3.RI Slide Presentation

Radiographic testing (RT)
Welds
NDT20
Copyright © TWI Ltd

Course Objectives
 To explain the basic theory of X- and gamma radiography.

 To select film type and energy levels, select and prepare
techniques for a given specimen.
 To state the theory of film processing and carry out practical
dark-room work.
 To have a working knowledge of basic radiation safety.
 To plot and evaluate film characteristics (sensitometry).
 To recognise film faults.
 To meet the syllabus requirements for CSWIP/PCN Level 2.

Part 1: Theory
Covering pages 1-15 of your notes

History of Radiography
W C Roentgen
1895
 Discovered X-rays during

another experiments with
tube containing an anode
and cathode.
 The material around tube
fluoresced and nearby
photographic plates
fogged.

Henri Becquerel
1896
 Discovered gamma-rays
whilst working with
fluorescent minerals. After
storing a uranium
compound in his drawer
with some photographic
plates he discovered were
fogged.

Marie Curie
1898
 Discovered the radioactive

sources Polonium and
Radium. Radium was the
first gamma source used
for industrial radiography.
 In 1946 man-made sources
were produced including
Cobalt and Iridium.

William Coolidge
1920’s
 Invented the X-ray tube

as we know it today
which revolutionised
industrial radiography.
 He was awarded 83
patents due to his
invention.

First radiograph 22 December 1895.

Sent to Physicist Franz Exner in
Vienna. (Mrs. Roentgen's hand.)
First x-ray tube belonging

to Roentgen in 1896.

Radiographic Inspection
 X-rays are capable of passing straight through

a solid object.
 The amount of X-radiation that passes through
a given object depends on the density and
thickness of the object.
 Transmitted X-radiation can be detected by
photographic film or fluorescent screens.
 This forms the basis of radiographic
inspection, a powerful technique which is
applicable to virtually all materials.

Radiographic Inspection

Advantages of Radiography
 Directly produces a permanent record.

 Capable of detecting internal flaws.
 Useful for the non-destructive testing of
virtually all materials and product forms.
 Real-time imaging is possible in some
applications.

Disadvantages of Radiography
 Radiation hazard.
 Sensitivity is affected by defect orientation.
 Limited ability to detect fine cracks and other
planar defects.
 Access to two sides is required.
 Limited by material thickness.
 Skilled interpretation is required.
 Relatively slow.
 High capital outlay and running costs.

What is radiation?
 Radiation
 Radio waves, light, X-rays, g-rays and other
forms of radiation take the form of waves of
energy associated with electrical and magnetic
fields which are at right angles to each other
and the direction of propagation.
 Electromagnetic radiation
 Electromagnetic radiation has no mass and is
not affected by magnetic or electrical fields
nor to any great extent by gravity.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wavelength v Photon Energy

Shorter Wavelength = Increased Energy
V

f
V  2.997 x10 m / sec
8
E = hf
Where h is planks constant
(= 6.626196 x 10-34Js)

Properties of Electromagnetic
Radiation
 Travels at the speed of light.
 Travels through a vacuum.
 Travels in a straight line.
 No electrical charge or mass.
 Intensity proportional to 1/D² where D is the
distance from the source.

Inverse Square Law
D1
D2

Properties of Electromagnetic
Radiation
 X and gamma rays
 Absorbed and scattered by matter.
 Not refracted by matter.
 Cause ionisation referred to as ionising
radiation.
 Will darken photographic film emulsion and
will cause some materials to fluoresce in the
visible or ultraviolet spectrum.
 Cannot be detected by human senses.
 Extremely hazardous to health.

Atomic Structure
 Atoms are thought to consist of a positively

charged nucleus surrounded by one or more
negatively charged electrons that orbit the
nucleus.
 The nucleus consists of positively charged
particles called protons and electrically neutral
particles called neutrons.
 A neutron can be thought of as a proton
closely combined with an electron.

Atomic Structure
 Protons have positive charge and by definition

an atomic mass of 1.
 Neutrons have no electrical charge, atomic
mass very slightly greater than 1.
 Electrons have negative charge equal in
magnitude to that of a proton but are very
much smaller at a mass of 1/1836 of a proton.
 Number protons equal number electrons,
usually!

