t ed with d iffi culty Ma n y o f th e vo lc a nic is la nds are su r

.

r o u nde d b y c o ra l reefs Th ere is a ge nera l ra ce dis ti ncti o n .

b etween th e da rk M ela n e s ia ns with friz zly ha ir we s t o f 1 80

°
, ,
51 6 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

wh o clo s ely res em ble th e Pa pu a ns o f New Gu ine a a nd th e ta ller ,

bro wn Po lyn esia ns with wa vy h a ir o f th e Eas tern Pa ci fic

,
To ,
.

t h is bra n ch b elo ng s th e Ma o ri ra ce o f N ew Z e a l a n d .

Th e m os t i m p o rta n t is la n d gro ups a re t h e Fij i Isl ands ( B ritish )

Th es e c o n s ist o f t w o la rge vo lca n ic isla nds— Viti L evu ( la rger tha n
Co rs ica ) with a go o d h a r bo u r ; Su va a c a ll in g p l a ce fo r s tea m ers
, ,

betwee n No rth Am eric a a n d New Z ea la n d a n d Au s tra lia ; a nd

, ,

Vanu a Le vu a n d a la rge nu m b er o f s m a ller is la n ds Th e influ ence

,
.

o f m o un ta in s o n ra infa ll is well m a rke d in Va nu a Levu wh ich ,

ha s a ra nge o f m o un ta in s run n ing th r ou gh th e cen tre fro m so uth

west to no rth eas t Th es e c o nd ens e th e so u th ea s t trades and
-
.
-

are c o vere d with d e ns e fo re s t o n t h e e x po s e d s id e wh ile the ,

sh eltered we s tern s i d e is li a ble t o d ro u gh t T h e m a i n expo rts .

a re s u ga r ( cu ltiva te d by In d ia n co o lie s ) ba na n a s a n d co p ra , , .

S am o a c o ns ists o f Sa va ii a nd Up o lu ( Germ a n ) th e c h ie f to wn ,

o f wh ich is Ap ia a n d m a n y s m a ller isl a n ds

,
Tu tu ila ( U S A ) . .

ha s o n e o f th e bes t h a r bo u rs in th e so u th s ea s ; Pa ngo Pa ngo ,

wh ich lies in th e d irect ro u te f ro m S an Fran cis co to Sydn ey

(of Gua m in th e La dro n e s a no th er excellent h a rbo ur wh ich
.
, ,

a l s o b el o n gs t o th e Un ite d S ta tes ) Th e interio r o f Sa va ii th e .

,

la rges t i sla nd is wa terless a n d ba rren b eing c o vered by la va

, ,

beds a nd vo lc a n ic ash .

T he Kawanan Isl ands fo rm an iso l a ted gro up ris ing

a bru tly fro m gre a t o ce a n d e th s
p p T h e la rge s t is la n d is H a wa ii .
,

wh ich h as th e a ctive vo lca no Kila u ea at f eet o n th e sl o p es o f

, ,

M a u n a Lo a Ano th er isla nd M a u i h a s t he l a rges t cra ter in t h e

.
, ,

wo rld Ho no l u lu in O ah u is th e ch ief to wn It h a s a n im
.
, , .

po rt a n t po s itio n o n t h e r o u te b etween No rth Am eric a a n d Ja pa n

a n d Ch ina Su ga r c ul tiva te d by Ja p a n es e l a bo ur is t h e m a in
.
, ,

p ro du ct .

Am o n g th e s m a ll er a n d m o re iso la ted i sl a nds a re t wo ro cks ,

wh ich a re i m po rta nt c o m m ercia lly fro m th eir wea lth o f ph o s ~

ph at es Th es e are Ple asa n t Isla nd ( Ger m a n ) a nd Ocean Isla nd

.

( British ) a little so u th o f th e Equ a tor a nd e a s t o f th e Gil bert

,

Isla n ds Th e line o f d ivis io n between Ger m a n a nd B ritish sph eres

lies between the t w o is lands .

Am o n g o th er i sl a nds wh ich b elo ng to B rita in a re th e To nga o r

Friendly Isl a nds wh ich p ro du ce co p ra th e Gil bert Ellice and
, ,

Sa nta Cru z Isla n ds t h e S o lo mo n Isl a n ds (p a rtly Ger ma n ) a n d

, ,

th e iso l a te d e a s tern i sla n ds o f Ducie a nd Pitca i rn ( 2 s qua re m iles ) .

Th is l a tter i sla n d i s p eo p le d with so m e o f t h e d es cen da nts o f th e

m u tin eers o f th e B ou nty M o s t o f th es e isl a n ds a re o f c o r a l fo rm
.

a tio n a n d gr o w m a in ly c o co nuts
, S o m e o f th e m a re o f va lue
-
.
 T H E AM ER ICAN CO N T IN EN T

N O RT H AM ERICA

S t ru c t u re and Re l i e f .

Th e Co nti ne ntal Sh el f — The 10 0 fa th o m l in e lies a t a c o n

.

s idera ble d i st a n ce f ro m t h e p re s ent sh o re in Hu dso n B a y, o n

th e Atla ntic c o a sts a nd in th e Gu l f o f M exic o , wh ile B ering

S ea , c o ntinu ing th e sh a llo w wa ters o f th e Arctic , a l m o st c o nnects
th e no rth wes t extre m ity o f No rth Am eric a with As ia Fro m
th e Aleu tia n Is la nds a sh a llo w p la tfo r m s tretch e s do wn th e west
co a s t to Puget So u nd, o n wh ich sta nd th e is la nds o f S o uth Alas ka
a nd B riti sh Co lum bi a . Th e fj o r d typ e o f th is c o as t is well illus
t rat ed by t h e gre a ter d epths o f th e i nteri o r o f th e inlets .B etween
Va nc o u ver Isla nd and th e ma inl a nd 223 f a th o ms is rea ch ed in
th e S tr a it o f Ge o rgia , wh ile a t t h e e ntr a n ces b o th t o t h e no rth
a nd t o t h e s o u th t h ere a re a re as n o t m u c h b el o w 50 fa th oms .

O n ly a rel a tively na rr o w ba nd ab o ve 1 00 f a th o m s m a rks the rest

o f th e we s t c o a s t o f N o rth Am eric a , a nd , i nd ee d , th e wh o le le ngth

o f Ce ntra l a nd S o u th Am eric a a s fa r s o uth a s t h e is l a nd s o f t he

Ch ili Arc hipela g o .

The o rl g m o f th e sh el f m a y br o a d ly be referre d t o a p a rtia l

su bm ergen ce o f th e c o nt in ent a t d iff ere nt ep o ch s . Th i s h a s
resu lted in th e dro wn in g o f river cha nn els a nd th e fo r m a tio n o f
impo rtant na viga ble inlets, a m o n g wh ich a re th e fj o r ds o f B ritish
Co lu m bia , t h e c ha nn el s o f Pu get So u nd , a nd t h e d ro wn e d river
va lleys o f the Ch esa p ea ke , Dela wa re , Hu dso n, a nd St La wrence . .

Th a t th is sh elf w as o nce a b o ve sea level a nd s ubj ecte d t o river

-

er o s i o n is clea r from th e so u ndi ngs th a t h a ve b een m a d e in th e

s ubm a ri n e ch a nn els o f t h e St . La wre nce , Huds o n , a nd o th er
river s
(of th e c aiio n o f t he Hu ds o n,
. feet d eep a nd 3 m iles
wid e ) Th e grea ter pa rt o f t h e sh elf is c o mp os ed o f s e d im e nt
.

d e p os ite d o n a l a nd c o a s ta l p la i n, th o u gh m uc h a dd iti o n a l m a teri a l

h a s b ee n a dd e d b y t h e sh ells o f m a rin e o rga nis m s . In th e n o rth
ice tr a nspo rted d ébris h a s p la yed a grea t p a rt in t h e b u ild ing u p
-

5 18
 N O RT H AM ERICA 5 19

of the sh elf . T his is

esp ecia lly the c as e o n the Newf o u ndl a nd
B a n ks . In the Gl a cia l p eri o d t he c o ntributio ns fr o m th is s ou rce
m us t ha ve b ee n m uch m o re exte ns ive tha n th ey a re no w wh e n ,
o n ly a 11 mited a m o unt o f m a tter is c a rrie d
by ice bergs In s o m e .

FIG . 81 .
—N o s '
rn AM ERICA : RELI EF .

N o t e t h e Y uk o n Pl a t ea u w it h it s bro a d ro u n d e d v a ll ey s ; t h e d eep ly di s
t h e Co l u m b ia S n a k
,

sec t ed B rit is h Co lu m bia Pl a t ea u ( cf Fig . . e

Pla t ea u l a v a c o v ered a n d c u t in t o ca no n s b y rivers ; t h e Grea t B a sin
, ,

w ith it s sa lt lak es a nd p a rallel ra n g es ( o ft en c a ll ed t he B a sin Ra ng es ) ;

a n d t h e Co lo ra d o Pla t ea u tren ch ed by d eep a nd rela tively narro w
,

c a n o ns .

c as es S o uth Fl o rid a the B a ha ma s a nd t he Yu c a ta n

, ,

Pe n ins ul a— the la nd has b ee n r a is ed by c o ra l gr o wth .

An i mpo rta nt ec o n o m ic re sul t o f th is sha llo w su bm a rin e pl a t

fo rm is t h e grea t wea lth o f flo a ting pla nt li fe excl u ded fro m grea t
-

d ep t h s a m o n g o th er re a so n s by wa n t o f ligh t o n wh ich l a rgely

, ,
520 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

d ep e n ds th e existen ce o f th e fish wh ich fo r m t h e fo o d o f th e s e a l

in th e Arctic , B ering Sea a n d th e n o rth we st co a st , a n d o f th e
,
-

co d wh ich frequ e n t t h e Gr a n d B a n ks ( s ee p .

Th e M ainl and D ivi sio ns — Five typ e s c a n be d is tin gu ish e d

.

bro a dly in N o rth a n d Cen tr a l Am eric a ( 1 ) Th e c o asta l p l a ins a nd

l te u m t tr n gly m a rke d in t h e P i e dm o nt Pl a tea u a nd
p a a s ,
o s s o

FIG . 82 .
— B RIT IS H N O RT H AM E R IC A : R IV E R S Y S T EM S .

Not e t h e nu m ero u s l akes o f Ca na d a a nd t he u se o f ,

po rta g es fo r
t h e f ur tra d e Ex a m in e a rail w a y m a p o f Ca n a d a
. . H o w d o es this
illu stra t e t h e m o d ern tra n sp o rt n eeds o f Ca na d a

Atl a ntic c o a sta l p l a in .

( 2) Th e App a l a ch i a n Mo unta in
ystem s

a nd it s c o u nter part no rth wa r d in th e L a ure ntia n Pl a tea u .

( 3 ) Th e gre a t pl a i ns o f th e interio r wh ich s tretch fro m th e Arctic

,

t o th e Gul f o f M exic o ( 4 ) Th e Co rd illera wh ich incl u d e s th e

.
,

wh o le Pa cific m o u nta in s yste m ( 5 ) Th e Antillea n Mo u n ta ins

.
,

no w l a rgely su bm erge d o f M exic o Ce ntra l Am eric a a n d th e

, , ,

West Ind ies .

522 TEX T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPHY

emba nk m ents s u ch as th os e b etween t he St

,
. La wre nce an d
Missis s ipp i which da te from t h e Gl a cia l p erio d
,
.

North Am eric a and Eurasi a — Ma n y o f t h e s tructu ra l features o f

.

No rth Am eric a a re repres e nte d in Eu ro p e a nd As ia Amo ng .

th es e ma y be no ted th e very o ld gla cia ted p latfo r ms o f No rth

East Ca na da a nd L a bra do r , a n d o f Sc a n d in a via a nd Finla nd, bo th
a re a s m u ch de nu d e d a nd c o vere d by in nu m er a ble la ke s , wh ich

a re s ep a ra te d by l o w wa ter sh e d s To th e s e po in ts o f res em bla nce

.

ma y be a dd ed t h e s im ila r ec o no m ic influence o f fo res ts a nd wa ter

po wer d evelo ping lu mber indu s tries in p l a ce of a gricul ture The .

islands a nd p eninsul as and th e banks o f the subm a rin e sh elf in

the n o rth e ast o f No rth Am eric a c o rre sp o n d to tho s e of the no rth
-

west o f Europ e a nd the St La wrence, a nd the rela tively sha llo w.

bas i ns o f th e Grea t La kes to th e inl et o f th e Ba ltic S imil arly .

th e c o a l m e asure s of th e Appa l a ch ians res em ble in ph ys ic al

and eco n o m ic h is t o ry the c o alfields o f Wa le s, B elgiu m , and
Germ a n y Th e p ra iries o f th e Oh io , Upp er M is s iss ipp i, a nd
.

Red River Va lley a re s im il a r to the Ru ss ia n p la ins , a nd bo th,

beyo n d th e lim it o f mo ra in ic d epo s its, are co vered with a rich
lo ess so il , to wh ich their grea t fertility fo r wh ea t is l argely du e .

La stly, th e treele ss pla ins o f th e grea t va lley o f th e interio r o f

No rth Am erica ris e grad ua lly with d im inis h ing ra infa ll towa rds
lo ft y m o u nta in ra nges, and m ay be co mpa red to th e Russian
s tepp es .

CLM ATE .

Position and Extent — Th e fo ll o wing p oin ts

. sh o ul d be no ted ,

prefer a bly on a glo be

1 . Extre m e Latitu des — Th e m o uth o f th e Ma cken zie is beyond
.

th e Arctic Circle Th e so u th o f Flo ri da is a pp ro xima tely in

.

°
25 rth l a titud e Th e bo u ndary between th e United States
no .

a nd Ca na da fo llo ws t h e
p a r allel of 4 9 fro m La ke o f th e Wo o ds
°

t o t h e Pa ci fic If c o m pa re d with Euro p e a nd Afric a o r Asia this

.
, ,

ext en t fro m no rth to so uth will be s een to be grea ter th an fro m

th e No rth Cap e t o As wa n a nd a bo ut th e s a m e as fro m th e no rth
,

of Asia to Kara ch i Mexico lies p artly a nd the Wes t Ind ies a nd

.
,

Ce ntra l Am eric a wh o lly with in th e tro p ic s , .

2 E tr Lo ng itu des — St La wre n ce Isl a nd in Al aska ap

x em e
. . .
, ,

pro xi m a tely 1 70 W es t l o ngitu d e a nd S t Jo hn s N ewfo u ndland

.
° ’
, .
, ,

a little e a s t o f 53
°
wes t lo ngitud e Th e bo unda ry between the .

Ca na d ia n Yuko n a n d Al a s ka lies o n 1 4 1 wes t lo ngitu de °

.
 N O RTH AM ERICA 5 23

Fo r c o n veni enc e of traffi c Can ad a a nd the United S ta tes a re d ivid ed into

,

five time z o n es each being 1 5 ° wid e a n d diff erin in time b on e ho ur

,
g y , .

All p lac es in t he same bel t h a v e th e s a m e tim e whic h is tha t of th e c entra l ,

m eridia n .T h ese a re th e Atlan tic z o n e ( 60° w est long it ud e ) whic h is f o ur ,

ho ur s a f t er Greenwic h , t he east ern z o n e ( 75 ° w est lo n itud e , th e c entral

g )
zon e ( 90 °
west lo ng itu d e ) , t h e m o u n ta in zon e ( 1 05
°
w est lo ngitud e) , a nd
t he Pa cific zo n e ( 120 w es t
°
lo ng it u d e ) , eig h t hours a ft er Greenwich .

3 . Are a — Ca na da is 3 729 millio n s quare m iles,

. a nd the United
States $6 23 m illio n s qua re miles .

Th ere a re suffi cient d iff eren ces in la titud e in a c o ntin ent

extending fro m beyo nd th e Arctic Circle a l mo st to th e n orth ern
trop ic, to c a us e grea t diff eren ces in the a m ount and dura tio n o f
su n fo rce see Ta ble s I
-

( .

WINT E R AN D S U M M ER CO ND ITIO N S
T Y PICAL .

The cli ma te o f No rth Am eric a w ill be bes t rea lize d by a n

exa m ina tion o f Fig s 8 4 9 1 wh ich sh o w th e a vera ge temp erature
.
-

, ,

p ressure win ds an d ra in fa ll in a typ ic a l winte r ( Janua ry) and

, ,

su mm er July mo nth
( ) .

January Co ndi ti ons — On De c e m ber 21 the sun was vertic a l

o ver th e so uth ern tr o ic wh ere t h e s u n fo rce was 1 00 a nd t he
p
-

, ,

len gth o f da y 1 3 % h ours ; c o ns equ ently a t Wi nn ip eg ( latitude 50 °

n orth) th e a ltitu d e o f th e s u n w a s a b o u t t he s un force 28 -

a nd t he len gt h of da
y 7 h o urs 44 m inu tes At Me mph is (3 5 .
°

no rth l a titud e ) t he su n f o rce w a s 52 n e a rly twice t he a m o unt

-

, .

The T e mp er a ture Map ( Fig 8 5 ) a nd t h e o bs erve d te mp era tures .

of Table X sh ow Manit oba as b elo w 0 F t he Ce ntra l Mississ ipp i

.
°
.
,

B a s in as b elow 50 F (s ee W innip eg — 7 F a nd M em his

° °

°
.
p .
,

40 This m eth o d o f c o m p a ris o n is va lua ble but it ,

m us t be b o rn e in m ind tha t t he grea t va ria tions in the prop ortio n

of wa ter vapo ur in the a tm osph ere m a ke it imp oss ible to exa ctly
°
d ed uce te mp era ture fro m su n fo rce a l o n e D enver [ 56] is 29 F -
. .

°
a t over feet Pike s Pe a k [ 13 ] is 3 F at over
,
’
feet .
,

wh ile o ce anic i nflue nces m odif y tem p er ature over a l o ng s tretc h

°
o f l a titud e ( S itk a [ 1 9] is 3 0 F wh ile Victori a [ 59] is 3 8 °
.

No equ a lity of te mp era ture is f o u nd eve n o n the west co ast ,

s uc h as t ha t wh ic h o bt a i ns b etwee n B o r d e a ux and Ca p e Wra th

(see p . Loc a l c o nd itio ns va ry s o m uc h in North Am eric a

that it is d ifficult to d efin e clima tic pr o vinces Cons eque ntly .
,

it is a ll the m ore necessa ry t o fo r m s o m e repres entatio n of t he

actua l a s co ntr aste d with t he sea level te mp erature ( of Figs 84 -

. .

a nd
5 24 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

Th e iso t er m o f 3 2 F
h °
. extends s o u th t o th e Oh io a nd i n clu des
,

th e eleva ted mo un ta in region o f th e Co rd ill era. O nly o n the

FIG . 84 .
— N 0 RT II AM E RICA : S E A L E V EL IS O T H E RM S
-

( J AN U ARY ) .

FI G . 85 .
— N O RT H AM E RIC A : ACT U AL IS O T H E RM S ( J AN U ARY ) .

wes t co a st are th ere rel a tively m ild winters a s fa r no rth , as the

so u th o f Ala s ka Th ere is a ma rke d h igh p re s su re a re a
.
-
5 26 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPH Y

of B a ffin B a y on th e western m a rgin o f t h e grea t Atl a n tic lo w

p re ssure a rea , a nd o f B er ing Sea wh ich lies t o th e no rth o f th e
,

FI G . 88 .
— N O RT H AM E RI C A : Is o RAR s ( J AN U ARY ) .

Fro . 89 .
—
N O RT H AM ERIC A : IS O B AR S ( J U LY ) .

Pa cific lo w p re ssu re
-

rea . A
ec o nd h igh p ressu re a rea slightly
a s -

less intens e lies o ver th e so u th ern s ta tes in t h e so u th ea st Th ere

,
-

is a n a rea o f rela tive lo w pressu re b etwee n t h e t wo h igh

 N O RTH AM ERICA 5 27

press ure r a ea s, o ver Ariz o na and New M exic o .Th ere is a l so a

$1 m 1 l a r a re a o ver th e St . La wre n ce B a s m a n d B r1t1sh

FI G . 90 .
—N O RT H AM E RIC A : W IN D S AN D R AIN EALL ( J AN U ARY ) .

FIG . 91 .
—N O RT H AM ERI C A : W IN D S AN D RAIN FAL L ( J U LY ) .

Co lu mbia .
winds wh ich resu lt fro m th is d istribution of
T he
re s su re a re p reva le nt No rth W e st win ds o n t h e Atl a ntic c o a s t
p
-

between th e h igh a n d lo w p re ssu re a rea s bu t m uch less m a rke d

,
5 28 T EX T B OO K -

OF GE O GRAPH Y

a nd co nsta nt th an o n th e no rth ea st co a st o f As ia Owin g to the -

.

a ss a ge o f cyclo n ic s to r m s fr o m we s t t o e a s t t o t h e n o rth o f
p
th e Un ite d S ta tes a nd p a r a llel t o th e e a st c o a st s ea w m ds fre
-

, ,

qu ently blo w f ro m th e ea s t so u th eas t a nd so u th Co ns equently ,

-

,
.
,

o n t h e Lo wer St La wre n ce in t h e M a ritim e Pro vin ces a n d New

.
, ,

fo u n dla nd th ere is a tend e n cy t o h a ve m o st r a in in th e win ter h al f

year th o ugh th e ra infa ll is n o r ma lly d is tribu ted thr ou gh o u t th e
,

yea r T o wa r ds th e so u th th e N o rth a nd N o rt h W est wi nds

.
-

d ecre as e a nd t h e S o u th W e st winds in cre as e in p ers istence bu t -

in S o uth Fl o rida wh ich lies o n t he so uth o f th e h igh pressure

,
-

a re a m e nti o ne d N o rt h Ea st wi nds a re preva le nt

,
H e nce Flo rida
-
.

f o rm s a tr a nsiti o n area t o th e tr a d e wi nd z o ne o f the West Indies -

.

In t h e Ce ntra l M iss iss ipp i regi o n So uth W est a nd West winds -

p reva il o n th e e ast b etwee n t h e M iss iss ipp i a nd th e Appa la c hia ns ,

in c o ns equ e nce o f the interrupti o n o f n o r m a l press ur e c o nditio ns

b y st o r m s wh ile in t h e we st b etwee n t h e M iss iss ipp i a nd the
, ,

Ro ckie s th ey a re N orth a n d N o rth W e st ( no te the t w o are a s

,
-

o f h igh pre ssure a pp r o xim a tely , a n d t h e cl o ckwis e m ove

m e nt o f winds in the n o rth er n h emi s ph ere fr o m a nticyclo nic

a re a s ) . In the no rth west o f t he Un ite d St a te s a nd in West -

Ca na da ea st o f th e Ro ckies t h e wi nds a re we a k a nd c a lms

, , ,

frequ ently o ccur Th is is du e t o t he p rese n ce o f the h igh pressure

.
-

a re a sh o w n o n Fig 8 8 . .

Th e d is tribu tio n o f th e rai nf all o n the e a s t o f N o rth Am eric a

is wh a t m igh t be exp ecte d fro m th e d is tri bu tio n o f pressu re .

Cyclo n ic d ep ress io ns p a ss fro m west t o e a st fro m the Gre a t La kes ,

a nd f ro m th e s o u th we s t fro m th e w a r m w a ter o f th e Gul f o f

-

M exic o In th e l a tter c a s e th e indrau gh t o f wa r m m o ist a ir is

.
,

p artly due t o th e a re a o f rel a tive d e pres s io n in th e St La w rence .

B a s in . Owing to th e po s itio n o f the wes tern o f th e tw o h igh

pressu re a re a s with o u t fl o w ing No rth a nd No rth We s t w inds the
,
-

infl o w ing an d ra in brin gin g win ds fr o m t he Gu lf b ec o m e less

-

prev a lent we st o f the M iss iss ipp i wh ile o n th e ea st o f t h e M iss is

s ipp i th e gre a tes t ra in fa ll fo llo win g l a rgely the so u th we s t direc
,
-

tio n m ention ed a bo ve fa ll s at th e end o f win ter Th i s liberal , .

winter r a in fa ll c o m bin ed with rel a tively h igh tem p era ture has
,
,
been exceptio n a lly fa vo u ra ble to th e gro wth o f th e bro a d le ave d -

fo res t o f th e e as tern United S ta tes with it s m a gno lias a nd o aks ,

in th e so u th wh ich a re evergree n a nd its d ecidu o us o a k

, s el ms , , ,
h icko ries m a p le s a n d ch es tnu t s in th e no rth
, , Th e ha r d woo ds .

a re o f gre a t va lu e fo r th e m a nu f a cture o f fu rn it re
u a nd t o o l s

W
.

h e n th e hi gh pressu re a re a is m os t s tr o n gly d evel o e d and

-

.
p
a t 1175 w 1 dest exte nt
, the i nfluence of c o l d a nd d r
.

y o ut fl o wing
530 T E X T B OO K -
OF GEO GRAPH Y

Eleva tio n in flu e n ce s te m p era tu re , a s a c o m p a riso n O f Figs 8 6 .

40 F , a n d D e nver
°
Pike s P e a k
’
a nd 8 7 will sh o w ( o f . .

72 F No te th e d iffere n ce between s ea level a nd a c tu a l t em

° -

p era tu res sh o wn in th e Ro ckies a nd th e M exic a n Pla tea u , and

c o ntras t th e Va lley o f Ca lifo rn ia a nd th e S na ke River and
Co lu m b ia Pl a in s with th e S ierr a N eva d a , Ca sc a d es, a nd Co ast
Ra n ge ) Bu t th e d i ff eren ces o f te m p er a tu re b etween m o re a nd
.

less eleva ted regio ns , th o u gh sh a rply m a rked by the e mph as is

given to cert a in i so th er m s o n th e m ap , a re by no m e a ns excessive ,
a n d rel a tive e u a lity o f te m er a t u re exis ts o ver gre a t ex a ns es
q p p
o n th e Lo wer Mac
of
pl a in a n d u pl a n d a like ( Fo rt No r m a n
ken z ie , is 5 6° F Fo rt Ch ipp ewy a n Prin ce Albert
°
. 62 F .

a nd Winni
° °
6 2 F C lg ry
. a a a t o ver f eet, 60 F .

It is in c o ns e qu e nce o f th es e h igh su mm er
°
p ge 66 E ) .

te m p era tu res th a t th e li m it o f wh ea t gro wing ext ends so fa r north

-

in Ce n tra l Ca na d a .

Th e h igh s u mm er te m p er a tu re s o f th e n o rth are s till m ore

cle a rly in d ic ated by th e m e a n extre m e te mp era tu res (on the
M a cke zie River , Fo rt Go o d H o p e , l a titu d e 67 no rth , is 8 1 F
n
° °
.

th e a pp ro xim ate li m it o f p o ta to e s F o rt No r m a n o n l a titude

°
is 8 6 F — th e a pp ro xim a te lim it o f ba rley ; Fo rt S im pson,
.

o n l a titu d e is 8 2° F — th e a pp ro xi m a te li m it o f wh eat ;
.

W in n ip eg 26
[ ] is 9 2
°
F —
very little les s th a n New Y o rk and New
.

Orle a ns, an d a l m o s t a ny pl a ces in th e so u th e a s t o f th e United -

Sta tes ) .

Th ese fig ures if co m p ared with tho se o f m ea n m o n thly temp era t ures

,
,

m a y h elp a s a rem in d er th a t su c h t emp era tu re re c o rd s lik e t h e generalized ,

m ap s w h ic h a re m a d e fro m th em a re o nly su ggesti ve o f t h e l imits o f clim atic

,

regio n s a nd t he d is tribu tio n o f veget a tio n so fa r a s th a t is influ enced by

t em p era tu re Referen c e m u st c o n sta ntly be m a d e t o da y t em pera tu res
.
.

a n d to t h e num b er o f hou rs in a
gro w ing a nd rip enin g sea so n wh en the
h ea t is su ffi c ient fo r d iff eren t typ es o f ve eta tio n W e m u st al so c onsider
g .

t he ret ard in g o r d es tru cti ve in fl u enc e o f c o ld ni h ts a nd fr t

g os s .

In Ju
ly p ressure c onditions o n th e la nd are gen era lly low,
es ema ll
y i n Arl z o na , N ew M exic o , a n d S o uth Ca lifo r nia , a n d in
. .

p
N o rth La bra d o r ( 29 8 ° Pre ssure d ecre a s es t o wa r ds th e St .

La w e nce Va lley fr o m th e s o u th High p ress ure a n ex

r .

t ens1 0 n o f th e Atla ntic h igh ressure a re a lies o ver t he Gulf

p
-

,
Sta te s , whl le t o th e wes t o f t he c o ntin e nt is th e Pa cific high
-

pre ssure a re a .

Th e wi nds wh ic h res ult fr o m th is d istri buti o n o f re ssure in

p
t he e as t o f N o rth Am eric a are o n th e e a s t
, S o u h a nd S o u h W s
t t et -
 N O RTH AM ERICA 53 1

( from north and no rth we st in winter ) a nd o n the we st S outh

-

East The extens io n o f th es e wi nds fr o m the Atla ntic a nd the

.

warm Gul f inla nd c a us es th e ea rly s umm er rai ns of the Arka nsas

and Mis so uri B a s i ns ( o ver t h e dry a re as o f t he h igh
pla ins to the
Rockies) th e Upp er Mis s is s ipp i m u c h of t he Grea t La ke regio n
, , ,

a nd Ma nitoba Th e s e a re o f s u p rem e imp orta nce fo r a griculture

.

esp ecia lly th e gro wth o f wh ea t Cyclo nic d epress ions tend t o .

pass n orthwa rd from t h e Gu l f t o th e Gre at La kes a nd th en t o ,

follo w a west to eas t directio n The rain ma inly occurs in .

th und ers torms a nd sh o wers The grea t h eat of the Gulf pla
.

c aus es winds of a m o ns o o n ch a ra cter in summ er which are ,

especia lly noticeab le in S o uth Eas t T exas S uch m ons o o n r a ins

-

re a c h N ew M e xic o a nd M e x ic o On t h e wes t coa st the winds

.

cha nge from S outh W es t a nd W e st t o W est a nd N orth West The

- -
.

West winds are stren gth en ed by t h e i nflu ence of the high pressure
( on the left or e a st s id e) a nd t h e a ttr a ctio n towards t he relatively
lo w pressure of th e wa rm e d l a nd Th e wi nds are blo wing fro m
.

col d er regio ns (th e o cea n a nd h igh er l atitud es) to wa rm er ( the

land) and th ere is ha rdly a ny r a in so uth o f Va ncouver Is la nd
, .

Fa rth er north th ere a re summ er r a ins o n the coast but less th an

, ,

in winter .

PRACT ICAL W O RK O N CL IM AT E .

T h e fol lo win g ex erc ises o n the u se o f cl im a tic m a p s may pro ve o f service

to tea c h ers In o rd er to a ssist ref eren c e the m a in p o ints deal t with in the
. ,

quest io ns h ave b een summ ariz ed in a k ey .

1 Give clim a tic reaso ns fo r t he dis trib u tio n o f w h ea t , m a ize a nd co tto n

. ,

in No rt h Am erica .

2 D esc rib e the f o res t s o f N o rth Am eri c a and exp la in the influence o f
. ,

rainf a ll a nd t em p era t ure o n th eir g ro wth .

3 Ho w d o es c lim a te a ffec t c o m m un i ca tion by sea a nd land in win ter

.

4. T h e m o st imp o rtan t a gricul tu ral reg ion s o f N o rt h Ameri ca are those

”
which ha ve c old winte rs and w a rm to h o t sum m ers D isc uss thi s s ta te .

m ent .

5 D esc ri be the
. r t
c ha ac e ris Califo rn ia , M anito ba , a nd the
tic clim a tes of

Gul f c o astla nd s Co m p a re th ese regio ns wi th o th er c o un t ries

. .

6 W hy a re regio ns wi th c o o l winte rs an d wa rm su m mers p o o rly repre

.

sent ed in N o rth Am eri c a 7 In w h a t p arts o f t h e w o rld a re they mo st

c o m monl y f ound
7 Give ex ampl es o f t he im p o rtanc e o f sea son a l rain fall for vegetation
.

Wh y is a sm all su mm er ra in f all u sefu l in o ne regio n and of c omparatively

littl e val u e in ano th er
8 Com p a re and c on tra s t the ea st and west c o a sts of North America
.

with tho se o f Eura sia .

53 2 TEX T B OOK -
OF GE O GRAPHY

9 Co m p are in T a bl e X , N ain [ l l ] B el l e Isl e

. . S t Jo h n s Sitk
, a .

Victo ria a nd in T a bl e V Lo f o t en B ergen Acc o u nt

f o r t h e d iff eren c es o f c lim a t e in No rw ay ( wes t c o ast ) La brad o r an d British , ,

Co l u m b ia ( wes t c o a s t ) a nd e xpl a in t h e i nfl u en c e o f p hy si cal c o n ditio n s o n

,

t h e fis hi n g in d u s t y r a nd t he d is t ib u tio nr of p o pul a tio n .

KEY To CLIM AT E Q U E S T IO N S .

[ The numbers in squa re brac k

ets re er to the
f p ositio ns onFig 92 .

of the p la ces f or whic h the temp era tu re a nd ra i n a ll a re f g iven in

T a ble X
Cold W i nters (u
°
nd a nd
°
er F) C ool Summ ers (3 2 to 50 F )
32 °
.
.

c an o n ly o ccur in regio ns wh ere Arctic in flue nce s p er s i st th r ough

o u t th e s u m m er , as th e c o as t o f L a br a do r , Na in which is
p er m a n ently c o o led by the Arctic cu rre nt, a nd o n h igh m o un
ta ins ( Pike s Pea k Th e a cc u m ul a te d efi ec t o f c o ntinu ous
’

da yligh t ( T a ble III ) is no t s u ffi cien t, o win g to the lo w a ltitude

.

o f th e su n , and co ns eque ntly d i m in i sh e d su n fo rce ( T a ble

.
-

t o r a i s e th e a ver age te mp er a tu re o f th e w a r m es t su mm er m o nth

very h igh in th e extrem e no rth (s ee [ 1 bu t it is su fficient to
a ll o w th e gro wth of so m e veget a tio n , e sp ecia lly b erries , wh ich

h el p t o p ro vide fo o d fo r th e c o untle ss flo cks o f n o rth ward

m igra tin g bird s, a nd l ich ens a n d reind eer m o ss, o n wh ich the
mu sk -
reind eer s u bs is t
o x a nd .

Al l tree gro wth is d warf ed by gre a t col d a nd wa nt o f s no w in

-

win ter wh ich fo r ms fa rth er so u th bo th a pro tectio n and a reservo ir

, , ,

o f m o is tu re Tho ugh th ere is a n Es kim o p o p ul a tio n in th e far

.

n o rth a fish ing po pul a tio n o n th e c o ast of La br a do r a nd a few

, ,

D an ish s ettlem ents o n th e wes t c o as t o f Greenl a nd th e Arctic ,

regio n is p r a ctic ally u n inh abite d and o nly vis ited by o cc asi onal ,

fis h er m e n an d fur h unter s Th e sea is ice blo cke d fo r all the

-
.
-

ye ar excep t o ne to three m o nths in su mm er (see The

l and is s wa m p c o vere d in su mm er o win g to the fro ze n su bso il
-

, ,

a nd a l m o s t i m p assa ble th r o u gh th e m yri a ds of m o s quito e s The .

h e a vy Es kim o ice s le dge d ra wn by d o gs m a kes win ter travel

-

Th e k ay a c k is
,

po ss i ble a mo n g th e natives th e veh icle o f .

su mm er .

The regio n o f Col d Wi nters (u n d er 3 2 F ) a nd W arm Sum mers °

.

°
( 50 to 68 F ) In clu des m a n y typ e s with entirely diff erent
°
.
,

cl i m a tes Th e c o l d dry winters o f the No rth Wes t with little

.

.
, -

,
sno w o r w m d are qu i te d iff ere nt f ro m th e mo ist a n d rel a tively

m ild w 1nter o f S1t k

,

a [ 19] o r th e c o l d a nd wet win ter

o f New
fo un dla nd No te St Jo h ns
.
with 9 feet o f sno w W innipeg
.
53 8 T EXT -

B OOK O F GE O GRAPH Y

i nl a n d in th e neigh bo u rh o o d o f th e Gre a t La k es Th is is no t .

in d ic a t ed so w ell by th e wint er t e mpera tures as th e l a ke s a re ,

p a rt i a ll y f r o ze n .
Dulu t h f o r ins t a n c e ,
is a l mo s t a s c o l d i n

Ja n u a r y as B i s m a rck [ 40] o n th e in l a n d p l a in s t o th e e a s t a nd ,

much co l de r th an H elena a t o ver fee t in th e mo re ,

sh el t ere d u e r v a lle y o f th e M isso u r i Th e in fluen ce o f th e

pp .

La ke s is e sp ecia lly well ma rke d in sp rin g a n d a u t u mn (see Cleve

l a nd In s u mm er th e d a rkh e at o f th e l ak
,
”
es fa vo urs
t h e gr o w th o f fruit ( s ee p 259 th e L a ke o f Ge n ev a ) and
.
, ,

th e c o o l ni gh ts wh ic h re s ult fr o m t h e a l t er na ti o n o f l a nd a nd s ea
breezes are esp ecia ll y fa v our a b le f o r ve get at i o n .

Tho ugh a dist inc t io n is m a de b et ween th is gro up a nd pla ce s

with Gol d Wi nters (un der 3 2 F ) and Ho t Summ ers (o ver 68 °
.
°

it m u st b e n o t e d t ha t exce p t in excep t io na lly w a rm re gi o n s s uch

, ,

as O maha th e da y t e m p era tures wh ic h a re vit a l fo r th e ,

cult iva t io n o f cere a ls a re a l mos t a s gre a t in th e Canad ian wh eat

,

b el t a s in th e wh ea t a nd m a ize b el ts o f th e Un ite d S t at es Tha t .

t he m e a n m o nt h ly t e mp er a t ure d o es h o wever sh o w a d i ff ere nce , ,

importa nt f or cult ivat io n is cle a r fr o m th e ext e ns i o n o f the maize

b el t t o t h e s o ut h o f th e Gre a t La k e s w h ere t h e te mp er ature is ,

s o m ewha t h i gh er a nd Wh ere t here is in add it i o n a f a ctor less

, , ,

fa vourable t o wh e a t— viz the m o re eve n d is t ri buti o n of ra in

.
,

t h r o u gh t h e s u mm er Ver y not ice a b le i s the i nflue nce o f c o nti

.

nent a l c o nd it i o ns o n t h e e as t c o a s t o f th e U n it e d St a t e s New .

Y o r k [ 53 ] a nd Phila delph i a [ 5 4 ] a re a ppr o xima t el y a s h ot in

s umm er a nd c o l d in wi nt er as I nd i a na o li s [ 55 ] o r De nver [ 56]
p
( at o ver feet ) and m uch wa r m er a nd c o l d er tha n we st c oa st
,

c o nd it i o ns ( s ee [ 59
0 0 0 1 W i nter s ( 3 2 t o 50 F ) and W a r m S um m er s ( 50 to 68 F )
° ° ° °
. .

a re
p r a ct ic a ll y c o n fin e d a s re g a r ds pl a ce s n e a r s ea level to th e
-

, ,

west c oa st Th e Kur o S iwo cea s es cl o s e t o th e c o a st s of N orth

.
-

Ja pa n a nd spre a ds fa nwis e o ver th e s urfa ce o f th e o ce a n t o be

, ,

dr ift e d e a s t wards by th e winds B y th e t im e it re a c hes the .

c o as t o f N or th Am eric a it ha s litt le i nflue nce o n th e te mp er at ure

o f t h e w a t er exce t in t h e n o r t h Th ere is no z o ne o f rel a tively
p .

warm w a t er a nyw h ere n e a r th e c oa st o f S o ut h er n B rit ish C o lumb ia

o r We s t ern Am eric a a s is , pr o ve d b y th e a b u n d a n ce o f fish o n the
n o r th er n c o as t wh ic h b r ee d in c o l d s e as
( s ee p At San .

F r a ncis c o [ 6 2] a nd th e c o ast of C a lif o r ni a th e c o l d curre nt is m ost

c le a r l y m a r k e d Eve n h ere th e i nflue nce o f th e c o l d curre nt is
.

a lm o st c o nfine d t o t h e c o a s t
( s ee S a cr am e nt o O n the
o th er h a nd we st erl y wi nd s b l o w c o nst a nl
,
y o n t h e P a ci fic c o a st ,

wh ic h ha ve t r a ver s e d rela t ivel y wa rm s e a s fo r gre a t d is ta nce s ,

 N O RT H AM ERIC A 53 9

an dwh ic h cha nge fr o m a s o uth erl y d irect i o n in wi nter t o a m o re

no rth erl y in s um m er Th e s e ha ve ge nera lly as in th e c as e o f
.
,

th e B rit ish Is le s a w a r m i ng i nfl ue nce in wi nt er a nd a c o o li ng

,

i nfluence in s umm er .

Th e Me di t erra n e an t yp e o f cli ma te in Califo rn ia a nd th e ,

no t ice ab le l a n d a nd s ea breeze s sh o ul d b e co m a re d wit h t ha t

p ,

d es crib e d o n pp 65 1 79 0 0 0 1 Winters ( 3 2 t o 50 F ) a nd H ot
.
, .
° °
.

S ummer s ( o ver 68 F ) fo r m a t r a ns itio n t o the reg io n o f w a r m

°
.

win t er s ( 50 to 68 F ) a n d h o t s u mm er s (o ver 6 8
° °
. a nd t h ere
°

is n o gre a t d ist in ct io n in th e Un it e d S t at e s b e t wee n t h e s e reg io ns

excep t o ne o f de g ree Th e wh o le e a stern re g io n is liable to c o l d
.

wa ve s fro m th e no rth and a m in i mu m o f 23 F c an o ccur even ,

°
.

a t N ew Orle a ns
(s ee a l so p 93 C o tto n ) Th e c o nt ra st b et ween .
, .

th e o ce a n ic cli mat e o f B er mu da [ 79] a n d th e de s ert cli m a te o f

Fo r t Yu ma n e a r th e C o l o r a d o mo ut h is no t ice a b le t ho u h
g , ,

th e d iff ere n ce s o f t e mp era t ure o f a dry des ert cli ma te a nd even ,

th e ext re m e s o f p l a ce s o n h igh pl a ins s uc h a s Den ver a re ,

m uc h les s th an th e d iff ere nce s be t wee n s u mm er a nd wint er in

th e n o r t h D a wso n C ity [ 1 5] h a s mo re th an d o u ble th e annu a l
.

ra ng e N igh t a nd da y d iff ere nce s a re a l so m o re m a rke d in th e

.

no r th t h o u gh th e y are ve r y g re at o n th e h i h
, g pl a ins a n d in th e
G re a t Ba s in W arm W inters and W ar m S ummers ( 50 t o 68 F )
.
° °
.

a re m a inl y cha r a c t eris t ic o f eleva t e d t ro p ic a l pl a te a u s ( M exic o

°
[ 7 6] and [ 7 R eg io ns wh ich are H ot at all Seaso ns ( over 6 8 F ) .

a re m a in l y s h o wn in t h e We s t I n d ies a nd in t h e Un it e d S t a t e s ,

o nl y b y Key W e s t

Veg etation .

Fig . illust r at es th e ma in a re a s o f fo rest gra ss l and and

93 , ,

d e s ert Th e des ert l a n ds th e t u ndra a nd ba rre n l a nds in the

.
,

no r th ( th e c o l d d e s er t s ) a n d th o s e wh ic h s t re t c h so u th e a s t fro m
,
-

th e S ierr a N eva da a l mo st t o th e Gulf ( th e d ry de s ert s ) b o th ,

c o rr e spo n d with th e reg io ns o f le a s t r a in fa ll S im ila rl y th e semi .

desert re g i o ns o f th e Gre a t B a s in a n d th e m o re i so la t e d a re a s in
th e h igh pl a in s a re re g io ns o f sm a ll r a infa ll th o u gh in th e l a t t er ,

c a s e th e cha r a c t er o f th e ve ge t a t io n is l a rg el y due to so il (see

p . Th e g rass l a n d s c o ver g e n er a ll y re g io n s o f c o mp a r a , ,

t ively s m a ll ra in fa ll a nd th e f orests th o s e o f l a rger r a infa ll bu t

, ,

m a n y o th er c o nd i t io ns h a ve t o b e t a ke n into a cc o u nt Th e .

so il fo r ins t a nce in Yuc a t a n a li m e s to n e p la t e a u is mo re f a vo ur

, , , ,

a b le f o r r a ss t ha n f o r exte ns ive f o re s t
g S n o w in C e nt r a l Ca na d a .

ma ke s up f o r a sm a ll a nnua l r a i nf a ll We c a n h o wever no t e .
, ,
 5 40 T EXT -
B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
t ha t the la r ge st c o n ifer s gr o w o n t h e W et Pa cific Co as t ( see p 5 29 ) .

a nd t h a t t h e b r o a d le a ve d t rees o f t h e At l a nt i c F o re s t re qui re a
-

c o ns idera b le a nnua l ra infa ll well dist ri bute d thr o ugh th e y e ar .

The m o u nta in f o re s ts o f th e C o r d illera cle a rl y ind ic at e are as

FI G . 93 .
— N O RI II AM E RICA :
'
V
E G ET AT I O N
( AFT E R S C HI M P ER
.
, H AR D Y .

AN D FO R ES T D IS T RI B U T I O N M AP S O F CAN AD A AN D T H E U N IT E D
ST AT ES )
Of . th e a rea s of fo rest , g r a ssl a n d , cru b n d d esert w it h
s , a t he reg i o ns of
l a rg e a n d s m a ll r a i nfa ll ( Fig 1 1 9 0 9 1 )
s . , ,

of
gre a t err a i nfa ll not sh o wn o n o r d i na r y m a ps A c o ns i d era ble .

a m o u nt Of m o is t u re i s c a r rie d i nl a nd b
y t h e s ea b r eeze s P urely .

t r o p ic a l f ore s t re uire s a l a r e r a i nf a l l a n d c o n s t a n h e a t
q g t s uc h a s ,
th a t o f t h e M exic a n c o as t l a nds a n d Ce nt r a l Am eric Th ere is a n
a .

a pp r oa c h t o t h i s t
yp e in t h e pa lm s o f t he s o u t h e a s t c o as t t h o u gh -

,
5 42 T EXT B OOK OF GE O GRAP HY
-

a nd re a ch e d the M iss iss ipp i Ba s in a ce ntury b efo re t he English

c on que st o f Ca nada but th e ra p i ds e s peci a lly th os e o f La chine
, ,

a nd N ia ga r a were a s erio us o bsta cle to th e advan ce in l a r ger

,

bo a ts th a n c ano es La S a ll e in 1 679 w as o blige d to buil d a

.
, ,

l a rger vess el o f 45 to ns above N iaga r a in wh ic h h e s a il ed to

, , ,

La ke M ich ig an .

Th e fur trade pl a ye d th e mo st impo rta nt p a rt in th e d evelo p

m en t o f Ca na da Fro m 1 666 th e Hu ds o n Ba y Co mp any made
.

u s e o f th e innum erable wa terw a ys o f th e no rthern fo res t reg io n ,

u sing th e b irch ba rk c a no e wh ic h c o ul d b e e as ily c a rrie d b etwee n

-

rivers and l a ke s S mall s tre a ms c o ul d b e mad e u s e o f he nce

.
,

pro g re ss w as po ss i b le in a l mo st a ny d irectio n Fo r inst a nce .

,

fro m Yo rk th e ch ief f a cto ry o n H u dso n Ba y th e Ha y es R iver ,

(not th e l a rger Nel s on) w as fo llo we d to La ke Winn ipeg th e Al bany ,

a nd Mo o s e R iver s to La ke S up erio r a nd t h e Ab iti b i t o th e ,

O tt a w a To re a ch th e St Lawren ce fro m James Ba y a t th e so u th

. .
,

o f Huds o n B a y th e Ru p ert R iver w as fo ll o we d to La ke M is t a s s ini

, ,

a nd a trib ut a ry o f th e Sa gue n a y to La ke St Jo h n ( s ee p . .

Fro m Fo rt Ch urch ill o n Huds o n B a y and th e Ch urch ill R iver

, , ,

a tribut ary o f th e Athabas c a c o ul d b e re a ch e d with o nly 1 2 ,

m iles po r tage wh ile th ere wa s still sho rter a cce ss to th e S as

k
,

a tch ewa n Furth er adva nce we st wa r d le d Ma cken z ie in 1 793

by th e mo unt a in tra il s o ver the Ro ok
.
, ,

ies to th e C o lu mb ia Bo at
Enc amp m en t (s ee fift ee n y e a rs l a ter tha n th e d is c o very by
Co o k in 1 778 o f t e co as t o f th e l a n ds wh ic h a re no w Oregon
, , ,

Was h ing to n and B ritis h Co lu mb ia Here mo re s u bs ta n tia l b o a ts .

co ul d b e buil t than th e light bir ch ba rk c a no e s and reg ula r c o m -

munic a t io n o p ene d up with th e Pa cific .

Bu t th o ugh fur s c o ul d b e flo a te d d o wn th e river s o f th e P a cific

s lo pe mo un t a in tra il s and rivers o n wh ich na viga tion w as d ifficult
,

in t i m es o f flo o d and interrup te d in win ter b y ice were quite ,

insu ffi c ient fo r any clo s e c onnec t io n b etween B riti sh Co lu mb ia

a nd th e re s t o f Ca nada .

Railway D evelopment in Canada — In 1 8 6 8 th e H u dso n Bay

Co mp any h a nde d o ver th e no rth wes t to th e D o m in io n a y e a r -

l a t er th a n th e fe dera tion o f th e o ld p ro vinces Onta rio and Que bec , ,

a nd th e ma ritim e pro vinces To d evelo p e th e l a n ds b etw ee n

.

La ke Sup erio r and th e Ro ckies a nd to p er su ade B ritish Co lu mbia ,

to j o in th e D o m in io n a r a ilwa y fro m s e a to sea wa s a bso

,

lu t ely e ss e nt i a l Co ns eque nt ly the Ca nad ia n Pa cific wa s under

.
,

t a ken and c o mplete d l a rg ely by Governm ent h elp in 1 8 8 6

, ,
, .

Previo us to th i s th e Interc o l o n ia l ha d been c o ns tructe d t o b ind

to gethe r th e pro vin ce s c o nfe d e r a t e d in 1 8 6 7 Th is ru ns fro m .
 N O RT H AM ERICA 5 43

Ha lifa x , th ro u gh No va S co t ia and New B runs wick to Q ue bec ,

a nd M o ntre a l a v o i di n
g Am eric a n t erri t o r y t h ro ugh wh ic h th e
, ,

Canad ian Pa c ific Ra ilwa y p a ss e s in Ma ine Th e buil ding o f th e

-

C a na d ian Pa c ific a ffo r ds a go o d exa mple o f a ra il wa y c o nst ructe d

-

fo r p o li t ic a l p ur p o s e s a nd to le a d r a th er th a n fo llo w s e tt le m e nt
, .

At th e t i m e o f its co mm en ce m e nt t h ere were o nl y ab o ut 4 m illio ns

in Eas t ern C a na da wh ile in th e Unit e d St a t e s th ere were
,

40 m illio n s a n d s e tt le m e nt h a d a dva n ce d well b e yo nd th e

,

Miss is s ipp i wh ile o n th e Pa cific s i de th ere were less tha n

,

wh it es in B rit ish C o lu mb ia t o the so u th o f wh ich w as a l ar ge,

po p ul a t io n in C a lifo rn ia a cqui r e d in 1 8 48 by th e Un it e d S t at e s o f
,

Am eric a a n d a ra p i dly g ro wing s e tt le m e nt in Orego n to wh ic h

, ,

B rit ish cl a im s were a ba ndo ne d in 1 8 4 6 Two o th er ra ilwa y .

s ys t e m s in C a n a d a furt h er illus t ra t e t h e clo s e co n nect io n b etwee n

ra il wa ys a nd s ettle me nt wh ich pra c t ic all y dep en ds to d a y o n

Th e Gr a n d T runk Pa ci fic is d evel o pi ng
,

e as ier t r a nspo rt .

Q ue b ec no rt h o f t he O tt a wa R iver a nd O nta ri o b et wee n th e

Gre at La k e s a nd Huds o n B a y a nd is b ei ng built o ver t he Y ell o w
,

h e a d P a ss t o Prince R up er t o n t h e P a cifi c C oa st Th e C a na di a n .

