EKC 218: FLUID FLOW FOR

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

TOPIC 7: FLOW OF
1
COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

ASSOC. PROF. DR. KHAIRIAH ABD KARIM:

chkhairiah@usm.my
CO 1: Apply the basic concepts fluids flow in both static
and dynamic conditions.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic, student should be able to:

1) Explain the significance of the Mach number and

calculate the speed of sound and Mach number for a
process.
2) Describe different processes of compressible flow and
how the flow properties vary in the system.
3) Calculate the properties involved in the system using
several appendices and solve problems of different 2
system.
 INTRODUCTION
Many important applications in fluid dynamics require that
density variations to be taken into account.
A compressible flow is a flow in which the fluid density (r)
varies significantly within the flow field, i.e. the dependence
of density upon pressure and temperature.
At low velocities (relative to the speed of sound), relative
changes in pressure and associated effects are often small and
the assumption of incompressible flow with a constant
(average) density may be reasonable.
When the gas velocity approaches the speed at which a
pressure change propagates (i.e., the speed of sound), the
effects of compressibility become the most significant. (i.e. 3

high velocity as a velocity in excess of about 200 ft/s (61 m/s)).

Many of the relations developed for incompressible (i.e.
low speed) flows must be revisited and modified. For
example, the Bernoulli equation is no longer valid.

4
DEFINITIONS & BASIC EQUATIONS
Mach number:
u
Ma º
a
where: u = speed of the fluid
a = speed of the sound in the fluid under
conditions of flow

Ma < 1 Subsonic flow

Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow

If Ma £ 0.3, compressibility effects may usually be 5

neglected, and one may safely assume incompressible flow.

Limitations and assumptions to be considered in this topic:

1. The flow is steady and one-dimensional.

2. Velocity gradients within a cross section are neglected, so
that a = b = 1 and `V = u.
3. Friction is restricted to wall shear (skin friction).
4. Shaft work is zero, i.e. work effect by pump or turbine.
5. Gravitational effects are negligible, and mechanical
potential energy is neglected. (gZ negligible)
6. The fluid is an ideal gas of constant specific heat.

Basic relations used:

1. The continuity equation

2. The steady-flow total-energy balance
3. The mechanical energy balance with wall friction
6
4. The equation for the velocity of sound
5. The equation of state of the ideal gas
Continuity equation
- From Eq. (4.9) (Text book page 71):
! = rudA
dm

- The right-hand side of the above equation (in log form):

ln r + ln A + ln u = constant --- (7.1)

- Differentiating this equation gives:

dr dA du
+ + =0 --- (7.2)
r A u
7
Total-energy balance

Consider a fluid in steady flow through a system, entering at

station a with velocity ua and enthalpy Ha and leaving at station
b with velocity ub and enthalpy Hb.

For the flow of m kilograms of material, heat (Q Joule) must be

added through the boundaries of the system to the material
flowing through it.

The heat added to the fluid:

Q ub2 ua2 --- (7.3)

= Hb - H a + -
m 2 2
dQ æ u2 ö --- (7.4)
= dH + d çç ÷÷ 8
m è 2ø
 Mechanical energy balance

Eq. (4.71) (Text book page 90) over a short length of conduit:

dP æ aV 2 ö
+ d çç ÷÷ + gdZ + dh f = 0 --- (7.5)
r è 2 ø
From earlier assumptions, aa = ab = 1 and `V = u, then:

dP æ u2 ö
+ d çç ÷÷ + dh fs = 0 --- (7.6)
r è 2ø

For D = 4rH (for non-circular duct/pipe):

u 2 fdL --- (7.7)
dh fs =
2 rH 9
Eliminating dhfs from Eq. (7.6) and (7.7) gives the form of the
mechanical energy equation suitable for compressible flow:

dP æ u 2 ö u 2 fdL
+ d çç ÷÷ + =0 --- (7.8)
r è 2 ø 2 rH

Velocity of sound
Also called acoustical velocity, i.e. the velocity of a very small
compression-rarefaction wave moving adiabatically and
frictionlessly through the medium or isentropic process.

æ dP ö --- (7.9)
a = çç ÷÷
è dr ø s 10

where S is the isentropic restraint on the process.

 Ideal gas equations
Assumptions 1-6 and previous equations are applicable for any
fluid, and if density is constant, incompressible flow is
considered.

For compressible flow, density is related to pressure and

temperature.