Atomic Structure
The nucleus of the atom is made up of protons and

neutrons. The electrons orbits the nucleus.
Proton: Positive charge.
Neutron: No charge.
Electron: Negative charge.
A neutron can be
thought of as a
proton(+) with an
electron(-) tightly
attached.

Atomic Structure
HYDROGEN
1 PROTON
1 ELECTRON
No charge

Atomic Structure
Helium Atom
2 PROTONS
2 ELECTRON
2 NEUTRONS
Positive charge: Ionisation has occurred

Atomic Structure
LITHIUM
3 PROTONS
3 ELECTRONS
4 NEUTRONS

Atomic Structure
BERYLIUM
4 PROTONS
4 ELECTRONS
5 NEUTRONS

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure: Hydrogen

Atomic Structure: Helium

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

Isotopes
 Atoms of an element having the same atomic

number but different atomic mass.
 The difference in atomic mass is due to a
difference in the number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
 Some isotopes are stable while others are
unstable.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
DEUTERIUM
1 PROTON
1 NEUTRON
1 ELECTRON

Deuterium

TRITIUM
1 PROTON
2 NEUTRONS
1 ELECTRON

Tritium

Radioactive Isotopes
 Some isotopes are stable, others are not.

 Unstable isotopes transform into another
element and in so doing emit radiation.
 Three forms of radiation:
1. Alpha .
2. Beta .
3. Gamma .
 Neutrons may also be emitted.

Radioactive Emissions
Alpha particles: +
 Emitted by large nuclei such as uranium or
plutonium.
 Composed of two protons and two neutrons
with a helium nucleus.
226
88 Ra 222
86 Rn He 4
2

Beta particles: -
 Emitted by neutron rich nuclei such as
uranium or plutonium.
 Composed of high speed electrons.

14
6 C N  e 14
7

Gamma particles or photons: 

 Emitted following the emission of an alpha
or beta particle.
 Composed of photons of energy not
particles.

Radioactive Decay
Pb Bi  Po Pb
210
82
210
83
210
84
206
82
    

Rate of Decay
 Curie: 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second.

 Becquerel: 1 disintegration/second.
 Half Life: Time taken for the activity of an
isotope to reduce by a half.
Cobalt 60: 5.3 years.

Iridium 192: 74 days.
Ytterbium 169: 32 days.
Uranium 238: 4.47 x 1010 years.
Selenium 75: 118 days

Rate of Decay
 At the level of individual atoms radioactive

decay is random but for each isotope each
individual atom has the same probability of
decay.
 A 2 x 1mm cylinder of Iridium contains around

1020 atoms; when so many atoms all have the
same probability of decay the result is a
constant half life even though each individual
decay event is random.

Rate of Decay

Industrial Radiography
 Gamma Rays
 X - Rays
 Generated by the
 Electrically
decay of unstable
generated.
isotopes.

Part 2: Equipment

X-Ray and Gamma Equipment
X-Ray Production

X-Ray Production
 X-rays are produced by the deceleration of

high velocity electrons.
 Part or all of the kinetic energy of the electron
is converted into electromagnetic radiation
(X-rays).
 Kinetic energy is controlled by velocity:
Ek = ½mv2 and is usually stated in keV or
MeV.
 Electron velocity in an X-ray tube is controlled
by tube voltage.

X-Ray Production
 Requirements
 Electron source.
 Means of accelerating electrons to a high velocity.
 Means of halting electrons.

X-Ray Production
1. Electron source: Tungsten filament

X-Ray Production
Current

X-Ray Production
Current
Free electrons
Thermionic emission of electrons

X-Ray Production
2. Accelerating electron: Potential difference
-ve
-ve +ve

X-Ray Production
-ve +ve

X-Ray Production
-ve +ve
Focusing cup concentrates electrons into a beam

X-Ray Production
3. Means of halting electrons: High density

material
-ve +ve
Tungsten
target

X-Ray Production
3. Means of halting electrons: High density material
-ve +ve

X-Ray Production
Kinetic energy converted to heat and x-rays
-ve +ve
X-rays / Bremsstrahlung

Problems
 Electrons travel for only short distances

through gasses.
 Kinetic Energy converted into ± 95 % heat
and ± 5 %
X-rays.