N o rt h er n pus hing no rth wa r d fr om Edmo nt o n h as re a ch e d

, ,

At h a bas k a L a n ding a nd is pr o j ecte d th r o u gh Ce nt r a l B rit is h

,
'

C o lumb ia t o Va nc o uver A ra ilw a y is als o pr o j ect e d t o Hudso n

.

Bay .

B RITIS H NOR TH AM ERICA .

Are a m il li o n s qu a re m ile s Po pul a tio n = 7 3 mill i o n s in 1 9 1 1

‘

. .

Area i n S q u a re Po p u l a tio n i n
Mil es . M i ll i o n s .

w
N e fo un dla n d
c
Prin e Ed a rd Isla n d w
N o va S o t ia c
New B run s wi k c
Q ue b e c
Onta ri o
M an it o b a
Sa sk a t h e an c w
Al b ert a
B ri t i sh Co lum b ia
No rt h W est T erri t o rie s
-

M o nt rea l T o ro nto
Winnip eg Va n co uver :
5 44 TEXT -
B OOK O F GE O GRAP HY

Newfo undl and .

Newfo undl a nd is th e O l dest B r it ish c o lo ny Th e i sla nd w as .

d is co vere d by th e No rs e men a n d r e dis co vere d by C a bo t in 1 4 9 7 ,

.

It is a b o u t o ne—qu a r t e r l a rg er t h a n I rel a n d s qu a re m iles ) .

Th e c o u nt ry is mo stl y c o mpo s e d o f Ar ch aean ro cks s i mil a r to tho s e

wh ic h fo r m the La u r ent ia n Pl atea u Th e so il is g en er a ll y c o l d .

a n d w et a n d n o t well s ui t e d t o a g ricul t ure bu t t h ere a r e a re a s o f

, ,

fe r t ile l an d in the vall eys o f th e l a rg er s tre a ms wh ere o ats ba rle y ,

po t a to e s a nd ve ge t ab le s c a n b e gro wn Th e int erio r is a n u ndu

la ting up la nd c o vere d with ba rrens ma rsh es a nd l ak
.
,

es (es t i , ,

ma te d to c o ve r o ne th ir d o f th e surfa ce ) wh ich clo s el y res e mbles

-

th e La ure nt i a n H igh la n ds O f No r th ern O nt a rio a nd Q ue b ec ( see

Fig . Th ere a re l a rg e a re a s c o vere d with sp ruc e wh ich fo r ms ,

th e m a t eri a l fo r wo o d pulp a nd p a p er m ills -

A ra ilwa y no w .

runs fro m S t Jo hn s t o Po rt a u x B a s ques nea r C ap e Ray On

.
’
,
.

th e p la t e a u in th e we s t o f th e i sl a n d i s th e L o ng R a ng e wh ic h ,

ris es in pl a ce s t o o ver fee t a nd wh ich with o th er o u ter , ,

ra n e s
g des cends bo ldly t o th e wes tern co a s t Th is co nta in s
,
.

s eve ra l d ee
p fj o r d inle t s a nd bro ad ba ys bu t is le ss in d e nt e d th a n ,

th e n o r th e a st o r so ut h e as t c o a sts
-
Develo p men t w a s h e r e lo ng
-
.

”
r et ard e d by th e p osse ss io n by Fra nce o f th e French sh o re ,

wh ich inclu de d th e Who le o f th e wes t c o a st On th e no rth ea st -

so u th a nd s o u th e as t c o a st s t h ere are nu m
.

,
-
e r o us isl a nds a n d well ~

ma r ke d pen insul as o f wh ich th e l a rg est i s Ava lo n s epa ra te d

, ,

f r o m th e m a inl an d by a na rro w is thmus Th e in lets fo r m deep .

a n d sh el t e r e d h a r b o ur s .

Ow ing t o th e cha ra c t e r o f th e c o u ntry fish ing is s t ill th e m a in

indus try e sp ecia ll y fo r c o d o n th e G ra n d B a n k
,

, s Of th is St .

Jo h n s is th e cent re with a n excellent la n d lo ck

.

’
,
e d h a r bo ur The -
.

c o ld La bra do r curre nt b rings fo o d in th e fo r m o f m inu t e o r gan isms

(p la nk ton ) t o t he s u bm a rin e p l a t e a u o f t h e B a nks w h ic h f o rm ,

t he gre a t e st fish ing gr o u nd f o r c o d in t h e w orl d a n d t h e a b u n da nt

-

ba it f ou nd o n t he sh ore s Of N ewfo u ndl a nd give s h er s a il ors a grea t

a d va nt a e
g Th e Lab r a d o r c o ast no w b el o ngs t o N ewf o u ndla nd
. .

With its precip it ou s cliff s fj or ds is l a nds a nd wa terfa lls t h is , , , ,

res emb les the we st c o as t o f N o rwa y B u t t h ere are i mp ort a nt .

differe nce s of clim a te (see p M ost o f th e c o as t is b l o c k

. ed
b y ice fr o m N o ve mb er t o July wh e n t h e c o d a rrive a nd fish i ng ,

b egi ns C o ns eque nt l y t h o ugh t h ere a re wi nt er s ta t i o ns in th e

.
,

h a r b ours t h e populat i o n is m igr at o r y a nd e nt irel y d e p en de nt o n

,

t h e c o d h erri ng sa lm o n a nd s e a l fis h erie s
, , N ewf o u nd l a n d is
, .

ric h in ir o n ore which is exp o rt e d ; c opp er a nd c o a l a re m i ned

,

in sm a ll qua ntitie s .
546 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

C u mb e rl a nd fi el ds in th e no rth ,
a nd iro n is fo u n d in clo s e
p ro xi m ity to it .

Prince Edw ard Isl and is a lo w, u n dul a t ing i s l an d , wh ich fo r ms a

s t riking c o n t ra s t t o C a p e B reto n Is l a n d Th e re d s ands to ne so il .

is ge n era lly c ul t iv a t e d wit h o a ts a n d p o t a to e s , and da iry fa r m ing -

i s th e p rincipa l in dus try The prin cip a l to wn is Cha rlo tt eto wn

. .

New Br unswicki s c o nn ecte d with No va Sc o tia by a n eck o f

l an d 12 m iles wi de , th e Isthmus o f Ch ig n ec to Th e c o u ntry co n .

s ists genera ll y o f r o lling pl a in s a nd h ill s and h as no mo u nta ins ,

o f a n y g re a t elev a t io n t ho ugh in th e n o rth th e p l at e a u ris es to

,

a bo u t feet On th e so u th ea st co a st f a cing th e Bay o f -

Fundy i s a b elt s o m e 3 0 m iles wi de o f h a r d ro ckwh ich has

.
,

, , , ,

p r o tect ed th e c o a s t fr o m th e a c t io n o f th e t i de s Th ere a re many .

d eep and sh eltere d h a r bo urs s uc h as S t Andrew s in Fa ss a ma , .

’
,

quo ddy B ay a nd St Jo h n
,
. .

O wi ng to th e sc o uring o f th e t i d e s t here a re no s ho al s o ver m u ch o f t h e

,

co a st T h e sed im en t is dep o sited o n the na rro w l o w la nd s w hi c h have

.

b een g ra duall y bui lt up a t the hea d o f the B ay e sp e cia lly in t he estua ry of ,

l he P et i t c o d ia c in t he ext rem e n o rt h a n le o f th e B a T h es e
y o f Fundy
"

g .
,

a s in No va S c o t i a h a ve b een dy k
, ed and fo rm h ay m ea do w s Of i nexhau sti ble
,

fertil ity D a iry fa rming is h ere esp e c i ally im p o rta nt

.
-
.

On th e e a s t co ast fa cing th e Gulf O f St La wrence is a bel t o f

, .
,

ha rd gra nit e wh ich a lso fo r ms a n in dent e d c o a s t with go o d

, ,

har bo urs s uch as th e e st u a r y o f th e M iram ich i In th e in t erio r

, .

i s a lo w pl a in o f fro m 200 to 500 feet o f s o fter r o ck in wh ich the ,

nu m er o u s river s h a ve c u t b ro a d v a lle y s In th e s e t h ere a re .

fert ile river t erra ces a nd a lluvia l flats regul a rly flo o de d wh ich , ,

pro vid e go o d a gricul tura l l a n d Mo st o f th e c o unt ry is c o vered .

with fo re sts th e prin cip a l wo o d b e ing th e spruce As in Que bec

, .
,

t h i s is c u t in win t er a n d b ro u gh t do wn th e river s in S pring .

B es i des being expo rt e d a s lu mb er th e sp r uce i s u s e d in pul p m ills ,

a t St .Jo hn Chatham o n th e M ir am ich i etc Th e a bun dant

, , , .

gro wth o f h e m lo ck supp lie s th e b a rk fo r th e t a nn eries Owing .

t o th e re ady s uppl y o f le a th er in a c at t le re g io n b o o ts an d S h o es ,

fo r m a n i mpo r tant in dust r y C li ma t ic co nd it io ns a re s uita ble

.

fo r th e manufa cture o f c o tto n I ro n is fo und in a bu nda nce and .

,

th ere is eno ugh c o a l a nd li m e sto ne fo r sm el t in g bu t iro n ma nu ,

fa c ture h as as y et h a r dly b egun .

Th e rivers are o f grea t va lue fo r c o mmunic a t io n Th e St John . .

is na viga ble fo r l a rge st e a m e r s to Friedericto n 8 6 m iles fro m the ,

mo uth wh ere th e river is m ile wi de Th e t id e re ac h e s to a

, .

po in t 6 m ile s h i gh er u p .
 BRITI SH N O RT H AM ERIC A 5 47

T he S t Jo hn River sho ul d b e exam in ed o n a la rg e sc ale m a p It illus

. -
.

t ra t e s a dm ira bl y t h e c ha ra c t er o f t he c o u n t ry A su cc e ss i o n o f l a ke .

expa nses o f w hi c h Grand La k

, e is the la rg est ( 3 0 m iles by fro m 3 to 9 m iles ) ,

m a rkth e int eri o r l o w l a nd o f so ft er ro c k w h ile the na rro w g o rg e a b ove ,

St Jo hn Ha rb o ur w i t h its fa m o u s re ver si ble fa ll s w h ic h ca n o nl y b e p a sse d

.
, ,

fo ur t im es in t w enty fo ur ho urs sho w s the o ccurrenc e of a ba nd o f ha rd ro ck

-
, .

As th e t i d e ris e s 25 feet in th e h a r b o ur o f S t Jo h n it is lwa y s .

,
a

f r ee fro m ice On . th e Upp er St Jo h n R iver Gr a nd F a lls

.
, ,

225 m ile s fro m th e s ea , a re th e fir st s erio u s ob struc t io n to

na vi g a t io n .

Th e S t Lawrenc e B asi n
. .

Confi g uratio n D evel op m ent — Th e S t L a wre nce B as in

and .

fo r ms a bro a d inle t b et wee n th e Laure nt ian a nd Ap pa l a chi a n

H igh l a n d s, c o nn ec t i n g th e C ent ra l Pl a ins with th e o ce a n Abo ut
k
.

o n e s ixth o f it s a re a is c o vere d by th e Gre a t L a es

-
Th e d ivides .

s e a r a t in
p g it fr o m t h e M i ss i ss ipp i a nd H u dso n B a y d r a in a ge a re
co mp a r at ivel y lo w a nd u nm a r e d by a ny dist inct ive r i dges even k
wh ere th e h eight o f l a n d excee ds feet a sho r t po r t ag e is
su fli c ien t f o r t r a vel fr o m th e rive r s a n d l a ke s o f o ne b a s in t o t h o s e

o f a no t h er An un d ul a t in g up l a n d o f h a r d a nd a n cie nt ro c h a s
. k
b een w o rn d o wn t o th e c o ndit io n o f a p enep la i n a nd t he sha ll o w ,

d epre s s i o ns fo r m e d in th e gl a cia l p eri o d a re fille d b y innum er a b le

lak es .

Fo rt Willi a m a li ttle so u t h o f Po r t Arth ur w a s b uil t in 1 8 0 1 a s t h e

. ,

hea d qua rters o f th e N o rt h W est Co m pa ny — a riva l o f t h e H ud so n Bay

-

Co m pa ny— o n La k e S up eri o r a s Gra n d Po r ta g e to the so u th w a s fo und

, , ,

t o b e in Am eri c a n t erri to ry A p ra c t i ca l p o rt a g e ro u t e w a s fo un d by t he
.

Ka m in is t iq u ia R iv er Ra in y Lak e a nd La k
,
e o f th e Wo o ds t o La k
, e Winn i ,

p eg . Na tura l w a t er c o m m uni c at io n wa s s u fficient f o r c ano es a nd les s

b ul k y a n d valu a ble furs bu t th e w h ea e p o r e d fro
,
t x t m M ani to b a via t h e
St La w re n c e B a sin m ust fo ll o w t h e ra il wa y a s th e sha ll o w la k
.
es a nd ,

strea m s ha ve so f a r rend ere d a c a n a l im p ra c t i c a ble T h ere a re n o w g re a t .

c o a l do c ks g ra in eleva to rs
,
a nd fl o ur m ill s,
Ele c t ri c al p o w er i s s upplied
.

f ro m the l o fty Ka k a b ek
a Fa ll s ( h i g h er t ha n N i a g a ra ) o f t h e Ka m inistiqu ia

River a b o u t 20 m iles fro m th e t o w n

,
.

At s o m e p eri o d in th e g e o l o gic a l h ist o r y o f th e St La wre nce the .

Gre a t Lak es were n o n e xis t e nt and a ma ture river s yst e m wh ic h

-

, ,

had n ea rly re a c h e d its ba se level of erosion ext e nde d thr o u gh b r oa d ,

va lle ys a nd fl a t pl a ins fo r s o m e m i le s Th e f a cto rs wh i ch .

ha ve prod uce d th e p re s ent deep cut va lle y o f th e r i ver a nd the -

dro wne d e s tu a ry— b el o w Th ree R ivers the S t La wrence IS .

 5 48 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

feet d eep a nd a cha nnel a bo ut

,
feet d eep extends fo r
3 00 m ile s o u t t o sea — a re eleva tio n g l a ci a tio n a nd s u bm erg ence
, ,
.

Eleva tio n e n a b l ed th e river to d eep en a nd w i d en th e v a lley wh ic h

inclu de d the b e d o f th e Gre a t L ak es wh ic h a re o ld river va lleys
,

fo r m e d by stre am ero s io n and th en t ilte d eleva t e d a nd depre ss e d

, , ,

by e a rth m o ve m ents Th e y pr o b a bly receive d t h eir pre s ent fo r m

.

th ro ugh th e influence o f glacia tion wh ere s ectio ns o f th e va lley

,

had bee n o bst ructed b y mo r a in ic d ebris As th e ice sh eet .

-

retre a ted ma ny tempo ra ry l ak

,
es were fo r me d o f wh ic h o ne o f th e ,

mo st i mpo rta nt w as tha t wh ich fille d th e R e d R iver Bas in an d ,

e xtende d no rth wa r d to inclu d e La kes W innip eg and Winni

p ego sis Th e so il o f th is a re a is exceptiona ll y go o d fo r whe at
. .

Two i mpo rt a nt re sul ts as rega r ds so il a re due t o gl a cia t io n : (a ) The

denu dat ion o f th e Laurentian Highl a nds fro m wh ich th e so il was
re mo ved ; t h e s e a re in c o ns eque n ce like Finl a n d fit fo r little , ,

but a t h in fo re st gro wt h ( b) Th e tr anspo rt a t ion o f th e ro ck

.

debris o ver So u t h Can ada a n d th e no rth o f th e Un ited S ta tes ,

o b liter a t ing p revi o u s in e qu a lit ie s a nd fo r m in

, g a fertile d rift
p l a in
. A no t h er efi ec t o f gl a ci a t io n w as to p ro d uce a new relief

wh ich with o ut g re a t d iff erences o f elev a tio n o r s u bs i dence was

, ,

s u ffi cie nt to a lt er th e gr ades o f stre ams th rou gh o u t th e a re a and ,

to p ro duce th e n u m er o u s wa t erfa lls wh ic h a re no w o f s uch gre a t

eco no m ic imp o rt a nce fo r th e p ro d uctio n o f p o wer T o gl a c ia tion .

is due a lso th e fj o r d shap e s o f th e d ro wne d river va ll e ys o f th e

e as tern ma rg in Las tl y su bmergenc e has lo were d the river
.
,

v alle ys belo w th e s e a as in th e c a s e o f We st ern S co tl and and

,

Sc a nd in a via It sh o ul d b e no ted tha t o wing to th e l a ck of

.

s e d i m e n t wh ic h i s d e p o s ite d in th e l a ke s s tre a m ero s io n i s no w ,

ta king pl a ce ver y s lo wly (no t e th e ro cky i sl a n ds b et ween Lake

O nt a rio a nd th e m o uth o f th e O tt a w a ) As th e c o ns ta nt s upply .

fro m th e la kes co un ter ba l an ce s the s upplie s d erive d fro m the

m eltin g o f th e sno ws in th e ba s ins o f th e t ri buta rie s th ere a re no ,

flo o ds in th e ma in river and c o ns e quently no flo o d p l a ins except

,

a t th e mo uths o f tributa rie s wh ere th e s teep er slo p e a llo ws th e

,

a ccu mul atio n o f s e d im ent Th e i mpo rt a nt re s ul t o f th is i s that

.

ne a rly a ll th e to w ns o f th e Lo wer St La wre nce a re a t th e mo uths

.

o f tri b ut a rie s s itu a te d a t th e m o u t hs o f b r a nc h s t re ams wh ere ,

so m e fertil e s o il exis ts fo r cult iva t io n Fo r th is p o s itio n th e .

po wer a ff o r de d b y river s a nd th e v a lle y ro u t es a fi o rd add itional

re asons B et ween La kes S up erio r and Erie th ere is a d rop o f
.

30 feet bu t fro m Erie to O nt a ri o mo re tha n 3 0 0 feet

, Co nse .

que ntl y N ia ga r a fo rms a c o mp le t e na tur a l ba rrier t o na viga tio n of

,

th e upper l a kes fro m th e Lo wer St La wre nce . .

550 T EXT -
B OOK OF GEO G RAP HY
Quebec (deri ved fro m a n Ind ia n w o rd m ea ning t h e na rro ws
“
wa s
found ed by Cha mp la in in 1 608 It is t h e c en t re o f t he old Frenc h colony
.
.

a nd Fre nc h is st ill sp o k en b y a m a j o rit y in t h e p r ovinc e T he c it ad el is .

s it ua t e d o n t he H eig ht s o f Abra ha m a b o ve t h e river wh i c h is h ere 2 mil es

, ,

wi d e Th e h a r b o ur i s na t ura ll y d eep eno ug h f o r t h e la rg est s h ip s

. Th e .

l ofty b ri dg e feet S p a n ) w h i c h co ll ap s e d in 1 907 is b eing rebuilt

, , .

Q ue b e c h a s st ill t h e tra d e o f t h e L o w er S t La wren c e but ha s lost mu c h of . ,

its fo rm er i mpo rta n c e a s t he ea st ern o ut let o f Ca na da o wing t o t he fa ct

t ha t M o nt re a l is a t th e h ea d o f o c e a n n a viga t io n o n t h e St Lawrenc e just .
,

West of the co nfl uen c e o f t h e O tt a wa ( T he c hannel ha s b een a rt ific ially .

d eep ene d a nd w ill no w ta k

, e a s la rg e s hip s a s B o st o n an d N ew Yo rk) .

In additio n t o its imp orta nt p os iti o n o n the r o utes whic h f ollow

th e S t Lawrence a nd t he O t t a w a M o ntreal c o mma nds th e
.
,

na t ur a l
gap in th e s o uth fo rm e d b y th e R ic h eli eu t o La ke Cham
pl a i n a nd th e Huds o n Th e lines o f t he G r a nd T runk and
.

Ca nadi a n Pa cific cr o ss th e S t L a wre nce t o t h e to wn on l ofty .

bridges .

Mo ntre a l has a c o ns i dera ble indust r ia l develop m ent b eing the ,

ma in ce ntre fo r th e di stribut io n o f th e i mpo rts o f Ca nada and

many manufa ctures e sp ecia lly o f suga r Th e to wn was th e
, .

o rigin a l centre o f th e Hu d so n B a y fur t r a d e .

3 Th e Laurenti an Pl ateau is c o mp o s e d o f Arc h aean ro cks

.

which ha ve b een s everely gla cia t e d L ike th e High la nds o f .

Sc a ndin a via F inl a nd a n d o th er s i m il a r a re as th ey ha ve little

, , ,

so il s uitable fo r cr ops Th e g en er a l c h a ra cter o f th e c o untry is

.

tha t o f an undul a tin g upla n d with ro u nd e d we a th er wo rn h ills ,

-

a nd c o vere d with wo o d s o f p in e a nd s ruce La ke s and rivers

p .

abound a nd th ere a re as in ma n y reg io ns o f o ld ro ck wh ich has

, ,

been gl a cia ted (s ee p inn u merable wa terfa ll s th es e fo rm a

.

mo st i mpo rtant so urce o f po wer fo r mi lls e sp ec ia lly wo o d pulp ,

-

fo r paper o n th e ba n ks o f th e S t La wrence
, T i mb er o f wh ich . .
,

p in e i s th e mo s t i mp o r t a n t in th e S t M a urice and O tt a w a Va lle ys .

,

i s cut durin g th e winter and br o ugh t o n s now roa ds to th e

,

stre am ban ks till th e ice brea ks in sp ring wh e n it c a n be driven ,

do wn th e rivers Th e mo s t impo rtan t river wh ich flo ws into

.

th e Lo wer S t Lawrence is th e Sague na y wh ic h in its lo wer

.
,

co urs e res e mble s a No rweg ian fj o r d in its d epth a nd lo fty pre

c ip ito us w a ll s At it mo uth is T a do u sa c H a r bo ur a trading
.
s
,

po s t b efo re Q ue b ec w a s fo un d ed Th e river flo ws th ro ugh Lake .

St John wh ic h lie s in a sh eltere d and fer t ile bas in b el o w th e

.
,

ge ner a l level o f th e p l a t e a u Th e mo s t i mpo rta nt m in era l is

.

asbesto s o bta in e d in So uth Q ue b ec

, .
 BRITI S H N O RT H AM ERICA 551

Ontario c o ns is ts o f tw o n a tura l reg io ns

1 Th e Laurenti an Hig h l and o f No r th ern O nt a rio t o th e no r th
.

o f a l in e d r a wn fro m La k
, ,

e N ip iss in g to th e O tt a wa R iver Th is .

typ e o f co un try ext ends to th e La ke o f th e Wo o ds o n th e we st .

AS 11 1 Q ue b ec th e c o un t ry i s fo res t cl ad a nd th e p rin cip a l in

,
-

dustry i s lu mb ering Th e c h ief d is t ricts a re o n th e Upp er

.

Ott a wa no r th o f Geo rg ia n Ba y a nd to th e we st o f La ke S up erio r

, ,
.

Sp ruce i s ma inly o bt a ine d t o th e no rth o f th e H eight o f Lan d ,

a nd i s mad e int o
pu l p a t m ills a t Sa u l t S t Ma rie O tt a wa et c .
, ,
.

To th e no rt h o f the La ure nt ia n H igh la n d sl o p in g to w a r ds Ja m e s ,

Ba y is a cla y b elt b elo w wh ich is li m esto n e

, ,
Th is lie s a t a .

l o wer elevat io n than the pla t ea u a nd tho ugh a t p rese nt co vere d ,

W it h t imb er is likel y in th e fu t ure to p ro ve va lu a b le fo r s t o ck

,

kee ping and da irying M iner a ls a re i mp o rt a nt to th e no r th a nd

.

wes t o f L a kes Huro n a nd S uperio r Iro n is fo u nd in th e R a iny .

R iver dist rict o n M ich ip co t en Is l a nd in La ke Sup erio r a nd ,

b et wee n Geo rg ia n B a y a nd Lak

, ,

e O nt a rio ne a r th e C a na d ia n
Ca na l fro m La ke S up erio r to Lak
,

e Huro n a nd is sm elt e d at ,

Sa ult S t Ma r ie H a m ilto n etc

.
,
N ickel is fo und with c o pp er
, .

ne a r S u dbur y in th e N ip is s ing d is trict

, .

2 S outh ern O ntario wh ic h co mp r is es th e low la nds o f t h e S t

.
,
.

La wrence a nd O tta wa Va lleys a nd th e O nta ri o P eninsul a o f ,

W h ic h th e so ut h we s t p o r t io n b etween th e N i a ga r a e s c a rp m ent
-

es Erie a n d Huro n is re ma rk
,

a nd L a k a b l y fert ile T h r o u gh o u t
th is re g io n th e s o il is go o d b ein g co mpo s e d o f gl a cia l a nd la k
.
,

,
e
depo s its o f cla y lo a m Th e mo st i mp o rta nt a g ricult ura l in dus
.

t ries a re t h o s e co nn ec t e d with da i r y ing st o ck r a is ing ( e sp ecia lly ,

-

ho r s es ) a nd fruit gro wing ( app le s ) Pe a ch e s p ea r s and gra p es

-

c a n b e s ucce ss ful l y gr o w n o n th e s lo p es wh ic h fa ce L a k
,
.
, ,

es O nta rio
and Erie o win g to th e influe nce o f th e Gre a t L a kes o n t e mp er a
,

ture and r a infa ll (s ee p 267 th e La ke o f Gen eva ) : Th e ch ief

.
,

to wns in On t a rio a re T o ro n t o o n th e we s t o f La ke O nt a rio th e

, ,

c ap ita l and d is t ributin g cent re fo r S o u th ern Ont a rio Ham il to n

to th e so uth wi th iro n fo un drie s L o ndo n in th e s o u th we s t o f
, ,
-

the O nt a rio P e nin s ula b e t wee n L a ke s O nt a ri o Erie a n d Huro n

, , ,

and Ottawa th e c a p i t a l o f t h e D o m in io n t h e ce nt re o f t h e
, ,

lu mb er t ra de In a dd i t io n to its adva nta g es o f pos it io n fo r ea st

.

a nd wes t t ra ffic in th e Va lle y o f th e O tt a wa R iver it is c o nnec t e d ,

with Kings to n o n La ke O nta rio by th e R ide a u Ca na l Ne a r

, ,
.

it th e Cha u d i ere Fa lls a re o f gre a t v a lue fo r po wer .

55 2 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

Th e Centra l Pl ains .

Fro m e a s t to we s t , b e t ween La ke o f th e Wo o ds a n d th e cre s t

k
o f t h e R o c ies , a re th e p ro vinces o f Ma n it o b a , S a s ka tch ewan,
a nd Al b er t a On t h e s o uth , t o a bo ut th e l a t itu d e o f th e No rth
k
.

S a s a t ch ew a n R iver , i s th e b el t o f cere a ls a nd m ixe d fa r m ing,

mo re o r less o ccup ie d by fa r ms, a nd cro ss e d by nu mero us ra il
wa ys wh ile to th e no r th is th e a l mo s t u ns e tt le d fo res t .

Th ere is a ma rke d c o nt ra s t b e t ween th e p ra iries a nd the

reg io n i mm e d ia t el y to th e we st o f La e Sup erio r , wh ere a lo w k
gla cia t e d p la t e a u (un d er feet ) ris es r a p idly fro m Lake
Sup e r io r Th is h a s innu m era ble l a k es, s tre ams, s wa mps, a nd
k
.

mo ss es ( mus egs ) In s o m e d is tricts in th e i mm e d ia t e pro x

.

im it y o f th e Ca na d ia n Pa ci fic o r C a n ad i a n No r th ern R a il wa ys,
m ixe d fa rm ing a nd da ir ying is c a rrie d o n but mo s t o f th e regio n
is fo re s t cla d, a n d th e m a i n in du s t rie s a re lu mb ering and m ining
-

(g o l d ) Th e pres ence o f f a lls , wh ich c a n b e us e d fo r po wer

.

(see p . ha s le d t o a gre a t develo p m en t o f sa w, pul p,

a nd flo ur m il l s, e s p eci a ll y a t Keewa ti n, o n L a ke o f th e Wo o ds .

The p rairies b egin in th e R e d River Va lle y in Ma n ito ba , wh ich

is a bo ut 8 00 fee t a bo ve th e s ea Th e c o u nt r y g radua lly slopes
.

up w a r ds fro m the river to th e Ro ckie s, fo r m ing th ree pra irie

s t epp es, with a slight es c a rp me nt o n th e e a s t, a nd a n a verage
eleva t io n o f 800, a nd fee t Th ere is a gr a dua l slope
.

no r th wa r d Tho ugh th e pra irie s m a y b e spo ken o f bro adly as

.

a
pla in , th e y a re n o t e nt irely fl a t , a s th ere a re n u m ero us lo w,
d et a ch e d h ills, pla t ea u s , and ri dge s to th e wes t o f th e R e d R iver
Va lley Th es e merg e gra du a lly int o th e fo o th ill s o f th e Ro ckies
. .

Th ere is an a ver ag e d es cent o f 5 feet to th e m ile fro m the base

o f th e Ro ok ies to L a ke Win n ip e g Th e so il is g en er a ll y fertile
.

th ro u gh o u t th e Gre a t C e nt r a l Pl a in , e sp ecia lly in a lluvia l fla ts,

s uch a s th o s e o f th e R e d R iver , wh ere th ere a re d e o s its o f rich
p
bl a ck l o a m Th e nit ra t es c o nta in e d in th e so il ma ke it par
.

t ic ul arly va lu a b le fo r th e gro wth o f ha r d wh e a t Th e climate is

.

ge nera ll y dry , with r a in s in e a r l y s u mm e r , wh e n th e y a re mo st

nee d e d by th e cr o p s Tho ugh th e wint ers a re c o l d, and there
.

is a g re a t da il y r a n g e o f t e mp er a t u r e , t h e s unsh in e a nd lo ng
da yligh t o f su mm er a re fa vo ura ble t o th e ra p i d gro wth a nd ripen
ing o f gr a in ( s ee Tab le X , . Edmo nto n and
Prince Al b ert
M anitoba — Th e R e d R iver fl o ws f r o m th e s o u th i nto La ke Win
nip eg ( 250 m l le s lo n g by 25 t o 60 m ile s bro a d
) , the l a rge s t o f the
shall o w l a kes wh ich inclu d e M anito ba , Winnep ego s is , et c thes e
, .

a re b elieve d t o b e th e re ma in s o f th e o ld La ke Agass iz, which

554 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Alberta — So uth . No r th Sa s ka t ch ewa n R iver Al ber ta

of th e ,

lies in th e th ir d p ra irie st epp e Th e va lle ys a re deep a nd b ro ad . ,

bu t ma n y o f th e rive r s fl o w in d eep furro ws 200 o r 300 feet b elo w ,

th e g e nera l level ; fr o m th e s e d eep s teep s i de d r a vin e s bra nch ,

-

fo r c o ns i d era b le d i st a n ce s int o th e p r a i r ie wh ic h th o ugh no w , ,

no t o ccu ie d b
p y wa t er sho w th e ext e nt o f p a s t fluvi a l a c t io n .

To th e n o r th o f th e No rth S as k
,

a t ch ew a n th e c o unt r y is u ndul a t

ing a nd le ss ma rk e d by deep river va lle ys Th e so uth ern part is .

t reele s s excep t o n th e bo r d er s o f th e Ro ckie s a nd by th e ba nks

,

o f th e river s In th e no r th th e river va lleys h a ve t h ick woo ds

.

o f s ruce a n d
p po p la r but th e ti mb er s u ppl y is o fte n insu fficie nt
-

fo r lo c a l purp o s es Much o f So uth ern Al b er ta w as o rigina ll y

.

c o ns i dere d to o dry fo r agricul ture a nd wa s d evo t e d a l most ex ,

‘

elus ively to r anch ing but ir riga t io n a nd dry fa r m ing h as

,

l a rg el y exten de d th e a re a o f cul t iva t io n Ca lga ry o n the .

,

C a nad ia n Pa cific Ra ilwa y is o ne o f th e mo st i mpo r ta nt centres ,

a s a n a ricultur a l ma rk et a nd fo r th e o u tfit o f m in ing c amps

g
in t he R o ckie s Suga r b ee t a nd a lfa lfa ( lucer ne ) is la r gely gr own
.
-

in t he irriga t e d d is tric t s r o u nd Lethbri dge a nd a l ong the

B o w R iver ) .

D ry fa rm ing c o n s i st s in c o n s ervin g m o i s t ure o n th e l a nd by fo rm ing a

s u rfa c e o f fine so il It s h o ul d b e n o t ed t ha t o n a s e as ho re a n d a m o ng sa nd
.

d unes a rea s o f very fin ely d ivid ed san d a re ha rd e st a n d ret a in m oi sture

l o ng e st .

Wh e a t a nd
h er cere a ls a re gro wn t hro u gh o ut tho ugh no t
ot ,

in th e sa m e qu a nt it ies a s in th e o th er p r a irie p r o vin ce s Wh eat .

c a n be
g r o wn a s fa r no r th a s th e P e a ce R iver bu t a t pre s ent th e ,

d ist ances fro m r a ilwa ys o f ma ny s uita ble d is t ric ts a re to o grea t

to ma k e wh e a t
gro win g pr o fit a b le
-
Even t o th e so uth o f th e
.

g r e a t e as t to we st line s o f th e C a n ad ia n No r th er n a n d th e Gr a nd
T runk th ere a re st ill fa r ms 100 m i les fro m a r a ilwa y .

O w i ng t o t h e a b sen c e in the p rairie s o f g o o d ro a d m a te ri a l th e ro ads ,

a re o ft e n o nl
y t ra c ks w hi c h a re i m p a s s a ble in w et w e a t h er
, Co n si d era ble .

u s e is m a d e by farm er s in i s o l a t e d d i s t ri c t s o f t h e li h t a u t um n sn o w fall s
g ,

w hi c h p ro vid e a surfa c e sui ta ble fo r t h e u se o f sled g es .

Edmo nt o n , o n th e No r th S a sk a t c h ewa n , i s t h e ce nt re o f th e

fur t ra de o f th e M a cke n zie Ba s in Na tura l gas i s fo u n d o n th e .

At haba sk a R iver , an d n e a r M e d icine Ha t o n th e Ca nad ia n Pa cific

Ra ilwa y , in th e so u th e as t , wh ere it is u s e d fo r po wer a nd light
-

Th ere are ext ens ive c o a lfields , ma inl y wo rke d r o u nd L ethb ri dge
’
a nd n e a r th e C ro w s N e s t P a ss , in th e so u t h we s t r o u n d B a nfi -

,
 BRITI SH N O RT H AMERICA 555

on th e Ca nad ia n Pa c ific R a ilwa y a nd Edmo nto n Th e wa r m

and d ry c hi nook
.
,

winds in Al b erta ha ve c o ns i der able influence o n

cli ma te (s ee p 67 .

Briti s h Co l umbi a .

A mass of
mo u nta in s (th e C o r d illera ) exte nd fo r 400 m iles fro m
th e p ra iries to th e Pa c ific At th e e ast er n a nd we s tern extre m ities
.

a re th e Rockie s and th e Co a s t Rang e a nd b etween th e m th e ,

P urcel l Selkirk and Co lu mb ia R a nge s a nd th e interio r pl a tea us

, , ,

(s ee Fig .

Th e Rock ies fo r m a lo ng c ha in wi th a ma rke d e as tern es c a rp ,

ment f ro m Mo ntana to th e Yuko n Th e South ern Ca nad ian .

Ro ckie s a re ma inly fo r m e d o f l im e sto n e Th ere a re c ons i der able .

a reas o ver feet and so m e p ea ks ris e to o ver 12 000 feet

, .

Th ey ha ve gre a t s nowfields a nd gl a ciers and extens ive fo res ts ,

on th e we s t wh ic h i s exp o s e d to th e mo is t wes terl y win ds

, Th ere .

a re ma ny p ass e s o f wh ich th e Kicking Ho r s e

,
feet) and th
C ro w s N e s t
’
feet ) a re fo llo we d by ra ilwa ys Th e Ca nad ian .

Pa cific Ra ilwa y wh ich fo llo we d th e first nam e d p ass in its e arlie st -

rou t e a cro ss th e R o ck
,

ies p a ss e s th ro ugh a rel a tively bro ad gap

,

with a n e a rly level s u mm it (th e d ist an ce b etween Steph en o n a ,

t ri but a ry o f th e Bo w R iver a nd H ect o r o n th e Kickin g Ho r s e , ,

R iver wh ic h j o ins th e C o lu mb ia is 2 m ile s and th ere i s a dro p

, , ,

o f 100 feet ) Th e 3 10 pe is muc h st eeper o n th e wes t tha n o n th e

.

e as t Banfi being a t
,
feet a nd Go l de n in th e C o lu mb ia , ,

Va lley abo ut th e sam e dis t ance fro m th e w atersh e d b eing at

, ,

feet Th is d iff eren ce i s due t o t he eleva tio n o f th e fo o th ill

.

belt o n th e e as t No river excep t th e P e a ce in th e no rth cut s

.
, ,

righ t th ro ugh th e Ro ckies tho ugh th e Upp er Athabaska a nd Upp er

,

Fras er ne a rly meet a t th e lo w Yell o wh e ad Pass feet) ,

o rigin a lly s electe d fo r th e C a n ad ia n Pa cifi c Ra il w a y and no w ,

th e gap th ro ugh wh ic h th e Gran d T run k is b e ing built to Prince

°
Rup ert o n th e Pa cific in 5 4 no rt h l a t it u d e .

Th e firs t c ro ssing o f the Ro c k ie s w a s m a d e by Ma ck enzie in 1 79 3 , who

follo we d t he Pea c e River and it s t ri b uta ry , the Pa rsnip rea c hing th e ,

Fra s er by a sho rt p o rtag e A re gul a r ro u t e wa s e sta b li sh ed by pa c kt ra il s

.

o ver th e Y ell o wh e ad Pa ss o r o ver t h e At ha b a sk

,
a Pa ss, b e t ween Mo u nt B ro wn

and Mount H oo k er— lo ng c o nsi d ered th e hig he st p eak s in the Ro c k ies bu t ,

no w k no wn to b e o nl y a nd feet high respe ctively— to the g rea t

bend of the Co lum b ia w h ere a p o st st ill m a rk
,
ed B oa t Enc ampm ent on
,

ma ps, wa s u sed fo r the t ransfer to b o a ts whi c h navigat ed the Lo w er

Co lum b i a .
 Fro 9 4 — T H E R o c x ms : RELI EF
. . .

No t e t h e imp o rt anc e of river t ren ch es a nd p a ss es in ea rly riv er a nd trail

t ra ns p o rt an d m o dern ra il w a y d evel o pm ent Th e t w o r a il w a y s . the
Gra n d T runkPa c i fic a nd Ca n a d ia n N o rt h er n, a re sh o w n by o n e line
.
5 58 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

into th e So uth Tho mpso n R iver In th e so uth th e li m it c anno t .

b e so e as ily define d th e Okana ga n R iver and La ke l y ing within

,

th e belt o f th e interio r pl ate a us tho ugh th e Lo wer Okana gan ,

Va lley d ivi des t his r ange fr o m th e Cas c ade Rang es Th e interior .

p l ateaus a re a b o ut 100 m iles wi d e and 50 0 m ile s fro m no r th to

so u th and c o ns i s t o f a nu mb er o f p l a te a us mo stl y in th e Fraser
, ,

Ba s in o f an a ver ag e eleva tio n o f

, feet is o la ted by deep ,

river va lle ys Th e s e fo r m an a re a o f rel ative lo wla n d between the

.

Co lu mb ia and Ca ribo u Ranges and th e Co as t Range a nd ext end ,

still fa rth er no rth be t wee n th e Ro ckies and th e Co as t Range .

Th e la rger ext ent o f pl a in and va lley in th is reg io n ma kes it th e

mo s t impo rta nt agricult ur a l and gr a z ing a re a o f Brit is h Colu mb ia .

Th e no rth ern po rtion th ro ugh wh ich the Gra nd T run k is b eing

,

built has a la rger r a in fa ll th an th e so uth wh ere irriga t io n is

, ,

o ft e n neces sa ry e sp ecia ll y in th e bun ch gr ass co unt ry e ast

,

o f th e C o a s t R a ng e a n d t ho ug h c o l d er in winter a nd less wa r m
,

in s u mm er i s likely t o p ro ve c apab le o f gre a t d evel op me nt fo r

,

m ixe d fa r m ing .

Co m p a re in T a ble X S t ua rt La k
, e [ 20] w it h Kamloo p s [ 3 8 ] a nd Edmon
.

to n a nd c o n t ra st Wi t h Po rt S im p so n w hi c h is t o o w et a nd h as not ,

en o u g h sun to ri p en w h eat a nd th e Puget So un d regi o n [ 5 9

, gen erally
too m o i s t fo r w h ea t bu t w ell sui te d to c a ts b a rley and ha y
, , , .

Th e deep sh elt ere d va lley s in th e s o uth o f B rit is h Co lu mbia

, ,

s uch a s tho s e o f th e Fra s er wh ic h cuts th r o ugh th e C o as t Range

,

in go rg e s th e Co lu mb i a a nd Ko o t e na y a re h o t a nd very dry in
, , ,

s ummer . The y a re esp ec ia ll y well s uite d fo r fruit requir ing ,

much h e a t and s u nsh in e s uch as pe a ch e s and gr apes The , .

win ters a re co l d in th e so uth e a s t na viga t io n b eing cl o s e d from -

No ve mber to Ma rch o n th e Arro w La ke s and C o lu mb ia The .

Ko o ten a y La ke do es no t freeze Th e s o uth wes t o f th e interior .

-

p la tea u s has a s h o rt c o l d winter , .

Th e Coast Rang e abo ut 100 m ile s wid e extends a lo ng the

, ,

who le west er n bo r der o f Ca nada Th e mo unta in s ris e to so me .

to feet and a re co mpo s e d ch ie fly o f o ld crys ta lline

,

ro cks Th e y a re gener a lly precip ito u s t o w a r ds th e s e a wh ere

.
,

th ere is a typ ica l fj o r d c o as t th e na rro w inlets u s ua lly too deep, ,

fo r a n c h o ra ge runnin g in l a n d fo r 3 0 to 40 m ile s
, An o uter .

su bm erge d r a nge pa r a llel to the Co a s t Range i s rep res e nte d by the

i s l a nds o f Van c o uver an d Q ueen Cha rl o tt e Is l and Th e ra infall .

o f th e c o as t is m uch g r e a t er tha n tha t o f th e interio r a nd th o u h

g ,

th e s umm er s in th e so uth a re dry a nd s unny th ere i s co ns i derable ,

humidity As th ere a re no ext re m e s o f h e a t a nd c o l d th ere is

.
,
 B RITISH N O RT H AMERICA 559

a lo ng gro w ing s e a so n Th e co nd it io ns a re e sp ecia ll y fa vo ura bl e

.

fo r tree g ro wth fo r ro o ts a nd veget a b le s a nd th e s o fter gra ins

, ,

an d ba rle
o a ts
, y a nd gr a ss e s Fruits such a s p e a rs ch erries
, .
, ,

a nd
plu ms flo urish (see T a ble X Victo ria Th e D o ugla s .
,

Fir (200 to 3 00 fee t with an a vera g e o f 8 t o 10 feet d iame ter )

gro ws o n Va n c o uver Isl a n d a nd th e o ppo s ite ma inl a n d c o a st .

It h a s g re a t st re ngth a nd i s in va lu able fo r co ns truc t io n wo rk

, .

Th e C e da r is mo re gen e r a ll y d ist ribut e d bu t gro ws b es t o n th e ,

c o a st It is u s e d f or r o o fing a nd buil di ng Th e spruce is o n

. .
,

t h e c o as t 3 l a r g e t ree a lm o s t e qu a l in gir t h t o th e D o u la s Fir

, .
, g .

It gr o w s b e s t o n t h e no r t h a nd is o f gre a t va lue fo r w o o d pulp

,
-

A re ma rk a b le c o nt r a s t o f clim a te is a ff o r d e d b y th e d im inis h i ng
s ize o f t h e t ree i nl a nd fr o m t h e c oas t int o t he Ma cke nzie B a s i n .

T h e c o as t fis h erie s a re ve r y v a lu a b le e specia ll y sa lm o n and ,

ha li b ut .Th ere is a c o ns i der ab le amo unt o f s e a l fis hing a nd -

lit tle wha ling La r ge s a lm o n c a nnerie s ha ve b ee n e sta b lish e d

.
,

e sp eci a lly o n th e Fr a s er wh ere ma ny Ch ine s e a nd H indus a re

,

emp lo y e d .

Mini ng is t h e mo st i mp o rta nt in dust r y o f Brit ish Co lu mb ia .

C opp er esp eciall y n e a r Ro ssla nd o n th e Ko o t e na y d istrict no w

, ,

ta ke s t h e firs t pl a ce O th er m inera ls a re c o a l esp ecia lly a t

.
,

Na ma imo o n Va n c o uver Is la n d go l d le a d a nd s ilver , , , .

T owns — Th e . ma in cit ies a re o n th e c o a s t Victo ria th e .

,

c ap ita l , a t th e so u th e a st o f Va n c o uver Is l a n d
-
with a sma ll ,

but sh eltere d ha r bo ur is 8 4 m ile s fro m Va nc o uver rea ch e d by

, ,

a win ding vo ya ge thro ugh th e na rro w is l a n d pa ssages Va n .

c o uver is o n a fine l a ndl o cke d h a rbo ur no r th o f th e Fra s er mo uth .

It is th e t er m inus o f th e Ca na d ia n Pa cific R a ilwa y a n d th e

°
co mm e rcia l ce ntre o f th e p ro vin ce Tho ugh 0 F is so me t im e s . .

r e a ch e d in win ter th e ha r b o ur n ever freezes New Wes t m ins ter

,
.

o n th e Fr a s er 1 6 m ile s fr o m t h e mo u t h is th e ce nt re o f th e sa l mo n
, ,

c a nning industry It is j o ine d to Va nco uver by a l o ng a nd lo fty

.

s teel b ri d e
g .

Th e North West Territories -

.

Th es e in clu de th e Ma ckenzie Bas in Keewa tin to th e wes t o f , ,

Hu dso n Ba y a nd Ung a va th e no rth ern p o rtio n o f L a bra do r

, ,

to th e e as t Mo st o f th e c o un try is o f th e t yp e o f th e L a urentia n
.

Pla te a u (s ee p a n d c o ns i s ts o f a n u ndul a tin g well wo r n -

gla cia te d l a n d mo s t l y o f Arch aea n ro c kwit h nu m ero us l a ke s

.

a nd , ,

a nd river s b e t ween th e h e ad wa ter s o f wh ic h th ere i s rel a t ively ,

ea s
y c o m mu nc ia t io n fo r s ma ll bo a ts with po rta g e s a cro ss in
consp icuo us h eights o f l an d In th e no r th a re th e ba rre n l a n ds . ,
560 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

with little gro wth excep t lich ens a nd rein deer mo ss wh ich pro vide ,

fo o d fo r th e c a ribo u (th e Lap l a nd rein deer ) and th e mu sk o x .

To th e s o uth a re th e c onifero us fo re s t s— o n t h e no rth o f s tunte d

spruce and l a rc h o f little c o mm erc ia l va lue and in th e so uth with ,

a de ns er gro wth o f va lu able sp ruce p in e and p opla r Fur s , , .

,

o b ta in e d b y th e I nd ia ns a n d b r o u ght t o th e p o s ts o f th e Hu ds o n

Ba y C o mpa ny a re s till as in th e e a rlier da ys a l mo s t th e o nly

, , ,

pro duc ts .

The Yuk on B asin and Al ask a

Th e so uth e ast co ast o f Al a s ka h a s ma ny is l a nds and d eep

-

fj o rds beh in d wh ich ris e p recip ito us cl iffs and th e fo res t cl ad

,
-

mo un ta ins o f th e Co as t Rang e .

T h ese a re t raversed by rel at ivel y b ro a d ri ver valley s su c h a s th at o f t he ,

St i k in e up w hi c h t here is a ro ut e p o ss i ble fo r st ea mb oa ts for 1 50 miles to

,

T eleg ra p h Creek th ro u g h whi c h p a ss es th e t eleg ra p h lin e to Da wso n on

, ,

th e Yu k on F ro m t hi s po int a t ra il le ad s to T es lin La k
. e fro m whi c h th ere ,

is naviga t io n to th e Yu k on Fa rth er no rt h a t t h e h ea d of th e Lynn Canal

.
, .

severa l t rail s le a d t h ro ug h t h e c o a st ra ng e s t o t h e l o ng na rro w l a kes of the ,

u pper t ri b u ta ries of the Lew es River whi c h fl o ws into t he Yuk on, A .

ra il wa y no w runs fro m Sk ag wa y to a
p o int n o rt h o f th e ca no n and rapids
( t he Wh i te Horse ) w hi c h imp e d e n avi ga t i on o n the Le wes From Whi te
, .

Ho rs e D a wso n ( Kl o nd i k e ) can b e rea c h ed by steam er du ring the peri od

w hen na viga tio n is po ssi ble The m a in t ra ffi c wi th the Yu k
.
o n gold fields
is u p the Y uk o n Ri ver in fla t b o t to m ed b o a ts w hi c h o nl
-

y d raw 4 feet , .

Th e l o w er p a rt of th e ri ver run s t h ro ug h t h e tund ra s a fl a t ma rshl and ,

with a frozen sub so il Ow ing to sa n dba rs at the river mouths in the delta
.

T o g et t o th e Yuk
,

o c e a n s t e a m ers c a nno t en t er
y o f Cana da by
o n t erri to r
.

wa te r a j ou rne y is ne c es sa ry o f
, m iles by sea a nd miles by river .

Th e so uth co as t o f Al a s ka h a s st il l mo r e l o fty mo unta ins Mo unt ,

St El ias a nd Mo unt M c Kinley (t h e h ig h e s t po in t in No rth

.

Am er i c a , feet ) Owin g to th e exce ss ive precip ita tion the

.

,
s no w l m e i s as lo w as
-
feet a nd gre a t gl a ciers re a ch sea ,

level On th e so uth west s tre t c h th e lo ng c ha in o f th e vo lc anic

.
-

Aleutia n Is l ands Th e P r ibilo f Isl a nds in B ering Sea a re i mpor

.

ta nt fo r th e s e a l fis h erie s .

Th e mo re p er ma nent qua rt z m ining has no w ta ken th e place -

o f th e e a rly pl a cer mmmg Th e go l d rush b ega n with th e Klon

.

di ke di s co veri e s m 1 8 96 Th e cli ma te o f th e Yuk .

on Basi n is
rela tively dry Th e win t er s a re c o l d but th ere is little wind
.
, .

e l ng su mm er d a ys

Th
ll w a ve r y li m ite d gro wth o f s o m e of
t e p aa a rq
l a r di er c ereals
Table X D a ws o n and
e} a nd r ye and ve etable s s ee
g
p
( ?
562 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

co ver a rela t ively sma ll spa ce a nd coul d no t s uppo rt a l a rge ,

a gricul t ura l p o pul a t io n Hen ce th ere h a s been a co ns i dera ble

.

e m igra t ion west wa r d In co ns e que nce ho wever of th e exis t ence

.
, ,

o f go o d ha r bo urs tida l rivers a n d w at er p o wer ma nuf a ct ure s o f

, ,
-

wo o llen and co t to n ha ve flo urish e d for wh ich th e damp clima te ,

ne a r th e s e a is well s uit e d O f la t e ye a rs th e gre at er adva nta ge s

.

o f th e S o u th ern App a la c h ia ns h a ve s erio u sl y a ffec t e d th e c o t to n

fa cto ries o f New Engla n d ( s ee p Fa ll R iver o n th e c o a st.
,

o f Na rra ga ns et t Ba y is th e l a r g e st cent re o f th e co tto n in dus t ry

, .

Here ste am h as ta ken th e pl a ce o f wa t er po wer An e s pecia lly -

.

i mpo rt a nt river for c o t to n m a nufa ct ure i s th e Merrim a c on ,

wh ich stand La wrence Lo well a nd Man c he s ter Except in the

, , .

dry s e aso n th i s has s u ffi cient wa ter t o a vo i d th e n ee d o f s te am

, .

Ho l yo ke o n th e Co nnec t icut R iver wh ic h i s ti da l to Ha rtfo r d

, , ,

a l so bec ame i mpo rt a nt o n a cc o u nt o f its wa t er po wer The -

.

nu m ero u s l a kes fo r m e d in o ld va lle ys blo cke d by d rift wh ich ,

were left as th e gl a ciers m el ted s erve a s re s ervo ir s to ma inta in ,

t he w a t er level
-
Th e lo c a l gra n it e is cl os e to t i da l rivers a nd
.
,

i s la rg el y qua rrie d Pro ximi ty to a n i mpo rta nt so urce o f supply in

.

the fo res ts o f Ma in e h as fa vo ure d th e gro wt h o f wo o d pulp -

Owing to th e r anges wh ich lie between th e Co nn ect icut R iver

a nd th e H u dso n (th e B erk s h ire s )
pro gr e ss w as b a rre d in e a rly ,

da ys b eyond th e Co nn ect icut R iver wh ic h w as rea ch e d without ,

difli cult y o ver th e lo w wa tersh e ds wh ic h lie b et wee n the no rth

a nd so u t h river va lle ys .