The ideal gas law gives:

r
P= RT --- (7.10)
M
In log and differentiated form:
dP dr dT
= + --- (7.11) 11
P r T
The specific heat, cp is independent of temperature, the
enthalpy H of the gas at temperature T is:

H = H 0 + c p (T - T0 ) --- (7.12)

where: H = enthalpy per unit mass at temperature T

H0 = enthalpy at arbitrary temperature T0

The differential form of Eq. (7.12):

dH = c p dT --- (7.13)

12
REVIEW:

Fundamental equation for a perfect gas:

n
P ærö
Pu = Pu = constant
n n
= çç ÷÷ = constant
P1 è r1 ø
1 1

where: P = absolute pressure

u = (1/r) = specific volume
n = nonnegative value from zero to infinity

Process Description
Isothermal Constant T, n = 1
Adiabatic No heat transfer to or from the gas, Q = 0
Isentropic Frictionless (and reversible) adiabatic process 13
Acoustic velocity and Mach number of ideal gas

For an ideal gas, an isentropic path follows the equations:

Pr -k = constant --- (7.14)

æ k -1 ö
-ç ÷ --- (7.15)
TP è k ø
= constant
where:

k = specific heat ratio

specific heat at constant pressure, c p cp
º = --- (7.16)
specific heat at constant volume, cu cp - R / M

i.e. cp, cv and k are independent of temperature

14
From the equation of state:
cp − cv = R (gas constant)

Defining the ratio of specific heats, k

cp
kº
cu
Hence:
Rk
cp = --- (7.17)
k -1
R
cu = --- (7.18)
k -1 15
Differentiating the log form of Eq. (7.14) gives:
dP dr and æ dP ö P
-k =0 çç ÷÷ = k
r r è r øS r

Substitute them into Eq. (7.9) gives:

kP kRT
a= = --- (7.19)
r M

Mach number, Ma for an ideal gas is:

ru 2
u 2
--- (7.20)
Ma 2 = =
kP kRT / M
16
 Values of the ratio of specific heats, k

Gas k
Monatomic gases: He, A, Ne, Kr, Na, K 1.667

Diatomic gases: N2, H2, CO, NO, air 1.40

Triatomic gases: H2O, CO2, etc 1.30 to 1.33

More complex gases Less than 1.3

17
18
 The asterisk condition

The state of the fluid moving at its acoustic velocity is important in

some processes of compressible fluid flow.

Asterisk condition is where u = a and Ma = 1 (sonic flow).

P*, T*, r*, H*

19
 Stagnation condition

The stagnation state

exists when the
velocity is zero
(adiabatically and
reversibly brought to
rest) and Ma = 0.

Let To (stagnation
temperature)
represent the
temperature when Ma
= 0 and V = 0.

20
 Stagnation temperature

- Temperature the fluid would attain when it brought to rest

adiabatically, i.e. Q = 0.
u2
- Stagnation temperature, To: To = T + --- (7.21)
2c p
u2
- Stagnation enthalpy, Ho: Ho = H + --- (7.22)
2
Q
- Eq. (6.3) becomes: = H ob - H oa = c p (Tob - Toa ) --- (7.23)
m
where Hoa and Hob are the stagnation enthalpies at states a and b,
respectively.
21
For adiabatic process, Q = 0. Toa = Tob; constant stagnation
temperature.
For reversible adiabatic flow, (P/rk) = constant (from Eq. 7.14).
k -1
Another useful equations: k -1
T2 æ P2 ö k æ r2 ö
= çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ --- (7.15a)
T1 è P1 ø è r1 ø

The properties P, T and r are called static properties. Stagnation

properties can be defined from the steady flow energy equation as
follows:

V12 V22
c pT1 + = c pT2 + --- (7.22a)
2 2

At stagnation, V2 = 0
𝑉"# 𝑉"#
𝑐! 𝑇" + = 𝑐! 𝑇$ OR: 𝑇$ = 𝑇" +
2 2𝑐! 22
 𝑉"
The suffix 1 is left out, then: 𝑇! = 𝑇 +
2𝑐#

%&" %
𝑇$ 𝑃$ % 𝑇$ %&"
As = ; 𝑃$ = 𝑃
𝑇 𝑃 𝑇

% %
𝑇 + 𝑉 # /2𝑐! %&" 𝑉# %&"
\ 𝑃$ = 𝑃 =𝑃 1+
𝑇 2𝑐! 𝑇

&
𝑇! 𝜌! $%& 𝑇! $%&
= OR: 𝜌! = 𝜌
𝑇 𝜌 𝑇

"

\ 𝑉# %&"
𝜌$ = 𝜌 1 + 23
2𝑐! 𝑇
EXAMPLE 1
What is the speed of sound in air at 20°C = 68°F?