X-Ray Production

X-Ray Production: HEAT
 In any x-ray tube around 95 % of the energy

generated is in the form of heat.
 For typical 200 kV portable equipment around
1 kW of heat has to be dissipated.
 For a 300 kV constant potential laboratory unit
heat generation is typically 7.5 kW.
 X-ray tubes of all types therefore require a cooling
system in order to prevent overheating and
increase duty cycle.
 Older type sets having glass envelope tubes are
generally oil or gas cooled.

X-Ray Production: HEAT
 A rotating anode may be used in order to help

dissipate heat. This type of arrangement is
generally limited to X-ray units intended for
medical use.
 Modern X-ray units have so-called metal-ceramic
envelopes. The use of such envelopes makes it
practical to have a much higher potential
difference between the electrodes and the
envelope than was the case with glass.
 This in turn permits the use of grounded anodes.
 Such anodes are at zero volts and can therefore
be cooled directly by water.

X-Ray Production: Anodes
Directional Type
Tungsten target
Hood
Beryllium window Heavy high conductivity

Copper heat sink

Panoramic Type
Beryllium window
Tungsten target
Hood
Heavy high conductivity
Copper heat sink

Rod-anode
Tungsten target
Beryllium window
Aluminium tube

Rotating-anode
Used mainly for low

kV, very high tube
current, equipment
in medical
applications.

X-Ray Production
 Tube current  Tube voltage

controls the amount controls the quality
or intensity of or penetrating ability
radiation. of the radiation.

X-Ray Production
LT transformer
X-ray
tube
AC
Power
HT transformer Rheostat
Autotransformer
mA
AC
Power
kV

X-Ray Production
 Current can flow across an X-ray tube only

when the cathode (i.e. the filament) is
negative and the anode (i.e. the target) is
positive.
 Therefore if an X-ray tube is energised using a
simple AC supply X-rays will be produced only
when the supply polarity is such that the
cathode is negative and the anode is positive.
 Simple AC X-ray machines are therefore
referred to as self-rectified.

X-Ray Production
 Output of C-rays can be more than doubled if

the AC supply is rectified.
 X-ray equipment fitted with a rectifying circuit
is referred to as constant potential.
 Most CP units use a Greinacher circuit to
rectify the AC supply.
 CP units produce harder radiation than SR
even when operating at the same tube
voltage.

X-Ray Production
Radiation intensity Decreasing energy
X-Ray Production
Increasing wavelength

X-Ray Production

X-Ray Production

X-Ray Production

X-Ray Production

High Energy X-Ray Sources
 X-Ray energies of up to 30 MeV are produced using

linear accelerators or betatrons. Electrostatic (Van
der Graaf) generators are also used occasionally.
 Linear accelerators (Linacs) accelerate electrons to
high velocity using an electric wave (RF). Electrons
surf the electrical waves and attain high velocity.
 Betatrons accelerate electrons along a spiral path by
means of magnetic fields.
 Van der Graaf generators can develop high electrical
potentials by mechanical means such electrical
potentials can be used to accelerate electrons.

X-Ray and Gamma Equipment
Gamma rays

Sealed Sources

Gamma-Ray Equipment

Gamma-Ray Equipment
Isotope container
Projection
tube
Wind-out

Isotopes Used in Industrial
Radiography
Isotope Half life mm of steel

Iridium 192 74.4 days 20 - 100
Cobalt 60 5.3 years 40 - 200
Ytterbium 169 32 days 1 - 15
Selenium 75 119 days 10 - 40
Thulium 170 128 days up to 5
Caesium 137 30 years 20 - 80

Radiography
Relative intensity/% of total
Radiation energy/MeV

Radiography
Relative Intensity/% of total

Radiography

Radiography

Radiography

Advantages
Gamma rays compared with X- rays

 No water or electrical supplies needed.
 Equipment smaller and lighter therefore more
portable.
 Easier to perform radiography in confined or
difficult to access areas.
 Equipment simpler and more robust.
 Less scatter no low energy radiation.
 Less initial cost.
 Greater penetrating power.