H arb ours and Towns Th e pr o sperity o f N ew Engl a nd wa s due

.
—

t o its excelle nt ha r b o urs Ma ny o f t h e s e o w e th eir o rigin t o the

.

pre s e nce o f rel a tivel y h a r d r o cks wh ic h f o rm e d h e a dl a nds wh e n ,

th e va lleys were drowned b y s u bs i de nce Glo uce st er has a deep .

a nd s p a ci ous ba y s o ut h o f S t Anne s H e ad wh ic h c o ns is ts of
’
.
,

gra nite s e am e d with vo lc a nic dy ke s ( cf La nd s End p

’
.
, .

B o st on Ha rb o ur i s gu a r d e d b y is l a nds wh ic h were fo rm e d by
th e a ccum ul at i on o f d r ift int o ov a l h ills or ri dge s ( dru mlins) ,

b y t he m oving ice sheet and b y th e b e a ch e s fo r m e d t hr ough

-

their d enudat i o n Pro vi de nce o n Rho de Is l and lies a t th e h ead

.
, ,

o f a l o ng ba y wh ich m u s t at o ne ti m e ha ve b ee n t h e lo wer a rt
,
p
o f a river v a lle y Th e dr o wni ng of low gl a ci a t e d l a nd has pro
.
,

d uc ed o n the c o as t o f Ma i ne t h e typ e a llu d e d t o as a s kerry

c o ast ( s ee p 201 Swe d en a nd Fi nl a nd) Th e exce ss o f is l ands
.
, .

a nd c ha nnels has a ctu a ll y b ee n a ba r t o d evel o m e nt b y is o la tin

p g
th e c o as t p opul a ti on R i dge s f o rm e d fr o m th e s a nd a nd gravel
.

of s ub gl a ci a l s tre ams a re c ons ta ntly fo ll o we d by r o ads (see

 THE UNIT ED S TAT ES 56 3

p . Po rtl a nd f orms a go o d ha rb o ur f or th e o nly p art o f

Ma ine ( the s outh we s t) wh ere t h e w a t erf a lls a re as yet utiliz e d
-

f o r ma nufa ctures Fishing is s t ill ( es p ecia lly a t G l o uce s ter ) o ne

.

o f t h e m o s t im o rta nt ind us t rie s o f t h e c o u nt r

p y but ha s declin e d ,

in c o ns eque nce o f m o d ern c o mp et itio n Th e Uni t e d St at e s Na vy .

o we s m uc h t o t h e fis hin
g p o rt s fo r t h e tr a ini ng o f its s e am e n .

Th e H uds o n M oh aw kGap th e App al achi an B arri er

and Th e .

na t ur a l ga t ew a y of th e e ast o f N o rth Am eric a , s o uth of t he S t .

La wre nce is tha t o f th e Hu ds o n R iver I t clo s el y res e mb les

, .

a s o u nd Th ere i s a dee p na vigab le w aterwa y running b et wee n

.

s t ee p w a ll s wh ic h is s uit ab le f or l a r ge sh ips and t ida l as fa r

, ,

as Al ba n y a nd T r o y 1 50 m ile s fr o m New Yo rk Here a br o a d

, .

ga p s ever a l m il es w i d e o pe n s o ut t o th e wes t thr o ugh w h ic h

, , ,

flo w s t h e M oh awk b etween th e Adiro nda cks on th e no rt h a nd

t h e C a ts k
,

ills wh ic h lie a t th e north—ea s t extre m it y o f t he Alle

gh a n y e s c a rp m e nt a nd fo rm a s t eep s c a rp s lope t o th e H u dso n
,
-

Th e Mo h a wkValley was fo rm e d by the di s i nt egr at i o n o f so ft er

.

a nd le ss re s is t a nt r o ck b etwee n t h e o ld m o u nt a in m a s s e s t o
n o r t h a nd s o ut h In s pite o f th e f a ct t ha t th is r out e n a t ur a lly
.

le a ds not t o La ke Erie but t o th e l o wer La ke O nt ari o b el o w

, ,

t h e F a l ls o f N i a ga r a its adv a nt a g e s as th e o nly d irect ga p t h r o u gh

,

t h e m o unt a ins g a ve it p r o m i n e nce fr o m th e e a rliest da ys At .

fir s t t h ere w as o nly a n I ndia n tr a il t h r o ugh th e l a nd o f t h e Iro qu o is ,

”
w h o h el d th e g a tew a y o f th e Lo ng Ho us e the fertile p la i n o f ,

t he o ld La ke I r o quo is wh ic h o n ce p o ure d its w a ter s t h r o u gh th e

,

Mo ha wk La ter it b ec am e th e ma in r o ad for em igra nt wa ggo n s

.

t o t he wes t a nd has b ee n no w s in ce t h e o p e ning o f t h e Erie

, ,

Hu ds o n Cana l in 1 825 the m a in hi gh w a y b et wee n e as t a nd wes t

Th e c a na l runs fr o m B uff a l o no rt h of t he Fi nger La k
, .

es t o t he
M o ha wk V a lley wh ic h it f o ll ows t o th e Hu ds on
,
.

New York tho u g h o nc e surp a sse d by B o ston and Ph ila delp hi a no w

, ,

ho lds a p re em inent positi o n a s the po rt fo r the grain s and p asto ral p ro duc e
-

o f t h e p ra irie s and t h e iro n in d u st ry o f Ohi o

,
The a nt h ra ci t e o f Penn .

sy l va n ia is ea s il y bro u g h t by rai l w ay s ( N o t e th e Wa ll k
ill Va ll ey a t id a l
.
,

bra nc h o f the Hud so n whi c h a ff o rds a na tural ro ute o n t he w est ) Its

.
.

exc ell ent po si ti on o n M an hatta n Isla n d wi th 3 5 3 m ile s o f wa ter fro n t , ,

a t t he m o u t h o f t he H u d so n an d t h e sh el te r o f Lo ng Isla n d S o un d h a s
, ,

co nt ri b uted to t hi s in no smal l degree Abo ut ha l f the t ra d e ( 50 per .

c ent o f the ship ping) o f th e Uni t e d S t a tes is co nc ent ra ted o n New Yo rk

. ,

whi c h h elp s to a cco unt fo r its la rg e po pula t io n (nea rly 5 m illio ns ) Grea t er .

N ew Yo rk whi c h in cl u d e s B ro o k
,
ly n o n Long Isla nd Ho bo k ,en a nd , ,

Jersey City is k , ni t to get h er by m a ny b ri d g e s f erri es and t u nn el s , , .

5 64 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Th e Mo h a wk Valley h a s a dd it io na l i mpo r ta nc e o n a cco unt

o f th e r o u t e t o th e St La wre nce a nd Mo nt re a l by La k
. e Cha mpla in
d b ec a us e th e b e s t ro ut e s t h r o ugh th e B erks hi re s
( s ee
p . a n
en o o s it e to it o n th e e as t I t t h eref o re c o mma nds the
p pp .

FIG . 95 .
— T H E N O RT H E RN APP AL ACH I AN S : RE LI EF .

N o t e t he H u dso n M o h a -
wkG p t h w at er g ap s t hro ug h B lue
a , e -
R idg e .

a n d t h e riv er valley s foll o w e d by t ra ils a nd ra ilw ay s

, .

t ra fii c New En gl a nd
to In th e Mo ha wk Va lle y a re ma ny
.

i mpo rtan t to wns : Sch en ec ta dy ; Amst er da m ; L itt le Fa lls (a

po rt a ge sta t io n with w a t er po wer ) Ut ic a , a t a n o ld fo r d wh ere
-

cro s s ro ute s a re fo llo we d by r a ilwa ys to no r th a nd s o ut h, and

a t th e end o f th e Mo h a wk R iver, Ro me , wh ere c a rgo es were
5 66 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

a co a s ta l pl a tea u s urmo unt e d by resi dua l mo u nta ins ( mo na d

no o k s ) i s co nti nue d a s th e P ie dmo nt B elt a nd B lue R i dg e o f th e
,

Ol d App a l a ch ia ns Th is re gio n do e s no t as in N ew Engl an d

.
, ,

re a c h th e s ea but i s s epa ra t e d fro m it b y a lo w co as ta l pla in

,

c o vere d with unc ons o lida t e d s a nds a nd cl a ys eleva ted fro m th e ,

co nt in enta l sh elf a nd l a t er pa r t ia ll y s u bm erge d with th e re

,

s ult a nt dro wni n

g o f th e bro a d a nd rela tively fla t valle y s wh ich
h a d b ee n fo r m e d b y river s Th e s e extend fro m th e Del a wa re
.

Est ua ry to Pam lic o So und M a n y o f t h e s e inlets a re re ma rkable

.

fo r t h e l a r ge nu mb er o f br a n ch ing b a y s wh ic h th ey c o nta in .

Th es e were o rigina ll y l a nd va lleys O f river s tributa ry t o th e ma in

s t r ea ms Th e re d is tribut io n o f th e ma ter ia l d enu d e d fro m th e
.

les s re s ista nt co ast s o uth o f Cap e Co d b y currents has led t o the

fo r ma t io n o f num erou s sand sp its a nd s a n d ba r s wh ich pa rtia lly
- -

o r c o mpletely e ncl o s e l a go o ns .

S o co nt inuo us a re t h ese fo r lo ng st re t ch es t ha t it h a s b een p ro po sed to

c onst ruc t a ca nal fo r nea rly 700 mile s so ut hw a rd f ro m nea r New Yo rk .

S u c h a sh elt ere d wa te rway w o ul d find it s p a ra llel in t he sh el t ered c hann el

t ha t lie s b e hin d t h e less c o nt i n uo us sk erry fenc e of No rwa y tho u gh ,

t hi s is o f qu i t e d iff eren t fo rmat i o n .

L
; Th e Co asta l Pl ain Piedm o nt Pl ateau — At th e o u t er o r
and .

s e a wa r d ma r in o f th e Pi ed m o nt B elt , a t ab o ut 100 feet, t h ere is

g
a m a rke d c ha nge o f level a t t h e p a ss a g e o f t h e river s fro m th e

O l d er to th e
y o u ng er r o cks Th is is c a lle d th e Fall Line, because
.

it ma rks the en d o f t h e va lley c o urs e O f t he s treams wh ere wa ter

fa lls a re plent iful , a nd the beg inn ing o f th e pla in tra ck, wh ich is
in p la ce s so fla t tha t a r a ilwa y c a n b e la i d do wn fo r a co ns i dera ble
d is ta nce witho ut a s ingle cutt ing o r e mba nkm ent Th e wa ter .

o wer a t t h i s lin e i s u s e d b a s erie s o f tow n s — T rento n Ph ila

p y ,

delph ia Ba l t i mo re Wa shin gto n R ichmo nd Ra leigh Au gus ta

, , , , , ,

et c. As th e c o as t s o uth o f N ew Yo rk i s no t ge ner a lly pro ductive

of
goo d ha rb o ur s th e to wns a t th e h e ad o f th e e s tu a rie s o f the
,

Dela wa re and th e Ch esa pea ke B a y R ivers ha ve except iona l a dvan

t a ge s Ph il adelph i a o bt a in s its po wer fro m th e Sch ulk
. ill th e va lle y ,

o f wh ich a ff o r ds a na tur a l ro u t e t o th e a nt h r a cite c o alfields Co m .

m u nic a tio n is gener a lly e a sy to th e we st into th e Gre a t er Appa ~

l a ob ia n Va lle y a nd P enns ylva nia ( s ee p Th e N ewer .

Appa la ch i an B elt as th e no rth wa r d c o nt inu a t io n o f B lue R idge

,

in th e Ol d er Appa la c h i ans is wo r n do wn to i nc o ns p icuo u s ridges

, .

B al timor e c o mma nds Ch es a p ea ke B a y o n th e c o as ta l p la in It .

h a s a g re a t tr ad e by r a il wit h th e M i ss i ss ipp i Va lley by s everal

li ne s a nd i s th e s ec o nd wh ea t sh ipp in g po rt Like N ew Yo rk
,
-
.
 T HE UNIT ED S T AT ES 56 7

a nd Ph ila delph ia it ha s i mpo rta nt o il re fin eries th e o il b eing

, ,

bro ugh t by p ip e s fro m th e mo re eleva te d fiel ds o f Penns y lva nia .

Wash in g to n o n th e dro wne d est ua ry O f th e Po to ma c is im

, ,

p o r t a nt a s th e go vernm e nt c a p ita l Fa r th er s o uth R ic hmo nd

.
, ,

o n a river wh ic h flo ws in to th e so ut h o f Ch e sa e a ke B a
p y is a n ,

1 m o rt a nt t o b a cc o ex o r t in
p p g a n d sh ip b uil d ing p o rt .

On th e o uter m a rg in o f th e c o as ta l p la in fro m N ew Yo rk t o
W il m in gto n wh e r e th ere a re mo st sa n dba nks l a go o ns a nd
, , ,

ma rsh e s th ere a re no l a rg e t rad in g o r ma nufa cturing to wns

, .

Th e o n l y p o pul o us centre s a re wa tering pla ces O f the typ e o f -

At la n t ic C it y o n a reef O ff th e c o a st O f N ew Jer s e y
, Th ere a re .

a l s o few ma rket to wn s a s t h ere is a b r o a d b el t O f ma r shl a n d

,

( cf th e Grea t Dis ma l S wa mp fa rth er s o uth ) p in e fo res ts (s ee

.
,

Fig . a nd s a n dy
p la in s Use is ma d e o f t h e fo re st pro duct s
.
,

e sp ecia ll y t urp e nt in e Th ro ugh th is ba r r en so il a nd especia ll y

.
,

o n th e wes t o f it ru n fer t ile b el ts o f m a r l a nd l i m e

, wh ich a re ,

im po rta nt fo r th e pro duc t io n O f fruits a nd vegeta bles Th e sa n d

s i t s a n d ba n k s a re lik
.

p e th o s e o f th e East e rn Ba l t ic th e ho m es o f
, ,

a s eci a l b ree d o f
p po n ie s Th e i sla n ds O ff th e co a st o f So uth
.

”
Ca ro lin a a nd Geo rg ia a re no t e d fo r s ea is la n d c o tto n a s th e y ,

a re muc h m o re fe rt ile a n d h a ve less s a n d

, Th e po rts o f th is .

reg io n a re Ch a rlesto n a nd Sa va nna h R ice c an b e gro wn in th e .

s wa mpy pla ins s o ut h o f Ca p e Ha tt era s Tho ugh much o f th e .

Pi edm ont Pl ateau is na t ura ll y infert ile it is cro ss e d b y n u m ero u s

,

st rea ms wit h fert ile va lle s

y in wh ic h a re gr o wn th e c o t to n a nd
,

to ba cc o o f th e S o u t h At la nt ic S t a t es .

The Newer App al achi an B elt — B eh ind th e B lue Ri dg e , wh ic h

i s h igh es t , wide st , a nd mo st c o nt in u o us in Wes t ern Virg inia a nd
b et wee n No rth Ca ro l ina a nd T enne ss e e, is th e r e g io n o f ri dge s
a nd va lle s , kno wn a s t h e Newer App a l achi an B elt In t h is z o ne
y .

of
yo un ger a n d g e n er a ll y les s r es i st a nt ro cks t h a n th e P ie dmo nt
B elt , the va lle ys ha ve b ee n out a lo ng th e line s o ccup ie d by th e
so ft er sha le s a n d li me s to n e s , wh ile t h e l o ng , na rro w ri dge s o f

ha r der s a nds t on e d ivi de th e co u nt ry int o ma ny mo re o r le ss

iso l a te d s ectio ns Th e Gre a t e r App a l a c h i a n Va lley, we st o f
k
.

Blue R idge , is O ft e n a do ze n o r mo re m iles wide In New Yo r

k
.

it is th e Wa ll ill Va lle y ; in P e nn sy lva n i a it co nt a i n s a l i n e O f

O

t o wn s — Ea st o n a n d B et h le h e m o n the Leh ig , R ea d in g o n th e
Sch uylkill wh ich a re bo th t ri but a r ie s o f th e Del a wa re , H a rris
,

burg o n th e Su s que ha nna , Ca rli sle , Cha mb ers burg, Ha gersto n

n e a r t he P o to m a c in Virg in i a it is th e Sh e na n do a h Va lle y , n e a r
the u n ct io n o f wh ic h , with th e Po t o ma c , l S Ha rper s Ferr y
’

j
 TEX T B OOK OF GE O GRAPHY
-

Ne a r th e h e ad o f th e Sh enan do a h is S ta unto n Fro m h ere th e .

co nt inua tio n o f th e depre ss io n lies t h r o ugh a co mplica t e d mo un

t a in co u ntry in wh ich it fo ll o ws th e longi tu di na l va lleys o f t r i bu
,

ta r ies o f th e Jam e s R iver wh ic h flo ws to R ichmo nd a nd o f th e

, ,

G r e a t Ka na wha to re a ch at l a st t h e bro a der l o wl a nd o f th e Upp er

,

H o lsto n It can b e t r a ce d fa r th er s o uth b y Kno xville wh ere

. ,

th e Ho lsto n a nd Frenc h B ro a d R ive r s j o in to th e b r o ad Ten ,

n ess ee Va lle y a nd Cha tt a no o ga a n d b y t h e A l a bama t o th e en d

,

O f th e S o uth ern Appa l a ch ia ns Th e c o ntinuity of th i s line o f .

va lley s was o f s upre m e i mp o r ta n ce in th e e a rl y h is to ry o f

Am eric a as it a ff o r de d a m e a ns O f c o mm unic a tio n fro m no rth t o
so uth a lo n
g a fert ile b el t wh ic h c o ul d b e gr adua lly o ccup ie d .

It wa s by th is ro ut e that th e e a r l y s et tler s re a c h e d Ke nt ucky

a n d th e O h io th ro ugh the Cu mbe r la n d Ga p (the Wil derness
,

Ro a d ) Th e ma in river s cro ss th is va lley tho ugh th eir tributa ries

.
,
”
ru n
p a ra llel to it a nd c u t t h ro ugh B lue R i dg e
,
in wat er gap s -

s uch a s th o s e o f th e Del a wa re Sus que h a nna a nd Po to ma c a ff o rd

, , ,

ing e a sy line s o f passa ge Th e na t io na l ro ad to P it ts burg c o m

.
,

p leted 1 818 fo llo we d the Po t o ma c to th e ga p a t Cu mb erla nd

,
.

Th e P enns ylva nia r a ilro ad fr o m Ph il adelph ia t o P itts burg , ,

fo llo ws th e ga ps out by th e Ju nia ta a tributa r y o f th e Su s que ,

ha nna a cr o ss th e N ewer App a la ch ia n ri dge s

,
In th e n o rth .

a nt h ra ci t e a nd ir o n ha ve c o nt ri bu t e d t o th e i nd u s tria l d evelo
p
m e nt o f Pe nnsylva ni a a nd in t h e s o u th iro n with co a l in clo se
,

pro xi m i ty a nd li m e s to n e fro m th e wes tern pla t ea u ha ve been

, ,

r esp o ns i b le fo r th e gro wth o f th e iro n fo undries o f B ir mingha m ,

in Al a bama .

Th e Al legh eny Pl ateau .

— To t h e
wes t o f it i s th e wall o r s eries ,

o f wa ll s a nd s t ee
, p slo Pes wh ic h ma rk th e e s c a rp m ent o r fro nt
o f th e e as t ern ma r in o f th e All eg h eny Pl ateau Th i s i s no t a
g .

mo unt a in ra nge but a pl a t e a u o f h o ri zo nta l ro ck fo r ma t io n

, ,

wh ich s lo pe s mo re gradua ll y wes t a nd no rth we s t t o th e pra iries -

a n d th e O h i o R iver Tho ugh no ne o f th e s e ri dges o r walls

.

fo r m e d s ingly an ins upera ble O bsta cle to adva nce fro m th e c oast
l a nds t o th e interio r pl a ins y et ta ken to geth er th e y wer e so,

n u m ero us a nd c o vere d s o wi d e a b elt tha t c o mmu nic a t io n a cross

t h e m w a s mu ch re s tric t e d T o th e n a t ur a l d ifficul t ie s m u st b e
.

adde d th e d ens e fo re s ts wh ich rest ric te d e m igra t io n till tra ils

,

were c u t a nd a re st ill extens ive esp ecia lly o n th e wes tern

, ,

p la t ea u a nd th e re a l m e na ce o f In d ia ns to sma ll p a rties
,
The .

Alle gh e ny Pl a te a u its elf is by no m ea ns e as y to cro ss o wing to

its co mplic a te d mo unta in s purs a nd d ee p b ra nc h ing va lley s
5 70 T EXT B O OK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

F r o m Oh io t o N e b r a sk a th e g r e a t c r o
p is m a ize ( see T a ble X .
,

Ho t Su mm ers o f Du buque a nd O ma h a Mo st O f th is
is u se d t o fee d th e grea t h er ds O f c a tt le a n d p igs wh ich fo r m the
” “
mo st i mp o r ta nt pro duc t o f th e c o rn b el t Of th e grea t es t .

i mpo r ta n ce t o th e in dustria l develo p m e nt o f th e pra irie pla ins

is th e a b un da n ce o f c o a l .

Th e ra ilwa ys a nd th e co mmerce o f th e p ra iries la r gel y fo cus o n

Chic ag o Th e to wn sta nds a t th e po int wh ere th e ro ut e f ro m
.

the e a s t t o th e wh e a t re g io ns o f th e n o r th wes t mu st pa ss th e -

so uth wes t co rner o f Lak

-
e M ic h i a n
g Th is lie s to the so uth o f .

th e la ke fo re s ts a nd t o t h e no r th o f d eep ra vin e s c u t by the Oh io

t r i bu t a r ie s in t h e g la cia l mo ra ine l a nd Th e l a k e t r a ffi c (lu mber .
,

wh ea t iro n ,
a nd th e p ra irie t r a ffic fro m th e M i ss iss ipp i
,

B as in co nverg e a lso o n Ch ica go

,
Th e u pla n ds O f W iscons in .

a n d t h e M ich i a n P en in s ul a h a ve p r o d uce d g re a t qu a nt it ies o f

g
wh ite p ine t o wh ich th e to wn o we s its g r ea t po s it io n a s a lumber
ma rk
,

et M ilwa ukee i s a n i mpo rt a nt sh ippin g po r t t o th e no rth

. .

Dulut h a nd Sup erio r c o nce ntra t e a nd d is t r ibut e th e t ra ffic o f

La k e Sup erio r t h e y a re th e ga tewa ys fo r th e p ro duce o f M in ne
so t a a n d th e wh e a t la n ds .

T h e w a t erwa y s o f t h e G re a t L a k e s a re o f su p rem e im p o r tanc e to the

ea se a nd c hea p ne s s wi t h w hi c h w h ea t iro n a nd lum b er c a n b e redi stri b u ted
, , .

Ab o ut five t im e s a s m a ny ve ss el s p a ss t h ro u g h the Sa ul t S t M a rie So o .

Ca na l s a s th ro ug h S ue M o s t O f th e wh e at f o r e x po rt is s h i pp ed fro m Ne w
z .

Yo rkand B alt im o re New O rlea ns o n ly c o m ing third in th e li st o f wh ea t

,

p o rt s
. Al t ho u gh t h e Gre a t L a k e s a ssi st c o m m u n i ca t io n and n um erou s ,

ra il way s co nvey the c ere al a nd a ni m a l p ro du c t s o f th e M i ssi ssi pp i a nd Ohi o

B a sins a t l o w ra t e s to t h e ea s t er n po r ts t h ere is a g ro w i n g need fo r further ,

wa t er t ra n spo rt T h e c en t re o f p o p ula tio n o f the Unit ed Sta tes was in

.

In d i a na i n 1 9 00 a n d o wi n g t o im p ro v e d m e tho d s o f fa rm in g t h e d rier
, ,

la nds w est o f t h e M i s si ssipp i it is slo wly m o v in g w est w a rd

, .

Th e ma in r iver p o rts o f th e Upp er M ississipp i a re Gre at Falls ,

a t th e h ea d o f na viga t io n wh ere c a t a r a ct s s u
ppl y wa t er po wer
-

, ,

a n d B is ma rck wh ere t h e N o r th er n Pa c ific cro ss e s th e river bo th

, ,

in the Gr e a t P la in s ; O m a h a a nd Ka n s a s C it y t h e ce nt re s o f the ,

wes te rn p ra iries ; M inne a po lis wit h th e F a lls O f St Antho ny ,

us e d l a rgel y fo r flo ur mill ing a n d St Pa ul o n th e O ppo s it e bank

, .

, ,
.

o f th e M is s iss i
pp i a t t h e h e a d O f na viga t io n a n d l o wer down
, ,

Du buque a nd o th e r s ; St Lo ui s t h e la r ge st river po rt below

, .
, ,

th e co nflue nce o f th e M i ss o u r i M i ss i s s ip p i a nd I llin o is c o m , , ,

ma nd ing th e M exica n t r a de by ra ilwa ys a nd a t th e h ea d of ,

the fl oo d pla in ; Lo uisville a nd Cincinna ti o n th e M i dd le Oh io

-

, ,
 THE U NIT ED S T AT ES 571

a nd o n th e Upp er Oh io P itt sburg Th e river pro vid es c h ea p , .

tra nspo rt for co a l iro n and lu mber B efo re th e er a o f ra il

, , .

wa ys o ver fifty yea r s a go t h e s e p o r ts o we d th eir gro wth to

, ,

river tra nspo rt b y th e M iss iss ipp i and its tributa ries to New
Orle ans but excep t fo r l o ca l t r a ffi c th i s has b een la rgely ab a n
,

do ue d Owin g t o th e c o nge st io n o f r a ilwa y tr a ffic a ttemp ts a re

.
,

b eing made to revive th e river t ra nspo rt but th e d ifficul tie s a re ,

.

very gre a t .

The Mississippi — T he di ffi cul tie s o f na vi ga t i on are floo d s alterna ti ng ,

wi th p erio ds o f lo w w ater a nd shiftin g chann els o wing to the fo rma tio n o f ,

sa nd b a rs
-
Th e Ohi o and its tri b u ta ries ri se s in a re gi on of co nsi d era ble
.

ra inf al l t he All egheny Pla tea u whi c h m o stly falls fro m Janua ry to Ma rc h
, ,

( see Fig . As th e su rfa c e i s t h en frequen tly fro z en , the wat er tends t o

run o ff in stead o f sin k ing into th e g ro un d T hi s t en dency to sudden flo o ds .

is in c rea sed b y th e d efo res t a t io n o f th e m o unta ins a nd the m el tin g o f sno w

a t t h e b eg inn i n T he O hi o b rin gs do wn one t hird o f th e Mi ssis
g o f sp rin g .
-

si p p i vo lum e T he Mi ssouri a n d t h e U pp er M iss i ssipp i have t h eir h eavi e st

.

rain s in M ay and Jun e ( see Fi g w h en the so il w hi c h is natura lly m o re

.
,

p o ro us t ha n in m u c h o f th e O hi o reg io n c an a b so rb mo st wa t er T he , .

Up p er M i ssissipp i c on tri bu t e s o n e fif t h o f the to tal vol um e o f th e M i ssissi pp i -

and t he M i sso uri o ne s e ven th o nly Th e M i sso uri h o w ever th o u gh c o n

-
.
, ,

t ri b ut ing le ss to fl o o d s , o win g to th e sca n ty ra infall o f mu c h o f it s b a sin ,

b ring s do wn 60 per c ent o f the sa n d . .

Fo rtuna tely the t h ree g rea t ri vers ha ve never exp erienc e d th eir m o st
,

seri o u s fl oo d s a t t he sa m e t im e o win g to th e seaso nal d i ff erenc e in t h e ,

t im e o f rai nfal l ( of the Nile, p . bu t ext ens ive regi on s are co nsta ntl y
.

fl oo d e d a long t he Lo w er M is s is sipp i w hi ch like m a ny great rivers ( cf th e , , .

Rhi n e a nd Po , pp 22 1 runs in a ra is e d c hann el , c o nfin e d by levees o r

. ,

a rt ifi c i a l em b an k ment s o ver a lo w er and rel a t ively fl at p la in

. Th ese .

floo ds no t o nl y d evasta te th e co unt ry bu t a lte r channel s a nd make na vi g a ,

t io n d i ffi cul t The a lluvia l so il o f th e Lo w er M issi ssipp i and the g re t

. a

d elta a re the results o f t he vo lum e o f sed im ent b ro ught do wn by fl oo ds .

To th e wes t o f th e M is s i ss ipp i b e t ween th e M iss o uri and th e ,

Arka ns as i s a fo re s te d upl and wh ich rise s to o ver

,
feet abo ve ,

the treele ss pr a irie s th e d o m e s h a p e d O za rk P l a te a u

,
Th e -
.

reg io n has ma ny po in ts o f re s e mbl a nce with th e Al legh eny

Pl a te a u Iron i s m ine d To th e s o uth o f th i s a re th e Ou a ch ita
. .

H ills o f th e Arkansas H igh l a nds (s ee Fig .

Th e S outh ern Coasta l Pl ai n .

Fl orida i s a lo w p enin sul a th e int erio r o f wh ich is la rgel y ,

o c cup ie d by li m e s to n e in wh ic h nu m ero u s l a ke s lie in

,
so lu t io n
ho llo ws (s ee p a nd s tre ams a re l o s t und ergro und
.
The .
 5 72 TEX T B OOK OF G EO GRAPHY
-

m a rs h y Evergl ade s in th e uth a re typ ic a l o f much o f th e co a s t

so

l an ds On th e e as t co ast a re l o n
g line s o f san d dune s e n clo s in g
-

l a goo ns Alo ng th e inner m a rg in O f th e s e a re ma rkable r a ilwa y

.

run s to the extre m it y o f Flo ri da a nd is b eing co ns truct e d o ver the ,

co r a l reefs to Key Wes t th e na va l s ta tio n fo r th e Gulf o f Mexico

, .

Owin g to th e lo w l a titu de o f Flo rida trop ic a l fo res t is fo und

in th e so uth s i m il a r to th a t o f t h e We s t I nd ie s Th e peninsula .

is la r gel y c o vere d ( th ree u a rt ers o f it s a re a ) with fo re sts of p ine

a n d o a kfro m wh ic h lu m er is exp o r t e d
,
Oth er fo rest pro ducts .

a re t urp entine an d re s in Th e ma in cultiva te d pr o ducts a re

.

p in e a pp le s o r a nge s and t o b a cc o
, ,
Fish ing i s i mpor t ant espec i .
,

a ll
y fo r turtles a nd spo ng es a re c o llect e d
,
Pho spha te r o ck is .

o bta in e d a n d exp o rte d but is e mp lo ye d little in th e lo c a l ma nu

,

fa ct ure o f fertilizer s for wh ich co tto n s ee d m e a l i s us e d The

,
-
.

ma in po rt is P e nsa c o la o n th e Gul f P la ins fa r to th e we st o f the

, ,

p enins ul a .

Th e Gulf Lo wl ands .

Excep t Alabama wh ic h c o n ta ins th e indus tria l a re a a t the

,

so u th o f th e A
ppa l a ch i a ns th e Gulf S ta tes a re a l m o s t e nt irel y
,

a r icul t ur a l a nd
g pas to ra l Th e c o a sta l l o wla nd i s o ft en ma rshy
.

a nd fo re s te d th e yello w p in e b eing a va luab le pro duct Th e

,
.

rivers ca rry do wn a c o ns i dera ble a mo u nt o f s ilt and te nd to ,

blo c kth eir e s tua rie s As th e Gulf is sha llo w and has we a kt ides
.
,

s a nd bar s and l a goons a re f o r m e d in s o m e c as e s as o n th e c o as t of

-

, ,

T ex as 1 00 m ile s l o ng ; c o ns eque ntly t h e ha r b our s are us u a ll y p oor

,
.

Apa rt fro m N ew Orle a ns Mo b ile in Al abama a nd Ga lveston ,

in T exa s a re th e m o s t i mp o rta nt Th e ma in cul t iva te d crops .

a re co tto n ma iz e s uga r ca n e a nd rice

, , Co t ton i s la rgely
-

, .

g ro wn in th e interio r o f th e l o wl a n ds In Al abama th is fo rms .

a n inn er b elt o f l i m e s t o n e t o th e n o rth o f a s li h t l

g y ma rke d
s a n ds t o ne u l a nd in wh ic h th e sh o rter Gulf river s t a ke th eir
p “
ris e In d istin ct io n t o th e s ea isla n d c o tto n o f th e coast
.
-

bet ween Cha rles to n a nd Sa va nna h T exas etc th e co tto n , , .

,
”
o wn in s uc h b elt s i s c a lle d A l a rge nu mb er O f
“

g r u p l a n d .

c o tto n m ill s a re on th e F a ll Line wh ich exte nds (s ee p 56 6) fr om , .

Trent o n in New Jer s e y to M o ntgo m er y in Al abama Su gar cane .

-

i s m o s tly gr o wn o n th e d elta a nd fl o o d pl a in Of th e L ower Mis

s is sippi a nd rice in L o ui s i a n a a nd T ex as
, A l arge am o unt o f .

ma ize i s pr o duce d in T ex as wh ic h is a ls o no te d fo r its h ors es and ,

c a ttle .

T he g rea t m a j o ri ty o f t h e n eg r o p o p u l a t io n live in t he o ld sla ve sta tes ,

w hi c h co rresp ond very cl o sely wi t h t h e lim its o f co tton cult iva tio n The .

d ensest bl a ckpopul a tion is o n t h e co a sta l p la in Lo u i sia na ha s n ea rly as .

574 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GR AP H Y
-

ducts o f th e irriga te d fa r ms a nd c att le runs o f th e s urro un ding -

dis t rict Ma ny ra il wa ys co nnect it with th e m inin g centres

.

a nd th e M iss iss ipp i .

One no ticeab le a rea o f is o la t e d up la n d ris es s o m e fee t

a bo ve th e
ge nera l level o f th e pla ins in So uth D a ko ta a nd
Wyo m ing Th e Bl ack Hill s fo r m a do m e sha p e d mo unta in
.
-

u plift o f wh ich th e centre is c o mpo s e d o f gra ni te a nd Arch aean

,

s c h is ts a nd s l a te s Owing t o th eir eleva tio n th ey receive a

. ,

grea t er r a infa l l a nd a re p in e cl ad
,
Th ey s upply timber to the
.

p la ins ro und th e m a n d a re m ine d fo r go l d a nd S l lver

,
In c o n .

t ra s t t o th i s o utlying m o unta i n m a ss wh ic h m uc h res embles ,

t h e Ro ckie s in c ha r a cter a re s eve r a l a re as wh ic h eve n in the

, ,

p la ins fo r m rela tive d e s er ts th e Bad La nds a ba rren reg ion o f

, ,

cla ys a nd s o ft sa n ds to ne s ero de d by win d and o cc as io na l ra in

s to r ms in t o fa nt as tic sha p es b ut un o ccup ie d o wing to th e a l most
,

co mp lete la ck o f wa ter and veg eta t io n ; th e sa nd h ill s of Ne -

b ra s k a ; th e Ll a no Es ta cado (so ca lle d fro m th e st a kes pla ced

to gui d e tr a vell ers ) in th e e a s t o f T exas a m o no to no u s table ,

la n d wi th no s urfa ce wa ter .

Th e Rock
y M o untains and th e Great B asin .

°
Fro m a ppro xi ma tel y 1 05 west lo ng i tu de th ere ext ends as
fa r a s th e S ierr a N eva da a n d th e Ca s c ad e Ra ng e o f Ore go n o n
t h e west a rel a tively l o f t y m o u nta in a re a wh ic h i s ge nera ll y
, ,

a bo ve feet exce p t in th e river va lleys a nd th e d epress io ns

,

o f th e G re a t Bas in .

Th e Colorado B asin — Th e Gr ee n R iver ris e s in th e W in d R iver

Ra ng e so uth o f th e Yell o wsto n e Na tio na l Pa rk, in wh ich are
so urces o f th e Sna ke and th e B igho r n tributa ry o f th e Yell o w
s to n e M iss o uri , and flo ws in deep c ano ns a nd th e Gran d River
has its h eadstreams amo ng th e Pa rk and S a wa tc h Ranges ,
with ma ny p ea ks o ver feet in th e mo unta in ma ss to the
we st o f Denver Th es e a nd th e S a n Ju a n fro m th e San Juan
.

Mo unt a ins , th e s o urce o f th e Rio Gra nde , a re th e ma in rivers

dra wing th eir wa ter s fro m re g io ns o f l a r ger ra in fa ll , wh ich unite
to fo r m th e Colorado Th is river t ra vers e s th e C o lo r ado Pla teaus
a re io n o f nea rly h o riz o nta l r o c k
. ,

s in d ee
g p c ano n s Owing to .

th e ro ck s tructure a nd th e except io na lly d ry cli ma te th e river ,

h a s d eepen e d its b e d mo re r a p i dl y t ha n er o s io n has b een able

to wi d en it Th i s has res ult e d in th e fo r ma tio n o f th e Gra nd
.

Cano n 200 m iles lo ng fro m 5 to 1 2 mil e s W id e a nd

, , to ,

feet d eep Much o f th e co unt ry is d ivi d e d into blo cks 1 0 to 20

.
,
 T HE UNIT ED S TAT ES 575

m ile s wi de so m e o f wh ic h a re a l mo s t in a cce ss i ble o w ing to th e

,

d eep fr a ct ure s wh ich d ivid e th e m Th e Lo wer C o lo rado pass e s

.

th ro ugh th e Co lo rado De s er t ma kin g a d elta a t its mo nth wh ich

, ,

ha s fill e d u p th e h ea d o f th e Gu lf o f Ca lifo rn ia a nd cu t it o ff fro m ,

th e Sa l t o n d ep re ss io n wh ich o n ce fo r m e d its h e ad .

The Ri o Grande ris es in th e Sa n Jua n Mo un ta ins a nd flo ws ,

th ro ugh t h e Sa n Lo u is Va lley Th i s i s a re ma rkable example o f

'

th e m a ny pa rks o r intermont ba si ns fo und a t h ig h eleva t io ns in

th e R o c k ie s I ts nea rl y level flo o r i s ab o ut
. feet abo ve
th e s ea a t its u pp er end a nd dro ps so me 600 feet in 1 40 m ile s
,
.

”
i i
“
Its f r m i
o a t o n i s due to wh t s ca lle d mo u nta in w rp g a
a a n ,

ter m a pp lie d t o th e re sul ts o f a s ligh ter stre ss th a n tha t wh ic h

res ul ts in fo l d ing o r fa ul ting Its level cha ra cter is due to th e
.

depos it io n o f sa nds a nd s ilt s by s tre ams fro m th e mo un ta ins .

Th e s e ba s in s a re enclo s e d by st eep mo un ta in w a ll s a nd c a n o ften ,

be entere d o nl y by th e can o n wh ich fo r ms th e o utlet o f th e river .

Many a re cult iva b le fo r wh ea t with irriga tio n a nd ha ve pa st ure ,

fo r ca tt le bu t o t h er s a re ba rren a n d ha ve t o o rigo ro us a cli ma te

,

to b e inh a b ite d .

Th e Snak e River ri s e s in t h e Yell o ws t o ne Na t i o na l Pa r k— a

la va bas in with nu m ero u s ge ys ers— a nd flo ws th ro u gh a ba s a lt o r
la va pla t e a u in deep go rg es wi th nu m ero u s wa terfa ll s Th e .

Sna ke R iver Pla ins th ro ugh wh ic h it flo ws no w fo llo we d b y a ,

ra ilwa y a re ba re d es o l a t e de s ert s with little vegeta t io n excep t

, ,

th e gre y sa g e bru sh In Ea st ern Wash in gto n bet ween th e

‘

.
,

Sna ke a nd t h e Colu mb ia a bo ve t h eir c o nflue nce is a wh e a t

reg io n o f wh ich Spo ka ne is th e cen t re Th i s lie s nea r th e Ro ck
, ,

. ie s
a nd h a s a
grea ter r a in fa ll and b ett er s o il .

T he Ro ck ies l o ng fo rm ed a ba rrier t o a dva n c e west wa rd mo re o n a cc o unt ,

o f t h eir g rea t b rea d t h and t h e d ese rt c h a ra c t er o f m any o f th e p l ain s a nd

depressions b e t w een the ra ng e s t han t he o b sta cle p resent ed by a n y sin gle

mo unta in wa ll T h e d ifi c ul ties o f c ro ssin g t hi s re gio n a re s h o wn b y th e
.

cho i c e o f the Pa na ma rout e by m any em ig ra nts to the Califo rn ian g o ld

field s (see p . T h ey a re n o w c ro ssed by five ra il way s Sk ill e d eng i n ee r
.

ing wa s n ec essa ry to c onst ru ct t ra c k s by t h e si d e o f t he p re c i pi to u s c a no ns .

The Great B asin .

Th is is a n exte ns ive a rea o f inl an d dra ina ge inclu d ing N evada ,

Wes t Uta h a nd th e d e s ert d ep ress ion of C entr a l Ca lifo rn ia

,
.

,
Th e ra in fa ll is very sma ll and a s it c o me s a l mo s t entirel y in
, ,

winter in sho rt to rre ntia l do wnp o u r s th e vegeta tio n is c o nfine d,

to pla nts o f th e typ e o f th e s a ge b rus h wh ic h ca n e n dure th e l o ng

,

drough t s a nd pa rc h ing h ea t o f s u mm er (s ee Tab le X .

576 T EXT B OO K OF GE O GRAP HY
-

Th ere a re few t ree s exce pt o n mo u n ta in s ide s (s ee Fig a nd .

cult iva t io n is o nly po ss i ble n ea r th e bas e o f th e s lo pe s o f moun

ta in s wh ich ha ve a l a r ger r a infa ll .

As the so il s o f a ri d re gions are ri c h in c h em i c al s it h a s b een fo und ,

po ssi ble by irri ga ti o n t o la rg ely ext end th e li m it o f ha b i tati o n A no ta ble .

exa mple is in W es te rn N eva da w h ere c an al s line d wi t h c em ent to avoi d

, ,

lo ss in th e po ro us so il b ring wa t er to the d ry valley s ea st o f the S ierra

,

Nevad a .

On th e ea s t o f th e Gre a t Ba s in a re th e Wasa t c h Mo un ta ins ,

t o th e we st o f wh ic h lie s Sa l t La ke C ity th e ce nt re o f Mo r mo n ,

s ettle m ent to wh ich th e Un io n Pa cific ru ns thr o ugh a na tura l

,

g ap . S et t le m e nts a nd to wns lie mo s tly o n th e we s tern bas e of

t h e s e m o u nta in s wh ere th ere a re p ere nnia l s tre a ms o f fre sh
wa ter (cf p 3 94 As ia ) Utah La ke is fre sh b ut Great S alt Lak
,

. .
, . e , ,

in to wh ich it dra ins by th e Jo r da n res e mb le s th e De a d S ea in sa lt ,

n e ss .Va lua ble co mm ercia l s a lts a re o bta ine d fro m it Tha t the .

cli ma te was o n ce much we tt er is s ho wn by th e a ncient s ho re lines -

fo und nea rl y feet abo ve o n th e flan ks o f th e mo un tains .

’
Nume r o us r a nge s o f h o g s ba ck typ e with a g e ner a l direct ion -

o f no rt h t o so uth a nd a n eleva t io n o f fro m ,

to feet ,

lie be t wee n th e Wasa tch M o unta ins and th e S i err a N evada .

Th e t ro ugh s b etween th e s e h a ve been l a rgely fil le d up by th e

was t e th a t h a s crept fro m th e s lo p es o r b een wa sh e d do wn by
th e o cca s io na l h e a vy r a in s to r ms Co ns eque ntly th e ri dges -

.
,

do no t r is e t o a gre a t h eigh t ab o ve th e s urro un din g s urfa ce .

In th e so uth we s t a re t wo very d eep d e pre ss io ns — the Death

-

Vall ey s ink ,
in g to 1 50 feet b elo w th e s ea abo ut 1 00 m iles to th e ,

e as t o f th e h igh es t pea ks o f th e S ierr a N evada ( Mo unt Wh itney ,

fee t ) in wh ich bo r a x is o bta in e d and th e Sa l to n d ep ress io n

, , ,

s inking to 3 00 feet b el o w sea level Pa rts o f th is h a ve la tely -

been irrigat e d by wa ter f ro m th e C o lo rado An illus tra tion .

o f wh a t c a n b e gro wn in a d ry S a ha r a n cli ma t e s uc h a s th is i s
a ff o rde d by the s ucce ss ful cul t iva tio n o f th e da t e pa l m (s ee
Table X of th e s u mm er te mp er a ture a n d a ri d it y with
.

tha t o f B isk
.

r a Table V II , .

Th e first in cur s io n o f a la rge non settlement po pul at io n into -

th e Gre a t Ba s in w as a t Virg in ia C ity in No r th W e s t N evada -

o nce fa m o u s fo r its go l d a nd s ilver min e s bu t its p ro s perity

wa s sh o r t live d ; ( cf th e Yu k
,

-
on wh ere clima tic d is adva ntages
.
,

ha ve c a u s e d non a ying m in ing a reas to b e de s ert e d a nd con ,

trast Ca lifor ni a w ere a po pula t io n a ttra cte d by the m ines has

,

rema ine d t o cultiva te t he la nd) .

5 78 T EXT —B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
l a ck o f c o a l th is is us e d fo r indu st r ies (wh ich a l so e mplo y elect ric
,

p o wer ) t r a ns m itt e d 1 00 t o 1 50 m iles t o th e c o a st t o wn s

, Go l d .

a nd co
pp er a re th e mo s t va lua b le m in er a ls .

Ca lifo rn ia o we s much o f its develo p m ent to th e ha r b o ur o f th e

Gol de n Ga te a t th e e nt r a n ce t o wh ic h st a n ds Sa n Fra n cis c o
,
.

It s va lue is in c r e a s e d by th e abs e nce o f go o d ha r b o ur s o n th e

ge ner a ll y st ee p a nd li tt le in de nt e d co a st s o u th o f th e mo uth o f
th e C o lu mb ia .

San Fr anc isco st and s o n a p eni nsul a fo rm in g t h e so u th ern ho rn o f the

,

Go l d en Gat e a n a rro w i n le t a bo u t 1 m ile w i d e o p ening i nto a va st expanse

,

fo rm ed by San Pa bl o B a y w hi c h re c eives the se d im en t o f t he Grea t Va lley

,

o f Ca li fo rn i a a nd S a n Fra n c i s c o B a y
,
p a ra llel to t h e o c e an w hi c h is deeper
, ,

a s it re c ei ve s le ss s e d i m e n t It fo rm s o ne o f th e s a fe s t a nd m o st c o m
.

m o d iou s ro a d st ea d s a nd h a r bo urs o f th e Pa c i fi c b e t w een t he Fra s er and

Co lu m bia in t h e n o rt h an d S an Diego n ea r t h e M ex i c an b o rd er The .

disc o very o f g o l d in 1 8 4 9 in th e a lluvia l fl a ts o f the Va lley o f Califo rni a and

the S ierra N eva d a le d t o a sudd en infl ux o f po p ul a t i o n In 1 8 66 the first .

ra ilway s j o ine d it to t he e a st t he se t urn e d t he s o u the r n en d o f the S ierra

Neva da . T h ere is a la rg e Pa c i fi c t ra d e t o t h e p o rt Am o n g o t h er p ro du cts .
,

it re c ei ves a nd res exp orts m o s t o f the c a ne su ga r f ro m H a w a ii

- -
.

Th e c o ast r a ng es r is e to o ver fee t pa ra llel t o th e Great ,

Va ll ey a nd o ve r
, fee t t o th e west o f Mo u nt Sha sta but ,

no r th o f t h a t th e
y a re ge nera lly lo w No r th o f th e Go l den Ga te .

th e y a re well wo o d e d a n d th e re d wo o d i s i m p o r ta nt fo r lu mb er
,
-
.

In th e no r th M o u nt Ol ym pu s r i se s a s a sha rp p ea k fro m the

Ol ym p ic Mo unta ins wh ich o verlo o k Pug e t So und a nd th e bro ad
,

Jua n d e Fuca S t r a it a t th e so ut h o f Va n c o uver Is la nd Owing .

to th e m uc h we tt e r cli m a t e t h e y a re d e ns ely fo re s t e d a nd as
,

d ifficul t to pene t ra te o wing to u nd ergro w th a s th e Ca na dian

Ro c k
, ,

ie s o r th e co a st f o re sts o f So ut h Ala s ka .

Th e Central Vall ey s Washing to n

of Or eg on and .

Th e ra ilwa y f ro m Sa n F ra ncis co to Po rt la nd fo llo ws narrow

d epre ss i o ns a nd p a ss es in a mo unta ino u s c o u nt r y t ill it rea ches
lo ng it u d in a l va lle ys wh ic h h a ve a no r th a n d so u th d irection
, .

Th e Willa m e tt e lea ds t o Po rt la n d its 40 fee t fa lls 1 2 m iles a bove ,

-

t h e cit y b ei ng v a lu ab le fo r p o wer ( of t h e S a nt i a go Va lle in Chile )

,
y . .

Wh e a t c att le a nd t imb e r ( fir pi ne a nd sp r uce ) a re imp ortant

, , , ,

in t h e wett er re gio n we st o f t h e C a s c a d es in O r e g o n a nd mere ,

g e ner a ll y in Wa sh i ngt o n Th ere are l a r g e c o a s t a nd river fish eries

.
,

e specia ll y o f s a lm o n o n t h e C o lumb ia wh ich is na vi ga ble by large

, ,

ves s els t o Po rt la nd .
 THE UNIT ED S TAT ES 579

T ho u g h m u h etter c w ua l a vera g e and less ho t in sum m er

on th e ann ,

t h a n Ca lif o rni a t h e d r s u nn y s u m m er s w h e n lit t le ra in fa lls see T a b le X

y , ,
( ,

Po rt lan d [ 6 1 ] a nd S e a ttle ren d er the c lim a t e sui ta ble fo r no rthern

f rui ts and wh ea t e sp e cially east o f the Cas ca des
, .

C o a l m in in g is l a rgel y ca rrie d o n No r th o f th e Will a m ett e

-

Va lle y a no th er de p ress io n is fo r me d by a tributa r y o f th e Col

u mbi a a nd a va lle y wh ich t er m ina tes in Puge t S o und a dro wne d
, ,

hasm o f p eculia r typ e in wh ich deep a nd na rro w cha nnels a re ,

d l vid ed by lo w mo ra in e b uilt pla t e a us Th e ma in po r ts a re -

.

Ta co ma a nd S ea t tle So m e sh ip buil ding is ca rrie d o n a nd th ere

.
,

a re lu mb er a n d flo ur m ill s .

Q UEST ION S .

1 .On the o ro g ra p hi ca l m a p of the Uni t e d S t a t es m a rkt he so u the rn

lim i t o f t he lin e o f g la cia ti o n Nam e a nd de fine t he lim i t s o f th e Grea t .

Ba si n the Alle gh eny Pl a t ea u th e N e w er an d Ol d er Appal a c hian B el ts

, , ,

th e flo o d pl a in o f t h e M i s si ssip p i M a rkth e H udso n th e M o ha wkGap . , ,

t h e B l a ckHi ll s and the Oz a rkM o u nta ins , S ho w th e li m it s o f na vi ga bili ty .

o f ri vers a nd i nd i ca t e a ny re gi o n s y o u c an w h ere t h ere a re ( a ) fall s a nd

,

( b) wat er ga ps -
.

2 Dra w o n
. th e o o g ap r hi c a l
rail way s fro m Sa n Fra n ci sc o to Po rt
r m ap
l a n d Ch i c a g o
,
a nd N ew O rlea n s
, fro m Philad elp hia to Pittsb urg Cincin ,

na t i ( vi a B a l t im o re ) and Cha t t a no o g a a nd fro m B u fi a l o to B ost o n

,
.

De sc ri b e th e m a in val ley s a nd gap s t ravers ed .

3 Exp l a in th e im p o rta n c e o f N ew Yo rk Chi c a g o a nd S a n Fra n c i sco

. , ,

a s th e c o n ve rg in g p o in t s o f la n d a n d sea ro u t e s .