SOLUTION:
kP kRT
For ideal gas, Eq. (7.19) applies: a= =
r M

æ lb f ft 3 144 in 2 32.2 lb m × ft ö
R = çç10.73 2 !
× 2
× 2
÷
÷
è in lbmol × R ft lb f × s ø
1/2
ft æ lb m ö
= 223 × ç ! ÷
s è lbmol× R ø
1/2
m æ g ö 24
= 91.2 ×ç ÷
s è mol × K ø
 kRT kT
a= = R×
M M
1/2 1/ 2
ft æ lb m ö æ 1.4 x 528 R ö
!
= 223 × ç ! ÷ × çç ÷
÷
s è lbmol× R ø è 29 lb m /lbmol ø
ft
= 1126
s
m
= 344
s

25
EXAMPLE 2
Air flows steadily between two sections in a long straight portion of
4-in.-diameter pipe. The uniformly distributed temperature and
pressure at each section are T1 = 540 °R, P1 = 100 psia and
T2 = 453 °R, P2 = 18.4 psia. Calculate the:

a) change of enthalpy between sections (1) and (2)

b) change in density between sections (1) and (2)

SOLUTION:

Assuming that air behaves as an ideal gas, Eq. (7.12) applies:

H 2 - H1 = c p (T2 - T1 )
26
a) From Eq. (7.17), with k = 1.4:

Rk 53.3 ft × lb 1.4 ft × lb
cp = = × = 186 .6
k - 1 lbm×° R 1.4 - 1 lbm×° R

H 2 - H1 = c p (T2 - T1 )
ft × lb °
= 186.6 °
x (453 - 540) R
lbm× R
= - 16,234.2 ft × lb/lbm

b) For density change, ideal gas equation of state is used:

P2 P1 1 æ P2 P1 ö
r 2 - r1 = - = çç - ÷÷
RT2 RT1 R è T2 T1 ø
27
 1
r 2 - r1 = °
x
53.3(ft × lb)/(lbm× R )
æ (18.4 psia)(144 in.2 /ft 2 ) (100 psia)(144 in.2 /ft 2 ) ö
çç °
- °
÷÷
è 453 R 540 R ø
= - 0.389 lbm/ft 3

28
EXERCISE 1
Air enters a nozzle at a pressure of 10 x 105 N/m2 and 27°C with a
velocity of 25 m/s. The exit pressure is 5 x 105 N/m2. The flow
follows the law (P/r k)= constant. Determine the velocity at exit.
cp = 1003 J/kg.K.

Hint: the process is adiabatic, Q = 0.

[Answer: V2 = 329.8 m/s]

29
30
EXERCISE 2
Propane (k = 1.3) at 17°C and 0.35 MPa is flowing in a tube
(inside diameter of 1 in) at an average velocity of 43 m/s.
Determine the speed of sound in the propane. Is the propane
flow compressible? Why or why not? Is the propane flow
laminar or turbulent?

Given: µ = 8 x 10-3 cP = 8 x 106 m2/s

31
32
 PROCESSES OF COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

1) Isentropic expansion

ü The cross-sectional area of the conduit must change.

ü The stagnation temperature, To does not change in the
conduit Þ adiabatic process 33
2) Adiabatic friction flow through a pipe of constant cross
section

üQ=0
ü The process is irreversible, entropy of the gas increases.
ü The stagnation temperature, To is constant throughout the
conduit.
34
3) Isothermal friction flow through a pipe of constant cross
sectional area.

ü Constant temperature, consistent flow of heat through the

pipe wall.
ü Non-adiabatic and non-isentropic process.
ü The stagnation temperature changes during the process
since T is constant; i.e. To changes with u. 35
 ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
A conduit suitable for isentropic flow is called nozzle.
Figure below shows a complete nozzle consists of a
convergent section and a divergent section joined by a throat.
Nozzles are designed to minimize wall friction and to
suppress boundary layer separation.

Stagnation T
condition: P
Ma <1 Ma >1
To V
Po r
ro Ma 36
Ma = 0
Mathroat = 1
 The aim of flow in a nozzle is to produce high velocity jet of a
gas by suitable pressure drop.
The nozzle entrance is sufficiently large relative to the throat –
velocity at the entrance is zero.
Temperature and pressure at the entrance is assumed equal to
those in the reservoir.

IMPORTANT!