Disadvantages
Gamma rays compared with X- rays

 Reduced radiographic contrast.
 Exposure times generally longer.
 Sources need replacing potentially greater in-
service costs.
 Radiation cannot be switched off.
 Generally inferior geometric unsharpness, SFD
is usually minimised to obtain economic
exposure time.
 Remote handling necessary.
 Penetrating power cannot be adjusted.

Part 3: Image processing

Radiographic Film
Base

Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing

Radiographic Film
Emulsion mainly AgBr in gelatine base
Subbing
Base
Subbing

Radiographic Film
Supercoat

Subbing
Base
Subbing
Supercoat

Radiographic Film
Pre-exposure After exposure
Un-sensitised: Sensitised: Unstable

Stable
During exposure a latent image is formed by
sensitised Silver Halide crystals.

Latent Image Formation
Bromine ion Br-

Silver Ion Ag+
Interstitial Silver Ion Ag+
Free electron
Silver atom Ag

 Silver bromide crystals are not perfect they

contain interstitial silver ions.
 When an interstitial silver ion accepts a free
electron it becomes a silver atom.
 The silver atom is larger than the ion and
exerts a stress on the crystal lattice.
 In the presence of developer this stress causes
instability and the crystal breaks down
resulting in the whole of the crystal changing
to black metallic silver.

 The interstitial silver atoms nucleate silver

crystals.
 A single interstitial silver atom is sufficient to
cause an entire silver bromide crystal to
convert to metallic silver.
 The typical size of a silver bromide crystal in a
typical photographic film emulsion is about
1 μm.
 Sensitisation of a silver bromide crystal can be
caused by just a single photon of X-ray
energy.

Film Types
Grain Size Speed Quality

Coarse Fast Poor
Medium Medium Medium
Fine Slow Good
Ultra Fine Very Slow Very Good

Intensifying Screens
 Film is usually placed between front and back

intensifying screens.
 Generally lead of 0.03 - 0.15 mm occasionally
salt screens may be used.
 Lead screens shorten exposure time and
improve image quality by helping to reduce
the effects of scattered radiation.
 Salt screens shorten exposure time, often
dramatically but produce inferior image
quality.

 Metallic: Usually lead but other metals such as

copper may be used.
 Salt: Usually calcium tungstate.
 Fluorometallic: These are salt screens with a
metal foil backing. They combine the
advantages of metallic and salt screens,
however, they are extremely expensive and
they are easily damaged.

Intensifying Screens: Metallic
 For radiation energy of 120 keV or greater front and

back lead intensifying screens are commonly used.
 The optimum thickness of such screens varies with
radiation energy but 0.03 - 0.15 mm is typical.
 The front screen reduces the effect of radiation
scattered by objects situated in front of the film
including the object which is being radiographed and
helps to shorten exposure time.
 The back screen reduces the effect of radiation
scattered by objects situated behind the film and to a
lesser extent when compared with the front screen
helps to shorten exposure time.

Front screen
Primary radiation
Front emulsion
Secondary electrons
Base Grain sensitised by

primary radiation
Back emulsion Grain sensitised by

secondary electrons
Back screen

No screens Pb screens: Poor contact
Pb screens: Good contact

 Metal usually Pb: Intensification factor about

2x for radiation energies in excess of 120 keV.
 Salt: Intensification factor may be as high as
500x.
 Fluorometallic: Intensification factor about
50x.

Film Processing
 Developer: Reducing agent: Alkaline.

 Stop bath: Acetic acid.
 Fixer: Dissolves silver halide: Acidic.
 Washing.
 Drying.

Film Processing
 Development
 Latent image converted into metallic silver in
3-5 minutes at 20°C.
 The four main constituents of developer:
 Reducing agent: Metol/hydroquinone.
 Accelerator: Keeps solution alkaline.
 Restrainer: Ensures only sensitised silver
halides converted.
 Preservative: Prevents oxidation by air.