4 Give a c o n c i se a cc o un t o f th e p hy si c a l fe a t ure s o f th e M i ss issi pp i

.

Ba sin W hy a re the ri ve rs in it no t u se d so m u c h a s f o rma ly fo r t ra ns

.

Po rt
5 M a rko n the o ro g ra p hi al m a p t he De a t h Va lley
.
P ik e s Pea kM o unt
’
c , ,

Whi tney M o un t Olym pus U ta h La e the Yello sto n e Na ti o nal Pa rk

, , k . w ,

the Sa n Lu i s Va ll ey th e B a d La nd s B lue Ri dg e t he Wa sa tc h M o un ta in s t h e
, , , ,

Colo ra d o De sert and the Llan o Esta a d o , c .

c
6 Ind i a t e o n t he m ap t h e p o si t io n o f a fj o rd o a st a n a re a o f dro wned
.
c ,

,
c w
river valley s a o a st i t h san d ba rs a nd la go o ns a n i n term o nt ba sin a -
, ,

l ong i tu di nal valley and a lin e o f o ra l reefs Exp l a in in e a h a se ho w th e

,
c . c c
feat ure y o u ha ve m a rk e d h a s i n uen ed o mm un i a ti o n fl c c c
5 80 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST IN D IES .

- GO .

Area = 76 7 000 squa re m ile s

,
.Po p ul a t i o n = 1 5 m illi o ns 1 9 to t he squa re
mile ( 20 per c ent w hi t e t h e c rest m ixed and Ind ian) M en o =O 4 7 m illio n
' ‘

. .
. ,

Confi g uration — M exic o nort h o f th e Is thm u s o f T e h ua nt epec

.

ma y b e re ga rd e d as a t ab lela nd ge ner a lly excee di ng feet , ,

whic h is b o unde d b y t wo e s c a r pm e nt s th e Eas ter n Sierr a Madre , ,

wh ic h f o r ms th e mar gin of th e d e nu de d pl a te a u r at h er tha n a

d is ti nct m o unt a i n r a nge a nd th e We s tern Sierr a M a dre which, ,

i s c o ns i der a b ly h igh er ( fr o m to feet) a nd fa lls st eeply ,

t o t h e P a cific Th e interi o r is o ccup ie d b y num er ous d epress i ons

.
,

s o m e o f gre a t extent Th e s e inl an d bas ins ha ve a gen era l ra

.

s emb l an ce t o th o s e of the Grea t B as in in th e Unit e d St at es .

Th ey a re s ep ar a te d by low ra nges with a ge ner a l no rt h and

s o ut h d irect io n b etween wh ic h t he t r o u ghs ha ve bee n fil le d up
,

t o a gre a t d ept h In th e s e num er ou s l a ke s occur

. Th e hi gh es t .

p or t i o n o f t h e pl a te a u is in t h e s o ut h th e a ver a ge eleva t i o n to ,

t he e a st and we s t o f M exic o C it y b ein g ab o ve fee t Here .

a br o a d vo l c ani c z one stre t ch es a cr o ss fr o m the At l a nt ic t o the

Pa cific Th e h igh e s t po ints a re Oriz aba
. feet ) Popoeat a ,

p et l feet) a nd Ixtac h ihu a t l , feet) Th e o nly a ctive .

vo lca no is C o li ma ( ne arly feet ) .

Th e co a s t lo wla nds a re mo s t extens ive o n the Atlantic

s i de wh ere nu m ero us sa n d dun es ha ve fill e d u p th e river
,
-

mo u t h s Co ns equen tl y th ere a re no go o d na t ura l ha rbours

.
,

o n t h is c o a s t ( Th e b rea kwa t er s a t Ver a C ru z c o s t

.

t o c o nst ruc t ) On th e Pa cific c o a s t th e fine na tura l ha rb o ur o f

. .

Ac a pulc o is a t pre s ent to o in a cce ss i b le to b e o f gre a t va lue The .

rive r s a re mo s tly unna vigab le a s th ey ris e o n th e ma rgin a l ra nges

o f th e p l a t e a u a nd a re sh o r t a nd t o rre nt ia l in cha ra cter
,
Many .

a re h o wever o f gre a t use a s so urces o f wa ter po wer a nd irriga

, ,
-

tion .

Cli m ate and Products ( s ee Fig s 8 1 9 6 and Table .

-

M exico ha s a n a re a a lit tle mo re tha n s ix t im e s th e United

°
King do m , a nd extends o ver 1 8 o f l a titu de — fro m to
l 4% no rth
o
It lie s who lly with in th e tro p ic s, excep t in the
.

no r th , a n d the te mp er a t ure i s d e p e nd e nt mo re o n eleva tion

t h a n l a t it u d e El Pas o [ 75] o n th e Rio Gra nd e , o n the
.

bo r der s o f Mexic o a nd the Un ite d S ta t es, has a c o nt inental

5 82 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP HY
-

m a h o ga n y an d bt a ine d fro m th e fo rests the

c a b in e t wo o ds a re o

w a rm temp erate upl ands ( tierra templa da ) fro m to or ,

fee t Th e cli mate o f th is zo ne i s m uch l ike tha t of the

.

Co ffee Upla n ds o f S o u th Eas t B ra zil (cf S ao Pa ulo Table XI

-
.
, .

He r e a re g ro wn ma ize c o ff ee a nd th e vi n e The cool

, , .

temp erate upl ands (tierra f ria ) a bo ve .feet wh ere on the , , ,

dry pla te a u th o u gh the m e a n te mp er a t ure o f su mm er a nd winter

,

g ive s t h e i d e a o f p er p e t u a l s rin g
p t h ere a re grea t differences ,
° °
bet ween da y a nd n igh t a mo un t in g to as much a s 54 (89 F
, .

a nd 3 5
°
Th e co u ntry i s well s uit e d to wh ea t but only a ,

li ttle i s gro wn Th e ma in lo c a l fo o d p ro d uct s a re beans and

.

p o ta to es . Th e su n is ho t eno ugh to rip e n ma ize a nd grapes ,

a n d c o t to n is g r o wn in t h e d ep re ss io ns o f th e pl a tea u where

ir r iga ti o n is po ss i ble A no ted reg io n o f co tto n cultiva tion is

.

tha t o f La L a guna th e ba s in o f th e R iver Na za s dry in

“
, ,

winter and flo o de d in su mm er Th es e d ep res s io ns a re o f great .

fert ility a s th e y ha ve b ee n fil le d u p t o so grea t a depth through

, ,

r o ck d ec a y and t h e d ep o s it o f vo lc a n ic ma teria l tha t deep wells ,

do no t re a ch th e ro ck Th e y o fi er a grea t co ntra st to the barren

. ,

sa nd y
pl a in s o f th e no r th er n p l a t ea u Th o ugh three climatic .

zo nes ha ve bee n d is t inguish e d it sho ul d b e noted that the ,

cha ra c ter o f th e cli ma t e is la rgel y a ff ec ted by th e a mount of the

ra infa ll a nd th e s e a so n a t wh ic h it o ccurs .

Th e ra infa ll is o f a m o nso o na l c ha ra c t er th e sea so na l c ha ng es of climate ,

clo sely res em bling tho se o f India T he ho t w ea ther is in May and .

J une b efo re t he ra ins b egin w hi ch co nt inue t ill ea rly in Octo ber when the
, , ,

c ol d w ea th er b eg ins and la st s t ill a b o ut Fe b rua ry M axim um tempera .

ture s o cc ur l a rgely in M a y ( see M exi c o 75 p er c ent of the rainfall .

o cc ur s f ro m Ju n e t o S e t e m b er a nd o nl y 2 p er c e nt from Dec ember to

p ,
.

Fe b ru a ry ) . The g rea t e s t ra infa ll i s in t h e Ist hm u s o f T e hu antepec and the

a d j o in in
g u p l a n d s a n d m o un t a i n s Vera Cruz [ 93 ] ha s a s la rge a rainfall
.

as a n
y c o a st to w n b u t eleva ted regio ns ha ve mu c h m o re ra in
, Cordoba
[ 86 ] a nd in Ch iap a s a t a hi g h eleva t io n [ 96 ] ( 180 inch e s) There is less .

ra infall o n the w est c o a st ( see M a za tla n [ 8 3 ] a nd Co lima and least of

a l l o n th e hi h er
g p la t e a u (see M e xi c o
T he co ntra st s a re m o s t st ri k ing b et w een th e d eserts o f the north the ,

g ra ssl a nd s o f th e p la t ea u w i th m o un ta i n fo res t s o n the Sierra Madre and ,

t he ho t a nd w et t ro p i c a l fo rest s o f t h e At la n t i c c o a stla nds a nd isthmus .

On the ea st co a st the No rth Ea st T ra d e s b lo w m o st o f the y ea r At Tami) ioo

-
.

[ 8 4 ] t he S o u t h Ea st w ind s b ring t he ra in m o stly blo w ing in summer The

-
,
.

Gulf co a st is li a ble t o no r th ern sto rm s a ortas ) in w int er whi ch bri ng cold

( ,

a nd fine ra i n T h e s e o cca s i o na lly p en e t ra t e o n to th e p lateau or the west

.

c oa st wh ere th ey a re d ry Wind s On the w est co a st fro m 20 to 25 north

, .
° °
 C ENTR AL AMERIC A 5 83

la ti t ud e t he no rm a l No rth W e st wi nd s a re d ra wn in to wa rds the hea ted

-

la nd s o f No rt h M exi c o a nd b e c o m e W est to So u t h W est b ring ing ra i n

,
-

, .

T here is gre a t d ro u ght fro m N o vem b er t o Ju ne o n m o s t o f the Pa c i fic co a st .

T hi s d et erm in es the c ha ra c t er o f the nat ural ve e ta t i o n w h i c h is a rtl o f

g p y ,

t he t ro p ic a l t ho r nw o o d o r ca a ti ng a t
y p e o f N E B raz il Irrigat io n is . . .

n e c e ssa ry durin t h es e m o nt h s
g .

Th e a ncient Az t ec civiliza t io n like tha t o f th e I nca s o f Peru , ,

o we d m uch t o dr
y te mp era t e pla t e a us in th e t ro p ic s o n wh ic h
, ,

1t s ee ms t o ha ve o ri in a t e d
g Abs e nce o f de ns e fo rest s o n th e
.

u pla nds a nd c o mpa ra t ivel y level pla in s fa ci lita t e d c o mm u nic a

t io n wh ile the mo u nta in s t re am s ro vi d e d wa t er fo r a n ela b o ra te
,
p
s s t e m o f irri a t io n no w mo s t l A p l a nt
y g y fa lle n int o d is us e .

wh ic h pla ye d a nd st ill pl a ys a grea t pa rt in ec o no m ic life is

, ,

th e ma g ue y (a ga ve ) a c a ctu s wh ic h g ro ws o n th e dr
, y p la te a u .

Fro m th i s th e na t io na l b evera g e ( pulque ) is ma de Th e fibre s .

p ro vi d e d ma teria l fo r ro p es ma ts a nd p a p er fo r th e Aztecs , , ,

a nd t h e le a ve s were us e d f o r f o o d An o t h er a ga ve pr o d uce s
k
.

a fib r e
enequ en , gr o wn l a r gel y o n t h e dry p o r o us li m e s t o n e ,

pla ins o f Y uc a t a n .

Yu c a ta n wa s t h e h o m e o f the M ay a s a pp a rent ly t he m o st a dvanced o f ,

t he a n c ien t M e xi c a n p e o p le s T he co unt ry i s a fl a t Ira/rat regi o n w i t h no

.
,

rivers exc ep t a fe w sho rt st re am s o n th e ea st c o a st The M a y a ci t ie s were .

s i tu a t e d n e a r t h e s ink in w h i c h wa t er co ul d b e o bt a ine d w i t ho u t w ell s

”
s , .

T h e na ti ve s o n t h e co a st so m e tim e s g et w a t er f ro m the f res h sp ring s t ha t

i ssue fro m t he s ea bo t to m ( see p 3 4 9 Ara bi a )
-
.
, .

N ext to th is t h e mo st i mpo r ta nt a gricult ura l o r a n i ma l pro ducts

a re h i d e s a nd s kin s fro m t h e
pa s to ra l a rea s o f th e pla te a u a n d ,

co ff ee fro m th e tierra templa da a nd ind ia ru bber f r o m th e t r o p ica l

,
-

fo res ts M iner a ls a re ho wever st ill a s in th e da ys o f th e

.
, , ,

Spa n is h c o n que st t h e m a in we a l t h o f th e c o unt ry in s p it e o f

, ,

th e grea t a g ric u lt ura l re s o urce s Of th es e th e p r in cipa l a re .

s ilver a n d c o
pp er o n th e p la t e a u a nd go l d ma inly o n th e Pa cific , ,

slo p e es p ecia ll y ne a r th e Un it e d Sta te s bo r d er

,
.

T owns and Comm unic ati o ns Th e ma in p o rts o n th e Atl a nt ic

.
—

co a s t a re Ta mp ic o fro m wh ich a ra ilwa y ru ns t o Sa n Lo uis

,

Po tos i a m ining ce nt re o n th e pla t ea u a nd Vera C ruz ne a r th e

, ,

s it e o f th e firs t S a n ish l a nd in g fr o m wh ic h th e firs t M exic a n

p ,
.

ra ilwa y w as built b y a Brit ish firm in 1 8 73 Th is l i ne h a s to ris e .

to feet t o cro ss the S ierra Ma dre d e s ce nding abo u t ,

fee t to th e va lle y a nd c ity o f M exico Ca o t za c oa lc os i s th e .

t er m in u s o f th e line a cro ss th e Ist hm u s o f T e hu a nt e p ec th ,

rte tr c i e t a l r u e wi h i n ea s y a ccess t o th e Gulf

sh o s t a ns o nt n n o t t
 5 84 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP H Y
-

po r ts th e Unit e d S ta te s In th e Pe nin sul a o f Yuc a ta n o ften

of .
,

ina cce ss ible o n a cc o u nt o f th e fury o f th e a ortas th e o p en r oa d ,

s t ea d o f P ro reso i s th e
g po rt o f M eri da a nd 1s th e ma in o utl et ,

o f th e i m o r ta nt h e m
p p indu s t r y On th e Pa cifi c c o as t Gua ym a s
.

is th e po rt o f th e Gul f o f Ca lifo rn ia and s erve s th e co pp er a nd ,

g o l d m ine s o f S o n o r a I t is c o nn ecte d b y a r a ilwa y with No gales

.

o n th e Unit e d St a te s fr o ntier Ma za tla n and San B las expo rt

.

s u a r c o t to n a nd ti mb er ; bu t w a nt o f r a ilwa
g , , y c o nnectio n has
h in dere d develo p me nt Ma nza nillo o ne o f th e b e st ha r bo ur s o n
.
,

th e Pa cifi c co a st i s th e po rt o f the suga r a nd co ff ee pl a nta tio ns

,

o f th e St a te o f C o lima I t ha s b ee n recently c onnected with the

.

p la te a u b y a t h r o u gh li ne Ano t h er line no w rea c h es Shuatenejo

. .

Th e l ong v a lley o f th e Ba l s a s R iver wh ic h ext ends f or m o re ,

t ha n m ile s fr o m its s o urce t o t h e Pa cific is n a vigab le fr om ,

t h e p o int w h ere it i s re a c h e d by a r a ilw a y fr o m M e xic o C ity a t ,

a b o ut 1 50 m ile s fr o m t h e m o ut h b ut Ac a ulc o is i s o l a te d b
p , y a
c o ntinu a tio n o f t he we s ter n r a ng e .

Amo ng th e p rincip a l to wns o n th e p l a tea u a re Ch ih u ahua ,

Mo ntere y Sa n Lo uis Po to s i a nd Gua njua to i mp o r ta nt as the

, , ,

centre s o f m in ing regi o ns c o nnect e d by th e ra ilwa ys wh ich

t ra ver s e th e d ry a nd treele ss p la t e a u fro m th e Un ite d S ta te s t o
the Va lle y o f M exic o th e d ep re ss io n i n wh ic h M exic o C ity wa s
,

fo u nde d by the Az tecs o n a n is la n d i n a l a ke N e a r th e ca pital .

is Pue bla wi th no t e d co tto n ma nu fa cture s ; a n d o n th e wes tern

,

ma rgin o f th e p la te a u i s Guada la j a ra th e cent re o f wh e a t gro w ,

-

i ng
pl a ins Th e g ener a l unifo r m ity o f s urfa ce o f th e p la tea u l s
bro ken by d eep go rges ( bar mnca s) ma ny h u ndre d feet deep '

wh ich th e ra ilw a vs cr oss by l o fty via ducts .

THE ISTHM IAN STATES .

Central Am eric a lies wh o lly b etwee n th e no rt h ern tro pic a nd

th e Equ a tor , a nd a s the Heat Equa tor shifts its p os itio n between
?
27 no rth m th e no rth er n w inter , a nd 22§ no r th i n th e no r th ern
o

s u m mer , th e re g io n has in g e n er a l a te mp er a t ure a b o ve 68

°
F .

during the yea r B ut o wing to th e la rge extent o f h igh la nd,

.

c o ns i d erable d iff erences o f te mp era ture o ccur b e twee n tro pica l

lo wl a nds a nd t e mp era ture u pla n ds , a nd o f r a in fa ll b etween the
ea s t a nd wes t c o as ts a nd pl a ces i n th e lee o f o r o n th e windwa rd
s id e mo unta in ra nge s Th es e va ria t io ns o f cli ma te p ro fo undly
of .

a fi ec t cult iva ti o n a nd th e life o f t h e i nhab it a nts Fr om the .

Isthm us o f T eh ua nte pec ( 13 0 m iles wi d e ) Wh ere the level fa lls

t o 3 90 feet t o La k
,

e Nic a r a gua ( 1 1 0 feet) t h e m o u nt a i ns ha ve a

,
58 6 T EXT B OOK -
OF GE O GRAP HY

COSTA RICA .

Are a = 1 8 400 s qu a re m il es
, . P o p ul a t io n = 0 3 8 m illio n
-

As g e nera lly in C e ntra l Am e ric a th e g re a t ra infa ll o f th e Atl antic

,

co as t ( s ee Greyto wn is fa vo ura b le fo r d e ns e tro p ic a l fo re s ts ,

th e po pula tio n is co nce ntra ted in th e sa vanna s o f th e drier uplands

a nd o n th e we s t c o a s t A ra ilwa y cro ss es Co s ta R ic a fro m L i mo n
.

o n th e Atl a ntic b y Sa n Jos é wh ic h lie s to t h e we s t o f th e ma in

,

wa ter sh e d a nd is the cent re o f th e co ff ee p la n ta tio ns to Punta

, ,

Are nas o n th e Pa cific .

Area = 4 9 200 sq u a re m iles Po p ula t io n = 0 6 m il li o n

'

.
, .

Po pul a tio n is ma in ly c o nce nt ra t e d in th e vo l c a nic belt wh ich

lie s to th e wes t o f th e depre ssio n in wh ic h a re s itu a ted th e grea t
la kes o f Ma na gua a nd N ica ra gua Co fi ee is th e ma in pro duct . ,

a nd c a c a o a nd s uga r a re a l so gro wn Th e c h ief to wn i s Leon . .

As o wing to th e e as tern fo re s ts th e s e tt le d p a rt o f th e c o untry

, ,

is la rgely ina cce ss ible fro m th e At la nt ic th e ma in trade pass es ,

th ro ugh the Pa cific p ort o f Co rin to A ca na l via th e San Juan .

R iver was fo r so m e t i m e a n a lterna t ive pro j ect t o that of

Pa nama One re as o n fo r its aba ndo n m e nt in fa vo ur o f th e
.

s o uth er n ro ute was th a t it wo ul d ha ve had to pass th ro ugh

a zo ne o f a ctive vo lca no e s a nd fre quent e a r th qua kes Th e ma in .

po rts o n th e Atla nt ic s i d e a re Gre yto wn a n d B lewfields .

HONDURAS .

Area = 4 6 25 0 s qu are m iles

, . Pep ul a tio n = 0 5 m illi o n .

Ho nduras i s cut fro m th e Pa c ific by S a lvado r except in

o ff ,

th e Gulf o f Fo ns ec a Th e At la nt ic lo wl a nds a re tro p ica l and

.
,

d ens el y fo res t e d with va lua b le wo o ds o f maho ga ny a nd ceda r .

Th e ma in in du st ry o n th e At l a nt ic s id e is tha t o f ba na nas and

c o co nuts in th e no rth As th e in t erio r is o n th e a vera g e above
-
.
, ,

feet th e cli ma t e is t e mp era te La rg e nu mb ers o f ca ttle

, .

a re ke pt o n th e upla nds wh ere T eguciga lp a i s th e ch ief town

, ,

s itua te d in th e centre o f a rich go l d a nd s ilver d is trict Difii .

c ult ies o f c o mm u nic a tio n h in d er d evelo p m e nt A mule tra in .

-

ta ke s th ree weeks to tr a vel fr o m th e At la nt ic p o r t o f Puerto

Co rte z to th e Pa cific but a railway is no w b ein g co ns tructe d
, .
 CENTRAL AM ERICA 58 7

Are a = 7 255 , sq u a re m iles . Pep ula t io n = l million .

Sa lvado r lie s e nt irel y o n the Pa cific s e abo a r d Much o f th e .

co u ntry i s vo lca nic a nd li able to dis a s t ro u s ea rth qua ke s Th e

, .

ma in expo rt i s co ffee Th e d eco mpo s e d vo lc a nic so il i s o f grea t

.

fertility Th e po pul a tio n i s ma in ly co ncent ra te d in a rela tively

.

eleva te d va lley wh ich lies b eh in d th e vo lc an ic co as t r a nge In

, .

th is wa r m te mp era te up la nd reg io n is s itua te d th e c a p ita l Sa n ,

Sa lvado r co nn ecte d with th e c o a s t by a ra ilwa y
, .

Area = 8 59 8 s q ua re mi les
, . Po p ula t io n = 0 04 million ‘

B ritis h Ho ndura s lies o n th e Atla ntic s e abo a r d e as t o f Gua te

ma l a Owin g to a la rg e ra in fa ll th e c o u ntry is c o vere d with
.
,

fo re s ts Th e exp o rts a re mah o ga ny a nd lo gwoo d and ba na nas

.
,

a nd c o c o nuts fro m th e c o a s t
-
Th e t i mb er in du s try i s d epe nd ent
.

o n th e river s fo r tra ns p o rt to th e c o a s t a nd th e qu a ntit

y a v a il ,

ab le fo r exp o rt has a d irec t co nnect io n wit h th e amo unt o f wa ter

in th e river s in th e ra in y s e a s o n B elize th e ch ief town .
,

lie s a t a n o p enin g in th e cha in o f c o r a l reefs wh ic h fringe th e

c o as t .

GUATEM ALA .

Area = 48 290 s qua re m iles

, . Po p ula ti o n = 2 millions .

Gua te ma l a i s a n eleva ted p la t ea u s lo p ing s teep ly to th e ,

Pa cific a nd mo re gra dua ll y to wa r ds th e e as t In th e grea t

, .

centra l pla in ro und Gu a t e ma la th e eleva t io n i s abo ut

feet wh ile to th e no rth west a re h igh er upla nds fro m
,
-

to
feet Th e who le o f C en tra l a nd Wes t ern Gua te ma la is
.

co vered to a co ns i d era b le d ept h by vo lca nic a sh es a nd pu m ice ,

a nd th e s o il i s excee d in g l y fertile Co ff ee is th e ma in p ro duct .

,

gro wn fo r exp o rt but th e cli ma tic zo n es wh ic h as in M exico

, , , ,

depend o n eleva tio n a llo w th e g ro wth o f a la rg e r a nge o f c ultl va

,

tio n fro m ba na nas o n th e t ro p ica l co as tla nds co ff ee o n th e wa r m

, ,

temp er a te up la nds to a bo u t feet a nd wh e a t a nd ma i z e a nd ,

pas ture o n th e h igh l a nds o n wh ic h lie t h e m a m to wns

,
Th e fir st .

Spa nish ca p ita l w as fo und e d in a n u p la nd va lley ne a r th e t wo

vo lc a n ic pe a ks Ag u a a nd Fue go re sp ec t i vely abo ve
, ,

a nd feet and wa s des tro ye d by th e burst ing o f a la ke in

,

th e cra ter bas in Th e s eco n d c a pi ta l Ant igu a was d es tro ye d by

.
, ,

an e a rt h qu a ke Quezal tena go wh ich s ta nds a t ne a rly

. feet
,
588 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

— h igh er tha n M e xico C ity— ha s wo o lle n a nd co tto n ma n ufa cture s ,

a nd 1s th e ce nt re o f life m th e h i gh er t e mp er a te up l a nds Tho ugh .

fa rth er s o uth it i s s ever a l degree s c o o ler tha n M exic o C ity A .

ra ilwa y pa s s in g th ro u gh Gua t e ma la co nnects Puerto Ba rrio s o n

th e Atl a nt ic with Sa n Jos é o n th e Pa ci fic Mo s t o f th e t ra nspo rt .

is dep ende nt o n mule s .

THE W EST INDIES .

Th e Wes t Ind ies exte nd fro m th e co as t o f Flo ri da to 10 so uth °

l a titu de a nd a re thus a ll with th e exceptio n o f th e B a hamas

, , ,

W h o lly with in th e tro p ic s Th e t e mp era tu re i s muc h th e same

.

as tha t o f t ro pica l isl a n ds in th e s a m e l a titu d es ( cf Ma nila .

,

Table VI . Th ere a re no g r ea t a nnu a l o r da ily va ria t io ns .

Th e diff eren ces in temp era ture p ro duce d by eleva t io n a re ho w ,

ever rela tively g re a t in co ns eque nce o f increas e d clo u d in ess a nd

, ,

h u mi d ity (see Kings to n a n d th e B lue M o u nta in s The

preva ilin g win ds a re th e N o rth Ea s t T rades Ra in o ccurs
-
.

th ro ugho ut th e y ea r th ere b eing no p erio d o f dro ugh t but ,

th ere is th e no r ma l s mgle a n d in so m e p l a ce s do u b le t r o p ic a l
, ,

ma xi mu m in su mm er Th ere is much mo re ra in o n th e windwa rd

.

s i d e o f th e is l a n ds tha n o n th e leewar d s i de wh ich is sh elt ered ,

fro m th e p reva iling winds Th e Wes t I nd ie s lie i n th e t ra ck of

c yclo nes 8 8 per ce nt o f wh ich o ccur fro m Augus t to Oc to ber
, . .

Th e B er mudas a re a s o lita ry gro up o f co r a l i s la nds b elonging

°
to B rit a in in 3 2 no r th l a t i tu d e abo ut 600 m ile s fro m Cape ,

Ha tt era s Tho ugh a t o lls they p os s ess lo w h ill s ( 260 feet) fo r med
.
,

by blo wn c o ra l sa nd Th e t e mp era ture i s re ma rkab l y e quable

. .

( s ee T a ble X a nd well s uite d fo r th e

.
gro wt h o f e a rly
ve ge ta ble s and l i lies Ra in wa t er i s s to re d in c i s terns The
. .

wa r m Gulf Stre am has p ro babl y b een th e ma in fa c to r in th is

fo r ma t io n o f c o ra l o uts ide th e us ua l tro p ic a l li m its .

Th e B ah amas ( a re a = 5 450 s qua re mi les pop ul a tio n = 0 05

, ,
'

m illio n) co ns is t o f about 3 000 lo w co r a l is la nds a nd reefs

, .

Na ssa u in N ew Pro vi dence is th e ch ief to wn It was long a

, ,

cent re fo r th e bucc a neer s a fi d la ter fo r th e b lo cka d e runn ers in

.

th e wa r b e twee n North a nd So uth S isa l h emp ( fro m a n a gave) .

-

a nd p i ne a pp le s a re t h e ma i n pr o d uct s Sp o nge c o llec t ing and .

p e a rl fish i ng a re i m porta nt i ndust rie s .

Th e Greater Antill es c o ns ist o f th e fo ur la rg e isla n ds o f Cu ba ,

Jama ic a H is pa nio l a o r Ha iti a nd S a n D o m ingo a nd P uerto R ico

, , , .

Jamaic a ( a rea = s qua re m il e s ; pop ul a tio n = 0 8 m il lio n) is

5 90 T EXT B OOK OF G EO GRAP H Y
-

to d eeps o f feet Th e d ecre as e o f t e mp er a ture with

.
,

elev at io n is ab o ut 1 F for 300 feet N egr o s l a ve s W ere firs t

,
°
. .

intr o duce d i nt o t h e m ine s and p l a nt a ti ons at the b e ginning of

th e s ixteenth ce nt ury t o ta k e t he pla ce of the na tive s ext er
,

m ina t ed b y th e Spa nia r ds Lat er th e is l a nd was fo r a l o ng peri o d.

t h e ha unt of th e Englis h a nd Fre n c h b ucc a n eer s wh o ha r as s e d it ,

fro m T o rtuga a nd ot h er is l a n d s t ro ngh o l ds Th e wes tern p a rt .

b ec am e Fre nc h in 1 69 7 a nd ma ny flo urish ing c otto n s ugar , , ,

t o b a cc o a nd i n d ig o p la nt a ti o ns were e s t ab lis h e d
,
Fina lly a fter .
,

m a ny massa cre s t he negr oes ga ine d th eir ind ep e nde nce

,
.

Th e Lesser Antill es wh ic h fo r m th e e a st ern ba rrier o f th e

,

Ca ri bbe an Sea fro m e as t o f Puerto R ic o to T rini dad a re co m

, ,

p o s e d p o litic a ll y o f t w o g ro u p s — th e L eewa r d fro m th e ea st o f ,

Puerto R ic o to D o m in ica a nd th e W indwa r d fr o m Ma rtin ique , ,

to Gre nada Clima t ic a lly th e wh o le o f t h i s gro up fo r m the

.

W ind wa r d Is la n ds as th e y a re exp os e d to the ful l fo rce o f th e

,

No rth Eas t T ra de s and o nl y t ho s e is l a nds — am o ng wh ich i s

-

C u ra ca o ( Dutc h ) wh ich lie in th eir lee o n th e co ast o f Venezuela

—

c a n righ tly b e ca lle d win d w a r d .

An inner a nd o u t er lin e o f isl an ds ma y b e d is tinguis h e d o f ,

diff ere nt ph ys ic a l s t ruct ure Th e inner l ine i s fo r m e d by the .

s u mm it ridge o f a dee ply s u bm erge d mo u nta in cha in s epa rat ing ,

the Ca ri bbe a n Sea fro m th e Atla nt ic Oce a n a nd is la rg ely vo lc a n ic ,

.

Th e is l ands a re ge nerally mo un ta ino u s a nd a re co vere d with ,

dens e fo re s ts Amo ng th e m a re S t Kitts a nd N evis

. feet ) .

— su ar
g , co tto n a nd ru m ; M o n ts erra t ( Brit is h )
,
feet)
—su a r
g c o ff ee c a c ao li m e j uice
, , We s t ern Gu adelo upe
,

F e c h fee — c o fi ee c a ca o s u a r ba na nas D o minica

( r n ) t ) g , , ,

( B r it i s h ) — co fi ee fr u it c a c a o li m e s s u a r Ma r t in ique
g , , , ,

( French ) feet Mo nt Pel é e fa mo us fo r its eruptio n in 1902)

, ,

s u a r ca c a o c o ff ee to ba cco c o t to n ; St L ucia B riti sh

( )
—
g , , , , .

feet )— s uga r c a ca o ru m ; St Vin cent ( B riti sh )

, , feet ) .

s uga r ru m c o tto n c a c a o s pices a rro wro o t t i mb er ; and Grenada

, , , , , ,

( B rit is h )— ( 3 2OO feet ) — ca c a o nut m egs co tt o n th e h igh e s t o f the

, , , ,

Gre nadin e s so m e 3 00 lo w is la nds wit h c o untles s reefs and ro cks

, , ,

a lso m o s tly i neo u s wh ich va r

g y fro m 9 s qu a re miles to le ss tha n 1
,

in a re a a nd exte n d fo r abo ut 60 m ile s to th e no rt h e as t

, In the -
.

no r t h o f th e L e ss er Antille s fro m t h e Vir in Is le s B ritis h except

g ( , ,

S t Th o mas with a n excelle nt h a r bo ur wh ic h is D a nish ) wit h th eir

.
, , ,

line o f wh ite c o r a l reefs a ga inst wh ich th e s urf i s co nstantly ,

d riven by th e No r th Eas t T ra de s to East ern Gu adel o upe is an

-

, ,

o uter circle o f is la nds gener a lly lo w and co mpo s e d o f li me stone

,

a nd co ra l tha t h as b ee n uph ea ve d abo ve the s urfa ce

, Amo ng .
 THE WEST IN D I ES 59 1

th e s e a re Anguill a with ga r de n sto ck c o tto n and sa lt Ba rb u da

, , , ,

fla t with pro ducts o f sa lt a nd p h o spha t e s fro m th e r o cky Is la nd

,

o f R e do nda ; Anti ua
.
g pa rtly vo lc a nic a nd ri s ing t o ,
feet , ,

W i th s uga r c o tto n a nd in e a
, p pp le s a n d th e lo w p l a in o f Eas tern
,

Gu adelo up e with s uga r a nd bana na s

“

, .

Ba r bado s To ba go a nd T rini dad fo r m a no th er c ircle wh ich

, , ,

w as p ro bab ly p a rt o f a n Antille an r ange no w s u bmerge d wh ich ,

i s co ntin ue d in the co ast ra nge o f Ven ezuel a Ba r bado s ris e s .

to feet is d ens el y p eo p le d a nd cul tiva ted with s uga r a nd

, ,

co tto n To bago i s ma inl y igneo u s and ris e s to

. feet ; its ,

pro duc t s a re to ba cc o co tto n ca ca o ru bber and p ime nto , , , ,

.

T rini dad rel a tively lo w with a co a s t r ang e in th e no rth ris ing

, ,

to abo ve feet p ro duce s ca c a o suga r a nd aspha lt fro m th e

, , ,

cele bra te d p itch l a ke .

As a refere nce to th e pr o duct s m e nt io n e d abo ve will sho w th e ,

gro wt h o f c a c a o i s mo s t ly in tho s e isla n ds wh ich ha ve dee p fo re st

c o vere d va lleys wit h a vo lc a n ic so il As th e p la nt is s ens it ive
, .

to win ds e sp ecia ll y fro m th e sea its wi d e d i s tri butio n in th e

, ,

rel a tively sma ll Wes t Ind ia n Is la nds s ugges ts gre a t va riety o f

c o nto ur a nd asp ect It mu st b e re m e mb ere d tha t c a c a o is wha t
.

”
ma y b e ter m e d a g a r d e n t r o
p ic a l p r o d uc t requiring a sma ll ,

a re a fo r a l a rge p ro duct io n bu t specia l co nditio ns o f cli ma te a nd ,

so il a nd gre a t p er so na l la bo ur Th e pr o sp erity o f mo s t o f th e .

is la nds fo r m erly d ep en de d a l mo s t ent irely o n s uga r and its ,

d eclin e m ay b e a tt ri buted t o th e d iffi cul ty in o bta inin g labo ur

a fter th e abo lit io n o f th e s l a ve t ra de a nd th e in cre as e d pro duc ,

t io n o f b eet s u ga r Owing to th e c o nfigura tio n o f ma ny o f th e

-
.

is la n ds difficul tie s o f co mmun ica t io n ha ve hamp ere d th e c o

,

o p er a tio n in s ug a r cul t iva t io n wh ic h is n o w e ss e n tia l fo r s ucce ss

( q H a wa i i p
’
.
,
Ba r ba do s h as b een able to p a rt ly ho l d its
.

o wn o win g to its e a s y r o a d gra d ient s .

QU EST IONS .

What climat i c belts d ep en d ent o n eleva tio n can y o u d istinguish

1 . , ,

in M e xic o and Ce ntra l Am eri ca Wh y d o t h ese have difierent limi ts in

the no rt h and in the so u th in clu ding S o u t h Am e ri ca 7 Desc ri b e the m a in
,

p ro du cts c ha rac t eri st i c o f ea c h zo n e .

2 Il lust rat e the in fl uenc e o f relief a nd cl im a te o n co mmun i c at io ns

. .

Indi ca te the e c ono m i c resul ts whi c h fo llo w f ro m t hi s .

3 H o w has the c lim at e o f M exi co a nd Central Am eri ca influenc e d s ettle

.

ment ? Di st ing uish b et w ee n the int erio r h ighl a nd s and the ea stern and
western co ast lo wlands .
59 2 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

4 .Desc ri be the climat e o f the W est Indies T o wha t do y o u a tt ri bute .

t he va rie ty of p ro d ucts p o ssi ble in so m e i sla nds 1

5 M ent io n a reas wh i c h re qui re irrig a t io n in s u m m er and a cco un t fo r
. ,

th i s .

6 Illu st rat e th e c onne c t io n in M exi c o a nd Cen t ra l Am eri c a b et ween rain

.

fall and na t ural and cul t iva ted veg eta tion .

7 Ma rko n a map the a reas whi c h a re vo l cani c a nd tho se w hic h ha ve

.

been subje ct to eruptio n s o r ea rth qua k es in hist o ri c al times .

8 Il l ust ra t e the i nfl uenc e of elevat io ns in mo dify ing t emp era ture and
. ,

o f mountain s in the p ro d u c t i on o f ra in shado ws .

S O UTH AM ERICA .

Struc ture .

As re ga r d s s truct ure So uth Am eric a h a s ma ny p o ints o f re

,

s e mb l a n ce with N o r th Americ a e sp ecia ll y as rega r ds th e dis ,

t ribut io n of mo unta in u pl a nd
, ,
an d lo wl an d . Th e ma in fe a tures
cons ist of

l . A western m ountain belt m o s tly fo r m e d b y e a rth mo ve,

me nts Th e Co rd illera o f th e Ande s i s o ver

. feet above
th e level o f the Pa cific flo o r a t n o gre a t di s ta nce fr o m the c o a st
, .

As th e mo ve m ent s o ccurre d a lo n g no rth to so u t h line s nu m ero us ,

cha in s run pa ra llel to th e we s t co a st wh ic h tho ugh no t co ntinuo us , ,

a re
ge n era ll y kno wn a s th e C o a st th e We st er n a nd th e Eas tern , ,

Co r dillera s He nce c o mm un ic a t io n with in t erio r ba s ins in th e

.

And e s a nd th e pe ne tr a ti o n o f r a i n b r ingin g winds fr om the

,
-

e as t into s uc h bas ins depe nd o n th e p os itio n of m o unt a in rims

, ,

in so m ewha t th e s a m e ma nn er a s o n th e p l a te a us o f As ia (s ee
p . Except in th e Eas t e rn C o r d illera o f Bo livia ( Sor at a ,

fee t ) th e lo ft ies t pe a ks lie o n th e we st ern o r ce nt ra l ra nge

, ,

a nd a re o f vo lc a n ic o rigin Of th e s e th e ma j o rity a re extinct

.

( Aco nc agua o n th e bo r d er s o f Ch ile a nd th e Argentin e feet ; ,

Ch im b or a z o in Ecua d o r feet ; Ant is a na o ver

, feet) ; ,

b ut s om e like C otopa xi in Ecu ador are s t ill a ctive

, , .

2 Two up l and p l ateau re g io n s th e h igh l a n ds o f B ra z il and

.
,

Guia na s epa r a ted by the b ro a d lo wla nds o f th e Ama zo n In

, .

s t ructure t h es e s o m ewha t res e mb le th e Ap a l a c h ia n s s te m o f

p y
N o rth Am eric a ju st a s th e R o ckie s do th e Ande s
, .

Th e s e u pla nds a re th e re ma ins o f l a r ger t a blela nds wh ich have ,

b een wo rn do wn by e ro s io n to t h eir p res e nt li m its Th e ro cks .

a re ma in l y ho rizo nt a l a nd s teep e s c a r p m e nt s m a rk t h e e d ge o f
,
59 4 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR APH Y
-

( f Figs 9 9
o . .
,
On th e we st co a st th e river s a re gen era ll y
sh o rt a nd too r ap i d to b e na viga b le T h e a re a o f lo w pla in i s
.

FIG . 98 .
— S O U T H AM E RICA : R E LI E F .

Cf . w it h Fig . h w
1 1 0 , s o in g na viga ble rivers . N o t e t h e r a p i d s o f t he
Fr a n c i sc o a t t h e m a rg i n o f t h e B ra z il i a n H ig h l a n d s
. Rap i ds and
fa lls f t en i m p r a c t i c
a re o a b le t h o u g h rel a t ivel y l o w
, th e Fa lls of
t h e M a d eira R iver .

rel a tively sma ll bu t o f imp o r ta nce in Ecua do r no rth o f Guaya ,

quil a n d in th e so u th e r n p o r t io n o f t h e C entr a l Va lle y o f Ch ile

, .
 SO UT H AMERICA 59 5

On th e rth lo nger va lleys pe netra te into th e Ande s o f C o lo mbia

no
,

t e At ra to t he Ca uc a a nd M a g da le na a ll na vig ab le fo r a c o n
h , , ,

s i dera ble d i s ta nce In s pite o f t h e tro pic a l fo re s t wh ic h fills its

.

F m 99 — S o rrrn AM E RICA : RI V E R S Y S T EM S
. . .

T he t ri b ut a ries o f th e Am a zo n are m a inl y so ut h of t he Eq ua to r H enc e .

t h e river is high es t in t h e so ut h ern ra iny s ea so n ( Fig 10 6 Ja nua ry )

. , .

N o t e t h e i nl a nd dra ina g e a rea s a nd t h e Pa c ifi c w at er p a rt in g a nd ,

cf Fig s 98 1 1 1 1 1 4
. .
,
-
.

l o wer va lle y th e Ma gda lena wa s the gre at Spa nish h igh wa y fro m
,

th e Ca ribb e a n Sea to th e up l a n d p la tea us o f C o lo mb ia Th e s tee p.

no rth er n fro n t o f th e m o u nt a ins o f Vene z uel a le a ves lit t le ro o m

fo r lo wl a nd t ill th e D elt a o f th e Orino co i s re a ch e d Th e Orino co
.
59 6 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

is re gul a rly na viga t e d t o C iu da d Bo liva r In th e r a ins its tribu .

”
ta ry th e Apure ca n b e a s cen de d a cro ss the L l ano s ne a rly to
, , ,

th e bas e o f th e Sierra M erida wh ich c o nnects th e An des o f

,

C o lo mbo and Venezuela a nd th e M eta is na vigable to th e bas e

,

o f th e An d e s e as t o f B o go t a Th e m a in s tream i s blo cke d b y

.

ra pids abo ve th e co n fluen ce o f th e Met a but sma ll bo a ts c an ,

p enetr a te to th e Ama z o n Ba s in by m e a ns o f th e Cassiquiare ,

wh ich flo ws bo th to th e O rino co and th e Rio N egro Th e bro ader .

lo wl ands o f th e Guia nas ha ve a llo we d th e develo p m ent o f im

po rta nt pl an ta tio n in dust ries e sp ecia lly s uga r th o ugh a cces s to
, ,

th e in terio r is rendere d diffi cul t by unn a vi g able river s .

Th e Amaz on an d its tri buta ries a ffo r d a g re a t extent o f na vi

gab le w a ter s in th e lo wla n d a rea a n d by m e a ns o f th e lo ng Va lley
,

o f the Uc a ya li it i s p o ss i ble to p en e t r at e t h e An d e s t o a c o n

s idera ble d i s t a nce s o u t h T he Ca ll a o Oro y a Rail wa y i s b eing

.
-

c o ntinue d to c o nnect wi th th e n a vigable river and so o pen up ,

a th ro ugh r o ute fro m th e west t o th e e a st c o as t vi a th e Ama zon .

Th e Madeira is na viga ble as far as its 200 m ile s o f r ap ids in

la titu de wh ich a re no w tu rn e d by a ra ilwa y Its upper .

tributa rie s fo r m wa t erwa ys t o Ma tto Gro sso in B ra z il and ne a rly , ,

to th e bas e o f th e Ea st ern Co r d illera in Bo livia Th e southern

, .

t ri but a rie s o f th e Ama z o n th e T a pa j o s th e X in gu a nd T o c a ntins

, , , ,

wh ich fl o w fro m th e h igh la nds o f B ra zil a re o nly pa rtl y na vigable ,

o win g t o r ap ids fo r m e d a t t h e e d g e o f th e p l a te a u Th e no rth .

e as t c o as t o i Bra zil fro m th e Ama zo n mo uth to Ca p e St Ro que

, .
,

much re s e mble s that o f th e Guia na s bu t o win g to dro ugh t is ,

no t so well devel o p e d as th e e a st c o a st o n wh ic h th e l o wl a nds

extend t o th e s o uth e rn tre p ic COpio us r a ins as in th e Guia nas
.
,

(of p
. . a re fa vo urable fo r th e p ro ductio n o f c a c a o and suga r
in th e s e h ot l ands in wh ich a re c o n ce n tra te d th e mo s t impo rtant
,

lowla nd pl anta t io n pro ducts o f B ra z il Th e river va lleys wh ich

.
,

run a ppro xima tely e ast and we s t a re no t na vi g ab le for any

,

dis ta nce excep t th e S 50 Fra ncis co wh ich, a fter its interruption

,

by th e Pa ul o Afonso Rap ids is na vigable fo r mo re th an

,

mil es t o th e s ou th ea s t
-
.

Fro m Rio de Janeiro to Po rto Al e gre in 3 0 s o uth th e s teep ,

°
,

es c a rpment o f th e pl a tea u o f Sout h Ea s t B ra z il lea ves little -

c o as ta l pla in but to th e s o uth o f th is a b ro ad p l a in lies b etween

,

th e c o as t and th e l o wer a nd n o w bro ken upl an ds o f South East -

B ra z il and Urugu a y as f a r as th e mo u th o f the Pla te where

, ,
b e gin th e exte ns ive lo wlan ds o f the Pa ra na and Pa ra gua y and ,

th e bro ad pl a in s o f th e We s t Argent in e Th e Pa ra gu a y is more .

o r le ss na vigab le fro m a b o ut th e li m it o f th e 600 feet c o ntour -

5 98 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

Pa z [ 9] fee t ) wh ere wh e a t an d ma ize will rip en

a nd ,

a n d Arequi a Co cha bamba Bo go t a a nd Q uito [ 25]

p
( fro m to fee t ) wh ere th e wa r m e qua ble cli ma t e 1 s
,

fa vo ura ble fo r th e cult iva t io n o f a ll t e mp era t e p ro duc t s In .

th is va riety o f c o o l a nd wa rm t e mpera t e a rea s in th e Ande s lie s ,

t o a la r ge ext e nt t he exp la na ti o n o f t h eir a ncie nt civili za ti o ns

,
.

Fo r c o n ve n ien ce o f d e s crip t io n th e An d e s ma y b e d ivid e d i nt o

fo ur g ro up s
1 Th e S outh ern Andes s o uth o f ab o ut 40 ( cf Fig As t h e
°
. . .
,

res ult o f th e l o ng c o nt inue d er o s i o n of a w et clima t e wit h preva il

-

ing we st wi nds a nd pr o b a b ly t h e s i n ki n g o f th e l a nd w h ich

, ,

dr o wne d th e river v a lle ys a nd pr o duce d th e fj or d and is la nd t ype

o f c o a st t h e elev a t i o n s a re m uc h le ss t h a n in t h e nor t h a nd
, ,

nu m er o us b r o ad a s — b el o w fee t — ha ve b ee n f o r m e d b
g p y
river s o f the we st c o a st wh ich ris e o n t he e a st s id e o f the Andes
,
.

The s e ma y b e sa i d t o ha ve cap tured th e h e ad w a ter s o f t h e s treams

wh ich flo w to th e e ast On th is level wa tersh e d a s th e result o f
gla ci a l a c t io n la k
.
,

e ba s ins ha ve b ee n fo r m e d fro m wh ich in so me

, ,

c a s e s th e wa t er flo ws bo th t o th e Pa cific a nd Atl a nt ic Owing .

t o t h e l a r ge precip it a t i o n l o ng river s fl o w a cr o s s t h e Pa t a go nia n

,

P l a te a u t o the e a st ; o f th es e th e L ima y w h ic h ris e s in th e l ake , ,

res ervo ir of Nahuel Hu ap i is na vi ga b le t o wit h i n 50 m iles of the

la k
,

e Owi ng t o de ns e f o re st s th e we st er n s l o p e o f t h ese Andes

.
,

i s a lm ost unexp l o re d a nd c o mm u nic a t i o n is ma int a i ne d with th e

,

s h ee
p fa rms o f t he And e s a lm ost e nt irel y fr om t he Ar ge nt i ne s ide
-
.

Tw o im p o rt a nt ga p s sh o ul d b e n o t e d w h ic h c o nnec t wit h the

C e nt ra l Va lle y o f Ch ile o ne a litt le t o th e north o f Va ld ivia to
, ,

b e fo ll o we d by a ra ilwa y fr o m th e na vi ga b le L ima y a nd the other ,

fr o m La ke Nah uel Hu a p i t o La ke Ll a n qu ih ue no r th o f P uerto ,

M o ntt Th i s pa ss es no r th o f M o unt T r o na do r wh ic h exceeds

.
,

feet .

2 Th e Centr al Andes fr o m a little so u th o f 40 to n o r th o f

.
,
°

La ke T itic a c a (cf Fig Th e And e s m ay no w b e sa i d t o form

. .

a do u b le m o unt a i n c ha in c ons is ting o f the m a in c ha in a nd a l o wer

,

c o as t r ang e b e t wee n t h e C e nt r a l V a lle

y o f Ch ile a nd th e s e a To .

t he s o u th th i s c o a st a l r a n ge is s u bm er e d b ut re a
g pp e a r s in th e ,

isla nds o f th e west ern co a st Tho u gh no t a lwa ys p ro m inent . ,

th i s c o as t r a nge c a n b e t r a ce d o ver m o st o f t h e we s t co a st o f
So u th Am e ric a a n d i s c o n t inue d th ro ugh No r th Ven ezuel a (of
, .

p 5 78 c o a st ra nge we st o f Willa m e tt e Va lle y )

.
, Th e mai n .

Andean ch in is no w m uch m o re l o ft y ( Ac o n c a gua is o ver

s

fee t ) a nd tho ugh th e cli m a te is dry th e grea t er eleva t io n cause s

, ,
 S O UT H AM ERICA 59 9

a suffi cient ra in a nd s no wfa ll to p ro vi de wa t er fo r the irriga tio n

o f t h e W e s t Argent m e s ee Sa n J u a n M en do z a etc ) a nd
( .

th e C en tr a l Va lle y o f Ch ile S a ntia o

( g
The co nfigura tio n o f Chile a s rega rd s t hi s valley and th co ast rang e
, e ,

c a n b e c m a re d wi t h t h a t o f Cali fo rn i a if it is rem em b ered t h a t t he

p o ,

Centr al Vall ey is no t a fl t b a sin bu t c o n i st s o f undul a t ing l and wi t h a

a , s ,

g enera l sl o p e to t he w e st and so u t h In st e a d o f b ein g c n c ent ra t ed i nt . o o

o ne river w h i c h fl o w s a lo n
g t h valley the ri vers o f Chi le fl o w f r m e a s t t o
e , o

we st a nd c u t t h ro ug h ga p s in t h c o a st rang e a m o st im po rt nt fa cto r
, e , a

in t he s upply o f w a t er t o a d y la nd r .

Ne a r Aco nc a gua a re s evera l i mpo r ta nt pa ss es o f wh ich th e ,

C u mb re ( Uspa ll a ta ) feet is no w f o llo we d by th e T ra ns

, ,

An d ine lin e Fa rt h er no r th t h e Ande s fo r m a bro ad mo u nt a in

.

reg io n va r y in g in wi dth fro m 100 m ile s in th e so uth to o ver

,

3 00 m ile s in B o livia a t a n eleva t io n o f o ver ,

feet (cf .

Fig . Th e We st ern C o r dillera — a vera ge feet wit h ,

p e a ks a b o ve fee t — c a n b e d istinguish e d a s a h igh ra ng e

fo r m in g th e bo u nda ry o f Ch ile a nd th e Arg ent ine bu t th e ea s tern ,

r a nge t h o u gh c onti nu o us fr o m a lit tle s o ut h o f th e Tr o pic t o

,

is no t d evel op e d a s a l o ft y cre s t t ill it c o mm e nces e a s t o f La Pa z .