ü pressure always stands for absolute pressure (psia or

equivalent)

ü temperature always stands for absolute temperature (K or °R)

37
 When fluid flows steadily through a conduit that has a flow
cross-sectional area that varies with axial distance (e.g. nozzle),
the conservation of continuity equation can be used to relate
the flow rates at different sections.

m! = rAV = constant --- Eq. 1

From the mechanical energy balance equation:

dP æ aV 2 ö
+ d çç ÷÷ + gdZ + dh f = 0
r è 2 ø
For steady, one dimensional and isentropic flow:
dP dV
=- --- Eq. 2
rV 2
V 38
Log form of continuity equation:

log r + log A + log V = constant --- Eq. 3

Differentiating Eq. 3 will give:

--- Eq. 4
dr dA dV
+ + =0
r A V

OR: dV dr dA --- Eq. 5

- = +
V r A
Combining Eq. 2 and Eq. 5 will give:

dP æ V 2 ö dA
ç1 -
2 ç
÷÷ = --- Eq. 6
rV è dP dr ø A 39
 u æ dP ö
From Mach number equation: Ma = and a = çç ÷÷
a è dr ø s
Combining Eq. 6 with Mach number expression:

dP
rV 2
(
1 - Ma =
2
)
dA
A
--- Eq. 7

Merge Eq. 2 and Eq. 7 to form:

dV dA 1
= --- Eq. 8
V (
A 1 - Ma 2 )
From Eq. 8: For subsonic flow (Ma <1), velocity and section
area changes are in opposite direction.
For supersonic flow (Ma>1), velocity and area changes in the 40

same direction.
 Rearranging Eq. 8:
dA A
= (1 - Ma 2 ) --- Eq. 9
dV V

When Ma = 1 (asterisk condition), dA/dV = 0. This suggests

that the area associated with Ma = 1 is either minimum or
maximum.

41
Relation between cross-sectional area and velocity:
Section Subsonic flow Supersonic flow
Diverging Ma < 1 Ma > 1

dV < 0 dV > increases

FLOW

dP > 0 dP < decreases

Area is increased to get the

dA > 0 fluid to go faster

Converging
dV > 0, V increases dV < 0

dP < 0, P decreases dP > 0

FLOW
Always subsonic
Area must be reduced
perpendicular to flow to get
the fluid to go faster 42
dA < 0
Equations for isentropic flow
v Change in gas properties during flow
For the isentropic flow of an ideal gas:
P P0
= constant = --- (7.24)
r k
r k
0

T T0 --- (7.25)
k -1
= k -1
P k
P
0
k

43
v Velocity in nozzle

Equation of motion for steady and frictionless flow:

(from Eq. (7.8) and omit friction term)
dP æ u2 ö
+ d çç ÷÷ = 0 --- (7.26)
r è 2ø
P01/ k dP æ u2 ö --- (7.27)
+ d çç ÷÷ = 0
r0 P 1/ k
è 2ø
Integration of Eq. (7.27) gives:
k æ P0 P ö u 2
çç - ÷÷ - =0 --- (7.28)
k - 1 è r0 r ø 2

kR u2 44
or: (T0 - T ) - = 0 --- (7.29)
k -1 2
 In terms of specific heat:
u2
c p (T0 - T ) - =0 --- (7.30)
2
If Mach number is expressed in the equation, then:
T 1
=
T0 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2 --- (7.31)

Since P/r = RT, then equation for pressure variation:

(#$%)/#
æP öæ r 0 ö T 𝑃 𝑇
çç ÷÷çç ÷÷ = =
𝑃! 𝑇!
è P0 øè r ø T0
#/(#$%)
𝑃 1
𝑃!
=
1 + [(𝑘 − 1)/2]Ma( --- (7.32)
Hence:
%/(#$%) 45
𝜌 1
𝜌!
=
1 + [(𝑘 − 1)/2]Ma( --- (7.33)
When Ma = 1 at the throat of the converging-diverging nozzle,
this condition is called choked flow, where cross sectional area
is minimum.

The reference condition is called critical state or asterisk

condition, denoted as (*).

Critical pressure ratio:

* k /( k -1)
P æ 2 ö
=ç ÷ --- (7.34)
P0 è k + 1 ø

For air at 300 K, k = 1.4:

æ P* ö
çç ÷÷ = 0.528 --- (7.35) 46
è P0 ø k =1.4
For k = 1.4
Relationship Simplified
k /( k -1)
*
P æ 2 ö æ P* ö
=ç ÷ çç ÷÷ = 0.528
P0 è k + 1 ø è P0 ø k =1.4

T *
2 æT* ö
= çç ÷÷ = 0.833
T0 k + 1 è T0 ø k =1.4
1/( k -1)
r æ 2 ö
* æ r* ö
=ç ÷ çç ÷÷ = 0.634
r0 è k + 1 ø è r 0 ø k =1.4

Mass velocity, G is given by:

k -1
1/ k
m! 2kr 0 P0 æ P ö æPö k 47
G = = ur = çç ÷÷ 1 - çç ÷÷ --- (7.36)
A k - 1 è P0 ø è P0 ø
v Effect of cross-sectional area

The relationship between the change in cross-sectional area,

velocity and Mach number is useful in correlating the various
cases of nozzle flow.