Developer
 In order to increase the working life of the

developer replenisher should be added in
accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
 Replenisher replaces used reducing agent and
maintains alkalinity. It also maintains the depth of
developer in the processing tank, during
processing there are losses due to carry-over and
evaporation.
 Keeping a record of how much film has been
processed helps in deciding how much replenisher
to add.

Film Processing
Stop bath
3% acetic acid neutralises the developer, stops the development
process and increases fixer life.
It is common to add an indicator to the stop bath to confirm it’s

acidity.
The stop bath should always be held at approximately the same

temperature as the developer and fixer as sudden temperature
changes can damage the film emulsion.
A soaking time in the stop bath of just a few seconds is

sufficient to arrest development and neutralise alkalinity.

Film Processing
Fixer
A solution of sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate.
Fixer is mildly acidic, acetic acid stabilises the solution.
Unexposed undeveloped silver halides are leached out of the

film emulsion.
Fixer commonly contains a hardener. This helps to promote

rapid even drying it also makes the wet film easier to handle.
Fixing time is generally taken to be twice the clearing time.

Leaving film in fixer for an extended period may cause the film
emulsion to peel away from the base.

Fixer
Like developer fixer may be replenished.
When unexposed film is placed in the fixer bath it will be

observed to clear as the silver halides are dissolved by the
fixer. Clearing time is an important measure of fixer condition.
Clearing time for new fixer will usually be less than 30
seconds.
Radiographs are usually fixed for a time equal to twice the

clearing time.
Fixer contains a hardener which helps to prevent swelling of

the film emulsion and accelerate drying.

Fixer
During the fixing process large amounts of silver

accumulate in the fixer solution.
Therefore it is common practice to recover silver
from spent fixer.

Film Processing
Washing
20-30 minutes in clean running water.
Usually followed by dipping in a clean water bath containing a

wetting agent which helps to promote even drying.
Note: Over washing must be avoided.
Over washing will cause swelling and excessive softening of

the film emulsion a major cause of drying marks.
Insufficiently washed radiographs will discolour and their shelf

life will be limited.

Advanced Imaging Techniques
Computed
radiography Optical
Photo-multiplier
scanner
tube
Laser
beam
A/D
converter
Imaging 110010010010110
plate
Motor

Image Software
Image (1) Edge detection (2)
Subtraction of (2) from (1)

Real Time Radiography

Real Time Radiography
 Image type
 The image formed is a positive image since
brighter areas on the image indicates where
higher levels of transmitted radiation reached
the screen.
Positive image Negative image

Computed Tomography

Computed Tomography
As the component is rotated

a series of 2D slices are
collected when these are
superimposed and merged
using computer software
according to the radial
1 2 position a 3D image is then
produced.
The cross section of the test
piece becomes more
defined as it is rotated the
stretched density
information is added to the
3 4 image.

CT Images
 As shown below the 3-D image can then be

manipulated and sliced in various ways to
provide a thorough understanding of the
structure and nature of defects.

Part 4: Image quality

Radiographic Sensitivity
The ability of a radiograph to detect a small

change in section thickness
Affected by:
 Definition: The degree of sharpness of a
radiographic image.
 Contrast: The degree to which two adjacent
areas of different film density can be
distinguished one from the other.

Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Contrast Definition

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Film Film Quality of Subject Film

density type radiation contrast processing

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Film Film Quality of Subject Film

density type radiation contrast processing
Agitation Development Developer Developer Type of

time temperature concentration developer

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Type of Intensifying Radiation Relative Geometry Film

film screens quality movement processing

Sensitivity
Contrast Definition
Type Intensifying Radiation Relative Geometry Film

of screens quality movement processing
film
Agitation Development Developer Developer Type of

time temperature concentration developer

Image Quality
 Contrast
 The ability to differentiate areas of different
film density

Radiographic Contrast
 Insufficient Contrast  Excessive Contrast

 kV too high.  kV too low.
 Over exposure  Incorrect developer.
compensated for by  Incorrect film: Screen
shortened development. combination.
 Incorrect film: Screen
combination.
 Scatter.
 Fogged film.
 Poor film processing.