Num er o u s p a r a llel r a nge s m uc h re s emb li ng in c ha ra cter th os e

,

o f t h e G re a t B a s i n o f N or t h Am eric a e ncl o s e i nt eri o r d e re s s i o ns

p ,

o nl y s light ly b el o w t h e g e n er a l level Th e s e de s ert b a s i ns a re .

la rg el y o f th e pum t yp e dry sa line de s o la t e wa s te s s wept by

, , , ,

fierce b liz z a r ds wit h gre a t extre m e s o f h e a t a nd c o l d

, Except .

for a few m ini ng s ettle m e nts th e y a re uninhab ite d a nd f o rm a , ,

f orm i dab le ba rrier t o c o mm unic at io n b etwee n e ast a nd we st .

Th e l a rge st in la n d ba s in is tha t in wh ich lie T it ica ca t h e ,

la rge st fre sh wa t er la ke o f S o uth Am eric a and th e sha llo w a nd ,

s a lt La k e Aulla ga s co nnec te d by the De s agu adero Th ro ugh t h is

, .

run s t h e m in in g ra ilwa y fro m Ant o fa ga s ta n o w co nn ect e d on , ,

th e we st s i d e o f T it ic a c a wit h t h a t fro m Mo lle n do

,
Th e Ea st ern .

Co r d ill era ca lle d in B o livia th e Co r d illera R ea l fo r ms a lo fty

, ,

mo un ta in cha in wit h s u mm it s ( So ra ta a nd Ill ima ni ) a bo ve

,

fee t Th e de ns e t ro p ica l fo re st o f its e a s t ern o r ra in y

.

s i d e fo r ms a s t riking co ntr a st t o t h e st e ppe s o f t h e d ry we s t er n

s 10 es
p .

— Th e w at ers h e d b etwee n t he
3 Th e Andes o f Peru ( cf Fig . .

U c a y a li a nd La k
.

e T it ic a c a is f o r m e d b y a tr a ns ver s e barrier— the

Vilc a no t a K no t— wh ic h c o nnec t s th e We s t a nd Ea s t C o rd illera s .

Th e An de a n re g io n o f Peru c o ns ists o f a co mplex sy st e m o f lo fty

m o un ta in r a nge s wit h a ge nera l d irectio n fro m so uth e a st to
,
-
600 TEXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

c onta ining eleva t e d interment pl a ins a n d va lleys

w

no rt h w e s t, -

tra ver s e d by tributa rie s o f t h e Upp er Ama zon Tho ugh ma ny .

river s o f th e we s t co as t c ut th ro ugh th e extre m e west erly range ,

a nd d erive th e w a ter s wit h wh ic h t h ey irriga te t h e we s t ern s lo p es

o f P e ru fro m a re g io n rea ch e d by wet ea s terly win ds th e ma in ,

wa tersh e d between e as t and west lies o n th e who le a lo ng a b ro ad

ridg e o f eleva t ed l and— o ver feet — o u th e ea s t o f wh ich
th e Ama zo n h e ads trea ms ta ke th eir ris e Co mmun icat io n a cro ss .

th is with th e interio r o f Peru is by difficult mo un ta in tra cks ,

wh ere wh eele d tra ffic is impo ss i ble Owing to th e exp ens e o f .

tra nspo r t o n th e m in era l ra ilwa ys Ca lla o Oro ya mul e s a re - —

st ill the ma in c a rrier s Th e develo p me nt o f th e trop ic a l p ro ducts

.

o f Eas tern P eru and B o livi a mu s t l a r gely d e end o n c o nnectio n

p
with the na vigable wa terwa ys o f th e Ama zo n .

4 Th e Andes of Ecuador and Col om bia ( cf Fig

,
.
— To th e . .

we s t o f th e so uth ern b end o f th e Ma ranon th ere is a no t ic eab le

decreas e in the h eigh t of th e Andes which a ga in ris e in the vo lc anic ,

regi o n of Ecu ado r t o gre at eleva tio ns ( s ee p In C o lo mb ia .

t h ere a re t hree ma i n And e a n c h a i ns b etwee n whi c h lie d eep ,

river v a lley s w ith a ge ner a l no rt h and s o uth d irecti o n Of

, .

th es e th e ce ntra l is th e h i gh e st wit h ma ny vo lc a no e s— T ol ima

, , ,

o ver feet— s epa r ating the Ca uc a and Ma gda le na Va ll eys ,

b etwee n wh ich few pra ctic a b le pa sse s exis t a cr oss th e ra nge .

Th e c o ast r a nge i s well marke d in Ecua dor and C o lo mb i a and is ,

c o nt in ue d i nt o th e Is thmus a nd C ent r a l Americ a Th e e as tern .

ch a in d ivi de s into two br a nch es wh ic h e nclo s e th e Gulf of ,

Ma ra c a ibo .

CLIMATE .

Position and Extent — Th e fo ll o w ing po int s sh o ul d b e examin e d

on a gl o b e
1 Extreme Longitudes — 3 5 we st to 8 1 we s t ( ce nt r a l m erid ia n
. .
° °

abo ut 5 8 wes t Bueno s Aire s ) EXc ept a po rtio n o f th e c oast

°
, .

o f Ecu ado r th e wh o le co nt in e nt lie s ea s t o f Fl o ri da

, c o ns equently ,

a t Pern ambuco it will b e m idda y two a nd a qu a rter ho ur s a fter

'

Green wich a nd a t Bueno s Aire s a litt le l e ss tha n fo ur ho ur s

,

a fter Greenwich .

2 Extrem e Latitudes
. no r th t o 56 s o uth
. mil es °
:

i e a bo ut th e sam e le ngth as Afric a b ut exte nd ing 2 1 fa rth er

. .
, ,
°

so u th .

3 Th e Inc i dence of th e Equator and th e Tropics — Th e co n

.
.

t ment 18 cu t b y th e Equ a to r o nly a few d eg ree s to t h e no rth o f

.
602 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

FIG . 1 00 —
S OU T H A M ERICA : S E A L EV EL IS O T H E RM S
-

( J AN U ARY ) .

FIG . 10 1 .
—S O U T II AM E RICA : ACT U AL Is o rH ER M S ( JAN UA RY )
'
.
 S O UT H AMERICA 603

FI G . 1 02 .
— S O UT H AM E RICA : S E A L E V E L IS OT H E RM S
-

( JU L Y ) .

FIG . l o3 .
— S O U T H AM E RICA : ACT UAL IS OT H E RMS ( JUL Y ) .
604 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GRAP HY
-

FIG
.
— S o urrr AM E RIC A : IS O B ARS ( J AN UAR Y ) .

FIG . 1 05 — S O U T II AM E RICA : Iso nARs

.
( JULY) .
60 6 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

Th e t ra de s blo win g fro m reg io ns o f lo wer t o re g io n s o f h igh er

,

temp era ture a re us u a lly dry exce pt wh e n t h ey h a ve t r a ver s e d

,

a c o ns i d er a b le b re adt h o f s ea a nd d o no t c a u s e r a i n u n le ss t h e y
,

a re f orced up wards a nd cooled as is th e c a s e a l o ng t he Ande s ,

a n d in t h e m o re eleva t e d mo u nta in a re a s o f So uth Ea s t B ra zil -

a n d e s p ecia ll y o n the s teep c o a s t e s c a rp m e nt ( relief r a in s ) Th e .

dro ugh t o f th e no r th we s t o f So uth Americ a a t th is s ea so n is du e

-

to th e p er s is t e nce o f th e t ra d e s wh ic h b l o w o ver th e L la n o s a s ,

dry win ds a nd b ring no ra in

, Wh e n th e t r ade s ce a s e ra in o ccurs
.
,

in c a l m we a th er o r with we a k we s t win ds ( Jul y ) .

JU LY C O N D IT I O N S .

Temp erature, Pressure, Winds, and Rainf all — Th e ver t ic a l su n

is no w well t o th e no rt h o f So ut h Am eric a , a nd , exce p t in the
Guia na Highla nds and th e Ande s , wh ere eleva t io n mo d ifie s t em
p era tu re, th e wh o le la n d fro m t h e Ama z o n no r t h wa rd excee d s
80 F
°
A lo w p re ssu r e a r e a is d evel o p e d, a n d c o n vect io na l ra in s
.
-

o ccur in th e n o rt h we s t In t h e s o ut h t h e p er ma n e nt h igh
-
.

pre ssure b el ts o f th e Pa cific a nd At la nt ic Oce a ns a re extend e d

to fo r m o ne c o nt i nuo u s z o n e a cr o ss t h e c o nt in e nt , a nd , c o nse
quently, winds ha ve a t en den c y to b lo w o ut wa r ds in s tea d o f
b ein g d ra wn in l a nd fro m th e s ea Th e a ir is n o t ri sin g as in .

Ja nu a ry , and t h ere 1s little ra in , exce p t o n th e e a st co a st ( relief

ra ins ) , th e Pa ra gua y a nd Pa ra na Ba s in s ( c y clo n ic st o r ms, with
ra in a t a ll s ea s o ns ) , a nd the wes t erly st o r m win d a rea o f th e -

so uth wes t co a st
Th e July rainf all of Centr al Chil e ( Va l pa r a i so a nd Sa ntiago )
re quire s fur th er expla nat io n Tw o ma i n fa cto r s h a ve to b e c o n
s idered a c o l d cu r re nt a nd a
p e r ma n e nt h igh p re ss ure a re a clo s e
— -

t o th e Ch ilia n c o a st Of th e s e the s ec o n d is t he mo re i mpo rta nt

.
, ,

a s th o u h t h is current l o wer s t h e t e m era t ure o f th e we st c o a s t

, g p
a nd h el s to kee
p p th e a re a dry by co o lin g t h e win ds t h a t b lo w
o ver i t t h e d irect io n o f th e w ind s m a in l
, y d e t e r m in e s th e que st io n
o f th e r a infa ll Th e centre o f the h igh pre ss ure a rea is o n a bo ut
.
-

3 0 s o u th in July a n d Augu st a nd 3 5 s o uth in Ja nua r y a nd

° °
,

Fe brua ry In summ er ( Ja nua r y ) th e h igh press ure a rea is

.
-

fa rth e s t so uth and it s ma xi mu m i s bet wee n 3 0 a nd 3 5 s o uth

,
° °

l a t itud e ( see Fig On 3 0 th e p reva le nt win ds ln Ja nua ry

°

a re So ut h W e st ( C o quimb o B etwee n 3 0 a nd 40 ( Valpa ° °

ra is o is o n 33 s o ut h ) t h e y are t h eref o re S o ut h a nd S o ut h West

°
, , ,

but variab le a nd wea k o wing t o th e pr o xim ity o f the h igh pressure

,

are a Th e s e winds b l o w fr o m a c o l der o ce a n a nd h igh er la tit u de s

.

to a rel a t ively wa rm er l a nd a nd l o wer la t it ud es a nd d o n o t b ri ng ,

 S O UT H AM ERICA 60 7

ra in In winter ( Jul y ) th e h igh pressure a rea has its ma ximu m

.
-

°
a t abo u t 25 s o u t h l a t itu d e a n d is n e a rer t o t h e c o a s t
, P re ssure .

is so m ewha t h igh er tha n in s u mmer a nd the win ds a re s t ill mo re ,

va riable a nd ca l ms mo re frequent bu t th e mo re no r th erly po s i ,

t io n o f th e h ig h p re ss ure a llo w s th e d evelo m e nt o f no rth

p
sto r ms wh ic h bring r a in to C e nt ra l Ch ile (s ee [ 1 1 ] and
,

M ean Annual Rainf a ll C erta in regio ns o f So u th Am eric a ha ve

.
—

little ra in a t a ny s ea so n Th es e a re— (a ) Th e wes t co ast deserts

. -
,

W h ere th e win ds b lo w pa r a llel t o th e s ho re o r fro m th e s o ut h ,

‘

( c o l d er la t itu de s ) a nd a re fur th e r c o o le d by pa ss ing o ver a c o l d

,

current ( b) Th e semideserts of th e Andean r eg i o ns in P eru a nd

.
‘

Bo livia lie in th e ra in sh a do w o f th e e a st win ds wh ich b ring ,

co p io u s mo ist ure to the e a st s lo p e o f th e An des a nd fa r th er so uth

in th e we st Arge nt in e lie to th e e a st o f a n a rea o f ver y s ma ll
ra infa ll P re ss ure co nd it io ns o n the west c o a st preve nt a ny
.

win ds exce pt sea breeze s p ene tra t ing fro m the wes t t o the no rth
o f a b o ut (0 ) Th e W est Arg entine o n th e e a st o f the An d es ,

t o wh ic h litt le mo is t ure p e n e t r a t e s eve n in Ja nu a r y a nd Pata ,

g oni a o n th e leewa r d s i d e o f th e S o u th er n And es Th e preva lent .

No rth We s t a nd We s t win ds rea ch th is la tt er reg io n a s dry win ds

-

ha vin g de p o s it e d mo s t o f th eir mo is ture o n th e west s i de No .

mo re st r iking ins ta n ce o f th e in flue nce o f mo u nta ins o n r a infa ll

co ul d well b e qu o t e d Th e mo u nta ins a re much l o wer tha n th e
.

Ro ckie s in C a na da a nd th e ga ps much bro a der wh ile th e mo is

, ,

t ure b ring ing W e s t a nd N o rt h W e s t win ds pro cee d ing fro m th e

- -

Pa cific h igh pre ssure b elt a re p ersi st e nt th ro ugho u t th e yea r a nd

-

yet th ere is lit t le ext e ns io n o f th e r a in y b el t b e yo n d th e An de s .

On s t riking t h e So ut h And e a n c o a s t muc h o f th eir mo is ture is

c ondens e d o n t h e s ea wa r d s lo pes ( cf th e So uth Is la nd o f N ew .

Zea la n d ) a nd a s th e An de a n ch a in is s in g le a nd o f no g re a t
,

bre a dth th e winds des ce nd th e e a st ern s lo p es wa r m by c o m

, ,

press io n a nd by th e r a i s in g o f th ei r sa t ura t io n po in t t a ke u p
-

, , ,

mo isture rea dily Th u s t h e y a re d r ying win ds a nd a s th ere a re

.
,

no s u bs i d ia ry c h a in s t o ca u s e relief ra i n t h e wh o le reg io n is o n e ,

o f very s ma ll ra in fa ll a nd t h erefo re o f c o l d d e s ert ve ge t at io n

,
.

To t h e s e reg io n s o f litt le r a in m ight b e a dd e d th e Va lle y o f t h e

”
Fra n ci s c o wh ich a lso lie s in a ra in sh a do w
,
.

Th e reg io ns o f great rai nf all a re o n th e e as tern s lo pes o f th e

And es in th e Ama z o n Ba s in wh ere t he ra infa ll c a us e d b y c o n,

vect io na l m o ve m e nts i s in cre a s e d by fo rce d a s cent ; t h e relief

ra ins o f th e c o a s t o f S o uth Ea st B ra zil expo s e d to th e South Ea st
- -

T ra d es ; a nd the eno r mo us ra in fa ll o f th e co a s t ra nge o f Wes tern

608 T EXT B OOK OF GEO GR AP HY
-

Co lo mb ia wh ere the South Ea s t winds a re dra wn S outh We s t

.
-
-

to wa r ds th e lo w pre ssure a rea ( in Ja nua r y ) in th e no rth o f So uth

-

Am eric a All th e s e a re a s a re c o vere d with d e ns e tro pic a l fo re s ts

.
.

S im ila rly th e wes t c oa s t o f S o uth West Ch ile has a d ens e te m

,
-

pera te fo res t .

W O RK ON CLIMA T E
PRACT ICAL .

The follo wing exerc ises o n the u se o f clim a ti c m a p s ma y p ro ve o f servi c e .

In o rd er to a ssi st referenc e th e m a in p o ints d e alt wi t h in the questio ns

,

have b een summ a rized in a k ey .

1 Wha t win d s wo ul d b e m et wi t h b y a sa ilin g s hip c o as ting fro m Co lo n

.
-

to Pana m a if the vo y a g e co ul d be m ad e ent i rely during t he m o nth o f

Janua ry
2 S elec t f ro m th e pl a c es given in t he t a bles rep res en ta tive s o f t ro pi c al
.

fo rest regions savannas tem perate grassl ands t em p era te fo rests and
, , , ,

d es erts .

3 Ho w d o es s e asona l rainfa ll i nfl uen c e t he gro w t h of cul tiva t ion in

.

Sou t h Am eri c a ? Co m p a re t h e clim a te a nd p ro du c ts o f re gio ns wi th a

Med i te rrane an clim a te a s m all evenly d i st ri b u t e d rainf all wi th a cool
, ,

temperatu re and an e qua b le clima t e ( wa rm a t all s ea son s )

, .

4 In wha t p a rt s o f th e c o nti nen t a re w h ea t c o tt o n ru bb er c o ff ee and

.
, , , ,

ca cao cultivat ed 7 Can y o u co nn e ct th e di st ri but ion o f th ese p roducts

wi th c l imat e 7 Ho w d o e s clim a t e in fl uen c e the d ist ri b ut ion of sh eep and
catt le in (a ) lo wland s and (b) highl ands
5 To wh at ext ent d o es elevat i o n m o d ify t em p era t ure in S out h Anteri c a
.

Ind i c at e on th e o ro g ra p hi c a l m a p th e re gio n s w h i c h are never a b ove 50

°

°
or 68 F .

6 Exp l ain,
. wit h referen c e to p res ure and t em p eratu re s , the diff erence s
in the ra infa ll fo r Ja nua ry a nd J uly S h o wn in Fig 1 06 10 7 s. , .

KEY TO C LIM AT E Q UE S T I O N S .

[ The nu mbers in square bra ck ets re f er to the posi ti ons on Fig 108 .

of the places f o r whic h the tempera tu re a nd rai n a ll a re

f Wt en in
Ta ble X L ]
The figure s sh o wing th e nu mb er o f mo nths wh ic h a re c o o l ,

w a r m o r h o t a t e a ch p l a ce in Tab le XI and th e no tes on

, .
,

s e as o nal r a infa ll a nd win ds s h o ul d b e s t u d ie d in co nn ectio n with

,

th e clima te ma ps A go o d ins ta nce o f th e nee d o f co ns id ering

.

s e aso na l r a infa ll i s g ive n by Punta Aren as wh ich has th e

s am e r a infa ll as Sa ntia go [ 1 1 ] bu t in th e o ne c as e it r a ins a l mos t
every da y th o ugh th e t o t a l a nnua l a mo u nt m e as ure d i s sma ll
, ,

and o wing to th e c o o l t e mp era t u r e th e cli ma te

p ro d uce s go o d
gr ass and sh eep in th e o ther rain o nl y f alls in W inter a t a perio d ,
55 3 5 E
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614 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

Ma la y Arch ip el a go little d iff eren ce b etwee n o n e m o nth a n d

,

a no th er no te Pa r a
( Iqu ito s La Gu a ira Th e
h o ttes t tem p era tu re sh o wn in t h e ta b les is in th e upl a n ds o f
East B ra zil — Cea r a a regio n o f gre a t s e as o n a l d ro u gh t ,

m a rke d by ch a ra cteristic th or n bush veget a tio n -

Grea ter tem p era tures a re sa id to o ccur in th e e n clo s ed va lleys o f

th e Co lo m b ia n rivers .

In th e d es erts o f th e wes t c o a s t , o n o r n e a r t h e E qu a t o r , wh ere

a very h igh te m era t u re m igh t be ex ecte d, t h e c o l d current
p p
m o d ifi es te m p era ture , a nd c o ns equen tly th e c o as t t o wns o f Per u
a nd Ch ile a re little a bo ve 70
°
F in th e wa r m es t mo nth .

( Ca lla o
Owin g t o th e grea t a m o u nt o f l o wl a nd in So u th Am eric a to
th e e a s t o f t h e An d es , te m p er a tu re , exce p t in i so la te d u p l a n ds ,
s u ch a s th o s e o f S o uth Ea s t B r a zil a nd Gu ia na is little m o d ifie d
-

by eleva tio n, a n d is h igh th ro u gh o u t th e yea r in tro p ic a l S o u th

Am er ic a , a n d in s u mm er ( Ju ly) in th e Argen tin e o uts id e th e
tro p ic s An im p o rta nt eco no m ic res u lt o f th is extens io n so u th
.

wa rds o f h igh su m m er temp er a t u re o n th e ea s ter n s id e o f So u th

Am eric a is th a t whea t c a n be succe ss fully gro wn t o t h e s o u th
wes t o i Bu eno s Aires .

Ve g etatio n Re g i o ns and Culti vati on

.

Clim a te c o nfigura tio n exerci s e a n i m p o rta n t in fluence o n

a nd

vegeta tio n Th ree m a in regio ns m a y be d is tingu ish ed Forest

.
,

g rassl and a nd de sert

, .

Dens e tro p ica l fo rest c o ver s th e l o wla nds no rth o f the s o u th ern
t r o p ic wh erever th e r a infa ll o r t h e wa ter s upp ly fr o m river s is -

su ffi cie nt . In th e Am a z o n B a s in th e f o res t regio n c o rrespo nds

-

very clo s ely to th e lo wl a nds No rth o f th e Equ a t o r a nd f o llo w

.
,

ing a lin e so u th e a s t o f th e Ma d eira River th e f o res t give s p la ce

-

t o s a va nn a a t a bo ut 6 00 feet th o u gh t he tribu ta ries o f t h e

, ,

Am a z o n ha ve d e ns ely fo re ste d ba nks in th e s a va nna z o n e Th is .

a re a p a rt o f wh ich rep re s e nts t h e bed o f a n o ld in la n d l a ke is

, ,

well wa tered by innu m era ble s trea ms wh ich flo o d th e s urr o u nd ,

ing fo re s t in t h e r a in y s e a so n Th e Am a zo n it s elf h a s a m a rked

.

s e a so n o f flo o d wh e n it s level is r a is e d fro m 3 0 f eet a t Iqu it os

,

t o 6 0 feet a t M a n ao s o n th e lo wer river , T h is c o m m e nces in .

Fe bru a ry a nd is th e resu lt o f th e m eltin g s no ws a nd to rrentia l

,

ra ins wh ich o ccur a t th is s ea so n Th e flo o d do es no t rea ch th e

.

l o wer river fo r so m e m o nths An in teres tin g c o m p a riso n may

.

be d ra wn b etwee n th e a ctio n o f th e Am a zo n wh e n in flo o d a n d
 S O UTH AM ERICA 6 15

th a t of th e Nile , in h ol di ng ba ck th e wa ter s of its c o nfl u en ts a nd

thus m c reas mg th eir floo d p la in .

Fm 109
. .
— S O UT H VEG ET AT IO N ( AFT ER S onm rna AN D H ARD Y )
AM ERIC A : . . .

Co ntra st th e ea st ern slo p es o f t h e And es ( t h e M o nta na ) w et a nd d ensel y ,

f o res t cl a d wi th t h e S t epp es ( th e Pu n a ) t o t he wes t o f t h e Ea s t ern

,

Co rdill era Cf Fig 1 1 ( M ea n Ann u al Ra in fa ll )

. . .
N o t e t h e a reas o f
.

S a va nna a nd S t epp e a nd cf t h e s ea so nal ra in fa ll ( Fig s 10 6

, . . .

a n d t h e s ea s o na l t em p era t ure ( Fig s 1 0 1 . ,

A ligh ter trop i cal f ore st is f o u n d o n th e h igh er gro u nd betwee n

th e river s a n d in th e
,
Mo ntana
,
th e f o res t z o ne a t t h e e a s ter n
,
6 16 TEXT B OOK ‘
OF GEO GRAPHY
m a rgin of th e Ru bb er is th e m o s t imp orta n t p ro duc t
And es .

”
o f th e S elvas , a n d cin ch ona a nd c a c a o a re cultiva te d in th e
”
Mo n ana
t B es id es th e Am a z o n Bas in tr o p ic a l f o res t is found
. ,

o n th e Gu ia na co a s t a n d in th e Va lleys of th e Orinoco , Ma g da lena ,

a nd Ca u ca o n th e wes t co as t to a little so u th o f th e Equa to r,

a nd o n th e c o as t o f Eas t and S o u th Ea st B ra zil Co ns id er a ble -

.

a re as ha ve been cle a re d fo r t h e growth o f tr o p ic a l p ro ducts ,

esp ecia lly ca cao and th e suga r can e -

.

N ea r t h e ma rg in o f a nd so uth o f th e s outh e rn tro p ic is a regio n

o f subtrop ic al rai n f orest in Pa ra gu a y a n d in th e Ba s in o f th e
, ,
”
Up p er Pa ra na fro m wh ich m a t e o r Pa ra gua y t ea is o bta in ed
, , , .

”
Of a di ff erent typ e a re th e Ara uca ria regio n o f S o u th East
“
-

Bra zil a pa rk l a nd ra th er tha n a fo rest a rea es p ecia lly s uite d for

, ,

ca ttle th e ha rd lea ved evergreen fo rests o f th e Gran Cha co fro m

,
-

wh ich qu ebra cho ( us ed fo r ta nn in) is o bta in ed and Central Chile , ,

with its wi nter ra ins a nd Mediterra n ea n typ e o f vegeta tio n .

True tem p era te fo rest o nly begin s in Ch ile so uth o f Co n cepcio n , ,

wh ere th e r a infall inc reas es Th is regio n o f co nifero us t rees

. ,

wh ich sho uld be co m pared with tha t o f th e western m a rgin o f

t he Un ited S ta tes no rth of Ca lifo rn ia a nd with B ritis h Co lu mbia
, , ,

is likely to be o f c o ns id era ble ec o no m ic i mp o rta nce tho u gh little ,

d evelo p e d as yet so u th o f Puerto Mo ntt T o th e s outh o f this .

belt th e wes t c o a s t is cloth e d with a n evergree n b eec h forest ,

s tu nte d by th e p er s is te nt we s terly ga les exc ep t wh ere s h eltere d ,

by th e isla nd fringe .

As in Af ric a gra ss la nds esp ecia lly savann a c o ver a co ns id era ble
, , ,
”
a re a bu t the sa va nna la nds o f th e
, Llano s th e Guia na High la nds , ,

a nd o f B ra zil ha ve n ever su
pp o rte d a d e ns e na tive p o p ula tio n
(as is th e c as e o f th e s a vanna s o f Afric a ) A fa r l a rger p r o portion .

of th e So uth Am erica n sa vannas is u ninh a b ited ; th is is to be

a cc o un te d for pa rtly b t h e o o r s o il — es ecia lly in B ra zil, wh ere
y p p
th ere is much gra nite a nd sa nds to ne— and pa rtly by th e grea t
drough t exp erience d by the s e regio ns dur ing the dry s ea son .

Agricul ture th erefo re wa s o nl y p o ss i ble over a lim ite d a re a and

, , ,

the a bs en ce of big ga m e prevented the d evelo p m ent o f s trong

no ma d ra ces s uch a s the No rth Am erica n In d ia ns o r t h e Mas a i
,

of Africa The s epa ra tio n o f no rth and so uth by the im passable

.

forests o f the Ama z on and th e br o ken cha r a cter o f th e B razilian

Highla n ds wh ich re ndere d c o m m u n ica tio n d ifficult c o ntributed
, ,

to p revent th e gro wth of a cu ltu re zone in t h e up la nds o f B ra zil ,

such a s w a s d evel o p e d in the And es .

Tem perate grassl ands (stepp e ) extend o ve r la rge a rea s in

Urugu a y a nd the Argentine No rth o f the Pla te River th e steppe
.
618 TEX T B OOK-

OF GEO GRAPH Y

2 A . rem a rka ble insta nce o f th e d evelo pm ent o f a regio n by

”
r a ilwa ys is tha t o f th e Pa m p as wh ere a va st netwo rk o f lin es is
,

Fro . 1 10 S O U T H AM E RICA : CO M M U N IC AT IO N S
— .

t h e la t es t edit io n o f B art h o l o m ew s m a p o f S o u th Am eri c a sh owing

’
Of . ,

ra il wa ys a nd na vig a bl e riv ers N o t e especiall y t h e ra il wa y d evelop

.

m en t s fro m t h e W est Co a s t t o t h e And ea n p l a t ea us ; a cross t h e Andes ;

,

fro m t h e c o as t t o t h e in t erio r hig hl a n d s o f B ra z il ; in th e Argentine.

esp ec iall y w est a n d s o u th w est o f B u en o s Aires ( wh ea t m a iz e lu c erne)

-
, ,
.

no w sp rea d t o th e wes t o f B u eno s Aires . It is l a rgely o w ing to

th es e th at th e Argentine is a ble to h o ld it s o w n in th e export
o f cere a ls a n d m e a t .
 S O UTH AMERICA 61 9

Awa y fro m t h e r a ilwa ys c o m m unic a tio n in So uth Am eric a is

.
,

t ll
s i d ep end ent o n t h e na tu ra l co nd itio ns o f t he c o untry a s in
as
t he d a ys o f th e S a nish a nd Po rtugue s e c o n que s ts Po rter s a re
p .

s t i ll th e o nl y
p o ss ible m ea n s o f tra ns po rt in th e Ama z o n fo re s ts ,
a nd m ul e s a n d lla ma s o n th e m o u nta in tra cks o f t h e An d es wh ere
,

no ro a ds exist f o r wh eele d veh icle s .

An in teres tin g c o m p ariso n c an be m ad e between th e exploration o f So u t h

Am eri c a and Af ric a which il l ustra t es the d iff e ren t c ha ra ct er o f the coun tries
, .

In Af ri c a o w ing t o th e ra p id s an d c a ta ra c t s in the lo wer c o u rs es o f ri vers

,

eg
. t he Co n go t he Z a m b ez i— t h e interio r wa s unk
.
, , n o wn u p to a c o m p a ra
t ively l a t e d a t e whil e in S o u th Am eric a n a vi ga bl e ri vers al l o wed p ene tra
,

tio n fo r grea t di s ta n c es in c ert a in dire ctio ns t he M a gda lena Orin o c o , ,

Am a z o n and tribu ta ries a nd Pa ra na Pa ra gu ay In b o th c o ntin ents a w a y

,
-
.

f ro m the ri vers ex plo ra tio n f oll o wed d ry d esert s a nd o p en g rassland s— in

Af ric a th e S a h ara t h e sa va nna la nd s o f t h e east a nd s o u th a nd in S ou t h
, ,

Am eri c a th e W es t ern An d es and th e Arg entine pl a ins— a nd a vo id ed th e

tro p ic a l fo rests Th e se a re far m o re d en se a nd im p enetra bl e in S o u t h
.

Am eric a t h an Af ric a and e ven t o d a y la rge area s o f the Am a zo n B asin a re

,
-

en tirel y un k n o wn .

P op ul atio n and S e ttle m e nt — Th e Spa n ia r d c o n qu ere d So u th

Am erica fro m th e we s t a n d t h e Po rtug u es e fro m th e ea s t .

Co l u m bus rea ch e d th e Orino c o in 1 4 98 Ca bra l wa s drive n o n .

to th e c o as t o f B ra zil by a s to r m in 1 500 Th e Pa cific Ocea n w a s .

firs t d is c o vere d by Va s c o Nu n ez d e B a l bo a in 1 5 13 a nd M a gella n ,

sa ile d th ro u gh th e str a its in 1 5 20 Th e S p a n ish c o n ques t o f .

Per u w a s co nclu d e d in a bo u t 1 5 48 T h ere h a s b een mu ch m ixtu re .

o f r a ce Spa n ish a nd Po rtu gues e with Ind ia n a bo rigin a l ra ces

, ,

a nd n e ro e s ; c o ns eque ntly m es ti z os o f every va riety a re fo u nd

g , .

N egro blo o d is m o s t evid en t in Br a z il wh ere th e Po rtu gu es e ,

i m po rted s la ves fro m Africa In t h e so u th ern s ta tes — th e Argen .

tin e Ch ile So u th B ra z il etc — th ere h a s been little m in gling o f

, , , .

ra c e a nd th e Eu ro p ea n o r Lat in s to ck p redo m ina tes Th e

,
.

Repu blic s o f S o u th Am eric a bec a m e in d ep end e nt in the n inetee nth

century .

QUES T ION S .

1 . D esc ribe t he im p o rt a n c e o f u pla nd s with a wa rm tem pera te clim a te ,

a nd h ig hl a n d s w ith a c oo l tem p era te cl im a te in t he settlem en t o f Sou th

,

Am eri ca .

2ra w o n a n o ro grap h i ca l m a p th e m a in ra il way s whic h cl im b u p steep

. D
esca rpm en ts fro m the sea o n t o pla t eau s Des c ribe the ir ec o no mic im .

p o rt a nc e .

3 Ind ic a t e o n a n o ro gra p h ica l ma p t he na viga bl e p o rtio ns o f ri vers

.
.

C o m pa re t h e pa rt s p la y ed in the d evel o pm ent o f So u th Am eri c a by wa t er

620 TEX T—B OOK OF GEO GRAPHY

a nd land transpo rt D ra w a pa rall el between mo d ern ra ilway c onstruc tion

.

in the Argentine a nd tha t in th e wh ea t bel t o f th e Uni t ed S tates and Ca nada .

4. T he regions of l ea st a nd grea test rainfall in Sou th Am eric a have

”
the sm all est po pula tio n Co m m ent o n t his sta t em ent
. .

5 Describe th e p o si tion o f B u eno s Aires Rio , and Bo go ta

. Why did ,
.

t h ey beco m e impo rtant 7

6 Desc rib e t he And es . illus tra ting c l im a te an d c ul tiva tio n fro m examples
.

given in the tex t .

7 Divide B ra zil into c l im a tic reg io ns des c ri bing in eac h ca se the co n

. ,

nectio n between relief , clim a t e settl em en t a nd p ro d u c ts , ,

.

8 Draw on an o ro g rap hi ca l m a p the wa t ers h ed s o f the Am az o n and the

.

Pac ific co a st d ra ina ge Nam e t he m a in ri vers a n d m a rkthe app ro ximate

.
,

bound a ries of B ol ivia Chil e a nd the Arg en tin e 7 Ho w f a r a re th e bou ndari es

, ,

fo rmed by m a rk ed na tura l f ea tures 1?

9 Acc ount for the fa ct th a t o nly o n e o f t he ten in d ep end ent
. repu bl ic s

o f S ou th Am erica has its c a pit al o n th e c o a s t .

1 0 D escribe the c o urses o f t he Am az o n Pa ran a a n d Orino c o

.
, , .

COLOMB IA .

Area = 500 000 , q re

s ua miles . Po pul a tio n = 4 3 mill io ns ( 90 per cent
'

. are

mes tizo s ) .

The ph ys ic a l conditio ns o f Co lo m bia sh a rply d iff erentia te the

regio ns wh ich are eith er u ninha bited o r po ss ess a scanty popula
tio n fro m th e rest Th e fo r m er c o ns ist of ( 1 ) th e western
.

c oast rang e and th e Pacifi c se ab o ard As th is a rea is e xpos ed .

to excess ive ra in fa ll f ro m t he west, it is l a rgely covered with

tro p ica l fo res t and j un gle ( 2) Th e ble a k, wi nd swep t upl ands
.
-

( us ua lly ter med para mos ) , exten ding a bo ve th e te mp era te zo ne to

the s no w line -
Th es e a re a pp ro xim a tely rep res ente d in Fig 1 1 1
. .

by the eleva tio n o f f eet (3 ) The eastern forest clad .

-

sl opes o f th e Eas te rn Co r di llera a n d o f th e Am a zo n B as in and

t he g rassl ands (t he Lla no s o f t h e no rth e as t The tro pica l -
.

fo res t a rea is a lmost entirely u nd evelo p ed, and o nly part o f the
Lla no s nea r th e An d es is us e d fo r c a ttle gra zin g .

Th e m o st dens ely p eo p led regio n s a re ( l ) Th e river valleys of

the Cauc a and Ma gda lena ( tierra cati oni c ) The lower portion of
. .

—
thes e is h ot at tim es exceeding 90 F — and unh ea lth y Vega
°
. .

t ab le iv ory a nd dye wo o ds are obta ined fro m the tropic al forests .

As in Centra l Am eric a , tr o p ic a l pr o d ucts are grown in z ones

a cc o rd i ng t o eleva ti o n— su g a r a nd r u bb er in t he l o wl ands , c ac ao
o n th e lower , a nd coff ee o n t he high er s l o p es ( 2) The warm .

temp e rature and temp erate up l ands and f ertil e interment valleys,
622 TEX T B OO K -
OF GE O GRAPHY

Rivers . On the c o a s t Ba rra n qu illa a t th e m o uth o f th e Ma gda ,

lena, has repla ced th e Sp an ish po rt o f Cartag ena, wh ich lo ng

e nj o ye d the mo no po ly o f trad e .

Ca rtag ena wa s bu ilt o n a gro up o f isla n d s whi ch form th e o nl y go od

na tural h arb o ur o n t h e c o a s t Co nn ectio n with the na vig a bl e M agdal ena
.

wa s m a inta ined by a c a n a l Owing t o t h e ex p o s ure o f t h e l o wla nds of the

.

no rth co a st t o the dry N o rt h Ea s t T ra d es in wint er ( J a nua ry ) th ere is little

-
,

rain a t this s easo n T o pro vid e aga ins t this t he Spa nia rds were obliged
.

t o b uil d va st res ervoirs o f whi ch t h e ruins s till rema in

, .

Area = 3 94 , 000 s qua re m il es t

Po pul a tion = 2 7 m illio ns (mos ly m estiz os)
'
. .

As in Colo mbia th e p o pu l a tio n o f Ven ezuela is m o stly co n

,

c entrated in the u pla n ds, e sp ecia lly in th e fe rt ile inter mo nt

v alleys, s uch a s tha t in wh ich lie s M erida feet ) in the Sierra
de M erida , no rth o f La ke M a ra c a i bo , a nd tho s e in wh ich are
s itua te d Va lencia a nd Ca r a c as Th e Ara gua Va lley, wh ich
flo ws th ro ugh Lake Va lencia t o th e Ca ribbean Sea, is no t co n
tinned as an a ctua l va lley to Ca ra c a s th o ugh th ere is a relative ,

depre ssio n runnin g e a st a nd Wes t b etwee n th e c o a st ra nge a nd

th e co ntinu atio n o f th e Ea s tern Co r dil ler a o f th e Andes This .

warm temp era te upla nd ha s a cli m a te a dm ira bly suite d fo r the

growth o f co ff ee a nd ca ca o Th e s teep es ca rpm ent o f the coast .

range makes c o mm unic a tio n d ifficul t with the sea A mo untain .

ra ilwa y j o in s Puerto Ca ba llo a nd Va lenc ia a nd La Gu ai ra [ 57]

a nd Ca ra ca s ( 23 m ile s in 2 m ile s o f d irect d i sta nce ) .

A gre a t co ntrast to the g a rd en cu ltiva tio n o f the up la nds is

”
f
a f or d d y
e b t h e L l an os exp a ns es o f gra ss la nd, pa rch ed by the
,

trades durin g five dry h o t m o nths ( win ter ) , and floo ded by
tro pica l ra ins in su mm er Th ere a re few trees except by the .

ba n ks o f rivers Ciu da d Bo liva r , o n th e Orino c o , is the centre

.

of th e ca ttle gra zin g a rea s

-
.

The south ern upla nds, wh ich fo rm p a rt o f the Guia na Highl ands,
a re co ve re d with tro p ica l fo res t o n th e l o wer s lo p es, a nd in the
river va lle ys , a nd with s a va nna o n th e h igh e r eleva tio ns Thes e .

pro duce rubber , van illa , a nd o th er fo re st p ro duc ts, but are .

la rgely undevelo p ed The Orin o c o flo o ds im m ens e a rea s o f the

.

lowl ands, th rough wh ich it flo ws in the wet s easo n, and has built
u p a la rge delta It sh o u l d b e n o te d th a t th ere is no l arge town
.

o r po rt o n its l o wer c o u r s e , a nd th a t th e d elt a is a l m o st unculti

va ted, :o wing to flo o ds .
 S O U TH AM ERICA 6 23

B ritish Guia na (a rea = 90 000 s qua re m iles ; p o pula tio n 0 3

,

millio n) ( ca p ita l Ge orgeto wn, an d Dutch a nd Fren ch

Guia na ( c a p ita ls Pa ra m a ribo a n d Ca yenn e ) ha ve a rela tively
, ,

wid e a rea of lowland pl a in Th is all uvia l lowland wh ich is .

,

a l m o s t a t sea level ha s like th e d elta s of Indo China b ee n re

-

, ,
-

cla im ed fro m th e sea a nd th e sa lt mang ro ve s wa mps wh ich

,

co vered it by e m bankm ents a nd d ra in in g The D u tch who

, .
,

o rigin a lly s ettle d in B ritis h Gu ia na m a d e u se of th eir ex erien ce

p ,

in Ho lla nd to co nstruct polders (of p 218 ) a nd lay o u t p l a n ta . .

tio ns Th es e a re al mo st exclu s ively d evoted to sugar th e la bo u r

.
,

ich in B ritis h Guia na is o bt a in e d fro m Ind ia a n d Af ric a .

In t h e in te rior tro p ica l fo res ts p ro duce va lua ble tim b er bu t ,

hin d er c o mm un ic atio ns T h e u p la nds a re rich in go l d wh ich

.
,

fo rms a n im po rtant expo rt tho u gh th e m ines are difficult o f a ccess

, .

Area = 1 1 6 000 , q re
s ua mil es . Po p ul a tio n = 1 6 millions ( 75 per c ent . a re

a bo rigin es) .

Ec u a do r so c a lle d fro m th e Equ a to r wh ich pass es th ro u gh its

, ,

no rth er n p rovince s fo rm ed p a rt o f the e mp ire o f th e In c as

, .

In sp ite o f t he proxi m ity o f t h e n a viga ble Na po to th e And e s ,

co mm un ica tio n with t he Ama z o n is pra ctic a lly c u t o ff by

rap ids a nd d ens e tro p ica l fo res ts a nd th is po rtio n of Ecu ado r , ,

tho u gh rich in rubber cin ch o na a nd o th er fo res t p ro du cts is

, , ,

litt le d evelo p ed .

W h en Piza rro m ad e hi s fa mo u s exp ed itio n f rom th e no rth o f Q uito to th e

La nd o f Cinnam on ” he reac h ed t he Co ca River
, tribu ta ry of t he , a

Am a z o n a nd b uil t a b oat bel o w th e falls to ena bl e Orella na h is Lieu t ena nt

, ,

to o b ta in suppl ies but Orella na w a s c a rried do wn by th e c u rren t a n d ,

even tu ally rea ch ed the Am a z o n m a k in g th e firs t c ro ssing of the c o ntinent

, .

Owin g to river go rges a nd th e tro p ic a l fo rests wh ich c o ver

th e wes te rn po rt io n o f Ecua do r to t h e north o f the des ert wh ere ,

the rela tively c o ld current is d eflecte d to th e wes t a wa y fro m the

co ast (s ee Qui to [ 25] is o n ly a ccess ible fro m Gua ya qu il o n ,

th e Gul f o f Gua ya quil A ra ilwa y no w fo llows th e lin e o f fertile

.

intermo n t basins ( of an a vera ge eleva tio n o f feet ) wh ich

a re en clo s e d between t wo lin e s o f vo lca n ic p e a k
,

s Fig 1 1 1 . .

sho ws tha t th es e dra in p a rtly t o th e Ama zo n and p a rtly to th e

Pa c ifi c .
624 T EX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Th is temp erate up l and with f ew trees o win g to t h e p er m ea ble

, ,

cha ra cter o f th e pu m ice a nd a vo lca nic so il is fa vo u ra ble to th e

, ,

gro wth o f wh ea t th ough su ffi cient is no t gro wn to su pply lo ca l

,

n ee ds a nd o th er te mp er a te p ro ducts s uc h as ba rley a n d lucern e

, ,
.

Tho ugh th e m e a n m onth ly te m p era ture is o nly m o d era te it mus t ,

be re m e m bere d th a t th is rep res ents the m e an o f da y a nd night

te mp er atures In th e ea rly m o rnin g thro ugho ut the yea r the
.

°
m e an tem pera tu re is a bout 4 7 F a nd in the a fterno o n 6 6 F
°
.
.
,

th ere is th erefo re su flicient wa rm th t o rip en ma ize Ca ttle and .

sh ee p are kep t a s o n th e te mp era te u pl a nds of P er u a nd Bolivia

,
.

In the lowlands ro u nd the Gul f o f Gua ya quil a nd th e Valley

, ,

o f th e Gu a ya s c a c a o or anges a nd suga r are cul tiva te d tho ugh

, , , ,

irriga tio n is necessa ry in the so u th as the des ert regio n begins ,

a t a bo ut 1 so u th
°
.

The Gal ap ag o s Isl ands o n th e Equa tor a nd 90 wes t lo ngitu de

°
, ,

a re a bo ut 750 m iles fro m th e c o a st o f Ecu a do r t o wh ich th ey ~

,

po litica lly be lo n g Th ey a re wa sh e d by a bra n ch o f the c oo l

.

current wh ich flo ws a lo ng th e wes ter n co ast o f th e ma inland

a nd ha ve a c o m ari tively lo w te mp era ture
°
( m e an a vera ge 73 p
fo r th eir la titu d e Th e lo wla nds are b arren a s th e la nd c annot
.
,

co o l th e winds sufficiently t o p ro duce m uch r a i n wh ile the ,

u plands a re co o ler and well wa tered Th ere is no t suffi cient .

wa rmth fo r t h e gro wth o f pa lms els ewh ere u niversa l o n th e ,

Equa to r Th e d is tinctive fa u na a re the gre a t tortois es a nd the

.

turtles o f the co a st .

PERU .

Area = 6 9 6 000 , s quare mil es . Po pu la tio n = 4 5 millio ns '

( 5 7 per cent . are

Ind ian s) .

Peru c o ns ists of three zo nes qu ite distinct in c ha ra cter

l Th e Co astl ands of th e W es tern S l op e h o t a nd dry but
.
, ,

watered by nu m ero us rivers fro m th e And es The cultivatio n .

o f suga r co tto n a nd rice is c a rrie d o n by irriga tio n

, , Th e co a st .

is sligh tly wa tere d by th e gam a s o r m is ts wh ich co ve r the , ,

c o as t lo wla nds in winter a t n igh t a nd early mo rn in g Th ese are, .

du e to th e c o o lin g o f m o istu re brough t by th e s ea breezes but ,

th ey do no t extend very fa r in la nd a nd th ere is p ra ctically no ,

ra in o n th e w es tern s lo p es o f th e Ande s bel o w a n eleva tio n o f

a bout f eet in th e no rth a n d feet in th e s o uth where ,

th e influen ce o f s ligh t su mm er ra in s begin s t o b e f elt Many o f .

th e rivers dry u p in th e s u mm er th e P iura in th e north

o n wh ich lik
,

e the N ile in Egyp t, the distric t entirely d ep ends

, ,
626 TEX T BOOK OF GEO GRAPHY
-

fo r t h e gro wth o f c o tto n Th e rela tive c o o ln ess o f th es e c o a s t

.

la nds is sh o wn by th e fa ct th a t th e p la nta tio ns a re la rgely wo rked

by Ja pa n es e la bo u r , th e tem p era tu re b ein g t o o lo w fo r n egr o es .

Th ere a re no go o d ha rbo urs o n th e c o a s t Ca lla o [ 3 5] a n d .

Mo llen do [ 3 7] a re th e p o rts o f th e t w o c h ief ra ilwa ys wh ich cro ss

th e An d es Th e m a in to wn is Li m a
.
o n t h e Ri m a c , fro m

wh ich it ta kes its na m e Owing to th e dry cli m a te it is bu ilt

.

o f s u n drie d brick
-
.

2 Th e Ande an M ountain Reg ions ( s ee Fig

.
—
Th e m o s t .

i mp o rta nt to wns a re Are quipa [ 27] feet ) , to th e wes t o f

th e An d es , s itu a te d b en ea th M o un t M is ti in a regio n s u bj ect
t o e a rth qu a kes, a n d Cu zc o [ 8 ] f eet ) , in a f ertile in ter
An d e a n va lley Th e cyclo p e a n ruin s o f th e o ld In c a c a p ita l ,
.

wh ich riva l th os e o f Egyp t , h a ve been us e d as th e fo u n da tio ns

o f a m o d ern to wn On th es e u p la n d p l a tea u s th e gr a in s o f
.

tem p era te clim a tes c a n be gro wn , bu t th e o nly expo rts o f im

po rta nce are h id es a n d wo o l , esp ecia lly fr o m th e a l pa c a a n d
lla ma Ma ize, no w little gro wn, w as a pp a rently th e s taple o f
.

In c a civiliz a tio n Rich o res exis t, no ta bly s ilver a n d c o pp er

.

r o u nd Cerr o d e Pa s c o (o ver f eet ) , wh ic h is no w re a ch e d by

th e fa m o u s m o u nta in r a il wa y f r o m Ca ll a o , wh ich a t o n e p l a ce
is o n ly a little b elo w feet .

3 Th e M oist Eastern S lop es o f th e Ea s ter n Co r dillera ( th e

.

Mo ntana a n d th e Am a z o n l o wl a n ds In th is zo n e lies Iqu ito s

.

th e o cea n p o rt o f Peru , o n th e e a s t Th is wet tro p ic a l fo rest

.

zo n e pro du ces cin ch o na a nd ca c a o in th e u p lands , wh ils t r u bber

is co llected a l o n g t h e ba n ks o f th e Am a z o n tribu ta ries .

BOLIVIA .

Area = 605 , 000 s ua q re m il es . Po p ul atio n = 2 2 m il lio ns

'

( Ind ia ns ,
50 per
e t
c n . m estiz o s 27 p er
,

B o livia , wh ich is entirely in la nd m a y be divid ed into two ,

m a in clim a tic regio ns — th e w a r m a n d c o o l tem p era te u pla nds ,

a n d t h e tro ica l e a ster n va lleys a n d Am a z o n l o wl a nds

p .

Th e Up l ands It wil l be s een fro m Fig 1 13 tha t excep t o n

.
—
.

th e e as tern s id e B o livia c o n s is ts o f a p la tea u a bo ve feet ,

with a sha llo w d epress io n in th e centre a bo ve feet Much .

o f th is e s eci a lly in th e e ncl o s e d ba s in s, is to o dr

p , y f o r c u ltiva tio n
with o u t irriga tio n , a nd t o o c o o l to m a ke th is p ro fita ble in any
but a lim ite d m a nn er Th e m o re h a r d y te m p era te cerea l s a nd
.

vegeta bles a re gro wn in th e n eighbo u rh o o d o f th e p rin cipa l to wns

628 TEX T B OO K J
OF GE O GRAPHY

fo r lo ca l u se bu t except fo r th e wo o l in dus try wh ich c o u l d be

, ,

l a rgely extend ed exp o rts a re c o nfin ed t o m in era ls Silver is s till

,
.

o bt a in e d f r o m nu m ero u s m in e s esp ecia lly a t Po t o s i (o ver ,

1 3 000 feet ) o n ce th e gre a tes t s ilver m in e in t h e wo rl d a n d go l d

, , ,

th e m a in o bj ect o f th e Spa n i sh c o n ques t th o u gh n o w little ,

m in e d is s till plentiful
, Coa l c o pp er a n d t in c o u l d be la rgely
.
, ,

p r o du ce d if th ere were ch ea p tra n sp o rt La Pa z th e c a p ita l .

f eet ) is c o nn ecte d with th e c o a s t by t wo ra ilwa y lin es

,

fro m Anto fa g a s ta [ 42] a nd M o llendo A th ird lin e is b eing

c o ns tru cted fro m Arica Its i m p o rta n ce will be fu rth er
in creas e d in th e fu tu re wh en th e ra ilwa ys a re c o nstr u cted fro m
La Pa z t o th e B en i River a n d fr o m th e M a d eira t o th e M a m o re
, ,

o p enin g u p c o mm un ic a tio n with th e tro p ic a l l o wl a n ds Th e .

u
pp er river is like m o s t o f tho s e wh ich fl o w f ro m th e e a s ter n
,

And es unna viga ble o win g to go rges a n d ra p ids

, ,
.

A tra ns itio n regio n t o th e tro p ic a l p o rtio n o f B o livia is th at o f

th e h igh va lleys wh ich lie o n th e ea s t o f B o livia in t h e Upp er
,

B a s in s o f th e M a m o re a nd Pilc o m a yo Co ch a b a m ba [ 28] .

feet ) o ne o f th e m o s t i m po rta nt in dus tria l centres in

,

B o livia lie s in a regio n a dm ira bly su ite d fo r t h e gr o wth o f c o rn

,

a nd m a iz e Th e cli m a te is very dry exce pt in su m m er bu t th e

.
, ,

s no w wh ich fa ll s a t a ll s e a s o ns o n th e h igh er m o u n t a in s
p r o vid es
a bu nd a nt w a ter fo r irriga tio n In th e l ower tropical val ley s a re .

pla nta tio ns o f c a ca o su ga r a n d c o ff ee Th e lo wla n ds o f B o livia

, , .

i nclu d e th e sa va nna regio ns o n th e c o nfin es o f B ra z il s u ited fo r ,

c a ttle gra zi ng a nd th e Ama z o n fo res ts explo ite d fo r r u bber

-

, ,
.