The duct is at choked condition when its throat is at critical or

sonic condition; i.e. Ma = 1, minimum area and maximum
possible mass flow passes through the duct. No additional
mass flow can pass through unless the throat is widened. If the
flow is constricted further, the mass flow through the duct
must decrease.

For choked flow through the converging-diverging nozzle,

equation of continuity is:
A æ r * öæ u * ö 48
rAu = r A u* * *
or: = çç ÷÷çç ÷÷
è r øè u ø
*
A
Substitute earlier correlations give:
k +1
A 1 ì1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2 ü 2 ( k -1)
--- (7.37a)
*
= í ý
A Ma î 1 + [(k - 1) / 2] þ

For k = 1.4:

A
=
(
1 1 + 0.2Ma 2 3
) --- (7.37b)
*
A Ma 1.728

Maximum mass flow is:

æ k +1 ö
çç ÷÷
æ 2 ö -
A r o (RTo )
2 ( k 1)
m! max =k ç
1/ 2 è ø * 1/ 2 --- (7.37c)
÷
è k +1ø 49
Correlations of P, T, r and A with Mach number

50
v Converging nozzle – effect of back pressure

Consider subsonic flow through a

converging nozzle:
Condition
Pb = P1 = Pr No flow, uniform
pressure along the nozzle
Pb reduce to P2, Pressure along the nozzle
Pb > P* decrease in flow
direction, Pe = Pb
Pb reduce to P3 Mass flow reaches
; P3 = P* maximum, choked flow
Pb = P*
Pb reduce to P4 No additional changes in
or below pressure distribution, Pe
= P*
51
EXAMPLE 3
Suppose we are designing a supersonic wind tunnel to operate
with air at a Mach number of 3. If the throat area is 10 cm2, what
must be the cross-sectional area of the test section to be?
Assume k = 1.4 for air.

SOLUTION:

Eq. (7.37a) is used, substitute A* = 10 cm2 ; Ma = 3.0, k = 1.4:

k +1
A 1 ì1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2 ü 2 ( k -1)

*
= í ý
A Ma î 1 + [(k - 1) / 2] þ

52
 1.4 +1
A 1 ì1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](3.0) 2 ü 2 (1.4 -1)

*
= í ý
A 3.0 î 1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2] þ
= 4.23

Therefore : A = 4.23 x 10 cm 2
= 42.3 cm 2

53
EXAMPLE 4
A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric
pressure conditions to a receiver pipe as illustrated in the figure.
The throat (minimum) flow cross sectional area of the converging
duct is 1 x 10-4 m2. Determine the mass flow rate through the duct
if the receiver pressure is (a) 80 kPa (abs), (b) 40 kPa (abs).

Properties of U.S. Standard Atmosphere at Sea Level

Property SI Units BG Units
Temperature, T 288.15 K (15°C) 518.67 °R (59.00°F)
Pressure, P 101.325 kPa (abs) 2116.2 lb/ft2 (abs)
Density, r 1.225 kg/m3 0.002377 slugs/ft3
Specific weight, g 12.014 N/m3 0.07647 lb/ft3
54
Viscosity, µ 1.789 x 10-5 N.s/m2 3.737 x 10-7 lb.s/ft2
SOLUTION:
üTo solve mass flow rate from the following equation, the
density and velocity of the air at the converging duct throat are
needed.
m! = rAu = r th Ath u th (1)

üAssume that the flow through the converging duct is isentropic

and the air behaves as an ideal gas with constant cv and cp, then:

1/( k -1)
r th ìï 1 üï
=í 2ý
(2)
r 0 ïî1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma th ïþ
Stagnation density, r0 for standard atmosphere = 1.23
kg/m3 and k = 1.4 55
 üTo determine the throat Mach number, Math , the following
equation is used:
k /( k -1)
Pth ì 1 ü
=í 2ý
(3)
P0 î1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma th þ
The critical pressure, p* is obtained from Eq. (7.35):

æ P* ö
çç ÷÷ = 0.528
è P0 ø k =1.4
P * = 0.528 P0 = 0.528 Patm = (0.528)[101 kPa(abs)] = 53.3 kPa(abs)

If the receiver pressure is greater than or equal to P*, then Pth =

Pre; exit flow is subsonic. If Pre < P*, then Pth = P*; exit flow is
sonic and the flow is choked. 56
üThe flow velocity at the throat can be obtained from:

uth = Ma th ath = Ma th RTth k (4)

üTemperature at the throat, Tth can be calculated using:

Tth 1
= (5)
T0 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma th 2

where T0 = 15 K + 273 K = 288 K

(a) For Pre = 80 kPa(abs) > P* = 53.3 kPa(abs),

hence Pth = 80 kPa(abs). From Eq. (3):
1.4 /(1.4 -1)
80 kPa(abs) ì 1 ü
=í 2ý
101 kPa(abs) î1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2]Ma th þ 57