Exce p t in th e imm e dia te vicin ity o f ru bb er c o n ce ss io ns th e ,

co u n try is u ndevelo p ed o win g t o th e d ens e fo res ts and th e

h o s tility o f Ind ia n tri bes .

BRAZ IL .

Area = 3 2 m ill io n °

qu are mil es Po pula tio n = 21 m illio n s T here are

s . .

nu m ero u s It alian , Po rtu g uese a nd Spa nish i m m igra nt s

, Rio exc eed s .

1 m ill io n .

B ra zil c o ver s a n a rea nea rly equa l t o th a t o f Eu ro p e and fo rms ,

th e la rger ha l f o f So u th Am eric a its fr o ntier s t o u ch th o s e o f a ll the

o th er S ta te s exce t Ch ile Th ree m a rke d d ivis io ns c a n be m a de
p .

( l ) Th e Am az on Lowlands Pa ra o n th e To c a ntin s Estua ry to

’

. .
,

th e ea s t o f th e Am a z o n m o u th is th e p o rt a n d ch ie f centre o f the ,

ru bber s ta tio ns o n th e ba nks o f th e Am a z o n a nd its tributa ries .

( 2) Th e Co astl ands and ( 3 ) the Up lands Th e no rth c o as t has poo r

ha rb o urs o bstructed by s a n d ba nk
, .

, s T h e fir s t go o d h a rbo ur -
.
63 0 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

Area = l 1 m illio n '

s quare mil es Po pula tion = 7 millio ns
. B u eno s Aires .

exc eed s 1 m il lio n . T h ere ha s been a l a rg e Ital ian a nd Spa n ish im migra
tion .

Like Ch il e, th e Arge ntin e exten ds fro m no rth o f th e so uth ern

tro pic to th e s o u th o f Ti erra del F u ego , but th e co nfig ura tio n is
no tice a bly d i ff erent Ins tea d o f a na rrow c o a s tla n d th ere a re
.

ext ens ive l o wla nds a nd mo d era tely eleva te d p la ins m th e Pla te
B as in , th e Pa mpa s, a nd Pa ta go n ia Excep t a lo n g th e S outh ern
“ ’’
.

And es, wh ere a re found th e fo res ts o f te mp er ate wet clima tes

( beech a nd p in e ) , and the tro p ic a l h a r d woo d fo res ts o f th e Gra n
Cha c o ( qu e bra ch o , us ed fo r ta nni n ) , a nd th e ceda rs o f M is s iones .

th e c o u ntry is la rgely treeless , a nd gra ss land, s cr u b a n d des ert ,

a lterna te a cc o r d in g t o d rier o r wette r co nd itio ns .

T h ree regio ns ma y be d is tin guis h ed : ( a ) Th e Pl ate B asin

in cludin g th e Pa mpas in th e so u th ea st Th e typ ica l p ro ducts .

a re wh e a t m a 1 ze lins ee d, c a ttl e a nd sh eep fo r wo o l a n d m utto n)

, ,
( , .

In th e smith west of Bueno s Aire s i n cre a sing wh ea t cul tiva tio n

h as, as in Ca na da , followe d th e m o d ern develo pm ent o f ra ilwa ys .

Ba h ia Bla n c a [ 2o] 1s th e so uth ern po rt On th e Pa ra na, Bue nos .

Aire s Ro s a rio , a nd Sa nte Fé a re the centres o f th e expo rt

of wh ea t a n d ca ttle a nd wo o l Co r do ba a t th e ba s e of the .

S ierra Co r do ba , is an im po rta n t centre o f th e s tock ra is ing and -

p as tor a l regio n wes t o f th e Pa ra na .

Buenos Aires is 30 m il es f ro m th e ra gua y Pa rana Del ta end of th e Pa -

.

It h as a p o p u l a t io n o f o ver a n d c o vers a la rg e a re a o w ing to the ,

preval enc e o f o ne sto ry hou ses T he f u nnel shaped La Pla ta Estua ry is

- -
.

very shal lo w a nd no t sec u red b y tid es A stro ng sea breez e h eaps up the
, .

wa t er fro m th e o c ean a ga in st t h e d es c end ing wa t er a nd m u c h sediment ,

is d epo sit ed T h e wa ter is p ra cti c al ly f resh and o f a d eep y el lo w c olour

. .

Fo rmerly s hip s w ere o blig ed to a n ch o r 3 miles o ut b u t th e im m ense possi ,

bil ities of tra d e h a ve j us tified the exp end itu re of o ver to m a kea
h uge a rt ifi cia l ha rbou r The La Pla ta Estu a ry is 23 m il es wi d e a t B uenos
.

Aires O wing to the g reat wid th o f th e Parana and it s flo o d s in th e rainy

.
,

sea so n no brid g es h a ve been buil t a c ro s s it a nd the ra il w a y s a re interrupted

, ,

by train f erries .

( b) Th e Eastern Ande s and th e dry Western Pl ains a t th eir

bas e , wh ere a griculture is d ep e nd ent o n irriga tio n The g re at .

s u m m er h ea t a llo ws th e cu ltiva tio n o f s ug a r , th e vine , and

toba cco M en do za
. Tu cu ma n, a nd Sa lta a re th e ch ief
63 2 T EX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

t o wns In . th e ba rren An d e a n fo o th ills m in in g is th e on ly

indus try .

In th e South Arg e nti ne th e Pa ta go nia n Pla te a u 1s la rgely

(0 )
a sh ingle a n d s a n d d e s ert, a ppa re ntly d er i ve d fro m t h e o ld

gla cier s o f th e Andes O nl y th e wes tern po rtio n, o n o r n ea r the

.

wa tersh e d, is c apa ble o f m u ch d evelo pm ent H ere s to ck rea r ing .

-

a nd sh ee
p fa r m in g a re c a rrie d o n , esp ecia lly r o u n d La ke Nah uel
-

Hu a p i in th e no rth ( Fig .

It wi ll be n o ti ced th a t t he An d ea n La kes which fo rm so m ark ed a fea ture

,

o f th e so u th o f S o u th Am ari c a a re p a rtly in Chil e and p a rtly in th e Arg en

,

tin e . The bound a ry , whi c h wa s referred to B ri tish a rbitra tio n c o uld no t ,

be ex a ctly dra wn al o ng the wa tersh ed o wing to t h e pec uliar c o nfigu ra tio n

,

( see p .

In c o ns equ ence o f th e d i ffi c u lty o f a ccess fro m th e wes t c o ast ,

ca u s e d by th e d ens e fo res ts a nd na rro w inlets m o s t o f th e sh eep ,

ru ns ha ve to be rea ch e d by l o ng j o ur neys o n th e wes ter n p la ins .

Th e c o n ditio ns a re s i m ila r t o th os e wh ic h exis te d in th e p r a iries

o f No rth Am eric a a nd th e Argen ti n e Pa m p as b efo re t h e d a ys o f
r a ilwa ys wh en wa ggo ns were the o nly m ea ns o f tra ns po rt An
, .

excep tio na lly fine wo o l 1s p ro duced 1n th es e grass la n ds o f wh ich ,

th e clim a te clo s ely res e m bles tha t o f th e W elsh h ills .

Area = 29 2 000 s qu a re m iles Po p ul a tio n = 3 3 m illio n s S an tiago

‘
. .
,

0 3 mill io n Th e po pul a tio n is m ainly o f Eu ro p ea n o rig in

. .

Ch ile extends f ro m 1 8 to 5 4 so u th l a titu d e (a bo u t 3 000 m iles ) ,

° °
,

wh ich c o rrespo nds in th e No rth ern H em isph ere to th e dis tance

between th e s o u th o f M exic o a n d th e centre o f B ritish Co lu m bia .

It s cli m a te 1s e nt irely c o ntro lle d by th e c o nd itio n s wh ich o bta in

in th e Pa cific Th ree m a rke d d ivis io ns m a y be d is t ing u ish e d
fr o m no rth t o so u th : ( or) th e dry z one, wh ich exten ds to a little
0
s o u th o f Co qu im bo [ 3 1 ] ( 3 0 so u th l a titu d e ) The n o rth ern po r .

tio n o f th is w a s a c quired by c o n quest fro m Peru a nd Bo livia .

In th is a l m o st r a in les s regio n va s t qu a ntities o f nitra te o f s o da

h a ve b een p res erve d a n d c o ns titu te t h e m a in wea lth o f th e
,

c o u ntry S o m e o f th e m ines a re a t grea t eleva tio ns ( 1 3 , 000 f eet ) ,

.

a n d c a n o n ly be re a ch e d f ro m t h e c o a s t b
y d i fficult go rges .

Co pp er a nd o th er m in era ls a bo u nd, bu t t h e n itra te expo rt is fa r

th e m o s t i m p o rta n t, o win g t o th e gre a t va l u e o f th e m a teria l fo r
m a nures Iqu iqu e [ 3 9] a n d Ant o fa g a s ta [ 42] a re th e m a in
.
63 4 TEX T B OOK -
OF GEO GRAPHY

( c) In th e so uth a bo ut th e l a titu d e o f Va ld ivia

, be gins
the f orest reg ion wh ich exten ds o ver th e who le wes t c o a s t
, ,
.

excep t o n th e o u ter is la nds wh ere th e trees are stunted by th e

,

preva lent westerly ga les As o n th e we st co a s t o f N o rwa y f j o rds

.
,

ru n into th e in te rio r a nd th e i s la nd gro u ps are s e pa ra te d fro m

,

th e c o as t by na rrow cha nn els th r o ugh wh ic h a s h eltere d assa ge

,
p
c a n be foun d .S ea l fis h eries a re i mp o rta nt bu t little u s e is m a d e
,

o f th e f o res ts In th e so uth Pu nt a Aren as

. o n th e S tra its

o f Ma gell a n is th e cen tre o f a sh ee

p fa r m ing reg i o n
-
.
,
 IND E X

AAC H E N , 2 1 3 Ag ra , 3 6 8 Al p in e veg etati o n 7 6 ,

Aa r R 25 7 .
, Ag ra m 27 1 , Al p s, Centra l , 2 6 3
Aa rh u u s , 20 5 Ag ua , 5 8 7 Alp s, E a stern 2 64 ,

Ab a n a R 3 4 6 .
, A ha g g ar Pl a teau , 4 0 7 Al p s, W es tern , 26 0
Ab erc o rn 4 5 8 , A h ma d a b a d , 3 7 1 Al sa ce , 2 1 2
A b erd a re M t s , 43 3 . A in S ef ra , 4 4 4 Alta i K o b d o Pla te a u ,
'

A b erd ee n 1 1 1 , Air P l a tea u 4 0 6 , 336

Ab ery s t w it h , 1 2 9 Aire G a p , 1 1 9 Al tel s g l a cier, 2
A b in g d o n 1 4 0 , Aire R , 1 1 5 . Al tm uh l R , 2 1 3.

Ab i ti b i R 5 4 2
Ab u M o u n t 3 6 9
A by s s inia , 4 4 7
A b y s si ni a n P l a tea u , 4 0 7
.
, Aj a c ci o , 25 3 Al to na , 2 1 1
, Aj m er 3 6 9
, Al uta G o rg e, 2 7 3
Ak a ro a H ar b o ur, 5 0 8 Ama d eu s , L a k e, 4 8 0
Al a b a m a R , 5 6 8 . Am az o n R , 5 9 6 .

Ac a d ia 5 4 5 , Ala is , 2 3 9 Am b a l a , 3 6 2
Ac a p u l c o 5 8 0 , Al a sk a , 5 60 Amm er S ee , 21 5
A cc ra 4 6 1
, Al ba n ia , 2 8 3 Am o l , 3 5 1
A c hi l l I s l a n d , 1 5 9 Al b a ni a n Al p s 27 7 , Amo y , 3 9 2
A c o n c ag u a , 5 9 8 Al b a ny , 5 0 1 Amp ez z o P a s s , 26 5
Ad a m a wa P l a tea u , 4 0 2 Al b a ny , N e w Y o rk , 56 3 Amri t sa r, 3 6 6
Ad a m s B ri dg e 3 7 5 Al b a ny R 5 4 2 Am ste rd a m , 223
’
,

Am sterd a m , N ew Y o rk
.
,

Ad a m s L a k e 557 , Al b ert, L a k e, 4 5 4 ,

Ad a m s P ea k Al b erta , 5 5 4
’
, 3 75 564
Ad a n a 3 4 5 , Al b ul a P a ss , 26 4 Amu D aria , 3 4 0
Ad dis A b b e b a , 4 5 0 Al bury , 4 0 7 Am ur R 3 3 6
Ad en 3 4 8
, Al d e R 1 3 6 Am uria , 3 3 7
Ad ig e R , 2 5 5 . Al emt ej o , 24 9 An d a lu si a , 246
Ad iro n d a ck s 5 49 , A l ep p o , 3 4 5 And erm a tt , 2 6 3
Ad o u r R , 2 3 7 . Al es s a n d ria , 2 5 5 And es, C en tra l , 5 9 8
Ad ria n o p l e, 2 8 4 A l eu t ia n Is l a n d s , 5 6 0 An d es, C o l o m b ia n , 6 00
Ad ur R , 1 4 5 . Al exa n dr ett a , 3 4 6 An d es, P eru via n , 5 9 9
E t a . 28 5 Al ex a n dria , 4 4 7 An d es , S o u t h ern , 5 9 8
A otn a , 25 3 AlfOl d , 2 7 8 And ij a n , 3 4 1
E o li a n P l a i ns , 1 6 6 A lg a rve, 2 4 9 rr
An d o a , 24 4
Af ri c a , B ri t is h C e ntra l , Al g eria , 4 4 4 Ang a ra R , 3 3 6
.

45 7 r
Alg e ia n S h o t t P l a tea u , Ang lesey , 1 3 0
Af ri c a , B ri tis h E a s t, 4 5 4 444 Ang o l a , 4 6 4
Af ric a , B ri tis h S o u th , r
Alg ie s , 4 4 4 Ang ou l é m e , 2 3 5
46 5 Al g oa B a y , 4 7 2 Ang ui l l a , 5 9 1
Af ri ca , Fre n c h W es t , 4 6 0 Al i c a n te , 2 4 7 Ank o ber, 4 5 0
Af ri c a , G erm a n Eas t, Al l a h a ba d , 3 6 8 Anna m, 3 8 7
4 56 A l l eg h eny P l a tea u , 5 6 8 Anna n R , 1 0 8
.

Af ri c a , G erm a n S ou t h Al l en . L o ug h , 1 5 8 An na nd a l e , 1 1 8
W es t , 4 6 5 Al l ier R , 2 3 5 . Anna p o lis , 5 4 5
Af ri c a , P o rtug ues e Ea s t, A l l uvi a l f a n s , 1 4 Ant a n a rivo , 4 6 0
45 7 Al meria , 2 4 7 A nteced en t ri vers , 1 0
r
Af i c a , P o tu g ues e W est , r Al n R , 1 0 7
. A nti c uc lones , 5 5
4 64 Alp in e Fo rel a n d , 2 1 5 Antig ua , 5 9 1
63 5
63 6 TEXT B OO K
-
OF GE O GR APHY

An t i L eb a n o n 3 4 6
-

, Art a , Gu l f o f 28 5 , Ay l es bu ry , 1 4 0
Ant il l es G rea t er, 5 8 8
, Art a R , 2 7 7 . Ay l es b ury , V a l e o f 1 3 9 ,

Ant i l l es L ess er, 59 0

, Arun R , 1 4 4 . Ay r R , 1 0 8 .

Ant io c h 3 4 6 , r
A und el 1 4 5 , r
Az o es, 4 4 5
Ant ip o d es Is l a n d 5 0 6 , r
A uw i m i R 4 6 4 Az o v, S ea o f 2 9 1 ,

An t i T a u ru s 3 4 4
-
A rve R 2 3 1
B a a l b ek
,

A n ti —T ra d es , 6 1 i sm 20 1
»
, 3 46

B a d ak
,

A nt o f ag a s t a , 5 9 9 b
A s en P l a ea u , 4 0 6 t sh a n , 3 6 2

An twerp , 22 7 c
As ens io n, 4 7 3 B a d L an d s , 5 7 4
Anura d h a p u ra , 3 7 6 As h a n i, 4 6 1 t B ag h d a d , 3 5 1
A o m o ri , 3 9 7 b t
As h ur o n , 4 8 1 B a ha m a s , 5 8 8
Ao ra n g i, 5 0 6 b
Ash y d e l a o u h , 1 2 3
- - -
Z c B a h ia , 6 29
Ao s t a , 2 6 2 w
As h d o n F o e s , 1 4 4 r t B a hia B l anc a , 5 9 7
Ap ia , 5 1 6 r
Ashf o d , 1 4 3 B a h r El G h a z a l , 4 0 1 ,
Ap p a l a c h ia n B a rrie , 5 6 3 r Ash ura d a , 3 5 3 44 8
Ap p a l a c h ia n B el t . N ew kb
As a a d , 3 4 1 , 3 5 1 r
B a h c l J eb el , 4 4 6
er, 567 A sp rop o t a m o R , 2 8 5 B a h rein I s l a n d s , 3 4 9
a l , L ak
.

c
Ap p a l a h ia n H ig h l a n d s , Assa m , 3 6 7 B a ik e, 3 3 7
5 49 As sa y s , 3 7 1 B ak h t ia ri R a ng e, 3 5 1
c
Ap p a l a hi a n s , O l d e , 5 6 6 r t
A s siu , 4 4 7 B ek en y F o re s t , 2 7 4
A p p a l a h i a n V a ll ey , c t
As o r R , 3 6 2 B ak u, 3 3 8
B a l a , L a k, 1 2 9
.

G re a er, 5 6 6 t A s ra k
t h a n, 2 9 2 e
Ap en ni n e s , 25 0 c
As un io n , 6 29 B a lea ri c I s l a n d s , 2 4 7
Ap u l ia , 25 3 w
As a n , 4 4 7 B a l i, 3 8 4
r
Ap u e R , 5 9 6 . t
A ac am a D eser , 6 1 7 t Ba lk a n Fo el a n d , 2 8 3r
b
Ara ia , 3 4 7 tb
A a ra R , 4 4 7 B alk a ns , 2 7 9
a sh , L a k
.

r
A ag on R 2 4 4 t
A ern o R , 2 5 2 . B al k e, 3 4 0
Ara g ua R , 6 22 . A h a a sk
t b a L a n d ing , 5 4 3 r
B a ll a a t , 4 9 5
k
Ara a n Y o m a , 3 7 6 A h a a sk
t b a R , 5 54 . B a llon , 2 1 2
Are l o C a s p ia n D ep re i
-
t
A h el ney , Is l e o f , 1 3 2 B a ll y m en a , 1 6 3
s io n, 2 9 8 t
A h en s , 2 8 7 B a l sa s R , 5 8 4 .

Ara n, 1 6 2 t
A h l o ne, 1 5 8 B a l t ic , 2 08
Ara n M a d d y , 1 29 w w t
A h o s, M o u n , 27 9 t B a l t i c H eig h t s , 2 0 7
r t
A a ra . M o u n , 3 3 8 t t
A hy , 1 6 0 B a l ti c L o w l a n d s , 2 8 8
Ara s R , 3 3 8 . t tc
A l a n i Ci y , 5 6 7 t B a l ti c U p l a n d s, 28 8
Arau o , 6 3 3c t
A l a s, 4 4 3 B a l t im o , 5 6 6re
Ara va l l i s , 3 6 6 A to lls , 5 1 4 B a m b o ro u g h C a s t l e, 1 07
Arc R , 26 2 . tr t
A a o R , 59 5 . B a na n a , 4 6 3
c
Ar h , 2 tr k
A e R , 340 . B an ca , 3 8 5
Arc h a n g el , 2 9 0 tt c
A i a , 28 5 r
B an d a Abb a s , 3 5 1
rc t
A o , 3 75 tt ck
A o , 3 62 B an d o n R , 1 6 1 .

A rct c
i B a s in , 2 9 0 ck
Au l a n d , 5 0 7 B a nff , 1 1 1
r
A d en , F o re s o f , 1 2 3 t ck
Au l a n d Is l a n d s , 5 0 6 B an fi , C an a d a , 5 5 4
Ard ennes , 2 2 5 b
Au g s u rg , 2 1 5 B ang a l o e, 3 74 r
r
A en ig s , 1 29 t
Au g u s a , 5 6 6 B a ng k ok , 386
r
A eq u ip a , 6 2 6 Au l l a g a s , L a ke, 5 9 9 r r
B a ng o , I el an d , 1 6 3
t
Arg en in e, 6 3 0 r
Au es M t s , 4 4 4 . B ang weo l o , L a k e, 4 5 8
r
A g un R , 3 3 6 . tr
Au s a l ia n A l p s , 4 7 5 B an k s P en i nsu l a , 5 0 8
c
Ari a , 6 1 7 t
Au s ria , L o er, 27 1 w B enn R , 1 6 2 .

rk
A a nsa s H ig h l a n d s, 57 1 t
Au s ria , U p p er, 2 7 1 r
B an t y B a y , 1 6 1
rk
A ans a s R , 5 7 3 . vr
Au e g ne, 2 3 6 B a a kR , 3 7 6
r .

kw
Ar l o , 1 6 0 v c
A o a R , 1 60 . B arb a d o s, 5 9 1
b
Arl erg , 25 9 v
A o n , B ri s o l , R , 1 3 1 t .
B arb u d a , 5 9 1
r
A ma g h , 1 6 2 Avo n, D e o n , R , 1 5 1 v . B arc el o na , 24 7
r
A m a nc o n R , 2 3 3 .
A o n, W ar i k
v , R , 1 25wc . r
B a co o R , 4 7 9 .

Arm en i a , 3 3 8 v
A o n , W il s h ire, R , 1 3 1 t . B ard sey Isl a n d , 1 3 0
r
A menia , P l a eau o f . 3 0 1 t v
A o nm o u h , 1 3 1 t B ark a , 4 45
r
A nh e m . 223 Aw e, L o h , 1 1 2 c B a rk h a ns , 3 4 1
Arno R , 25 1 . Ax e R , 1 4 8 . B a rl ey , 8 8
Arro w L a k e, L o er. 5 5 7 w A x m ins er, 1 4 8 t r
B a m en , 2 1 3
 63 8 TEX T B OOK
-
OF GEO GRAPHY
B ri n d isi . 2 5 2 C a irng o rm s , 1 1 1 Carn B re a 1 5 3 ,

b
B ri s a ne, 4 9 8 Ca irn s, 4 9 8 Carni o l a , 26 5
t
B ri s o l , 1 3 1 Ca iro , 4 4 7 Carnt ua l , 1 6 1
t
B ri is h C o l u m ia , 5 5 5 b Ca i th nes s , 1 1 3 Carp a thi a n F o r e l a n d ,
t
B ri i s h G ui a na , 6 23 Ca j amarc a , 6 25 273 , 28 0
t
B ri i sh H o n d ura s, 5 8 7 Ca l a bria , 25 4 Carp a t h ia n s , 2 7 3
tt
B ri a ny , 2 3 4 Ca l cu tta , 3 6 8 Carp a thi a n s , Cen tra l 2 7 3 ,

B ri xh a m , 1 5 1 C a l ed o n R , 4 6 8 Ca rp a thia n s , E a s t e n, r
B ro k
.

cen , 2 1 1 Ca l ed o ni a n C a n al , 1 1 1 27 3
B ro k en B a y , 4 9 6 C a l g ary , 5 5 4 C a rp a t hi a n s , L i tt l e, 2 7 3
B ro k en H il l , 49 7 Ca l i cu t , 3 7 2 r
C a p en ta ria G u lf o f , 4 7 9
B ro k
,

en R , 4 7 7 . Ca lif o rnia , G u lf o f , 5 8 4 C a rp en ta ria R , 4 7 8 .

B ro m sg ro e, 1 2 3 v r
C a lif o nia , V a ll ey o f , 5 7 7 Ca rring to n M o ss 1 1 8 ,

B ro o k l y n, 5 6 3 Ca l l a o 6 26
,
r
C a se o f G o wrie 1 09 ,

B ro wn , M o u n , 5 5 5 t C a m a rg u e, 2 3 9 Carta g en a , 24 7
w
B ro n W il l y , 1 5 2 Ca m b o d ia , 3 8 7 C art ag ena , C o l o m b i a , 6 2 2
B ru e L e el s , 1 3 2 v Ca m b o rn e, 1 5 3 C art er B ar 1 0 8 ,

B rug es , 2 26 C a m b ra i , 23 1 Cart h ag e 4 4 5 ,

B runei , 3 8 5 Ca m bri dg e, 1 4 0 Ca s c a d e Ra ng es 5 5 8 ,

B rii n n , 2 73 Cam p a ni a , 2 8 4 Ca sp ia n D ep ressi o n , 29 0

B rus a , 3 4 4 Ca m p b el l I sla n d , 5 06 C a ssi q u iare R , 5 9 6 .

B rus sel s , 2 2 7 C amp b el to wn , 1 1 2 Ca st il e, O l d , 2 4 5

c
B u a res , 2 8 1 t C am p in e , 220 Ca st l ef o rd 1 1 5 ,

c
B u ha n , 1 1 1 Ca m p s ies , 1 0 8 Ca ta l o nia , 2 4 7
C a na d ia n R , 5 7 3 r
C a th e ine , P o rt 29 0 ,

C at sk
.

B u d a p es , 2 78 t Ca na ries , 4 4 6 il l s , 5 6 3
B u d e, 1 4 9 C a n d ia , 2 8 8 C a tt aro , 2 7 0
B u d weis , 2 7 2 C a nea , 2 8 8 C a u ca R , 5 9 5 .

v t
B u en a en ura , 6 2 1 Ca n n o ckC h a se , 1 23 C a u ca s us , 3 0 1
B u en o s Aires , 6 3 0 C a fi on , 2 Ca usses , 2 3 6
B u ff a l o , 5 6 5 C a no w en R , 1 6 2 . C a u very R , 3 7 2 .

B ug R , 274 .
Ca nt a b ria n M t s , 24 4 . C a w np o re, 3 6 8
B u i lts , 4 6 5 C anterb u ry , 1 4 3 Cay enne, 6 23
B u it enz o ng , 3 84 Ca nterb ury Pl a in s , 5 0 6 , Ced a r L a k, 5 5 3 e
B uk o vi n a , 2 7 3 512 C el e b es , 3 8 4
B u l l er R , 5 0 6 . Ca n t o n , 3 9 2 Centra l Am eri ca 5 8 0 ,

b
B u n ury , 5 0 1 C a o t z a c oa l c os , 5 8 3 Centra l L o wl a n d s 1 08 ,

B urd ek in R ., 4 7 8 Ca p e B re t o n Is l a n d , 5 4 5 C en tra l P ro vi n ces , 371

w
B urd a n , 3 5 6 Ca p e Co l o ny , 4 7 0 C en tra l V a ll ey o f Ch il e,
B urg a s , 2 8 3 Ca p e C o rn wa ll , 1 5 5 5 98
B u rg o s , 2 4 5 Ca p e Farewel l , 5 0 7 C erro d e P a s c o , 6 26
B u rg o s G a p , 2 4 6 C a p e Fl a t s , 4 7 1 Cett e, 23 8
B urg u n d y , G a e o f , 21 2t C ap e T o wn , 4 7 2 Cett ig n e. 28 3
B u rm a , 3 7 6 C a p tu re of ri vers , 1 1 Ceu t a , 4 4 2
B urn l e y , 1 1 9 Ca p e V erd e Is l a n d s , 4 0 1 C evenn es, 23 8
B urs l em , 1 2 1 Ca ra c a s , 5 9 7 C ey l o n, 3 7 5
rt
B u on, 1 22 Carc a sso nne, G a t e o f , 2 3 7 Ch a d L ak e, 4 0 1
B uru , C a p e, 3 02 r
C a d a m o m R a ng e, 3 7 2 r
Ch a g o s A ch ip e l ag o , 4 6 0
r
Bu y, 1 19 r
Ca d i ff , 1 2 7 Ch a l c i di c e, 2 7 9
r
B us hi e, 3 5 1 C ard ig a n B a y , 1 2 8 Ch a l eur B a y , 5 4 9
B u ssa , 4 0 5 Cari b o u R a ng e, 5 5 7 C ha lk , 8

t
B u e, 1 1 2 Ca rin t h ia , 2 6 9 Ch a m ba l B a si n , 3 6 9
t
B ux o n, 1 2 2 Ca rl ing f o rd L o ug h , 1 6 3 r
C h a m b e s b u rg , 5 6 7
B z ura R , 20 8 . Carli s l e, 1 1 7 C h a m b ery , 2 3 9
Ca rlis l e, U S A 5 6 7
. . Ch a m p lai n, L a k e, 5 4 9
r
Ca l o w, 1 6 0 C ha nne l Is l a nd s , 1 4 6
C arma rt h e n B a y , 1 2 7 r
C ha d , 1 3 2
C arm el , M o u n t , 3 4 6 C h a rente R , 23 7 .

C a rn arvo n, 1 29 Cli arl ero i, 2 26

Carna ti c , 3 7 6 C h a rl esto n, 5 6 7

r
C h a l o tteto w n, 5 4 6
C h a rn w o o d F o es t , 1 2 3
C h a rt ers T o wers , 4 9 9
C h a t M o ss , 1 1 8
C h a th a m , 5 4 6
C h a t h a m Is l a n d s , 5 0 6
C h a tt an o o g a , 5 6 8
C h a u diere Fa l l s , 5 5 1
C h ed d ar, 1 3 2
C h el t enh a m 1 2 5
C h el y us kin C a p e 3 0 2
C h en a b R 3 6 6 .
C h eng tu 3 9 1 , C l u t h a R , 5 06
t w
C h ep s o , 1 26
C h er R , 2 3 5.
b
C h er o urg , 2 3 4
w
C h er el l R , 1 4 1
C h esa p ea k e B ay , 5 6 6
C h es h a m , 1 4 1
C h es i l B a nk , 145
t
C h es er, 1 2 1
v t
C h e io , 1 0 7
C h ey enn e, 5 7 3
C hi a n a , V a l d i, 25 2
c
C hi a g o , 5 7 0
c
C hi h es er, 1 4 5 t
t
C hi e i , 2 5 2
C h if u , 3 9 0
ct
C h ig n e o , I s h m u s
5 46
C hih u a h u a , 5 8 4
C hi l e, 6 3 2
C hi l e, Cen ra l V a ll eyt
63 3
C hi l i, 3 9 0
C hil t em s , 1 3 7
t
C hi l H ill s , 3 7 6
b r
C hi m o a z o , 5 9 2
C hi n a C la y , 1 5 0
r
C h in a P o p er, 3 8 8
C h in d e, 4 5 7
w
C hi n d in R , 3 7 6
C hi n H il l s , 3 7 6
C h i no ok , 6 7, 2 2 1
C hi p p en h a m , 1 4 0
C h iro m o , 4 0 6
t
C h i o r, 3 6 9
t
C h i ra l , 3 6 2
tt
C hi a g o ng , 3 7 6
b
Cho e R , 4 53 . C o nne c ti c u t R , 5 6 2
tc
C h ris h ur h , 5 08
t
C hris i a n ia , 1 9 9
t
C h ri s m a s I sl a n d , 3 8 3
b
Chum i R , 3 63
C h u ng k ing , 3 9 1
c
C h ur hi l l R , 5 4 2, 5 5 3
c
C il i ia n G a es , 3 4 5
C i n c h o na , 9 2
c t
C in inn a i, 5 7 0
c c
C is a u a s ia , 3 3 9
IND EX 63 9
r
C ith ae o n, 28 5 k
C o o , M o un , 5 0 6 t
r C iu d a d B o l iva r, 6 22 C o o kS ra i , 5 0 5
t t
C l a ren ce R , 5 0 6 . C o o ko n , 4 9 9
t w
C l ea va g e, 3 r
C o o l g a d ie , 4 8 1
C l ent H il l s , 1 23 C o o lin H ill s , 1 1 3
C l erm o n t Ferra n d , 23 6 C o o p er s C reek , 49 9
’
Cl evel a n d H il l s , 1 1 6 C o org , 3 7 4
C l ew B a y , 1 5 9 C o p a is , L a k e, 28 5
C lif t o n , 1 3 1 C o p en h a g en , 2 05
, C li m ate, cha n g es of , 7 C o p p er R a ng e, 5 69
, C li mate Z on es , 3 9 t
C o qu e R , 1 0 7 .
, C l o n c u rry , 4 9 9 C o qu im o , 6 3 2 b
. C ora l reef s , 4 9 9
C l wy d R , 1 3 0 . C o rd il l era C o a s , 5 9 2 t
Cl y d e R , 5 02. C o rd il l era , E a s ern , 5 9 2 t
C o a l bro o k d a l e, 1 24 C o rdil l era Re a l , 5 9 9
. C o b a r, 4 9 7 C o rd ill era , W es ern , 5 9 2 t
C o b l enz , 2 1 3 b
C o rd o a , 6 3 0
C o ca R , 6 23
. v
C o rd o a , 2 4 6
C o c h in , 3 7 2 C o rf e C a s l e, 1 3 6 t
C o chi n C h ina , 3 8 7 r
Co f u , 2 8 5
C o c h om b a mb a , 5 9 8 t
C orin h , G u lf o f , 2 8 5
Co c o s Isl a nds , 3 8 3 t
C o rin o , 5 8 6
C o d , C a p e, 5 6 6 C o rk , 1 61
C off ee, 9 1 C o rrib , L o u g h , 1 5 8
C o im b a t ore G ap , 3 7 2 c
C ors i a , 2 5 3
C o i re, 25 7 t
C o r in a , 26 5
C o l d e l Arg en t i ere, 26 1 C o ru na , 2 4 4
’
t of , C o l era ire, 1 6 3 t
C o s a Ri a, 5 8 6 c
C o lim a , 5 8 0 C Ot e d o r, 2 3 2
’
C o l ne R , 1 4 1
. t t
C o en in , 2 3 4
C o l o g n e, 2 1 3 t
C o o p a x i, 5 9 2
of, Co l o m b ia , 6 2 0 t w
Co s ol d s, 1 2 6
C ol om b o , 3 7 6 C o tto n , 9 2
Co l o n, 5 8 5 t
Co ur ra i, 2 2 7
C o l o ra d o P l a t ea u s , 5 7 5 v
C o en try , 1 2 5
C o l o ra d o R , 5 7 4 . w
C o es , 1 4 6
C o l u m b ia R , 5 5 7 . c
C ra o w , 2 7 4
C o l u m b ia R a ng es , 5 5 7 Cra nm ere P 0 0 1, 1 4 9
Co m a cchi o , 2 5 4 t
Cred i o n , 1 4 9
C o m b er, 1 6 3 C reep of roc a n d soi l , 6 k
. C o m o , 25 4 C rem o n a , 25 5
C o m o ri n , C a p e, 3 7 2 t
C re e, 2 8 7
C o n c ep cio n , 6 3 3 w
C re e, 1 22
C o ng o , B elg ia n , 4 6 3 Crim ea , 29 1
C o ng o R , 4 04 , 4 6 3
. C rina n C a na l , 1 1 2
C o ng o N il e D i vi d e, 4 0 7
-
t
C ro m a r y F ir h , 1 1 2 t
C on if ero us f orests , 7 4 C ro m er, 1 3 6
C o n n, L o u g h , 1 5 8 C ro s s F el l , 1 1 8
. w
C ro l a n d , 1 3 5
c C onnema ra , 1 5 8 C row s N es
’
t
P a ss , 5 5 4
C on s equ en t rivers , 1 0 C rus t w a ves , 3
C o n s t a n ce, L a k e, 2 1 1 C ry s ta lli n e ro k s , 1 00 c
. C o ns ta n tin e, 4 4 4 t
C ry s a l M t s , 4 6 4 .
Co ns ta n t ino p l e, 28 4 b
Cu a , 5 8 9
. Co n st a n t sa , 2 8 1 Cu c k m ere R , 1 4 5 .
t C o nti nen ta l S h elf , 2 1 , 1 6 5 C u lm e R , 1 4 8 .
C o ntou r m a p s , 3 1 b
C u m erl a n d , 5 4 6
C o nw a y R , 1 3 0 . b
C u m erl a n d G a p , 5 6 8
C o o kI sl a n d s , 5 1 4 b
C um erl a n d P l a ea u , 5 6 9 t
6 40
Cu m b re P a ss , 5 9 9
Cu p a r, 1 0 9
Cura ca o Is l an d s , 5 9 0
C u rren ts of th e o c ea n , 2 1
C ux h a ven , 2 1 1
C u y a b a , 6 29
Cuz c o , 6 26
Cy cl a d es , 28 5
C y c l e of ero si o n , 1 1
C y c l on es , 5 5
C y p ru s , 2 8 8
C z erno wi tz , 27 4
D a h n a D eser , 3 4 8
D a h o m ey , 4 6 1
k
D a a r, 4 6 1
kt
D a o a , 5 74
t
D a l m a ia , 2 7 0
Da ly R , 48 1 . D ia r ekb
D a m a ra Pl a a u , 4 0 3
c
D am a s u s, 3 4 6
tt
D a mi e a , 4 4 7
b
D a nu e R , 2 1 5 , 2 7 1 ,
28 1
D a nz ig , 208
D a rd a n ell es , 28 4
t
D aren h R , 1 4 2
D ar es S a l a a m , 4 5 6
- -
r
D a g a i, 3 6 2
B a riel P a s s , 3 3 8
D a rien , 5 9 4
D a rj eel ing , 3 6 8
D a rl ing D o n s , 4 9 9
D a rl in g R a ng e, 4 8 1
D a rl ing R , 4 7 9 . t
t
D a rl in g o n , 1 1 4
t t
D a rm s a d , 2 1 3
D ar R t 1 49
D a rt m o o r, 1 4 9
t
D ar m o u h , 1 5 1 t D o na l d , 5 5 7
t
D a sh R , 3 6 5 . c t
t
D a sh i K a ir, 3 5 1
- -
t
D a sh i L u t , 3 5 1
- -
D a u p h in é , 2 6 2
w
D a s on , 5 6 0
D ea d S ea , 3 4 7
D ea n , F o res o f , 1 2 6
t
D ea h V a ll ey , 5 7 6
cc
D e a n , 3 69
D eci d uo us f orests , 7 4
D ee R , 1 20 .
c t
D ec , S o l a n d , R , 1 1 1
D el a g o a B a y , 4 5 7
w
D el a a re R , 5 6 6
D el h i , 3 6 8
D eltas , 1 6
v
D em a en d , 3 5 1
v
D en er, 5 7 3
D era G h a z i K h a n , 3 64
D era I sm a i l K h a n, 3 64
TEX T B OOK
-
D erg , L o u g h , 1 5 8
D erg R , 1 6 2 . D ri fli el d , G rea , 1 1 6
D eri vati ve ro c k s, 9 6
w t
D er en , D er y sh ire, R
1 22
w t
D er en , T a sm a n i a , R
5 02
D er en , Y o rk
w t sh ire , R
1 16
w tw t
D er en a er, 1 1 7
D es ag u a d ero R , 5 9 9
D esert veg eta ti o n , 7 6
t
D esp o o D a g h , 2 7 9
t v
D e o n , P l a in o f , 1 4 9
v
D e o n p or , 1 5 2
D ew , 6 5
w
D h a a r Ga p , 3 7 3
t
D ia m a n i n a , 4 7 9
ir, 3 5 1
te D i eg o G a r i a , 4 6 0
b
D ig y G u t , 5 4 5
D i j o n , 23 3
. D i lu vi u m , 1 6 6
c
D in a ri A l p s , 2 7 0
c
D i na ri L a n d s , 2 7 0
D in g l e B a y , 1 6 1
. D i p s l o p es , 9 8
D ir, 3 6 2
D niep er R , 29 1
t
D n ies er R , 2 7 4
D o b ru j a , 2 8 1
D o f a r, 3 4 8
w D o l g ell y , 1 29
D o li n a s , 8 , 2 7 7
D o l l a r , 21 1
t
D o l o mi es , 2 7 0
D o m ini a , 5 9 0c
D o na g h a d ee, 1 6 3
D o n R , 29 1 .
D o n a s er, 1 1 5
v D o neg a l B a y , 1 5 9
t
D o ne s R , 29 1
D o o ne R , 1 0 8 . r
D o ra B a lt ea , 2 6 2
D o ra R ip a ri a , 25 5
t c t
D o r h es er, 1 4 6
D o rd o g n e R , 23 6
D o rk ing , 1 4 2
t
D o r m un d , 21 1
Dou s Rb 23 7
. D o ug l a s , 1 6 3
D o uro R , 2 4 5 . E a s t ern H o rn , 4 0 1
. v
D o e R , 1 22 . E a s to n , 5 6 7
v
D o er, 1 4 3
v
D o ey R , 1 29 . E c u a d o r, 6 2 3
c
D ra h enf el s, 2 1 3
D ra k en s b erg en , 4 00 , 4 6 8
v
D ra e R , 26 5 . E d en, F if e . R
D res d en , 2 1 0
OF GEO GRAPHY
D reven z R , 2 08 .
t
b .
, D ri n R , 27 7
.
D ri na R , 2 7 0
.
.
, D ro g h ed a , 1 5 9
D ro i tw c
i h , 1 21
.
, D ro og s , 3 6 9
D ro wned va l ley s , 3 , 1 6 8
D ru m li n s , 2 0 1 , 5 6 2
. D ru m s , 2 0 1
b
D u l in , 1 5 9
D u b u q u e, 5 7 0
c
D u i e, 5 1 6
t D u kM t s , 5 5 3
c .
D u d l ey , 1 2 3
c
D ul ig no , 2 8 3
t
D u lu h , 5 6 9
b t
D u m a r o n, 1 1 0
c D u n a m iin d e, 2 8 9
b
D u n a r, 1 0 7
c
D u n an R , 5 5 7 .
k
D u n da l , 1 5 9
D u n d ee, 1 0 8
D u n d ee, N a a l , 4 69 t
D u ne d in , 5 08
D u nf erml in e, 1 0 9
D u ng a nn o n , 1 6 3
. D u ng enes s , 1 4 4
. B un k r
e y B ea o n , 1 4 9 c
D u nk irk , 23 2
D u nm a n u s B a y , 1 6 1
c
D u nwi h , 1 3 6
c
D ura n e R , 24 0 .
D u ra z z o , 27 7
b
D ur a n , 4 6 9
D urh a m , 1 1 4
D us sel d o rf , 2 1 3
tc
D u h G ui a n a , 6 23
v
D in a R , 29 0 .
D y l e R , 228
.
. Ea g l e P a s s , 5 5 7
Ea n , L o ch , 1 1 1
E a rth , cu rva tu re of , 26
E a rth qu a k es , 1
E a rth wa ves , 2
. E a st An g l ia n H eig h t s ,
136
E a stb o urne, 1 4 5
E a s t C a p e, 29 9
E a s t L o n d o n, 4 7 1
E bro R , 2 4 5
.
E d d y s t o ne, 1 5 2
E d en R , 1 1 8
.
E d i nb u rg h , 1 1 0
6 42 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

w
Ga l a y B ay , 1 5 8 G o kc h a , L ak
-
e, 3 3 8 b
G ren o l e , 23 9
b
G a m ia , 4 6 1 G o l d C oa s , 4 6 1 t t
G rey m o u h , 5 1 3
b
G a m ia R , 4 05 . G o l d en , 5 5 5 t w
G rey o n , 5 8 6
t
Ga m o o s R , 4 7 0 . G o l d en G a e, 5 7 8 t G ro n ing en , 222
G a ng es R , 3 6 7 . G o l d en H o rn, 2 8 4 b
G rim s y , 1 3 5
G a nn el R , 1 5 3 . G o l d en V a l e , 1 5 8 G rim sel P a s s , 25 7
r
G a o nn e R , 2 3 6 . G o l d en e A ue, 2 1 1 G u a d a l a j a ra , 5 8 4
G a ru a s , 6 24 G o m a l P a ss , 3 6 4 v
G u a d a l q u i ir R , 24 5 .

c
Ga s o n , 2 3 6 Go m al R 3 64 e
G u a d el o u p , 5 9 6
c
G a s o y ne R , 4 8 1 . G o n d a r, 4 5 0 G u a d ia n a R , 2 4 5 .

G a sp e P enin sul a , 5 4 9 G on d o k o ro , 4 4 6 G ua m , 5 1 6
t
G a e sh ea d , 1 1 4 Go o d i k wc , 1 27 G u a nj u a t o , 5 8 4
v
G a arn ie, 24 2 r
G o in g , 1 3 7 G u a rd a f u i , C a p e, 4 08
G e el o ng , 4 9 4 t
G o ri z , Pl a in o f , 2 7 0 t
G u a em a l a , 5 8 7
G ed iz R , 3 4 4 . t
G o a Elf , 2 0 3 G ua y a q u i l , 6 2 3
G ees t, 2 0 6 t
G o ha , 21 0 G u a y a ra F a l l s , 5 9 7
v
G el l i ara , 1 9 9 t b
G o h en urg , 203 Gu a y a s R , 6 24.

G eno a , 2 5 0 tt
G o ing en , 2 1 1 Gu a y m a s , 5 8 4
G eno a , G u lf o f , 2 5 0 b
G o u l urn , 4 9 7 G u d b ra n s d a l en, 200
v
G en e a , 25 9 G o u rit z R , 4 7 0 . G ui a n a H ig hl a n d s , 6 2 2
G en e a , L a k
v e o f , 25 7 w
G o er, 1 27 G ui en n e, 2 3 6
G en sa n , 3 9 8 G ra a f R ein e , 4 7 1 t G u in ea , Fren h , 4 6 1 c
G eo rg e L a k e, 4 7 5 G ra m p i a ns , 4 7 5 t
G u in ea P l a ea u , L o er, w
r t w
G eo g e o n , 6 2 3 G ra n C h a o , 6 3 0 c 4 63
G eo rg ia , 5 6 7 G ra na d a , 24 7 G u in ea , P o rt u g ues e, 4 6 1
G eorg ia n B a y , 5 4 9 G ra n d B a nk s, 5 44 G u in ea , U p p er, 4 6 0
t
G era l d o n , 5 0 1 G ra nd B a ssa m , 4 6 1 r
G u il df o d , 1 4 2
G erm a n E a s Af ri a , 4 5 6 t c G ra n d C a n a l , 3 9 0 t
G u j era , 3 7 1
G erm a n S o u h W es t t G ra n d F a l l s , 5 4 7 t
Gu lf S rea m , 23
c
Af ri a , 4 7 2 Gra n d L a k e, 5 4 7 G u t o f C a n so , 5 4 5
t
G h a s , E a s ern , 3 7 4 t Gra n d P a ra di s , 2 6 2 w
G a lio r, 3 7 1
t
G h a s , W es ern , 3 7 1 t r
G a nd P o r , 4 6 0 t t
G y a ng s e, 3 9 4
G h a z ni , 3 6 3 r
G a n d R i e , 5 74 v r G y m p ie , 4 9 9
t
G h en , 2 2 6 Granite, 6 , 1 5 0
t
G ia n s C a u se a y , 1 6 2
’
w r t
G an h a m , 1 3 4 H a arl em , 2 1 9
b t
G i ra l a r, 24 7 t
G ra n o n , 1 1 0 H a fi en , 1 6 9
br t
G i a l ar, S ra i s o f , 4 4 2 t t G ra z , 26 9 H a g ers t en , 5 6 7
b t
G il er Is l a n d s, 5 1 6 t
G rea B a rri e R eef , 4 9 9 r H a g u e, t h e , 2 2 3
t
G i lg i , 3 6 0 t
G rea B a sin , 5 7 5 H a i l sh a m , 1 4 4
G ill ing h a m , 1 4 0 t
G rea B e l , 2 0 4 t H a in a n 3 8 9
,

G ip p s la n d , 4 7 5 r t
G ea B i g h , 4 8 1 t H a it i , 5 8 9
G iro n d e, 2 3 6 r t
G ea D is m a l S a m p , w H a l i ca rna s su s 3 44 ,

b
G is orn e, 5 0 7 5 67 H a l if a x 5 4 5
,

G iu rg evo , 2 8 1 G rea t v
D i iding R a ng e, H am a d an 3 5 1 ,

G l a ci a l erosi on , 1 2, 1 9 7 , 478 H a m ar, 1 9 9

548 t
G rea F a ll s, 5 7 0 r
H a m bu g 2 1 1 ,

w
G l a sg o , 1 0 9 t
G rea Fish R , 4 7 0 . H a mi l t o n , 5 5 1
G l a ss o n , 1 20 r t
G ea K ei R , 4 7 0 . H a mm erf es t, 1 9 9
t b r
G la s o n u y , 1 3 2 G rea L a k
t es , 5 69 Han R , 390
.

G l enm o re, 1 1 1 r t r
G ea O m e s H ea d , 1 3 0 H a nk o w, 3 9 1
’

Gl o mm en R , 1 9 9 . t
G rea S t B ern a d P a s s ,
. r H a nl ey , 1 2 1
c t
Gl o u es er, 1 2 5 26 2 H a no ver, 2 1 1
c t
Gl o u es er, 5 62 t t
G rea S a l L a e, 5 7 6 k H a ra r, 4 5 0
Gn ei ss , 9 9 c
G re ia n Al p s , 27 7 H arb i n, 3 9 3
G oa , 3 72 G reen M t s , 5 6 1 . H a rd a ng er Fj o rd , 1 9 9
b
G o i D es er , 2 9 7 t G reen R , 5 74. H a ri E n d , 3 4 0
G o d a l m ing , 1 4 2 G reen o c k , 1 10 H arli ng en , 22 2
v
G o d a a ri R 3 71 G reen o re, 1 6 3 H a rna i 3 6 4
,

G o g ra R , 3 6 0 . G ren a d a , 5 9 0 H a rp er s F erry , 5 6 7
’

G o j am . 4 4 9 G ren a d ines , 5 9 0 H a rris b urg 5 6 7 ,


H a rro g a te , 1 1 5
H a rt M t s , 2 1 2 . H o ng k o ng , 3 9 2
H a rt f o rd , 5 6 2
H a rt l ep o o l , 1 1 4
r
H a wi c h , 1 3 6
H ar z, 21 1
H a s tin g s , 1 4 4
H a ttera s , C ap e , 5 6 7
H a ura k
i G u lf , 5 0 7
H a u ra n , 3 4 7
H a us sa Pl a te a u 4 0 6
H a va n a , 5 8 9
H a vel R , 2 0 8 .
H a verf o rd wes t, 1 2 8
H a wa iia n Is l a n d s 5 1 6
H a wi ck , 1 07
H aw k s B a y 5 0 7
e ’
H a wk es b ury R , 4 7 5
H a y es R , 5 4 2 .
H ea t, a c ti o n of , 6
H ect o r, 5 5 5
H ei d e l b erg , 2 1 3
H ek l a , 20 5
H el d er, 223
H elf o rd R , 1 5 3 . H u nz a , 3 6 2
H eli c o n , 2 8 5
H el m a n d R , 3 5 1
H elm e R , 2 1 1 .
H el sin g f o s , 29 0r
H el sin g or, 20 5
H el vel l y n, 1 1 7
H em p , 9 5
H era t , 3 6 5
H eref o rd , 1 25
H erm a nns ta d t , 27 3
H erm o n , M o u n t , 3 4 6
H erm o u p o lis , 2 8 7
H erz eg o vin a , 2 7 1
H es b a y e, 22 5
H ig h F en s, N eth erl a n d s ,
22 1
H ig hl a n d s o f S o l a n d ,
111
H ig h P a k e , 148
H i g h p ressure s y s tem s,
56
c
H ig h W y o m e , 1 4 1
H im a l a y a s , 3 6 0
H in d u K u s h , 3 6 3
H is p a ni o l a , 5 8 9
b t
H o ar , 5 0 2
b k
H o o en , 5 6 3
H o d eid a , 3 4 8
Hog s B a k c
142
’
,
H o l d ern es s , 1 1 6
H o ll an d , H o o ko f , 22 4
t
H e l s o n , U p p er, R , 5 6 8
H o ly h ea d , 1 3 0
H o l y Is l a n d , 1 0 7
H o ly o k e, 5 6 2
INDEX 6 43
H o n d u ra s , 5 8 6 I q u i q u e, 6 3 2
t
I q u i o s, 6 2 6
H o ni t o n , 1 4 8 Ira n , Pl a ea u o f , 3 5 1 t
H o no l u l u , 5 1 6 Ira w a d d y R , 3 7 8 , 3 8 1 .
H o n s h iu , 3 9 7 b
Iro n rid g e, 1 24
H o n t , T h e, 2 2 7 Iro n G a e, 28 1 t
H o o d , M ou nt , 5 7 7 t
Ir ish R , 3 3 6 .
H ook er, M o u n t , 5 5 5 Is a r R , 2 1 5
.
H ors t, 4 Isf a h an , 3 5 1
H o ttent o t s H o ll a n d I sk er R , 2 7 9 .
, M ts , 47 1 . Isl ay , 1 1 2
r
H o w ah , 3 5 6 c
I s o ba r h a rts , 6 2
H u a n c a y o , 6 25 I s o nz o R , 2 7 0 .
H u d s on R , 5 6 3 . t
Is h m ia n S a es, 5 8 4 t t
, H u e, 3 8 7 t
Is ria , 2 7 0
H u g li R 3 6 8 tc
I h en R , 1 4 5
.
, Hu ll, 1 1 6 t c
I h a a , 28 5
. Hull R , 1 1 6 . v
I iz a , 24 7
H u m e R a ng e , 4 9 5 v
I o ry C o a s , 4 6 1 t
H ung a ria n P l a in , 2 7 4 v
I rea , 25 4
H un sruc k , 21 3 Ixt a c h ih u a tl , 5 8 0
H u n st a n t o n , 1 3 6
H un t er R , 4 7 7 . J a c a R , 24 4 .
H u n ting d o n , 1 4 0 c b b
Ja o a ad , 3 6 4
J a d e B ay , 2 1 1
H uro n , L a k e, 5 4 9 Jafi a, 3 4 7
. B uy 226
, J a ip ur, 3 6 9
w
H a ng h o R , 3 8 9 . J a l a lab a d , 3 6 3
r b
H y de a a d, 3 74 c
Jam a i a , 5 8 9
tt
H y m e u s, 2 8 7 J a m es B a y , 5 5 1
J am es R , 5 6 8 .
Ib a d a m , 4 6 2 J a p a n , Inl a n d S ea o f , 3 9 8
c
I el a n d , 2 0 5 r w
J ar o , 1 1 4
c
I h a ng , 3 9 0 v
Ja a , 3 8 4
Id a , M o un t , 3 4 4 Je bb a, 43 7
Id ri a , 27 0 b
J e el M a r a h , 4 0 1 r
I g n eou s ro ck s, 9 6 J en a , 2 1 1
I j ssel R , 220 . c
J eri h o , 3 4 7
c
I lf ra o m e, 1 4 9 b J ersey C i y , 5 6 3 t
Il i R , 3 4 0
. J eru sa l em , 3 4 7
1 11 R , 2 1 2
. J h el a m R , 3 6 2 .
c t Il l er R , 2 1 5 . J i b u ti , 4 5 0
Il l im a ni , 5 9 9 J o h a nnes u rg , 4 6 7 b
I l l ino is R , 5 7 0 . t
J o hn s o n , Fo , 4 5 7 rt
1 1m R , 2 1 0 . J o h o re , 3 8 3
Immi ng h a m , 1 3 5 J o rd a n R , 3 4 7 .
b In d o re, 3 7 1 J u a n d e F u a S ra i , 5 7 8 c t t
In d ra va t i R , 3 7 1 . J u a n F erna n d ez , 5 9 3
In d u s R 3 6 0 J u li er P a ss , 26 4
w
In d e, 4 7 2 J u mn a, R 3 60
b
Ing le o ro u g h , 1 1 5 J u n g f ra u , 26 3
Ini s h o w en , 1 6 2 t
J u n ia a R , 5 6 8 .
In n R , 2 1 5 . J u ra , 1 1 2
I nterm on t ba si n s, 5 7 5 t
J u l an d , 2 0 4
I nt erm o nt va l l ey s , 6 2 0
v c r
In er a g i ll , 5 0 8 K a b o ro vsk 3 3 7 ,
. v
In ern ess , 1 1 2 Ka b u l , 3 63
Iny a ng a P l a ea u , 4 5 8 t Kab u l R 362
Io ni a n I s l a n d s , 2 8 5 K a by l ie C oa s t R a ng es ,
wc
Ip s i h , 1 3 6 4 45
 6 44
K a fl r a ri a ,
‘
4 71
Ka f u e R , 4 5 3 . K ep h a l o n ia , 2 8 5
r
Ka g e a R , 4 5 4
t
Ka ie eu r F a ll s , 5 9 3
K a ik o u ra s , 5 06
r
K a ip a a H a r o u , 5 0 7
K a isarieh , 3 4 5
Ka isers l au ern, 2 1 2
K a ka eka Fa ll s , 5 4 7
b K h a rko , 2 9 1
Ka l a h a ri D eser , 4 7 0
Ka l g a n, 3 9 0
r
K a lg o o li e, 5 01
Ka m a R , 29 2 . v
K a m e, 20 2
Ka m eru n , 4 6 3
K a m e u n P ea k, 4 0 0
r Kh o j en d , 3 4 1
K a m i ni sti q u ia , R , 5 4 7
Ka m p a l a , 4 5 6
K mart, 3 5 3
w
K a na h a R , 5 6 8
Kan d a h a , 3 6 4 r ck
Ka n d y , 3 7 6
K an em , 4 6 3
Ka n o , 4 6 2
Ka n sa s C i y , 5 7 0
Ka ra ko ra m , 3 4 1
Ka ra ko ra m P a ss , 3 6 0
K ara ko ru m , 3 9 5
Ka ra K u m , 3 4 0
K a ren n i H il l s , 3 7 7
-
b
Ka rl s a d , 2 7 2
Ka rl skro na , 2 0 3
Ka rl s ru h e, 2 1 2
Ka rn a k, 4 4 8
t
K a rp a h o s , 2 8 5
Ka rro o , G rea , 4 7 0
Ka rro o , L i l e. 4 7 0
K a rs , 3 3 9
K a rs t regi ons , 8 , 5 8 3
t
Ka rs , T h e, 2 7 0
Ka ru n R 3 5 1 . rt
Ka s a t R 3 4 0
K a sh g a r, 3 9 4
K a sh mir, 3 6 0
Ka s sel , 2 1 0
t
Ka a ng a R a ng es , 4 6 4
t w r
K a h ia a , 3 7 1
t
Ka m a n d u , 3 6 7
tt t
Ka eg a , 2 0 2
Ka y es , 4 6 0
Ka z a n l ikV a lley , 28 4
K eb ra b a sa R a p id s, 4 5 3
K ed a h , 3 8 3
K eel in g , Is l a n d s, 3 8 3
w t
K ee a i n , 5 5 2
t
Kel a n a n , 3 8 3
K en d a l , 1 1 7
Keni a , 4 5 1
K en m a rc R , 1 6 1
t
K en ne R , 1 3 1
TEX T B OOK
-
OF GE O GRAPH Y
K en tu cky 5 69 , Ko lm a r 2 1 2 ,
K o n a kri 4 6 1 ,
. c
Kerm a d e Is l a n d s , 5 0 6 Koni g s b erg 2 0 9 ,
K erm a n , 3 5 1 K om g sh ut t e, 2 0 9
‘
K erm a ns h a h , 3 5 1 Ko o ten a y L a ke 5 5 7 ,
b r Keswi k, 1 1 7 c K o o t en a y R 5 5 7 .
,
K ey W es , 5 7 2 t K o p et D a g h 3 4 0 ,
t b
K h a ur R , 3 5 0 . K o rd o f a n 4 4 8 ,
v Ko rea 3 9 8 ,
t t
K h a r um , 4 4 8 K o s ciu s ko M o u nt 4 9 7 , ,
Kh erso n , 29 1 K o s seir, 4 4 8
K hi ng a n R a ng e, 29 5 K o s s o v o Pl a in 2 7 8 ,
Kh i a , 3 4 0 Ko wl o o n P eni n sul a 392
,
Kh o ra s s an P l a ea u , 3 4 0 t K ra , I s th m u s of , 3 77
K h o j a A mra n R a ng e , 3 6 4 Kra ka t o a , 3 84
K ra n tz , 4 7 1
. t
Kh o an, 3 9 4 K ra sn o vo d s k, 340
b
Kh y er P a ss , 3 6 3 r
K o n st a d t , 28 9
k
K i a h t a , 29 7 Ku b a n V a ll ey 29 2 ,
. K ia o c h o u , 3 9 0 Ku ka 4 6 3,
Ki in g H o rse P a s s , 5 5 5 Ku l j a 3 4 0
,
Kid d erm in s er, 1 25 t Ku l p a R 2 7 7 .
,
K iel , 2 0 9 Ku m a R 3 3 8 .
,
K il a u ea , 5 1 6 Ku m a s i 4 6 1 ,
t Kilim a nj a o , 4 5 1 r Ku n a r R 3 6 2 .
,
k
Kil enny , 1 6 0 Ku n d u r R 3 64 .
,
Kil l a rney , L a kes o f , 1 6 1 Ku n l o n F erry 3 8 2 ,
K il l a ry H a r o ur, 1 5 8 b K ur R 338
.
,
b
Kim erl ey , 4 6 8 t
Ku rdi s a n , 3 4 2
b
Kim erl ey D i s ri , 4 8 1 t ct c
Kuris h es H a fi , 20 6
Ki na B a l u , M o u n , 3 8 4 t Kurl a n d , 2 8 9
King G eo rg e ’ s S o u n d , 5 0 1 Kurra m R , 3 6 4 .
King s rid g e, 1 5 1 b Ku sh a l g arh , 3 6 4
c
Kin hin j ung a , 3 6 8 Ku sh k, 3 6 5
t
King s o n , 5 5 1 , 5 8 9 K ii st rin , 2 0 8
t t
Kin y re, M u l l o f , 1 1 2 w
K an d o R , 4 5 3 .
tt Kinz ig R , 2 1 3 .
t
K io o , 3 9 8 L a a g tes , 4 6 5
Kirg h iz S ep p es , 3 4 1 t L a a l a n d , 20 4
K irk a l d y , 1 09 b
L a ra d or C urren , 5 4 4 t
Ki h a r R a n g e, 3 6 5 b
L a u a n I sl a n d , 3 8 3
Kis il K u m , 3 4 1 L a C h a u x d e F o n d s , 259
t
Kis na R , 3 74 . c
L a hi ne R a p id s , 5 4 8
K iu s h iu , 3 9 7 c
L a h l an D o n s , 4 79 w
Kiy e , 2 9 1 v c
L a h l an R , 4 79 .
Kiz il Ar a , 3 4 1 v t L a d o , 4 08
K l a g enf ur , 26 9 t L a d og a , L a k e, 29 0
Kl am a h R , 5 7 7 t . L a d ro nes , 5 1 6
Kl a u sen urg , 2 7 3 b t
,
L a d y s m i h , 4 69
Kl i s s u a , 28 1 r L ag o s , 4 6 1
Kl o n di e, 5 6 0 k L a Gu a ira , 6 2 2
K l oof , 4 7 0 L ah n R , 2 1 3
K no c k
.
m ea l d o w n M ts , . L a h ore, 3 6 6
1 60 b c
L a i a h , 26 5
v
K n o x il l e , 5 6 8 Lak e D i s ri , 1 16 t ct
b
K o e, 3 9 8 Lak e o f t h e W o o ds , 5 4 7
Ko h a , 3 6 4t L a M a n h a , 24 6 c
K o h i M a li S ia h , 3 5 1
- -
k -
L a mm erm u ir H il l s , 1 0 7
. K o h i T at an , 3 5 1
- -
t L a m p e er, 1 29 t
. Ko l a P en in su l a , 2 9 0 L a n arkM o o s , 1 0 8 r
6 46 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

M a d ra s, 3 74 M a rc h , 1 3 5 M ersey R 1 2 0
M a d ri d , 24 6 M a ree, L o c h , 1 1 2 M e t h y T y d fi l , 1 27 r r
M ag d a l a, 4 5 0 M a rem m a 25 3 , M e v, 3 4 0 r
M ag d a l ena R , 59 5 . M aria T h eres i o p el , 2 7 8 M eset a , 2 4 5
M ag d eb urg , 2 1 1 M a ritim e P ro vi n c es, 5 4 5 M esh ed , 3 5 1
M ag ell a n, S tra it s o f , 6 3 4 M a rit s a R , 2 7 9 . M esop o t ami a , 34 9
M a g g iore, L a k e o f , 25 8 M a rk et B reig h t o n , 1 2 4 M es seni a , 28 7
M a g y a r Ga te, 27 3 M ark et W eig h to n , 1 1 6 M et a R 5 9 6
M a h a d eo H ill s, 3 7 1 r
M a rl b o o u g h D o w ns , 1 3 7 M eta morp hi c rock s, 97
M a h ana di R , 3 7 1 . r
M a rl b o o u g h H il l s, 5 0 7 1 54
M a id en N ewt o n , 1 3 6 r
M a rm o a , S ea o f , 28 4 M et a uro R , 2 5 2 .

M a i d s t o ne 1 4 3 M a ro cc o , 4 4 2 M et ij a P l a in , 4 4 4
M a in R 2 72 M aro cc o C it y , 4 4 2 M et so vo P a ss, 277
M a ine, 5 6 2 M a res R , 2 73 . M etz , 2 1 2
M a i nz , 2 1 2 M arq u esa s I s l a n d s , 5 1 5 M eu se R , 224 .

M a ize, 9 0 M a rseil l es , 23 8 M exi c o , 5 8 0

M a j erd a R 4 4 5 M art ig ny , 25 7 M ex i c o C it y , 5 8 1
r
M a j o c a , 24 7 M a rtini q u e, 5 9 0 M i chi g a n , L a k, 5 7 0 e
M ak ra n , 3 6 5 M a ry b orou g h 4 9 9 M i c hig a n P enins u l a , 5 7 0
,

r
M a la ba , 3 7 2 M a ryp o rt , 1 1 7 M ic hip co t en Isl a nd , 55 1
M a la cc a , 3 8 3 M a sh o na P l a te a u , 4 0 0 M id dl es b ro ug h , 1 1 6
M a l ag a , 247 453 M i d d l ewi c h , 1 2 1
M a la k a nd P a s s , 3 6 2 M a s k L o ug h 1 5 8
, M il a n, 2 5 5 ,

M il l e r, L a k e, 2 0 2 M a sk a t, 3 49 M il et us , 3 44
M a l a t ia , 3 5 0 M a s s a wa 4 5 0 , M ilf o rd H a ven, 1 28
M a l a y S t a tes , 3 8 2 M a ta d i 4 0 4
, M i lf o rd S o u n d , 5 0 7
M a lia , C a p e, 28 5 M a ta p an , C a p e, 2 8 5 M il l e V a ch es P l a teau ,
M a l in H ea d , 1 6 2 M atl o ck 1 2 2, 23 6
M a ll o w , 1 6 1 M a t o p p o H il l s 4 5 8 M il wau ke. 5 7 0 , e
M a l m es b ury , 4 7 1 M a tt erh orn 26 3 M in R , 3 9 1
, .

M a l mb , 2 03 M a t t e G ro sso , 5 9 6 M ina s B a s in, 545

M a l o j a P a ss, 2 6 4 M a u i, 5 1 6 M i na s G era e s, 6 29
M a l ta , 2 5 6 M a u n a K ea , 5 1 5 M in d en , 2 1 1
r
M a l ve n, 1 25 M a un a L o a , 5 1 6 M in eh ea d , 1 3 3
r
M a l ve n H il l s, 1 2 5 M a u r it iu s , 4 6 0 M inh o R , 245 .

r
M a m o e R , 6 28 . M a w d d a c h R , 1 29 M inn ea p o l is , 5 7 0
.

M a n , Is l e o f , 1 6 3 M aza tl a n 5 8 4 , M inneso t a , 5 70
M a n a ar, 3 7 5 M ea nd ers 1 0 , M inorc a , 24 7
M a na g u a, 5 8 6 M e cc a , 3 4 8 M iq u l o n , 5 45 e
M a na p o u i . L a k
r e, 5 0 6 M e chl in 22 8 , M ira mi ch i R , 54 6 .

M an ch es te , 1 1 9r
M e d el l in , 6 2 1 M i ssissip p i D el ta , 1 6
M a n ch ester, U S A 56 2 . . M e d i c in e H a t , 5 5 4 M iss iss ip p i R 5 70
M a n ch uria , 3 9 3 M edi n a , 3 4 8 M isso u i R , 5 7 0 r
k
.

M a n ch u ria n G a te, 3 9 0 M edi n a R , 1 6 4 . M is t a ssini, La e, 5 4 2

M a n c h uria n P l a in s, 2 9 8 M e d wa y R , 1 4 1 M ist i , M o unt, 6 2 6
.

M a ng a ia , 5 1 4 M eissen , 2 1 0 M i s tra l , 6 7
M a n h a tt a n Is l a n d , 5 6 3 M ek o ng R , 3 8 7 Mj osen L a k
. e, 1 9 9 .

M a n il a , 3 8 5 M el b o u rn e 4 9 4 M l a nj e, M o unt, 4 5 7
,

r
M a n ip u R , 3 76 . e
M el vi l l , C a p e, 4 7 8 M o b il e , 5 7 2
M a n it o b a , 5 5 2 M em el , 2 0 9 M o ch a , 3 4 8
M a n nh ei m , 2 1 3 M em p h is , 4 4 8 M o d ena , 25 0
M a nnin B a y , 1 5 9 M en a i S tra it , 1 3 0 M een 20 4 .

M an sfi el d , 1 22 M ena m R , 3 7 7 . M o g a d o r, 4 4 3
M a ntu a , 25 5 r
M en d e es R , 3 4 4 M o h a w kR 5 6 3
.

M a nu k a u H a rb o u r, 5 0 7 M en d o z a , 6 3 0 M o l d au R , 27 2 .

M any c h V a l l ey , 2 9 2 M en d ip s , 3 1 , 1 3 3 M o l d avi a , 28 0
M an z a nill o , 5 8 4 M oo n R , 1 4 5 . M 0 10 R , 1 4 1 .

M a ra c a i b o , G ul f o f . 6 00 M erg u i Arch ip el a g o , 3 77 M o l l en d o , 6 28
M a ra fion R , 6 0 0 M erid a , S i er a d o , 6 22 M cl or O a ng e B asin r
zgg
.

M a i b u rg , 2 1 3
-
r
M e ri m a c R 5 6 2 .
,
 IN D EX 6 47

M o l o p o R 4 70 M ul l, 1 1 3 N el so n R , 5 4 2 .

M o l u cca s , 3 8 5 M u ll a P a s s, 3 6 5 N em uro , 3 9 7
M o m b a sa 4 5 4 , M ul t a n , 3 6 6 N en R , 1 3 5 .

M o m ein 3 8 2 , M u n i ch 2 1 5 N ep a l , 3 6 7
M o na d n o ck
,

, M o u nt, 5 6 1 M u r R , 269
.
N ep ea n R , 49 6 .

M o na g h a n , 1 6 2 M urc hiso n Fa l l s 4 0 8 N ora R , 25 2 , .

M o n a s t ir, 2 8 4 M urc hiso n R , 4 8 1 N ess , L o ch , 1 1 1 .

M ong o lia , 3 9 5 M u rc ia , 2 4 7 N etz e R , 208 .

M o n s, 2 26 M urg ha b R , 3 04 N eu ehh t el 25 9
.
,

M o n so on s 6 3 , M urm a n C o a s t, 2 9 0 N eu fa h rwa sser, 2 0 8

M o nta fm , 6 1 5 M urra y 4 9 5 , N eva R , 2 8 9 .

M o nt a u x S o urces, 46 8 M urra y R 4 9 7 N eva d a , 5 7 5

.
,

M o nt B l a ne, 2 6 2 M urree, 3 6 2 N evis, 5 9 0

M o n t C eni s , 2 6 2 r
M ur u m b i dg ee R 4 75 N ewa a Eliy a 3 7 5 r ,

M o nte G a rg a n o , 253 M ii rz R 2 6 5 N ew B ru n sw i c k , 546

M o nt erey 5 8 4 , M u sg ra ve R a ng e , 4 8 1 N ewc as t l e, 1 1 4
M o nt e R o s a , 26 3 M as k ey s , 5 5 2 N ewc a st l , 49 6 e
M o nt e vid eo , 6 2 9 M u s ta g h Ata , 3 4 1 N ewca s tl e u n d er L y me , - -

M o n t e V is e 26 1
M o n tf erra t H i l l s , 255
M o n t Fré j u s , 2 6 2
M o n t G en ev e, 0 0 1
262
M o n t P elee , 1
M o n tp el li er, 23 9
M usta g h Ra ng e , 3 4 1
, 1 22
M y ne d d Pres cel l y , 1 28
M y s o re , 3 7 4
r
M y s o re P l a tea u , 3 7 2
N a g a H il l s, 3 77
N ag a s a k i 3 98
N ew Ch a m an , 3 6 4
N ew Eng l a n d , 5 6 1
N ew E ng l a n d Pl a teau .
49 6
N ew Fo es t, 1 4 6 r
N ewf oun d la n d , 5 4 4
,

M o nt rea l 5 5 0 N a g p ur, 3 7 1 N ew G uin ea , 5 0 3

N a h u el H u a p i, L a k
,

r
M o nt ser a t , 5 9 0 e, 63 2 N ew Gu inea , B ri ti sh , 5 0 3
M o n t l uc o n , 2 3 5 N a i o bi 4 5 5 r , N ewh a ven , 1 4 5
M o o rf o o t H ill s, 1 0 7 N a m a q u a P l a t ea u , 4 03 N ew H eb rid es , 5 1 7
M o o se R , 5 4 2 . N am k in , 3 7 7 N ew M a l t o n, 1 1 6
M o o sej a w , 5 5 3 N a m ur, 2 2 5 N ew O rl ea n s , 5 7 3
M ora i n es , 1 3 N a n a im o 5 5 9 N ew P l y m o u th , 5 07
,

M o ra r, L o ch , 1 1 2 N a n c y , 23 2 N ewp o rt , 1 27
M o ra va R 2 8 2 N a n g a P a rb a t, 3 6 0 N ewp ort , I s l e o f W ig h t ,
M o ra vi a n G a te , 272 N an k ing 3 9 2 , 1 46
M o ra vi a n U p l a nd s , 27 2 N a n twi c h 1 2 1 N ew P ro vid en c e, 5 8 8
,

M o ra y F irt h , 1 1 2 N a o s h era , 3 6 2 N ew q u a y , 1 5 3
M o rea , 2 8 5 N a p i er, 5 07 N ew y R , 1 6 3 r .

M o re ca m b e B a y , 1 20 N a p o R , 6 23 . N ew S h o reh a m 1 4 5 ,

M o rriso n , M o u n t, 3 9 8 N arba d a R , 3 6 9 N ew S o u t h W a l es , 4 9 6
.

M o rva n , 2 3 3 Naren ta R , 2 7 0 N ewt o n Abb o t, 1 5 0

.

M o sco w, 2 9 2 N a re v R , 2 0 8 N ewt o wn a rd s , 1 6 3
.

M o sel l e R , 2 1 2 N a ri a g a n set t B a y , 56 2 N ew W estm in ster, 5 5 9

N a s ikG a p 3 7 3 N ew Y o rk
.

M o s sa m e d es s 6 5 , , 563
,

M o s tar 27 1 N a s sa u 5 8 8 N ew ea l a n d , 5 04 Z
N g a m i , L ak
, ,

N a ta l 4 6 9 e, 4 0 1
’
M o su l 3 5 1
, ,

M ou n ta i n w a rp i n g , 5 7 5 N a uro u s e , C o l d o 2 3 7 N g a uru h o e, 5 04 ,

M o u n t B iseh o fl’ , 5 0 1 N aza s R 5 8 2 N ia g a ra , 5 4 8
M o u n t L o f t y R a n g e, 4 8 0 N a ze. C ap e 1 9 7 Ni c a a g u a , 5 8 6
,
r
M o un t L y e l l , 5 0 1 N ceg b , L o u g h 1 6 2 Ni c e, 23 9 ,

M o un t M o rg a n , 4 9 9 N e ck a r G o rg e 2 1 3 Ni c o s ia , 2 8 8 ,

M oun t W h i tn ey , 5 7 6 N ee k ar P l a t ea u , 2 1 2 N iem en R , 2 0 6 .

M o u rn e M t s , 1 6 3 N ec k ar R , 2 1 2 N ieu w vel d , 4 7 0
.

r
.

M o urne R , 1 6 2
M o vil l e, 1 6 2
M o z a m b i q u e, 4 5 7
M uc h W e n l o c k , 1 24
M uk d en , 3 9 3
. N ee d l es 1 4 6
N ot e d , 3 4 8
N eg a ti ve movem en ts , 2
N eg ra is , C a p e, 3 7 6
N eg ri S em b il a n , 3 8 3
,
N ig e D el ta , 4 6 2
N ig er R 4 0 5
N ig e ia , N o rt h ern , 4 6 2 r
Nig e ia , S o u t h ern, 4 6 1 r
Nik o l a y ev, 29 1

M u lde R , 2 1 0 N ej d , 3 4 7 Nile C h a d D ivid e 4 0 7 -

,

Nil e D el t a , 1 6 4 4 7
.

M u l h a u s en 2 1 2 ,
N el so n , 5 07 ,
 6 48
N il e R , 4 05 , 4 4 6
. Ok
N ilg iris , 3 6 9
N im eg u en , 223
N i m es , 23 9
N ip i ssi ng , L a e, 5 5 1
N is h , 28 2
N ish a y a R , 2 8 3 . O ly mp u s, M o un , 5 7 8
t
N i h R , 1 08 .
t
N i h s d a l e, 1 1 8
N iuc h w a ng , 3 9 3
N iu e, 5 1 4
N iz h ny i N o g o o d , 2 9 1
-
N o g a l es , 5 8 4
N om ad i sm , 8 2
N o re R , 1 5 9
.
k
N orf o l B ro a d s , 1 3 6
k
N o rf o l Is l a n d , 4 9 7
N o rm a n d y , 2 3 4
N o rtes , 5 8 2
t
N o r h C a p e, 1 9 7
t
N o r h D o w ns , 1 4 2
t r
N o r h e n T erri o y , 5 0 0
t wc
N or h i h , 1 2 1
c
N o rwi h , 1 3 6
t
N o re D a m e M t s , 5 4 9
tt
N o i ng h a m , 1 2 2
c t
N o va S o ia , 5 4 5
N o vi b a z a r, 2 7 9
b
N u ia , 4 0 0
b
N u ia n R a ng es , 4 4 8
N u l l a rb o r P l a in s , 4 8 1
t
N u n ea o n , 1 23
N fi rn b erg , 2 1 3
N y a sa , L a e , 4 0 0 k O s s a , 28 5
N y a sa l a n d , 4 5 7
N y ik t
a , P l a ea u o f , 4 5 7
O ah u, 5 1 6
O a m a ru , 5 0 8
O ats , 8 8
O a x a ca, 5 8 1
O ba n , 1 1 2
O b erl a n d , 2 5 7
Oh R 336
O b ra R 20 8
O cea n cu rren ts , 2 1 ,
O c ea n Is l a n d , 5 1 6
O c hil s , 1 0 8
O c h ri d a , L a k e, 2 7 7
O d en wa l d , 2 1 2
r
O d e R , 20 9 .
O d es sa , 2 9 1
( Et a , 2 8 5
O f en P a ss , 26 4
O f o t en F j o rd , 1 9 6
O g o we R , 4 0 5 . O z a rkP l a ea u , 5 7 1
O h io R , 5 6 8
. P em ro k
O ic h , L o c h , 1 1 1
Ok a na g a n , L a k e, 5 5 8
Ok a na g a n R , 5 5 8
TEX T B O O K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY
a R , 29 1 . P a h a ng , 3 8 3
Ok em ent R , 1 4 9 . t
P a l a in a e, 2 1 2 t
O l d h am , 1 1 9 P a l erm o , 25 3
t
O l if a n s R , 4 7 1 . t
P a l es in e, 3 4 7
k O li ve o i l , 9 5 t
P a lg h a G a p , 3 7 2
O l y m p u s, 3 4 4 P a lm o i l , 9 5
t P a m irs , 3 4 1
O maha, 5 70 c
P am li o S ou nd , 5 6 6
O m a n, 3 4 8 P a m p a s , G3 0
O m an M t s , 3 4 8 . P a m p l o na , 24 3
O m sk , 3 3 6 P a na m a , 5 8 5
v r O neg a , L a k e, 2 9 0 b
P a ng o ur ne, 1 3 7
O neg lia , 2 5 0 P a n g o P a ng o , 5 1 6
O n eh u ng a , 5 0 7 Pa nj k o ra , 3 6 2
t
O n a ri o , 5 5 1 P ans, 4 6 7
O n ari o , L a k
t e, 5 4 8 Pap u a , 5 0 3
t c
O o a am u n d , 3 7 4 P a ra, 6 28
t
O p o r o , 24 8 P a ra g u a y , 6 2 9
O ra n , 4 44 P a ra m a ri o , 6 23b
O ra n g e, 2 3 8 tt
P a ra ma a , R , 4 7 8 .
O ra ng e F ree S a e, 4 6 8 t t P a ra m o s , 6 1 7
t r O ra ng e R , 4 6 8 . P a ra n a R , 5 9 6 .
o rd R , 4 8 1 . P a ra sna th 3 6 9 .
O rd o s D eser , 3 9 0 t P a ri s , 23 3
. O reg o n , 5 7 8 P a rkR a ng e , 5 74
b
O ren u rg , 3 4 1 -
P a rm a , 2 5 0
c
O rin o o R , 5 9 5 , 6 2 2 . P a rna s sus 2 8 5
b
O riz a a , 5 8 0 P a rn o n M t s 2 8 5
O rk ne y s , 1 1 3 P a ss a m a q u o d d y
O rl ea n s , 23 5 546
t
O ro n es R , 3 4 6 . P a ss a u , 2 1 6
w
O r el l R , 1 3 6 . t
P a a g o n ia n P l a ea u , 5 9 8 t
O sa k a, 3 98 Pa kt o i M ts , 3 77 .
t
P a na , 3 6 8
w t
O s es ry , 1 24 t
P a ra s , 2 8 7
t
O ag o , 5 1 2 t
P a ra s , G u lf o f , 2 8 5
t
O a g o P enin su l a , 5 0 8 P a u , 23 7
O t hry s M t s , 2 8 5 . P au lo Af o n so R ap id s ,
t
O ira G o rg e, 5 0 6 59 6
t t
O ra n o , 2 5 3 v
P a i a , 25 5
O tt w
a a, 55 1 P a y sa n d u , 6 2 9
tt
O a wa R , 5 4 8 . c
P ea e R , 5 5 4 .
tt b
O er urn , 1 0 8 P ea k , 1 22
tt
O er R , 1 4 8 . c
P e h i l i , G u lf o f , 3 9 3
tt
O ery S t M a ry , 1 4 8 . c
P e h o ra R , 29 0 .
O twa y H i ll s , 4 9 5 P e d ro t a l l a g a l l a , 3 7 5
c t
O u a h i a H il l s , 5 7 ] b
P ee l es , 1 0 7
c
O u h e R , 23 3 . P eel , 1 6 3
t
O u d sh o o rn , 4 7 1 P eg u Y o m a , 3 7 8
O u se, G rea , R , 1 3 5 t . P eih o R , 3 9 0 .
O u se R , 1 1 5 . P ei w a r K o a l , 3 6 4 t
O u se, S u ssex , R , 1 4 5 . P ek in g , 3 9 0
O verf o ldi n g , 5 P el io n , 28 5
k
O w en il l ew R , 1 6 2 . P el o p o n n ese, 2 8 7
O xf ord , 1 4 0 P el o ru s S o u n d , 5 06
t b
P em a , 4 5 5
b e, 1 2 8
P em ro k
b e Do k , 1 28c
P e na ng , 3 8 3
. P en d l e H il l , 1 1 8
6 50 T EX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

R a m es wa ra m , 3 7 5 R h one R , 2 3 7 . Ru g b y , 1 2 5
R a m p ur, 3 6 2 Ria C oasts , 1 6 9 , 24 5 R u h r V a l l ey , 2 1 3
R am sey , 1 3 5 R i bb l e R , 1 1 5 . Ru k wa , L a ke, 4 0 3
R a m sey , I s l e o f M an , 1 6 3 R i c e, 8 8 R u p ert R , 54 2 .

R a nd s , 4 6 7 R i c h el ieu R , 5 4 9 . R us ch uk , 283
R a ng o o n , 3 8 1 R ich m o n d , 1 1 5 R u ssia n B a s in , C en tra l ,
R a nn o c h , L o c h , 1 1 1 R i ch m o n d , U S A 5 6 6 . . 29 1
Ra ro t o n g a , 5 1 4 R id e au C a n a l , 5 5 1 R u s s ia n H eig h t s , C en
Ra s D et c h en , 4 00 R i d ing M t s , 5 5 3 . tra l 29 1
,

Ra s M u san d i m , 3 4 9
R a t is b o n , 2 1 3
R a wa l Pin d i , 2 6 2
R a y , C a p e, 5 4 4
R ea d ing , 1 3 7
R ea d in g ,
R ifi M t s , 4 4 2. R u s s ia n S ep p e s, 3 3 9 t
R if t V a ll ey , Af ri c a , 4 0 0 R u s sia n T u rk es a n , 3 3 9 t
R if t V a ll ey , G rea t, 4 5 1 w
R u en z o ri , 4 4 6 , 4 5 1
R if t va l l ey s , 4 R y e, 1 4 4
R ig a , 28 9 R y e, 8 8
56 7 R i m a c R , 6 26 .

R ea , L o u g h , 1 5 8 R im in i , 2 5 0 S aa l e R 2 1 0 .

R ecif e, 6 2 9 R i o d e J a n eiro , 6 2 9 S a cc o R 25 2
R e d d itc h , 1 23 R io G ra n d e, 5 7 5 S a cra m en t o , 5 7 7
R e d hi l l , 1 4 3 R io G ra n d e d o S u l , 6 29 S a c ra m en t o R 5 77 .
,

R ed o n d a , 5 9 1 R io N eg ro , 5 9 7 S a f ed K o h , 3 6 3
R e d R iver, 5 5 3 R io n R , 3 3 8
. S a g u ena y R , 5 4 2 .

R e d R i ver, As ia , 3 8 7 R ip o n , 1 1 5 S a h ara n P l a t ea u , 4 4 3
R e d ru t h , 1 5 3 R iverin a , 4 9 7 S a h el R , 4 4 4.

r
R eg en sb u g , 2 1 3 R i ver terra ces , 1 5 S t A bb s H ea d , 1 0 7
.
’

R eg in a , 5 5 3 Ri vers , ty p i ca l p a rts of , S t A l b a n s H ea d , 1 4 5
’
.

R eg n itz R , 2 1 3
. 1 6 8, 21 4 S t An dre w s , 1 09
.

r
R ei ch en b e g , 2 7 2 c
R o h d a le, 1 1 9 S t An d re w s C a n a d a , 5 4 6
.
’

R eig a te, 1 4 3 c t
R o h es er, 1 4 3 S t An n e s H ea d 5 6 2
’
. .

R eino sa , P a s s o f , 24 5 c t
R o h es er, 565 St . A n th o n y Fa l l s o f , ,

R enf rew H eig h t s , 1 08 R o ckh a m p to n 4 9 8 , 570

R enn es , 23 4 R o ckies 5 5 5 S t Au stel l , 1 5 2
Res c h en S ch eid ec k
, .

, 26 4 R o cky M o u nt a in T ren c h , S t B erna rd in o P a s s , 2 6 3

.

R es h t , 3 5 1 557 S t D a vid s , 1 2 8
.

R esi d ua l m ts , 5 6 6
. R o d rig u ez , 4 6 0 S t El ia s M o u n t , 5 6 0
. ,

R eu nio n , 4 6 0 R o g ers P a ss , 5 5 7 St . Et ien n e 2 3 6 ,

R eu s s , 2 5 7 k
R o i tn o M a rsh e s , 29 1 St t r
G o h a d , 25 7
.

R eva l , 28 9 R o m a n ch e R , 26 2 . St t
G o h a rd P a s s, 2 59 ,
R ey k j a vi k
.

, 205 R o m e, 25 2 , 5 64 26 3
R h ei m s , 2 3 2 R o m ne y M a rs h , 1 4 4 S t H el en a , 4 7 3
.

R h einf el d en , 25 8 R o n c es va ll es , P a ss of , S t H el ens , 1 1 8
.

R h in e B a s i n , 2 1 4 23 7 S t H el en s , M ou n , 5 7 7
. t
R h in e , F a l l s o f , 2 1 2 R o p er R , 4 8 1 . v
S t I es , 1 5 5
.

R h i ne G o rg e, 2 1 3 R o ra i m a , 5 9 3 S t Jo h n s, 5 44
’
.

R h ine, H inter, 26 3 R o s ario , 6 3 0 S t J o h n, L ak

. e, 5 5 0
R h ine, R if t V a ll ey o f , R o setta , 4 4 7 St John R
. 546
21 5 R o s sl a n d , 5 5 9 S t K il d a , 1 1 3
.

R h in o B , 2 1 1
. R o ssl a re, 1 6 0 . tt
S t Ki s, 5 9 0
c t
R h i n e S h is H ig h l a n d s , R o st o v , 2 9 1 r c
S t L a w en e R , 5 4 7
. .

21 3 R o sy th , 1 1 0 S t L o uis , 5 7 0
.

R h o d e Is l an d , 5 6 2 R o t h a a r S a u e rl a n d-

S t L o u i s , Af ri a , 4 6 0
. c
R h o d es , 3 4 4 H ig hl a n d s 2 1 0 . c
S t L u ia , 5 9 0
.

R h o d o p e , 27 9 R o t h er R , 1 4 4 . S t M a le, 2 3 4
R o t o ru a , L a k
.

R h o d es i a , 4 5 8 e, 5 0 4 S t M a uri e R , 5 5 0
. c .

R h o d es ia , t
N or h E a s , -
t R o tterd a m , 223 c
S t M i h ael s M o u n , 1 5 5
.
’
t
45 8 R o u en , 23 4 Paul , 570
R h o d es i a , t
N o r h W es ,-
t R o vu m a R 4 0 6 t
P e ers u rg , 2 9 0 b
458 R u ap eh u , M o u nt , 5 0 4 P ierre , 5 4 5
t
R h o d es ia , S o u h ern , 4 5 8 R u bber, 9 0 T h o m a s, 4 6 3
t n, 2 1 0 R ud olf, La k e, 4 0 1 T h o m a s , W es In d ies, t
t
R h an e D el a , 23 8 Ru fi j i R , 4 0 6. 590

S t V in ce n t , 5 9 0
.
S a l a ma n c a , 24 5
S a l a m bria R , 2 7 7 . S a x o n S wi tz erl an d , 27 2
e
S a l co m b R , 1 5 1 . S a xo n y , 2 1 0
S a l i s b ury , 4 5 8
S a l o ni c a , 2 8 4
S a l ta , 6 3 0
S a l t L ak e C i ty , 5 7 6
r
S a l t o n D ep es s io n , 5 7 5
S a l va d o , 5 8 7r
S a l ween R 3 8 1 , 3 9 4
S a lz a ch R 26 9
r
S a l z bu g , 2 6 9
S a lzk
r
a m m e g u t, 26 9
S a m a ra , 29 2
S a m a rk an d , 3 4 0
r
S am b e R 2 24
S am o a , 5 1 5 , 5 1 6
S a na , 3 4 8
S an B l a s , 5 8 4
S an d a k an , 3 8 5
S a n d em a n , F o rt, 3 6 4
S a n D ieg o , 5 7 8
S an D o mi n g o , 5 89
S and s ton es , 8
S an d wi ch I s l a n d s, 5 1 5
S a n F ra n c i s c o , 6 7 8
S a n J o a q u in , 5 7 7
S a n J osé , 5 8 6
S an J uan M t s , 5 74
S an J ua n R , 5 74 . S el k
S a n L o u i s P o t o s i , 58 4
S a n L o u is V a l l e y , 5 7 5
S an P a b lo B a y , 5 78
S a np o R , 3 9 4 . S emi p a l a tins k 3 3 6
S a n S a l va d o r, 5 8 7
S a n ta C ruz Is la n d s , 5 1 6
S an ta F 6 , 6 3 0
S a n ta n d er, 24 4
S a n t ia g o , 6 3 3
S a nt ia g o d e C u b a , 5 8 9
S a n t o s , 6 29
s ec F ra n c is c o , 59 3
S a one R , 2 3 7 .
s ec P a u l o , 6 2 9
S a ra g os sa , 2 4 7
S a ra t o v, 2 9 2
S a ra wa k , 3 85
S a rd in i a , 2 5 3
S a ri k o l, 3 4 1
S ask a tc h e wa n , 5 5 3
S ask a tc h ewa n R , 5 5 3
S a tp ura Ra ng es , 3 7 2
S a u l t S t M arie, 5 5 1 , 5 7 0
. S ha f te s b ury , 1 3 7
S a vag e I s l an d , 5 1 4
S a va ii, 5 1 6
S a va nn a h , 5 6 7
S a va n nas , 7 6
S a ve R , 26 5.
S a v ern e , 0 0 1 d e, 2 1 2
IND EX
S a vo na , 2 5 0
S a w a t c h R a ng e, 5 7 4
S a y an M ts 3 0 1
S ca n ia , 1 9 5
S carb o rO ug h , 1 1 6
S ca m la nd s 1 6 8
-
S c a wf el l , 1 1 7
S ca wf el l Pik e, 1 1 7
S c h el d e , R , 22 1
S ch en ect a d y , 5 6 4
S c hu lk il l R , 5 6 6
S c il l y I s l es , 1 5 6
S c rivi a R , 2 5 0 . r
S cu ta ri , 2 7 7
S ea , a c ti o n of , 1 2
S ea a n d la nd breezes , 5 1
S ea t o n , 1 4 5
S ea tt l e, 5 7 8
S ebu R , 4 4 2
. S h u targ a rd an P a ss , 3 6 4
S eo h w a n 3 9 0 ,
S ed a n, 23 2
S edg em o o r, 1 3 2
S ee f el d P a s s , 2 1 5
S eg re R 2 4 4 .
, S i b i, 3 64
S eine R , 2 3 1.
S ei s t a n , 3 5 1
S é l ang o r, 3 8 3
. S el eng a R , 29 5
irk 1 0 7
, r
S el k irkT ren c h , 5 5 7
S el k irk s, 5 5 7
S el vas , 6 1 5
S em m ering P a ss , 2 6 5
S eneg a l , 4 6 0
S eneg a l R , 4 6 0
S eo ul , 3 9 8
S ep t i m er P a ss , 2 6 3
S era in g 2 2 6,
S era y evo , 2 7 1
r
S e e th R , 2 8 0 . rr
S erin g a p a ta m , 3 7 4
S ervi a n H ig h l a n d s , 2 7 7
S eva s t o p o l , 29 1
S eveno a k s, 1 4 4
S e vern R , 1 2 4 . S il esia , 2 7 3
S ev il l e 2 4 6
,
S ey ch el l es , 4 6 0
S f a x , 44 5
. S ha d ufs , 4 4 7
S ha flih a u sen , 25 8
S h a n d u r Ra ng e , 3 6 2
S h a ng h a i, 3 9 2
S ha nn o n R , 1 5 8
S h an s i , 3 8 9
S h a n S t a tes , 3 7 8
S h a ntu ng , 3 9 0
65 1
S h a p Fel l , 1 1 7
S ha r D ag h , 2 77
S h a s t a , M o u nt , 5 7 7
S h emel a, 1 1 5
., e
S h l it R , 4 44
.
S h en si, 3 8 9
S h et la n d s , 1 1 3
, S h iel , L o ch , 1 1 2
S h iel d s, N orth , 1 1 4
S h iel d s, S ou th , 1 1 4
. S hig at s e, 3 9 4
S hi k ok u, 397
S h il k a R , 33 6
. .
S hip k a P a ss , 2 7 9
S h i az , 3 5 1
r
S h i e H ig h l a n d s , 4 5 7
S hiré R 4 0 6 , 4 5 3
S h ell s , 4 0 1
r
S h ews bury , 1 24
S hu swa p L ak e, 5 5 7
S h y o kR , 3 6 0
.
S ia m, 3 8 6
S ia m , G ul f o f , 3 77
S i b eri an L o w l an d , 2 9 9
S i cil y , 2 5 3
S id m ou t h , 1 4 5
S id R 1 4 8
. S ieb eng eb irg e, 2 1 3
S ier a Co rd o b a , 6 3 0
r
S ier a d e G ra d o s , 2 4 6
r
S ier a d e G ua d a rra m a ,
24 6
, S ierra L eo ne, 4 6 1
S ierra M a dre, E a s t ern ,
580
. r
S ier a M a dre, W es te rn ,
5 80
S ierra M erida , 5 9 6
r r
S ier a M o ena , 2 4 6
rr
S ie a N eva d a , 24 6
S ie a N eva d a , Ca l i
f o rnia , 5 7 6
S ig P l a in , 4 4 4
S ik ia ng , 3 9 2
S ik kim, 3 6 7
S i lk , 93
S im c o e, L a k
e, 5 4 9
S im l a , 3 6 2
S im p l o n Pa ss , 26 3
S in d , 3 6 5
S ing an , 3 89
S ing a p ore, 3 8 3
S itta ng R 3 78 , 3 8 1
. k r
S a g e ak , 2 00
Sk a g wa y R 5 60
Sk r
a do, 3 6 2
S lcerri es , 1 6 8
 6 52 TE XT B OO K -
OF GE O GRAP H Y

Sk id d a w , 1 1 7 r
S p ee R , 2 0 9 . S u ng a ri R , 3 3 6 , 3 9 3 .

Sk j a erg a a rd , 1 9 6 S rin a g a r, 3 6 2 t
S u ra , 3 7 3
Sk o p lie , 2 7 8 S t a ff o rd , 1 22 S u s q u eh a nn a , 5 6 7
Sk u ta ri, 28 3 S t a n l ey F a l l s , 4 6 4 t
S u l ej R , 3 6 0 .

Sk u t a i, L a k
r e o f , 28 3 S t a n l ey P 0 0 1, 4 6 4 v
Su a, 5 16
Sk y e, 1 1 3 S t a nl ey vil l e, 4 6 4 w
S u a rro , 5 1 4 w
S l a n ey R , 1 5 9 . S t a no v o i M t s , 3 0 0 . v b r
S ea o g , 2 9 0
S l a vo nia , 2 7 1 S t a rt P o int , 1 5 1 w b
S a i a n J u ra , 2 1 2
S l ea t, S o u n d o f , 1 1 2 S t a u nt o n, 5 6 7 S ak
w o p m u nd , 4 6 5
S l i ev e B l o o m , 1 6 0 S t a va ng e , 1 9 9 r w
S a le R , 1 1 5 .

S l i eve L ea g ue , 1 6 1 S tel vi o P a s s , 26 4 w
S an R , 4 8 1 .

S l ig o , 1 5 9 S t ep h e n , 3 5 5 w
S a n a g e, 1 4 5
S m y rn a , 3 4 4 S tep p es , 7 5 w
S a n sea , 1 2 7
S n a ef el l 1 6 3 S t ettin , 209 w
S a , 392 t
S na k e R 5 74 S t even s o n R o a d , 4 5 8 w
S a R , 3 62t .

S no wdo n, 3 4, 1 3 0 S tewa rt I s l a n d , 5 0 6 w
S in d o n , 1 3 1
S n o wy R , 4 7 5 . S t irl ing , 1 0 9 w
S i n em un d e , 2 0 9
S o ar R , 1 2 2
. S t ik in e R , 5 6 0 . S w il l y , L o u g h , 1 6 1
S o ba t R , 4 4 8
. S t o ck h o l m , 2 03 w
S is s P l a ea u , 2 5 7 t
S o c iety I s l a n d s , 5 1 5 S t o ck p o rt, 1 1 9 S y d n ey , 4 9 6
S o fi a, 28 3 S to c k to n , 1 1 4 S y ra , 2 8 7
S o g ne F j o rd , 1 9 9 S to k e o n T ren t , 1 2 1
- -
c
S y ra u se, 5 6 5
S o i ls , 1 3 , 9 8 S t o n eh eng e, 1 3 7 S y r D a ri a , 3 4 0
S ok o to , 4 6 2 S t oreh o u s e, 1 5 2 S y ri a , 3 4 5
S ok o t o Pl a t ea u , 4 0 2 S t o rm b erg en , 4 7 2 S y ri a n D ese , 3 4 6 rt
S ok o tra , 4 5 0 S t o rna w a y , 1 1 2 S y ri a n G a e , 3 4 5 t
S o l e nt , 1 4 6 r
S t o u rb i d g e , 1 2 5 S z a m o s R , 27 3 .

S o l i n g en , 2 1 3 S t o u r, D o s et R , 1 3 6 r . S z eg d in , 2 7 8
S o l o m o n I s l a n d s, 5 1 6 S t o ur , K en tis h R , 1 4 3 .

S o lu ti on , 8 S t o ur R , 1 25 . T a bl el a n ds , 1 8 , 1 6 8
S o l wa y F irt h , 1 1 7 S t ra h a n , 5 0 2 b
T a l e M o un a in , 4 7 1 t
S o m a l il a nd , B rit is h , 4 5 0 S tra its S e ttl em ent s , 3 8 3 c
T a om a , 5 78
S o m a l il a nd , F ren ch , 4 5 0 S tra nra er, 1 0 8 T a d m o r, 3 4 6
S o m a l il a n d , It a l ia n , 4 5 0 S tra s s bu g , 2 1 2 r T a d o u sa H a r o u r, 5 5 0 c b
S o m m e R , 23 1 . S tra tf o d , 1 2 5 r T af R , 1 2 7
S t retin sk
.

S o n drio , 25 4 , 336 '‘

l a fi l et , 4 4 3
S o ng k o i, 3 8 7 S tro u d , 1 2 6 T a g a nro g , 2 9 1
S o n o ra , 5 8 4 S tru m a R , 2 7 9 . T a g l ia m en o R , 2 6 5 t .

S o ra t a , 5 9 9 S tur a R , 2 6 1 . T a g u s R , 24 5 .

S o u fl’ri ere T h e , 1 S turmi ns ter N ewt o n , 1 4 0 T a h o e, L a k e, 5 7 7

S o u ris R 55 3 S tu ttg a rt, 2 1 2 T a iga , 3 3 6
S o uth am p to n, 1 4 6 S t y ria , 26 9 T a iy u en , 3 8 9
S o u th Au s tra lia , 5 0 0 S uak in , 4 4 8 Tak t
h i S u l a im a n , 3 6 3
- -

S o u t h D o wn s , 1 4 4 S u d a n , An g l o E g y p t ia n , -
T ak la M ak -
a n D eser , 3 9 4 t
S o u t h ern A l p s , 5 0 6 44 8 T a l if u , 3 8 2
S o u t h ern U p l a n d s , 1 0 6 S u d a n , F ren ch , 4 6 0 T a m ar R , 5 0 2 .

S o u th H a m s , 1 5 0 S u d b ury , 5 5 1 t v
T a m a a e, 4 6 0
S o u t h l a n d P l a in s , 5 0 6 S u d et es , 2 7 2 T a m e R , 1 24 .

S o u t h M o l to n , 1 4 9 S u ez C a na l , 4 4 7 T amp i o , 5 8 3 c
S o u th p o rt , 1 2 0 S u g a r ca n e, 8 9
-

w t
T a m o r h , 1 23
S p al a to , 27 7 S u ir R , 1 6 0 .
T ana , L a k e, 4 4 8
S p a l d in g , 1 3 5 S uk h o n a R , 29 0 .
r
T a na o R , 2 5 0
Suk kur, 3 6 4
.

S p en c er G u l f , 4 74 T a n g a n y ik a N y a sa P l a -
t
S p erri n M t s , 1 6 2 . S u l a i m a n R a n g es , 3 6 3 ea u , 4 5 2
S p es s a rt , 2 1 3 S u l i na , 2 8 1 T a ng ier, 4 4 2
S p ey R , 1 1 1?
. S u m a tra , 3 8 4 T a n j o re, 3 7 5
S p ez ia , 2 5 0 S u n d a rb a ns , 3 7 8 Tap ajos R , 59 6 .

S p ith ea d , 1 4 6 S u n d a S tra it , 3 8 4 T a p a S han , 3 9 0

- -

S p l iig en P a s s , 2 6 3 S u n d erl a n d , 1 1 4 T a p ti R 3 73
S p ok a ne, 5 7 5 S u n f o rc e, 3 7
-

T a ra na k i, 5 1 2
6 54 TEX T B OO K
-
OF GE O GRAPHY

T u ng ing L a k
t e, 5 9 2 t
V a l el l ina , 25 4 c
V u l a n o , 25 3
T un is , 4 4 5 k
V a n , L a e, 3 3 8 V y c h eg d a R , 29 0 .