\ Math = 0.587
From Eq. (2):
1/(1.4 -1)
r th ì 1 ü
3
=í 2ý
1.23 kg/m î1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](0.587) þ
\ rth = 1.04 kg/m3

From Eq. (5):

Tth 1
=
288 K 1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](0.587 ) 2
\ Tth = 269 K

58
Substituting Math = 0.587 and Tth = 269 K into Eq. (4):

u th = 0.587 [286.9 J/(kg.K)](269 K)(1.4)

= 193 (J/kg)1/2
= 193 m/s

** Since 1 J/kg = 1 N.m/kg = 1 (kg.m/s2).m/kg = (m/s)2

Finally, from Eq. (1):

m! = (1.04 kg/m 3 )(1 x 10 -4 m 2 )(193 m/s)

= 0.0201 kg/s
59
(b) For Pre = 40 kPa(abs) < P* = 53.3 kPa(abs),
hence Pth = p* = 53.3 kPa(abs) and Ma = 1.
\ The converging duct is choked.

From Eq. (2):

1/(1.4 -1)
r th ì 1 ü
3
=í 2ý
1.23 kg/m î1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](1) þ
\ rth = 0.780 kg/m3

From Eq. (5):

Tth 1
=
288 K 1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](1) 2

\ Tth = 240 K 60
Substituting Tth = 240 K into Eq. (4):

u th = (1) [286.9 J/(kg.K)](240 K)(1.4)

= 310 (J/kg)1/2
= 310 m/s

** Since 1 J/kg = 1 N.m/kg = 1 (kg.m/s2).m/kg = (m/s)2

Finally, from Eq. (1):

3 -4 2
m = (0.780 kg/m )(1 x 10 m )(310 m/s)
!
= 0.0242 kg/s

61
EXERCISE 2
Solve Example 4 using Table B.1.

You may start your calculation by considering the following:

Since the receiver pressure, Pre = 80 kPa (abs) is greater than the
critical pressure, P* = 53.3 kPa (abs), the throat pressure, Pth is
equal to the receiver pressure. Thus:
Pth 80 kPa (abs)
= = 0.792
P0 101 kPa (abs)

From Table B.1, for P/P0 = 0.79, find Math, Tth/T0 and
rth/r0.
62
** your final answer should be the same as using the empirical
equations.
EXERCISE 3
Air enters a nozzle at 30 psia, 630°R and velocity of 450 ft/s.
Approximating the flow as isentropic, determine the pressure
and temperature of air at a location where the air velocity
equals the speed of sound. What is the ratio of the area at
this location to the entrance area?

Properties of air: k = 1.4 ; cP = 0.240 Btu/lbm.°R

Answers:

T = 539 K
P = 17.4 psia
Mai = 1.281 63
A*/Ai = 1.7426
 ADIABATIC FRICTION FLOW
¢ Flow through straight pipes of constant cross section is
adiabatic when the gas flows at high velocity and heat
transfer through the pipe wall is negligible; i.e. Q = 0.
¢ Adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through a constant area
nozzle with friction is also known as Fanno flow.

64
Basic assumptions for adiabatic friction flow:
1. Steady one-dimensional adiabatic flow
2. Perfect gas with constant specific heats, i.e. constant k
value; e.g. k value for air is 1.4.
3. Constant-area straight duct.
4. Negligible shaft work and potential energy changes.
5. Wall shear stress correlated by a Darcy friction factor,
fDarcy.

Recall from previous chapter:

fDarcy = 4 fFanning
For fDarcy, the values are obtained from Moody chart,
while for fFanning , Fanning friction chart is used. 65
 66

MOODY CHART
67
Equations for adiabatic friction flow
Basic equation:
dP r ru 2 fdL
+ udu + =0 ; f is Darcy friction factor --- (7.38)
P P 2P D

The most useful integrated form of equation containing Ma

and the friction parameter is:
fdL 2(1 - Ma 2 ) dMa
= --- (7.39)
D kMa 3{1 + [(k - 1)/2]Ma2 }

Formal integration of Eq. (7.39) between the entrance station a

and exit station b gives::
Lb fdL Mab 2(1 - Ma 2 ) dMa --- (7.40)
òLa D
=ò
Ma a kMa 3{1 + [(k - 1)/2]Ma 2 }
68
f fL
(Lb - La ) =
D D
1æ 1 1 k + 1 Ma b2 {1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2a } ö
= çç - + ln 2 ÷
÷
2
k è Ma a Ma b2
2 Ma a {1 + [k - 1) / 2]Ma b } ø
2

--- (7.41)

where is the arithmetic average value of the terminal

friction factors (fa + fb)/2, and L = Lb – La.

69
Property equations:

To calculate the changes in pressure, temperature and density,

the following equations are useful:

Pa Ma b 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma b2 --- (7.42)

=
Pb Ma a 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2a

Ta 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma b2 --- (7.43)

=
Tb 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2a

r a PaTb Ma b 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 2a --- (7.44)

= =
r b PbTa Ma a 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma b2
70
Maximum conduit length:

By choosing that the entrance to the conduit as station a and

identifying station b as the asterisk condition (Ma = 1.0), then
the length Lb – La = L*:

fL* 1 - Ma 2 k + 1 (k + 1)Ma 2
= + ln --- (7.45)
D kMa 2
2k 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2

is the average friction factor between 0 and L*

The length L* is the length of duct required to develop a duct

flow from Mach number Ma to the sonic point (Ma = 1.0). For
short ducts that never become sonic, the length DL required to
develop from Ma1 to Ma2 is:

fDL æ fL* ö æ fL* ö 71

= çç ÷÷ - çç ÷÷ --- (7.46)
D è D ø1 è D ø 2
Similarly, the sonic properties p*, r*, T*, po* and ro* which are
the appropriate constant reference quantities in adiabatic duct
flow can be described as follows:

P 1 k +1 --- (7.47)
=
P *
Ma 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2

r V* 1 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2 --- (7.48)

= =
r *
V Ma k +1

T a2 k +1 --- (7.49)
= *2 =
T *
a 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2
k +1
r o Po 1 é 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2 ù 2 ( k -1)
--- (7.50)
= *=
r o Po Ma êë
*
k +1
ú
û 72
All these ratios are also tabulated in Table B.3. For finding
changes between points Ma1 and Ma2 that are not sonic,
products of these ratios are used. For example,

P2 P2 P *
= *
P1 P P1

since P* is a constant reference value for the flow.

Mass velocity, G
To calculate the Reynolds number for evaluating the friction
factor, the mass velocity is needed.

kTR
G = rMa = Ma rkP --- (7.51) 73
M
Table B.3: Adiabatic Frictional Flow in a Constant-Area Duct for k = 1.4

74
EXAMPLE 5
An ideal gas flow adiabatically with friction through a long,
constant area pipe. At upstream section (1), P1 = 60 kPa (abs),
T1 = 60oC, and u1 = 200 m/s. At downstream section (2), T2 = 30oC.
Determine P2, u2, and the stagnation pressure ratio Po,2/Po,1 if the
gas is air (k = 1.4).

SOLUTION:

1) Find Ma1, T*, Ma2 and u2 using correlations of Ma with T

2) Find P2 with correlations of Ma and P and P*

P2 æ P2 öæ P * ö
= ç * ÷çç ÷÷
P1 è P øè P1 ø 75
v Determine Mach number at section (1):

u1 200 m/s
Ma1 = =
RT1k N×m æ kg × m/s2 ö
286.9 (333 K)(1.4)çç ÷÷
kg × K è N ø
= 0.55

v Find T*:
T1 (k + 1) / 2
=
T *
1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma12 Hence:
(1.4 + 1) / 2 T* = 333 K / 1.13
=
1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](0.55) 2 = 294.7 K
= 1.13 76
v Since T2 is given, Ma2 can be calculated:
T2 (k + 1) / 2
=
T * 1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 22

æ (k + 1) öæ T ö
*
ç ÷çç ÷÷ - 1
è 2 øè T2 ø
Ma 2 =
k -1
2
æ (1.4 + 1) öæ 294.7 K ö
ç ÷ç ÷ -1
2 øè 303 K ø
= è
æ 1.4 - 1 ö
ç ÷
è 2 ø
= 0.91
u2 = Ma 2 RT2 k
N×m kg × m/s 2
Hence: = 0.91 286.9 (303 K )(1.4)
kg × K 1 N 77
= 317.5 m/s
v Find P* and P2:

1/ 2 1/ 2
P1 1 ì (k + 1) / 2 ü P2 1 ì (k + 1) / 2 ü
= í ý = í ý
P Ma 1 î1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 12 þ
*
P Ma 2 î1 + [(k - 1) / 2]Ma 22 þ
*

1/ 2 1/ 2
1 ì (1.4 + 1) / 2 ü 1 ì (1.4 + 1) / 2 ü
= í ý = í 2ý
0.55 î1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](0.55) 2 þ 0.91 î1 + [(1.4 - 1) / 2](0.91) þ
= 1.93 = 1.11