T u n j a R , 28 3 . c v
V a n o u er I s l a n d , 5 5 9
t
T un s a l l , 1 2 1 V a nu a L e u , 5 1 6 v W a ag R 2 7 3 .
,

T ura n , 29 8 V a rd a r R , 2 7 7 . W a a l R 22 0 .
,

T u rin , 25 5 V arna , 2 8 3 W adai 46 3 ,

Tu kr t
es a n , 3 4 0 V eg eta ti o n , z on es of , 7 1 W a d i B i sk ra 4 4 4 ,

T urk t
es a n , Chi n es e, 3 9 4 Vel d , hi g h, 4 6 7 W a d i D ra a 4 4 3 ,

T urn h o u , 2 2 5 t V eld , lo w, 4 6 7 W a di H a dra m au t 3 4 8 ,

c
T u s a n H il l s , 25 2 V eld , midd le 4 6 7 , W a di H a lf a 4 4 8 ,

c
T u s a ny , 25 2 V el u w e, 2 20 W a d i Z is 4 4 3 ,

t
T u ui l a , 5 1 6 V en d ee, 2 3 5 W adi s 6 ,

t
T w a , 4 02 V en er, L a k e, 2 0 2 W ag g a W a g g a 4 7 7
-

T w eed R 1 07 V en ez u el a , 6 2 2 W a ik a to R 5 04 .
,

T y ne G a p , 1 1 4 c
V eni e, 25 5 W a im ea P l a in s 5 0 7 ,

T y ne R , 1 1 4 . V ent n o r, 1 4 6
-
W a ira ra p a P l a ins 5 04 ,

T y n em o u h , 1 1 4 t V era C ru z , 5 8 0 W a ira u P l a in s 5 07 ,

T y ro l , 26 8 V erd e, C a p e, 4 6 1 W a ira u R 5 0 6 .
,

V ero n a , 2 5 5 W a ka tip u L a k e 5 06 , ,

U b a y e R , 26 1 . rv
V e i ers , 2 25 W a l en s t a d t L a k e o f 25 7 , ,

U c a y a li R , 5 9 6 v
V esu i u s , 25 3 W a lla c e s li n e 2 1
’
.
,

U d a ip ur, 3 6 9 V e er, L a k
tt e, 202 W a l lk il l R 5 6 3 .
,

U d in e, 25 5 V ia M a l a , 26 3 W a l l sen d 1 1 4 ,

U g an d a , 4 5 6 b
V i o rg , 2 8 9 W a l s a ll 1 2 3 ,

U i n ta ty p e, 4 ct
V i o ria , 4 9 4 W a l vi sc h B a y 4 6 5 ,

U is t , N o rt h , 1 1 3 ct
V i o ria Fa l l s , 4 08 W a ng a nu i Pl a in 5 04 ,

U is t , S o ut h , 1 1 3 V i oria , L a k
ct e, 4 5 6 W an k ie 4 5 9 ,

U j i j i, 4 5 6 ct
V i oria N y a n z a , 4 4 6 W a n s b ec kR 1 0 7
U l l s w a t er, 1 1 7 ct
V i oria n H ig h l a n d s , 4 9 5 W a rd o ur V a l e o f 1 3 7 , ,

U m b ra il P a s s , 2 6 5 ct
V i o ria n R a ng e s , 4 7 5 W ar M t s 4 0 7 . ,

U n g a va , 5 5 9 ct
V i o ria n V a l l ey , 49 4 W a rth e R 2 0 8 .
,

U p o lu , 5 1 6 V i en n a , 2 7 1 W a rwi ck 1 25 ,

U ra l s , 29 0 V ig o , 24 4 W arwi ck A u stra l ia 4 9 8 , ,

U re R , 1 1 5 . V il a in e R , 23 4 . W a sa tch M t s , 5 7 6 .

U rg a , 29 7 c t
V i l a n o a Kn o , 5 9 9 t W a sh 1 3 5
,

U rm ia , L a k e, 3 3 8 c c
V in o a y a , 5 9 7 W a s hi ng t o n 5 6 6 ,

U ru g u a y , 6 2 9 V in d h y a H i l l s , 3 6 9 W a st w a t er 1 1 6
U s kR , 1 2 6
,

. t c
V in s h g a u , 26 4 W a t erf o r d 1 6 0 ,

Us k ub 2 7 8, V i o sa R , 2 7 7
. W a ter g a p s 1 0 1 4 0 5 5 7 , , , ,

U s p a l l a t a P a ss , 5 9 9 V i rg i n I s l e s , 5 9 0 568
U si u'i R , 3 9 3 . V irg in ia C i y , 5 7 6 t W a ter, u nd erg rou nd , 8
U ta h , 5 7 5 tr t
V i s i sa R 27 8 W a ter va p ou r, 5 0
U ta h L a k e, 5 7 6 t
V i s u l a R , 208 W a z iri s a n , 3 6 3t
‘

U t i ca , 5 6 4 t v
V i i Le u , 5 1 6 W ea l d , 1 1 , 1 4 4
U trech t , 2 2 1 v
V i i, 4 04 W ea r R , 1 1 4 .

V iz a g a p a t a n , 3 7 5 v
W ea er R , 1 2 0
Vl a d ik a k
.

V aa l R 468
.
, va z, 3 3 8 W ei R , 3 8 9
V l a d ivo s t o c k
.

V a l B reg a g l ia , 26 4 393 W ei h a i w ei, 3 9 0

- -

V a lak
,

hi a , 28 1 Vl ey s , 4 6 5 W ei h o R , 2 9 5 .

V a l d i S o l e, 26 5 b
V o g el s erg , 2 1 0 W eim a r, 2 1 0
V a l d a i H il l s , 2 9 1 c
V o l ca n i m ou n ta i n s , 2 0 W ell a n d C a na l , 5 4 9
V a l di vi a , 6 3 4 c
V o lc a ni m o vem en ts , 1 W el l a n d R , 1 3 5 .

c
V a l en ia , 24 7 V o lg a R , 2 9 1 . W el l es l ey , P o in e, 3 8 3 r v c
c
V a l en i a , S o u h Am eri t ca , V olo , 2 8 7 W el ling o n , 1 2 4 t
6 22 V 0 10 , G u lf o f , 2 8 5 W el l ing t o n , N ew Z ea
t
V a l en ia , 1 6 1 V o l o g d a R , 29 0 . l and , 5 1 2
V a l la is , 2 5 9 t
V o l a R , 4 05 . W el l s , 1 3 3
V a ll ey wi n ds , 6 5 b
V o ra rl erg , 2 6 8 W el s h p o o l , 1 24
V a l l a d o l id , 24 5 V o sg es , 2 1 2 W en l o k c: E d g e, 1 24
r
V a l p a a is o , 6 3 3 b
V ry u rg , 4 7 0 tw t
W en o r h , 4 9 7
 IN D EX 65 5

W erra R 2 1 0 .
, W in d R iver R a ng e 5 7 4 , Y em en , 3 4 8
W ert a c h R 2 1 5 .
, W in dr u sh R 1 4 1 .
, Y eni sei R 3 3 6
W eser H eig h t s 2 1 1 , W in d wa rd I s l a n d s 5 9 0 , Y eo vi l , 1 3 2
W eser R 2 1 1 .
, W inn ip eg o s is L a k e 548 , Y eshi l Irm a k , 3 44

W es t A u stra lia 5 0 0 , W inni p eg 5 5 3 , Y es T o r, 1 5 0

W es t B ro m wi ch 1 23 , W i nni p eg L a k e 548 , , Y ez o , 3 9 6
W es t erwa l d 2 1 3 , W i nni p eg R 5 5 3 .
, Y ok o h am a , 3 9 8
W es t In d ies 5 8 8 , W irra l P en in sul a 1 20 , Y o l a , 4 05
W est l a n d P l a ins 5 06 , W i s b ec h 1 3 5 , Y ork , C a p e, 4 78
‘Ves t Lu l w o rth 1 3 6 , W is c o n s in 5 7 0 , Y ork , Pl a in o f ,
115
W est o n su p er M a re 1 3 3
- -

, W it h a m R 1 3 4 .
, Y o rkW o l d s , 1 1 6
W e s t p h a l ia 2 1 0 ,
VV it w a t erS ra n d , 4 6 7 Yo k rs h ire M o o rs , 1 1 6
W e st p h a l i a G a t e 2 1 1 W o l verh a m p t o n 1 2 3 , , Y o semite R , 5 7 7 .

W e s tp o rt 5 0 8 ,W oo d s Lak e o f th e 5 5 1 , , r
Y p es , 2 2 6
W ex f ord 1 6 0 , W o o d st o ck 1 4 0 , Y ser R , 2 27 .

W ey R 1 4 1 .
, W oo l 9 3 , Y st w i t h R , 1 2 9 .

VVe y m o u th 1 4 5 W o o l o ng o ng 4 7 6
, , Y u c a ta n , 5 8 3
W h a rf e R 1 1 5 W o rk
.
,i ng to n 1 1 7 , Y uk on R , 5 6 0 .

W h eat 8 7 , W rek in 1 2 4 , Y u nn a n , 3 9 1
W h ern s i d e 1 1 5 W ii rm S ee 2 1 5
, , Y u nn a n f u , 3 8 7 -

W h itb y 1 1 6 , W u rz b u rg 2 1 3 , Y u nn a n Pl a tea u , 3 0 1
VV h i t c h u rc h 1 24 W y e R 1 26 , .
,

W hi t eh a ven 1 1 7 W y e D erb y sh ire R 1 22

, , , Z a g ro s , 3 5 1
W hi t e H o rse H il l s 1 3 1 W y o m in g 5 74 , ,
Z b
a m ez i D el a , 4 5 3 t
W h it e H o rse Ra p id s 5 6 0 W y vil l e T h o m so n R i d g e ,
-

, Z b
a m ez i R , 4 00 , 4 5 1 .

W hi t e M o u n t a in s 5 6 1 22 , Z t
a n e, 28 5
\V hi t e S ea , 2 9 0 Z b r
an zi a , 4 5 5
\V ick 1 1 3
, X ing u R .
, 59 6 Z a ra f s h a n , R 3 40
Wi c kl o w 1 6 0 ,
Z ea l a n d , 204
W ic k low M ts .
, 1 59 v
Y R i er, 22 3 Z eeh a n, 5 0 1
W i eli cz ka 274 , Y a b lo no i M t s 29 7 Z erm a , tt
25 8
W iese R 2 1 2 .
,
b k
Y a l u n a P a ss , 2 7 3 t
Z e a R , 28 2 .
“

W ig a n 1 1 8
, kt k
Ya u s , 337 Z b
ho R , 3 64 .

W ig h t I s l e o f 1 4 6
, , t
Y a n g s e Ki a ng , 3 9 0, 3 9 4
-
Z b b
im a w e , 4 59
W il d ern es s R o a d 5 6 8 , Y a n in a , 2 8 3 Z b
om a, 4 5 7
W il h el m s h a ven 2 1 1 , Y a re R , 1 3 6 . Z o u t p a ns b erg , 4 6 7
W il l a m ette R 5 7 8 .
, k
Y ar a nd , 3 6 0 Z u i d er Z ee, 2 1 9
W il mi ng t o n 5 6 7 , r
Y a mou h, 1 36 t Z u lu l an d , 4 6 9

W im m era 4 9 5 ,
r
Y a m ou h Ro a ds, 1 3 6 t Z u ng aria , 3 9 4

W in c a n t o n 1 4 0 , Y a rra Y a rra R , 4 7 5
-
. Z ung a ri a , D ep ress io n
W i n ch el s e a 1 4 4 , Y a s sy , 28 1 3 01
W in c h ester 1 4 5 , Y ea l m e R 1 5 1 3 Z u ng a ri a n G a e, 3 9 5 t
W i n d a cti on of 7 Y ek tr b
a e in u rg , 29 0 Z u ng eru , 4 6 2
uri h , L a k
, ,

W i n d erm ere 1 1 7 , Y ek t v
a eri n o s l a , 29 1 Z c e of , 25 7

W ind ga p s 1 4 0 ,
w
Y el l o h ea d P a s s, 5 5 5 Z uurb erg e n , 4 7 0
W i nd h o ek 4 6 5 wt
Y el l o s o n e N a io n a l t Z w a rt eb erg en , 4 7 0
P a rk 5 7 4 i k
,

IVi nd , l a w s o f 54, ,
Zw c au , 2 1 0

B IL LING AND SON S , LT D .

,
P RIN T ERS , G U ILD F O RD
 ARN O LD S C HO O L S
’
S ER IES .

ENGLIS H ( continued) A Sh o rt Hi s to ry o f En g l i sh
Li tera ture B y C E B AI N ES
.

3 s 6d . . . . . .

Th e Tree o f Emp ire A Reading Li n u a Ma te rna By RIC H ARD

g
.

B o o kf or M id d l e Fo rm s
.

25 6 p p Ill u s
WILS O N B A as 6 d . .

, . . . .

t ra t ed l s 6d
Bo o k An Arn o ld s S h illing Eng l ish Co m
.
. .
'

In t h e W o rl d of s .

K
En g lish Rea d ing B o o kf or M id d l e Form s p o s i t io n By E J . . . EN N Y . ls .
.

256 p ag es Fi n el y Ill u st ra ted l s 6d Ex erc i s e s in Co m p o sit i o n In

A B o okof
. . .
. .

Th e Gre enw o o d Tre e . T h ree Pa rts . B y E J KEN N Y . . . Price 4 d .

N at u re M y h s a n d Verses t . 224 p a g es . ea ch .

Fi nel y Ill u stra ted l s 3d Co m p o si ti o n f r o m En g l i s h

Ch i p s f ro m a B o o k
. . .

sh e l f . A Read M o d el s By E J E NN Y B ookI , K
i ng B oo kf or J u n ior Fo rm s t B oo k
. . .
.

Ed i ed b y . f or J u ni or F o rm s , 1 6 0 p ag es , l s .

H B B R O WNE , M A Fi n el y Ill u s tra e d

. . . . t . II .
,
f or M id d l e F o rm s , 25 6 p ag es, l s 6d . .

l s 3d
oo k A Fi rs t Cou rs e i n En g l i s h Li te r
. .

m e
Ra b l s i n B l a nd An Eng .
a t u e. r B y RICHA RD WIL S O N B A 1 44
l i sh Rea d in g B oo k f o r J un i o r Fo rm s
.
, .

1s
.

p ag es . .

Ed ited b y C E B Y L ES , B A 224 p a g es
A Fi rs t Co u rs e i n En g li sh Ana l y
. . . . .

Fi n el y Ill u s ra t ed l s 3d t
ra mm ar
. . .

to e t r sis a nd G By R IC H AR D
Th e S ri d Pa s . For Jun i o
W IL S O N , B A
.

1s
Fo rm s Pa ssa g es f ro m En g l is h li era u re
. t t . . 1 44 p ag es . .

rel a t in g t o h i s t o rica l e ven t s B eau t i . A J u n i o r En g l i s h Gra mm ar By .

f ul l y Ill us t rat ed l s 6d . . . A E IR O B ER T S , M A
. . .
, an d A P R AT T , B A. . .

La u rea ta Edited by RICH ARD ls

A Fi rs t Pre s i s B oo k B y G
.
.

W IL S O N ,
B A . . l s 6d
. .
. A .

Tell e rs es
.

o f Ta l . Edi ted by F M C HAT W IN , M A , As s is

. . t an t M as ter
b
.

RIC H AR D B A WILS O N
Ill u st ra t ed , . . .
a t R u g y S c h oo l 25 6 d . . .

B io g ra p h i es o f s o m e E ng lish
l s 6d
. .

N o veli s ts , w ith E x t ra ct s
Pres i s W ri ti ng ( Fi rs t By
Hi st o ri c a l Ta l e s f ro m Sh a k
E A B ELC H ER , f orm erl y Ass is tan t M a st er
.

e . .

a t Clif to n C oll eg e 28 6 d
sp ea e r
B y S ir A T Q U IL LE R CO UC H
. . .
-
.
c
T ea h ers ’ Copy , w i h Key , 3 5 6 d net
.

t
.

N e w Ed i ti o n , ea u ti f u ll y i l l us tra t ed b . . .

Pre c i s W ri ti ng ( S eco nd
.

8 04 p a g es 1 s 6d
Sh a k
. . .

e sp e a re S to ri es . By CON B y E A B EL CH E R . An Al t ern at i ve C o l
. .

l ec ti o n o f E x erc is es u ni fo rm w i th th e
S T ANC E a nd M AR Y M AUD . Ill u s tra t ed
2s 6 d
.

Fi rs t S eri es
l s 6d
. . .
. .

Th e Po et s Re a l m An Ant h ol ogy
’

HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

.

of Vers e f o r S ch oo l s Ed i ted b y H . . B .
.

B RO W N E, M A 224 p ag es 1 s 6d
A B oo k o f A Hi sto ry of En g l a n d By C
. . . . .

Hi s o ri c a l t Po etry .

W O M AN , C h i ch el e Pro f ess o r o f
. .

8d
.

1 28 p a g es
v
Th e Brit a nni a Bo o ko f Poetry
M o d ern H is to ry i n t h e U ni ersity o f
. .

.
O x f o rd 7 6 0 p a g es 5s Als o
b
. .

A C o ll ec t io n o f Po etry s u i ta l e f or t h e In T w o P arts , 8 5 ea ch Part I , t o . .

J u ni or Cl as s es 1 28 p ag es 8d . . . '603
; Pa rt II , f ro m 1 603 to 1 902 . .

t
Po e s Co rn r. S el e ed Ve ses f or
’
e ct r l n Th ree Di vi sio n s ; Di vis io n I , t o 1 3 07, .

Y o ung Ch il d ren ls 2s ; D i visi on II , 1 3 07 t o 1 68 8 , 25 D i vi

o ok
. . . .

u o
A J ni r B of P ry 96 o et .
s i o n Il i , 1 688 t o 1 902, 28 6 d
In o rd er in g
. .

6d p l ea se s ta te the p eri o d requ i red ,

p a g es . .

to a void co nf u sion
e e t Ma h w om tt e
.

S l c i o ns f r
.

Arnol d s Po em s Edi ted by R IC H AR D

’
Eng l a nd i n t h e Ni n ete e nth Cen
r wt
.

W ILSON , B A l s 6 d . . . . tu y B y C W O M AN , M A , i h M ap s
. . . . .

e e to th e P ms o f m oe a n d App en d i c es Re vi sed Ed i tio n 3 s 6d

S l c i n s f ro . . .

T enny son Ed ited b y t h e Rev E C . . . . A Gen e ra l Hi s tory of t h e W o rld .

E VER AR D O W EN , M A Is 6 d . . .
B y O S C AR B R O W N IN G , M A , f orm erly . .

S el e c ti o n s f ro m t h e Po e m s of t
L ec u rer i n H i s to ry i n th e Uni versi ty of
Longf el l ow . Edi b y th e ted Re v E C . . .
C am ri d g e b5 5 n et . . .

E V E R ARD O W EN , M A 1 s 6d . . . .
Th e La s t Ce ntu ry i n Euro p e ,
Gra m m a ti c a l En g l i s h
. _

. By F .
1 8 1 4 19 1 0 B y C E M H AW K ES W O RT H ,
-
.

tu
. . .

W G FO AT , D Lit
. . . . L ec rer i n En g l i sh M A , Ass i s ta nt M as ter a t Ru g y S ch ool b
t
. . .

at th e C i y of Lo n d o n Co ll eg e . be n ot
 ARN O
'
LD S S C HO O L S ERIES .

Th e Anc i ent W o rl d . An Hi stori cal Arno ld ’ s Ho m e a nd Ab r a d o

Sket c h B y C D U PO N T ET , M A
. . . .
, As s is Atl a s Co n t
a i n i n g 24 f ul l p ag e ( l l i x
t w
-

M as t er at H arro W i th
.

tan S c h oo l
M ap s 45 6 d
.
9 in s ) M ap s
.
, p ri n t ed i n c ol o u r 8 d n et . . .

Th e Lo nd o n S c h oo l Atl a s
. . .

A J u ni o r Hi sto ry
.

of Eng l a nd .
Ed i t ed b y t h e l a e Ri g h Ho n H O t t
t . . .

F ro m th e Ea rli es T im es t o th e Dea th o f AR N O LD FO R S T ER, M P A m agn i fi c ent

t
-

Q ueen Vi c ori a B y C W O M AN , M A ,
.

. . .
At las , i n c l ud ing 48 p ag es o f Co lo ured
a nd M ARY O M AN 23 . .
M ap s Th e si ze o f th e A l as is a o u 12
. t ‘

b t
b y 9 in c h es , and i t i s is su ed at p ri c es
Q ue s t i ns o n O o
a n s His m to
’
ry o f
ra n gin g f ro m l s (id t o 3 8 6 d N ew an d
Eng l an d B y R H B o o mer , M A Is .
. . .
. . . . .

v
Re i sed Ed i ion , wi th Ind ex t
Arn o l d o
.

s Sh il l i n g His t ry .
’
By A Pra c ti c a l At la s of t h e Bri ti sh
0

C E M H AW KES W ORT H , M A , Assis tan t

. . . . .
Isl es 6d n et
M a st er a t Ru g y S c h o o l Is b . .

A Cl a s s B
.

o f Ge g ra p h y By o ok
. .

o
A S y n o p si s
.

of Eng l i sh Hi st o ry .
A W AN D R EW S M A ,
. . 5s . .

a
,

E AS T W O O D . 2s .

Ou t l i n e s o f Ph y s i g phy By o r .

S eve n Ro m a n S t a te s m en Ill us . ANDR EW J H E R BE RTS O N , M A Ph D . . .

t ra t ed B y C W O M AN M A 63 . . .
, . . . F R G S Pro f ess or of G eo g ra p h y a t t h e
. . .

Gre ek Li ve s f ro m Plut a rc h
Uni vei sity o f O x f o rd 2s 6 d . .

Arno ld New S h i ll i n g G eo g
.
. ’
T ra nsl a t ed b y C E B Y LES , B A With s
World
. . . .

Ill u s t ra ti o n s an d M a ps ra p h y Th e w i t h sp eci al ref er

1 s Gd .
,
. . .

en c e to th e B ri ish Em p ire t19

Eng l i sh Hi s to ry f o r B oy s
. .

a nd
Arno l d s J ni o r G o g ra p h y u e By
’

Gi l s r B y E S S Y M ES
. . . . Wi th nu m ero us W M CAR EY , M A , B S c 1s
.

Ill u s t ra ti o ns 2s 6d
. . . . . . .

W o rl d s Gre a t Po w e rs
. .

’
Th e
Dra m a t ic S c e n e s f ro m Hi s to ry .
Pr esent a nd Past B eau tif u ll y Il l u s
By FAN N Y J O H N S O N , f o xm erl y H ea d
.

t ra t ed l s 6d
m is tres s o i th e B o l t o n Girls H ig h S c h o o l
' . . .

t Th e Wo
rld s Tra d e a n d Tra d
’
e rs
.

Ill us t ra ed l s 6d .

t t
. . .

B eau i f ul ly Illus ra t ed l s 6d
Bu i l d ers Hi s to ry
. . .

que Arn ol d s Geo ra h i c a l Ha nd

of . A u ni ’

i i m i n g at i ll t ating t h e h is t y g p
b ook
s er es a us r or
n t y b y m an f bi g ap h i s M an u ls p vid in g u t nd a ro acc ra e a
f u .
o o r co u r e s o o r es
cl l y a a ng ed s u mm ie f G g p hi
m t f m u m en S i x ear rr ar so eo ra
f m f h
-

ca l i nf o ma ti n c h ; c l th 6 d
o so e o er os a o s
3d
Bo k
.

Il l u trat ed
r o ea o
8d a h ,
. . .
s o . s . . e c .

Men a n d M ove m e nt s i n Eu ro MATHEMATICS AND

p ean Hi sto ry . Ill us tra t ed . l s. 6d .
S CIENCE .

S c e ne s f ro m Eur o p e a n Hi s t o ry .
A S c h oo l Ari th m eti c By A C
t
. . .

By S M IT H ,
G M A , Ass is ta n . .
J O NES , h D , an d P , . . . H WY K ES .

M as t er a t th e Ro y al N a val Co lleg e , M A As sis tan t M as ers a t B rad fo rd t

b
.

w
.

O s orn e 2s 6d . . .
G ram m a r S ch oo l Wit h a ns ers , 4 5 6d ; . . .

w ith o ut a n s w ers 3 3 6d
Ga tew a y s t o Hi st ry . A S eries o , . .

o f H is t o ri c al R ea din g B oo k
s Il l u s tra ted . Arn o ld
’
s S h i l l i ng Ari th m e ti c .

t
w i h Rep ro d u c ti o ns o f Fa m o u s Pi c tu res B y J P KIR H M AN , M A , a n d J T L ITTL E,
. . . . .

t
. .

B ookI H ero es o f th e H om ela n d 1 0d .

M A , Ass is tan
. . M as ters a t B edf ord
B oo kII
. .

H ero es o f M a n y L an d s ls Gra m m ar S c h o o l Is . .

k
. . .

B oo III M en o f E n g l a n d 1s 3d An Ari th m e t i c f or S ch oo l s
k
. . . .

t
.

B oo 1 11 3 M en o f B ri ain 1 s 6d By J P KIR KLIAN , M A E an d A

k
. . . .
. . .
.
, .

W ard en s o f E m p ire 1 s 6 d
.

B o o IV .
F IELD , M A , Ass is tan t M a s ters a t B ed
B o okV
.
.

t
.
. .

B ri tain as a Eu ro p ean C o u n ry
. .
f o rd G ra mm a r S ch o ol . 3 8 6d . .

l s 6d
k Pra c t i c a l a n d Ap p l i ed Ari th
.

t
.

B oo VL Th e Pag ean o f th e Em p ires

m e t ic B y W D B A VIN H ead m as ter
.

l s 6d . . .
,
. .

of th e Hi g h er El em en t ary S ch o ol , S wi n
Le ss o n s i n Ol d T e st a m e nt Hi s don 18
to y r B y th e Ve nera le A S
. b . . AG LEN ,
Fi ve
.

Th o u sa nd Ari th m e ti c a l
.

A rc h d eac o n o f S t An drew s 45 6d
Ex a m p l es B y R W K ED W AR D S
. . . .

K
. . . .
,

Ol d T es ta m e n t Hi s to ry . By t h e M A , L ec t u i er o n M a th em at ics at i ng s
.

t
.

Very Re v T . . C . FR Y , D ea n of L i nc o ln . Co l l eg e, L ond o n Wi th o r w i th o u .

25 6 d
. .
A ns w ers , se 6 d ; An s w ers s ep ai a tely , l s . . .

3
 ARN O LD
’
S S C HO O L S ERIES .

M AT HEM AT ICS AND Geo m etri c al Co nics . By G . W .

GA U N T , M A , L ec u rer in M ath em a i c s , t t
S CIENCE ( continu ed)
. .

.
Arm s tron Co l leg e . Ne cas l e on Ty n e ; w t - -

an d O Jxesor, M A , Prof essor o f

Ex e rc i s e s i n Ari th m eti c ( Oral t
.

M a h em a ic s , Arm strong Col l eg e 2s 6d t

. .

and Written)
Parts I , II , an d III
. .
.

El eme nt a ry
. . . .

B y C M TAY LO R ( M a th em ati ca l T ri p o s ,
. . Te st Pa p ers in
b
Cam ridg e) , Wi m led on H ig h S ch ool b .
M a th em at i cs B y A CL EME NT J O NE S , . .

1 5 6d each ( With or i th o u Answ ers )

. . . w t . M A , Ph D , an d C H B LOM FI h LD , M A ,
. . . . . . . .

Hi h er Al g eb ra By W P Mu ss B S c , M a th em at i ca l M as ers a t B ra d f o rd t
gd A
. .

M a h em a i cal t
.

t
.

M as
.

t at
,
Grammar S c h ool 25 0 pag es Wi th o u t
, D Sc ,
. .
er
.

t
.

Clif on Colleg e 7s 6d
. .
Ans w ers , 2s 6d i h Ans ers , 3 3 . . wt w .

. . .
w
Ans ers separa tel y , l s .

Th e El em e nt s of Al g e b ra . By
Ve c t o rs a nd Rotors Wi th Appl i
Wi th
‘

W i th o u t
.

R L ACB L AN , Sc D or
B y Prof essor 0 H BNBJ CI,
.
c a t i o ns .
.

An s w ers , 2s 6d . . Ans wers sep ara tel y ,

18.
FR S t
Edi ed b y G C TURNE R, Gol d
.

Ele m e nt a ry Al g eb ra
. . . . .

. A Course sm ith
’
s Co ll eg e 4 s 6d
A N ote B oo ko f Ex p eri m ental
. . .

f or S ch o ols B y W D EGG AB , M A , . . . . .

t t
-

Ass is tan Mas e r a t Eton Co ll eg e 3 8 6 d . . .

M a th ema ti c s B y C GO D R EY , M A , . . F . .

A S c h oo l Al g eb ra . By F 0 LAN E, . . H ea d m as ter o f th e Ro y al Na val Co lleg e,

B S c Ass is t ant M ast er at Ki ng E d ward O s born e ; and G M B EL L , D A , S en i o r
’
s . . . .

M ath em a ti c al M as ter, Win c h es ter Col

. .

H ig h S c h o o l B irmi ng h am nd ) A C a . . .

bo ards
,

LAN E Ass is tan t Mas t r at Up pm g h am

,
l e . eg e. Fca p 4 to , pap er .
, 23 .

Wi th o with o ut answ rs s 6d r
An e ,
e . .
Ele m e nt ary Treatise on
Al g e b rai c Examp l e s . By A F . .
r ct c
P a i al M a h ema i cs B y Jo a n t t .

VAN D ER. H EY DEN M A , M a th em a ti c a l G RAH AM , B A 8 5 6d

M as e r a t th e Mid d l es ro ug h H ig h
. . . . .
:
t b Easy Pra c i c a l Ma h a i cs t t em t
S ch ool In T wo B ook s Wi th ou An s w ers , t .

. .
B y E S AN K EY , H ead mas ter o f th e Derkor
w .

1s w i th An s ers, 1 s 6d ea ch
. . . .
Co u nc il S ch ool , O l d h am T w o B o oks, .

Al g eb ra f or Beg inners . By J K . . ea ch 6 d net An s ers separa el y , 6d

. . w t .

B A , and W H O L L I NGS W O RI H , n et
WILK i Ns , . . .
'‘
.

B A In Th ree Par s Part I , 4 d Part t . . . Ea s y Prac ti ca l Dra wi ng . By E

Tw o B ook
. . .

II , 4d . Par III , 6d Ans ers to Par s

. t . . w t S AN K EY . s, eac h 6d n et . .

I III , In one vol ed

. - . .
Prel i m i na ry Pra c ti c al Math e
A Fi rst Fo rm a l Geo m et ry . By m a ti es B y . S G S T ARLI N G, A
. . .

C CLARK E, A R C S c
Id
R Wr x s B AY LIss , M A S en ior M a th e n F B Sc
W
. . . . . . .
. . .

m etic al M as ter at th e h i tg if t S c h o ol , s .

Cro y d o n . l s 6d . . Pra c ti c al Math emati cs . By F O . .

C L AR K E, B S c 8 s 6d
Th e Ele m e nts o f Geo m etry . By . . . .

R LACH L AN , S c D ,
. . . and W C . . F L ETC HER , An Intro d u c ti on to El em e ntary
M A Wi th a o u
. . b t 750 Exerc ises an d S tati s ( t c
a t ed Grap hi al l y ) By re c
t t
.

Answ ers 28 6d . . . R . M A , Ass is tan Mas er, . .

Ele m e nt ary Geo m etry By W C Ro y al N a val Co ll eg e, Os orne Fcap b

b
. .
. . .

4 to , p ap er oards , 28
FL ET C HER, M A l s ed
. .
. . . .

A First Geo m etry B ook . By J G . .

Gra p h s
J G
a nd I a g inaries By
H AM I LTO N , B A , and F Ka m a,
m .

H AM i LToN , B A , an d F E m mi , B A
. .

Is
. . .

B A
.
1 s 6d
. . . .

A S e c ond Geo m etry B ook

.

. . . .

By Th e Pri nc i p l es o f Me c h anism
_

K
.
.
J G . . H AM ILTO N, B A . .
, an d F . ETT L E , B y H A G AR RATT 3 8 6d
Wi th witho ut Ans w . .

B A , .

6d
.

or ers , 33
. . . .

Pra i a l Dra wi ng
ct c By R M
Ele m e ntary F
.

S ol i d Ge o m e try
. .

. M ET C AL E, L ec u rer in Eu t
By F S CAREY , M A , Pro f ess or
. . . . of g ineeri n Draw ing a t t h e Wiga u and
t
M a h em a ics in th e Uni ersi ty o f Li t v ve i s trl

p o ol 28 6 d
r
g mg e
t ining a nd T ech nical Coll ege .

W o rk
. . .

Ele m e nta r S ol id G eom e t ry . sh o p S c i ence . By R . J .

By W H csON , M A , l at e As s i s t a n t
Ac x . . . . En o w s , M S c Pri n cipal of S oc p ort t k
t
.

L ec tu rer in M a h ematic s i n t h e Un i M u nic i p al T ec h ni cal S c h ool 1 s Gd

v t
. . .

ersit y of M an c h es er 2s 6d . . .

Pra cti c a l Trig o no m etry By H

o e t ve
Pr j c i G ry B y Dr eo m et . .
C PL AY N E, M A , H ead m as er o f Ban t
. .

t
. .

L N G FILON , Ex aminer in M a h em at i cs
.

'
. . .
c ro f t s S c h o ol a n d R C FAWDRY M A . .

t o th e Uni versity of L ondo n 78 6 d t t

, .

. .
A ssi s tan M a s ter at Cl if on 2s 6d. . .
 ARN O LD ’
S S C HO O L S ER IES .

M AT H E M AT I CS AND Le ss o ns i n G e rm a n . A Gra duat ed

Germ a n C o u rse , w i th E x erc i ses an d
S CIENCE ( continued) .
Vo ca b u l ary , b y L IN N Es L U M S D EN . . 3s .

Th e La ws o f H al h By DAV ID e t . Kl e i n e s Ha u s th ea t er . Fi fteen
N AB ARR O , M D , B S c , As s i s ta n P ro . . . . t l i t t l e Pl ay s i n G erm an f o r Ch il d ren
b t
.

f ess o r o f Pa t h o l o g y and M o r id An a o m y B y L ad y B ELL 25 . .

a t U n i vers i ty Co ll eg e , L on d o n l s 6d . . .

Vi e r Kle ine Lu st sp i e l e f ur di e
Ex p eri m e nta l Pe d a g o g y , a nd Jug end . K W By AT E E B E R. l s 6d . .

he Psy c h ol o g y t h e C h i ld By of
Ge rm a n Dra m a t i c S c e nes
t
By
.

D r E D C L AP AR ED E, Pro f es s or o f E x
.

C A M U S G R AV E 2s 6 d
. .

p eri m en ta l P sy c h o l o g y , U n i vers ity o f

. . . . .

!
G en eva T ran s l a t ed b y M L O UC H an d
. .

H H OLM AN
. 5 s n et . . .
FRENCH .

COMMERCIAL PRACTICE .
Arnol d s M d rn Fr nc h B
’
s, o e e ook
M o d ern ‘
To uc h
’
Ty p ew ri ti n g I a nd II Ed i ted b y H L B UTT O N ,
. . . .

S en i o r M o d ern L an g ua g es M as ter
Exe rcises M i ss K V M o o a n . By . .

at M erc h a t T l
'
S ch o ol B o okI ,
t
.

n a y ors
As s is ta n t M i s res s a t th e H ig h S c h o o l
.

B oo kII , 2s
.

1 s 6d
f o r Girls , M a nc h es er C ro w n 4 t o , 2s ed t . . . .
. . . .

A First B oo ko n t h e Prin c i p l es El e m en ts o f Fre nc h Co mp o s1 ti o n .

of Ac count s B y
N ct
KVM
in
M iss . . O ORE ls .
B y J H O M E C AM ER O , M A , Le urer
. . .

Bo o kkee p ing
. .

Fren c h i n U n i vers i ty Coll eg e, T o ron t o,

El e m e nts of . By Canad a viii 1 96 p ag es .25 6 d . . .

W EB S T E R J EN K IN S O N , Ch art ered Ac

!
M . .

Arn ol d s Le c tu re s Fra nc a i s es
’
c o u n ta n t. l s . 6d .
‘
.

Fo u r Vo l s B oo ks I a n d II ed it ed a nd
B o ok FF
. . .

GERMAN a rra n g ed b y J ET I A S WO L ‘
s . .
.

II I a n d IV ed it ed a n d a rra ng ed b y
G e rma n T ex t s
.

Under
.

Ea sy . M A GE RO T H W O H L, L i tt D
. Ill u s tra ed . . t
t t
.

t h e Gen era l Ed it o rsh i p o f WALT ER RI P P w i h Rep ro d u c i o n s o f Pai nti ng s b y

M AN N , M A Wi th ex erc ises o n th e tex t
. . . Fren c h arti s ts B o ok l s 3d Book s . . .

1 s 3 d ea ch
. . . II , III , IV , l s 6 d eac h . . . .

rb c
. .

And erse n's Bil d e u h oh ne Bild er( Wh a t

Gra m m a l re Fra n ca i s e A I Usage
'

t h e M o o n S a w)
.

d es A n g l a is P ar E REN AU LT , Ass is t an t
r
.

P in zess in Il se B y M AR IE P ET ER S E N . .

Der T o pf er von K a nd ern B y H VI L

.

.
.

t
L ec u rer at th e U n i vers i y o f Li verp ool t .

viii 3 6 0 p ag es 48 6d
.

. . .
LIN G E R
FS
.

Di e Fl u t d es Lebens . B y AD OL T E RN .
Petite Gra mm a i re Fra n c a is e .

Herr P e t e r S qu enz . B y AN D RE AS P ar E REN AU LT . . IS . 6d .

Gs vrn w s E d i t ed b y S H M O O R E 25 J u ni o r Fr e n c h Re a d er By E
kfi sc h ka sten
. . . . .
. .

Der B a c . By a on RENAU LT . 1s . 6d .

Z O B E LT II Z E d i t ed b y GU S TA V Le Fra n ca i s Ch e z l u i A French
'‘
V ON . -

H EIN Au th o ri s ed Ed i ti o n 25
R ead er o n Ref orm Li n es , w i t h E x erc is es
. . .

Ar n o l d ’ s Mo d e r n G e rm a n on Gram m ar f o r M id dl e a n d J u ni or
C ou rs e By F W . . . WIL S O N , Ph D . As sis
.
,
Form s B y W H H O D G ES , M A , a n d
. . . . .

tan t M as ter a t Cl i f
o n Co ll eg e t . 3 5 Cd . . P PO W EL L , M A
. l s 3d . . . .

K ey to t h e E x erc i ses , 3 s 6 d n et . . .

Mo rc e a u x Ch o i s is F ren ch Prose
Fre e C o m p o s it io n i n G e rm a n
.

. E x t rac t s E di t ed b y R L . A . . . DU
By F . W . \VIL S O N , P h D . . 15 . 6d . PO N T ET , M A , Ass i s ta n t M as ter i n . . Wi n
A Firs t G e rm a n Pro s e Co m p o s i c h es t er Co ll eg e l s 6d . . .

tion . By F . W WILS O N , Ph . . D . 1 s (3 d . .
Poem es Ch o is is . S el ected and

A Fi rst G e rma n Re a d e r W ith Ed i t d b y R L A D U PO NT ET , M A

g
. . . . .
.

Is 6
Q u es t io ns f o r Co n versa tio n G ra m m a t ic al
.

E x erc i s es , Vo c a b u l a ry , et c . Ed i ted b y Les Aven tu res d e Ma i t re Re nard .

D L S AVO R Y , M A
. . 1 s 6d . . . .
Ed i te d b y M ARC C EPP I, Wh i gi f t Gra m t
Germ a n W i th o ut T e a rs By m ar S c h o ol , C ro y d o n Ill u st ra t ed Wi th . .

b
.

L ad y B ELL A vers i o n i n G m . er an of Voc a u l ary C ro w n S y o , c l o th , l s . . .

‘
Fre nc h W ith o u t T a s With i ll e r
’
u s tra ~ Re na rd Le Fri p o n . Edl ted by
t io n s Part I
. .
, 9d ; . Pa rt IL , ls M AR C C E PPI W i t h Il l u s . tr ti a on s a nd
Pa rt I l i , l s 3 d . . . Vo ca ul ary Is b . .

6
 ARN O L D ’
S S C HO O L S ERIES .

MISS JETTA S W OLI F S B OOKS Arno l d ’ s French Tex ts (sentim ent)

‘ ’
-
. .
.

Les Fra nca is en Mé na g e W ith T ra f a l g ar B y J o sn PH MERY

. 4 8 p ag es . .

t
.
M ari e A nt oinet e By ED M O ND and JULEB
Ill us trations . 1s 6d . .

GO N C O U R T
DE .
. ,

Les Franca is en Voy a g e Cl everly .

M erc ad et By H . . DE B ALzAc .

Ill ustra ted . l s 6d . .

Simp l e Fre nch S to ries . Easy
Fra nca i s p ou r l es T out Peti ts .
t
t ex s, wi th N otes and Voca ul ary b . Lim p
c l o th , 9d eac h .
Ill us tra ted . l s 3d . .

1111 Drama da ns
.

l es Airs By
. JU LES
Les Fra ncais d Autref o is
'
. l s 3d . .
VE RN E .

Pit Pa t
-
B y E DO UARD LAROULAYE
Les Franca is du Dix h ui ti em e
. .

tt
La. P e i e S ouri s Gri se a nd Hi stoi e d o r
e
St el e l s 8d tt
Rose e B y M AD AM E D l S EO UR
.
.

t
. . .

Po uci net , an d t wo o her tal es . B y EDOU ARD

Les Fra nca is d Auj o urd h u i
’ ’
. L ARO U LAY E .

Ill u s tra ted . l s 6d . . vr

Uh Anni e s aire a Lo nd res, and t w o
t
o h er s t o ri es B y P J S T AH L
Th e Al p h o nse Da u d et Rea din g
. . .

Bo0 k Réc i t bi o gra ph i qu e et Extrai ts

r
M onsi eu l e Ven at M ad ame l a Pluie t .

.
B y PA UL D E M uss s r .

do se e ( Eu vres l a 6d La. Fee Gri no tt e B y M a dam e D E G IR AR

g
. . .
.

D IN An l L a. C ui sine an S al on Fro m
W ith out
. .

French Tears . By L e Th eatre d e J eu nees e

B oo kI B ookI L ,
.

L ady Em 9d Gil Bl a s in t h e Den of Th ie es Arra n ed v

B oo kIII
. . .
, .

ls . ., 1s 8d . . f ro m LE S A G E. Wi h N otes and Voca u t

l ary b y R D E B LAN CHAUD , D A
S cenes Inf a ntines KATE
.

By
. .

WEB ER . Wi th Vo ca bu l ary . 1 s 8d . .
L App rent i
’
. By EM ILE S OU VEsTRE .

Gra d u a ted Fren c h Uns e e ns Ed i ted b y C F H ERDENER, Prof essor o f . .

t
.

Edi ted b y Prof es s o r VICTO R O C E R . In lii o d ern L an g uag es , Du rh am Uni versi y .

f our 8 d each ls
parts
.
. . .

Ri c h a rd W h itting ton By M adame

Frenc h Dra m a tic S c e n e s . By C .

E UC E N IE FO A An d ( In Con e d o 1'Abb 6
.

t
AB EL M oseRAvs With
.

N o tes an d V0
ca b ul a ry 2s
.
d e S ai nt Pi e e B y EM ILE S o uvs sra s
-
rr . .
. .
Ed i t ed b y C F H ERDEN ER ls . . . .

Arnol d Fre nc h T e x ts
’
An
s
en ti rely new s eri es of texts g rad u a ed
.

t Mé m o ires d ’ un Ane . By M adame

D E S EG U R
,
E dit ed b y LUCY E FARRER l s
in di fi c ul t y , wi th n o tes an d o ca u lary v b .
. . . .

Ge neral Ed i to r : M AUR ICE A G EROTK La ma rti ne Ma nu scri t d e ma

’
.
s
WO K L, Li tt D Lim p c l o th , 6d each Me re Edi ted b y L uc r E FARREE ls
. . . .

r t
.

c
. . .

Le Fo es on a . t ou t P é oh é M is é ri ord e
Les d eu x Pri s o n n i e rs
.

13
;
B y M AD AM E D E S EGUR .

ted
.

v t r
A en u es d o Tom Ponc e B y P J S T AE L . . . .
RO D OL P H E Torrrz a . Ed i by W . 1
L’His tolre d e l a M ere M i ch el et d e s on H O D CEs , M A l s . . .

Ch a t B y Comm E D E L A B ED O LLI RRE

C o n t e s d e Fees ParM me LE PRINCE
. . .

Gri boulll e B y GEO RGE S AND . .

F BEAU M O N T Edited b y T KEEN , M A ,

. .

t
Laure te on h e Oac h et roug e B y AL RED .
DE
th e H ig h S ch o ol , Glas g o w ls
. . . .

DE VIe N r .
. .

b
La S ouris l anch e at Les Pe i s S oull ers tt .

B y H é o ss mre M O B EAU . A R N O LD ’S AD VAN C ED

La Vie d o Polichinell e e t ses N om eu ses br FR E N C H S E R IE S
v t
A en ures B y O CT AV E FE UIL L RT
.
.

t t
.

v
Crispi n ri al d e son Mai re Co m ed y in t .
In tro d u c i o n , H is to ri cal N o es , and a. f ew
on e ac t B y L E S AG E
. .
E x erc is es 1 3 6d eac h . . . .

Le 8 0 11 Pet e Com ed y in on e ac t . .
De l Ang l eterre Par M ad ame DE
’
.

FLO RIAN S T A EL edi ted by W G HA R l oo , B A

F
. ‘‘
. .
, .

M ons ieur Ta ngl e B y C H AM P L EU R Y

.

. .

v t
A en ures d a C h e a li er d o G ra mmo n v t .
Ca u s e ri es d a Lu nd i . Par S AINTE
B y Ch eva lier D H AM ILT O N B e uvs ed i ted b y A W
'
.
T R ESS LER, M A
t t c , . . . .

His oire d 'un Poin er é ossai s By

Le Coup d Et a t
.

ParV ICTOR H UGO

’
ALEKANDRE D UM AS p ere . . .

Deux Heroin es d e l a Re ol u ion M ad am e v t . Ed i ted b y J W LONOSD O N, M A An . . . .

Ro land a nd Ch arl o te Cord ay B y J ULES t . b

a rid g m en o f t
h a m ag ni fic en p iece of t t t
M IO RELET .
i n vec oi ve, N ap olé on la P eti t.

7
 ARN O L D e m es
'
S S C HO O L S .

S PANIS H .
Livy . Bo o kXX V I . Edit ed by R M . .

H E N RY , M A 28 Gd
A Fi rst S p a nish B ook By H J
. . . .

Mi ra b il ia OLI V E , M A
.

By C D
. .

C H AY T OR , M A , H ead m a s t er o f Pl y m o u t h . . . .

t
. .

C oll eg e 28 6d A c o l l ec i on o f m o d ern s tori es i n L at in .

With t tv bul
. . .

or w i h ou oca ary . 1 s 6d . .

Eng l i sh S p a ni s h a nd S p a ni sh
-

Eng l i sh Di c i onary Co m m erc ial a nd t Th e Fa b l es O f Orb i i s By A D lu . . .

G O D L E Y , M A , Fell o w o f M ag d al en Col
.

Tec h ni c al B y A M A B EALE 6 56 p ag es
Wi th Il l u s tra i ons B ook
. .

Fc a p 8 y o 4s 6d n e t
. . . . . .

l eg e, O x fo rd t
B oo kIL , 1 s
. .
. . . . .

I , 9d
. . .

LATIN AND GREEK Arno l d s New La i n Co rs

’
t u e .

B y R M ALL AR D Y C E, M A th e H ig h
.
. .
. . .

Arnol d
'
s La tin T exts Ea ch volu me S ch o o l o f Gl asg o w P ar I , l s 6d ; . t . .

t
.
.
Pa r II , 23 6 d
c on s is ts O f s h ort In t ro d u c ti on , Tex t,
. . .
a
and bu l y Voc a ar . 6 4 p a g es 8 d ea c h . . .
Ea sy La tin Pro s e . By W . H
C msa r in B ri ta in
.

. S P RAGGE , M A , As s is an t M a s t t er a t th e
Ci cero — In C a tili na m I n d II
. .

.
, . a . Ci t y o f L on d on S c h o ol l s 6d
Ci cero — Pro Arch i a
. . .

La ti n Exe rc is e s La ti n M o d el s
. .

C orneli us Nep os S el ect Lives — on .

Hora ce Od es B oo kI
. .

— By A C P L UN N , H ea d m i st ress
. . . of
t
, .

Livy S el ecti ons

.
—
. B rig h on an d H o ve H ig h S c h o o l 1s . .

O vi d — S el ecti ons
La ti n Pro s e C o m p o si ti o n ByW J
.

Ovi d i n Exil e S el ecti ons f rom t h e .

. . .

‘
T ri sti a H AR D IE , M A Pro f es s or o f H u m a ni ty i n
’
. .
,

t b t
.

Ph aed ru s — S el ect Fa bl es . .
t h e Un i ve rsi y o f Ed in u rg h C om p l e e, .

Tibul l us — S el ecti ons . . 4s 6 d

. or i n T w o Parts , 23
. 6d eac h . . .

Vergi l — S el ect Ecl o g ues

Princ ip i o ru m Lib e r By R J
. .

Verg i l — S el ecti ons f rom t h e Georg ics . . .

. .

CH O LM ELEY B A W i th N o es , . . t an d
"
V0
S e l e c t i o n s f ro m Ov id s M e t a
’
ca b u l ary 1 74 p ag es 2s 6 d . . . .

mo rp h oses B y H A J a c xs o w M A .
’
. .

t
, . .
,

As si t an t M as te r at Win ch ester Co l leg e By W F W IT I O N , M A , Cla ssi c al M as

’ ‘
er a t
s
. . . . .

S t O l a ve s Gram m ar S ch oo l
’
Is 6 l . . .

S e l ec ti o ns s HerO I f ro m 0 v1 d Co m p e ndi u m La tinu m

’
. 2s . 6d .

B y L W P L E W IS M A , a n d C
’
d es
S im p lifi e d Ca e s a r
. . . . . . .

H B RO AD BENT , B A , B radf ord Gram m a r

. . .
. 1 s 6d . .

'
S c h o ol 29
Di e s Ro m a ni ls 6d
. .

. . .

Ci c e ro —
S e l ec t Lette rs
a n d Ex
tr c
a ts For J u n i or Form s
. By A R . . .
Si m p l i fi e d Ovi d . l s 6d . .

C UM M ING , M A , Dol l ar In s ti tu t e, N B . . .

t b B y G B GARD IN ER , M A , D sc
.

a nd
W ith Vo c a bu lary , 2s 6d W ith o u Voca . .
. . . . . .
,

u la ry , 2s .
A G ARD INER , M A . . .

Virg il .
—
1En e i d . B oo k
s I .
, and A First La tin Cou rs e . 25 .

III . Ed i ted , w ith Intro d u c io n an d t A S e c ond La ti n Re a d er ls 6d

No t es , b y M T T AT H AM , M A l s 6d . . . . . .
. . .

ea c h .
A La ti n Tra nsl a ti o n Pri m e r . Is .

Caes a r s
’
Ga l li c W ar . B oo k
s I . an d
II . Ed ited b y T . W H AD D O N , M A ,
. . . an d

Bo o ki n Gree k
G C H ARR IS O N , M A l s 6d
Th e B e g inn er
. . . . . . ’
s
B oo k t .
s Il I V Ed i ed f o r th e u s e o f
B y D H M AR S H AL L
-

1s 6d
. .

S ch oo l s b y M T TAT H AM , M A Un if orm
. . . . .

. .

w i th B oo k
. .

s I a n d II Is 6 d . . . .
S e l e ct i o ns f ro m Ho m e r . By W
ks VI
.

B oo VII B y M T T AT H A M
an d REN N m M A L ec u rer i n Greekat th e t
k
. . . . . , . . .

M A . . Uni form wi h B oo s III V l s 6d t .

-
. . . Un i versi ty o f Gl a sg o w 28 6 d . . .

LO N DON EDW ARD ARN OLD 4 1 dc 4 3 M ADD OX ST REET W .