æ P2 öæ P ö
*
Hence: P2 = P1 ç * ÷çç ÷÷
è P øè P1 ø
æ 1.11 ö
= 60 kPa abs ç ÷
è 1.93 ø
78
= 34.5 kPa abs
Stagnation pressure ratio can be written as: P0, 2 æ P0, 2 öæ P0* ö
= çç * ÷÷çç ÷
[( k +1) / 2 ( k -1)] P0,1 è P0 øè P0,1 ÷ø
P0,1 1 ì ïæ 2 ö éæ æ k - 1 ö 2 öù ü
ï
= íç ÷ ç
êç 1 + ç ÷ Ma ÷
1 ÷ú ý
P0* Ma 1 ï
îè k + 1 ø ëè è 2 ø øû ï
þ
(1.4 +1)
1 ìæ 2 öæ æ 1.4 - 1 ö 2 öü
2 (1.4 -1)
= íç ç
÷ç ç
1 + ÷ ( 0.55) ÷÷ý
0.55 îè 1.4 + 1 øè è 2 ø øþ
= 1.25
[(k +1) / 2 (k -1)]
P0, 2 1 ì ïæ 2 ö éæ æ k - 1 ö ü
2 öù ï
= íç ÷ êçç1 + ç ÷Ma 2 ÷÷ú ý
P0* Ma 2 ï
îè k + 1 ø ëè è 2 ø øû ï
þ
(1.4 +1)
1 ìæ 2 öæ æ 1.4 - 1 ö öü 2(1.4 -1)
÷çç1 + ç ÷(0.91) ÷÷ý
2
= íç
0.91 îè 1.4 + 1 øè è 2 ø øþ
= 1.01

P0, 2 1.01
Hence: = = 0.81
P0,1 1.25 79

*** Repeat calculations by using information in Table B.3.

EXAMPLE 6
Air flows from a reservoir through an isentropic nozzle into a long,
straight commercial steel pipe. The pressure and temperature in
the reservoir are 20 atm and 555.6 K, respectively, and the Mach
number at the entrance of the pipe is 0.05.

(a) What is the value of fL*/D?

(b) What are the pressure, temperature, density, linear
velocity when Lb = L*?

80
SOLUTION:

(a) For k = 1.4 and Ma = 0.05, from Eq. (7.45):

fL* 1 - Ma 2 k + 1 é (k + 1)Ma 2 ù
= + ln ê 2 ú
D kMa 2
2k ë 2 + ( k - 1) Ma û
1 - (0.05) 2 1.4 + 1 é (1.4 + 1)(0.05) 2 ù
= + ln ê ú
1.4(0.05) 2
2(1.4) ë 2 + (1.4 - 1)(0.05) 2 û
= 280

(b) When Lb = L*, the pressure, temperature, density,

linear velocity are at asterisk condition and Mab = 1.0;
i.e. P*, T*, r* and u* are to be calculated.

Pressure, temperature and density changes in the 81

nozzle are negligible, but not the linear velocity, ua.

From Eq. (7.19), the acoustic velocity (aa) is:
kRTg c
aa =
M
æ lbm .ft ö
æ
(1.4)ç1545
ft.lb f ö
!
lbmol. R ø
÷(1000 !
R )
çç 32.174 ÷
2 ÷
lbf .s ø
è è
=
lbm
29
lbmol
= 1549 ft/s

** gc is incorporated in the calculation as conversion unit

The velocity at the entrance of the pipe is:

ua = Ma a x aa = (0.05)(1549) = 77.45 ft/s
82
Gas leaving the pipe at the asterisk condition:

Pa 1 k +1
=
P * Ma 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2 * 20 atm
P = = 0.913 atm
21.9
1 1.4 + 1
=
0.05 2 + (1.4 - 1)(0.05) 2
= 21.9

Ta k +1
= 1000 !
R
T *
2 + (k - 1)Ma 2 *
T = = 833.4 ! R
1.2
1.4 + 1
=
2 + (1.4 - 1)(0.05) 2
= 1.2 83
 r 1 2 + (k - 1)Ma 2 Density of air at 20°C and
=
r *
Ma k +1 1000 °R is 0.795 lb/ft3
1 2 + (1.4 - 1)(0.05) 2 0.795
= r =
*
= 0.0435 lb/ft 3
0.05 1 .4 + 1 18.26
= 18.26

Since the exit velocity is sonic, u* can be calculated using

T = T* = 833.4 °R

* 833.4
a = u = 1549 = 1414 ft/s
1000

84
EXERCISE 4
For the inlet conditions of Example 6, what is the maximum
length of pipe that may be used if the pipe is 2 inch in
diameter? Given e = 4.6 x 10-5 m

[Ans: L* = 2,383 ft]

fFanning = 0.0049

85