Radiographic Quality
Definition
The sharpness of the dividing line between
different density fields.
There are two types of unsharpness in

radiography:
1. Film or inherent unsharpness.
2. Geometric unsharpness or penumbra.

Geometric Unsharpness

f x OFD
U𝑔 =
FOD

Long Film to Object

Distance
Low Ug

Short Film to Object

Distance
High Ug

Small focus
Low Ug

Large Focus
High Ug

Short Object to Film

Distance
Low Ug

Long Object to Film

Distance
High Ug

Reducing Geometric Unsharpness
 Source size as small as possible.

 Source to object distance as long as practical.
 Object to film distance as short as possible.
 In a good quality technique geometric
unsharpness should be not more than the
inherent unsharpness of the film screen
combination in use.

Measuring Geometric Unsharpness
 The drilled holes in step: Hole and plaque type

IQIs are intended as an indicator of geometric
unsharpness.
 Standard wire type IQIs (EN ISO 19232-1) are
poor indicators of geometric unsharpness.
 A special type of IQI called a duplex wire IQI
is designed with a view to measuring
geometric unsharpness (EN ISO 19232-5).

Duplex IQIs
 EN ISO 19232-5 defined duplex wire IQI

containing 13 pairs of circular cross-section
wires made of platinum and tungsten.
Note: EN 462-5 was former standard which is technically identical with EN ISO
19232-5

BS 3971 Duplex IQI
Achieved
Wire Achieved basic
Duplex geometrical
diameter spatial resolution 𝑆𝑅𝑏
identification unsharpness 𝑈𝑔 [mm]
[mm] [mm]
D1 0,80 0,80 1,60

D2 0,63 0,63 1,26
D3 0,50 0,50 1,00
D4 0,40 0,40 0,80
D5 0,32 0,32 0,64
D6 0,25 0,25 0,50
D7 0,20 0,20 0,40
D8 0,16 0,16 0,32
D9 0,13 0,13 0,26
D10 0,10 0,10 0,20
D11 0,08 0,08 0,16
D12 0,063 0,063 0,13
D13 0,05 0,05 0,10

BS 3971 Duplex IQI
First unresolved duplex is ...

Achieved
Wire Achieved basic
Duplex geometrical
diameter spatial resolution 𝑆𝑅𝑏
identification unsharpness 𝑈𝑔 [mm]
[mm] [mm]
D7 0,20 0,20 0,40

D8 0,16 0,16 0,32
D9 0,13 0,13 0,26
D10 0,10 0,10 0,20

Inherent Unsharpness
Inherent or film unsharpness is due to:

 The graininess of the film, fast films have
larger grain size than slow films.
 The type of intensifying screens, metallic foil
screens are much better than fluorescent
screens.
 The radiation energy, film unsharpness is
increased at high radiation energy.
 Film processing, development time and
temperature affect grain size.

Actual
object
Ultrafine grain
film
Fine grain
film
Coarse grain
film

Scattered Radiation
Scattered radiation can seriously effect the

quality of a radiographic image and needs to
be considered with a view to reducing its
effect on the final image quality.

Scatter
 Radiation originating from any source other than

the primary source.
 Primary radiation is absorbed then re-emitted in
all directions.
 Scatter is a major contributor to poor radiographic
contrast and definition.
 Scatter may also cause a radiation hazard, dose
rates maybe locally increased by scattering
effects.

Scatter
Three major causes of scatter are:

 Photoelectric effect.
 Compton scattering (incoherent scatter).
 Pair production.
 Other scattering mechanisms exist for

example: Rayleigh scattering (coherent
scattering).

Photoelectric Effect
 In the photoelectric effect an electron absorbs

all of the energy of the incident X-ray photon.
 If the photon energy is sufficient the electron
will be completely ejected from the atom and
ionisation will occur.
 Where the incident photon has exactly the
right amount of energy the electron may
simply jump from one energy level to another.
 As the affected atom returns to its base state
low energy X-rays are emitted in all directions.

Photoelectric Effect

Compton Scattering
 In Compton scattering an electron absorbs

part of the energy of the incident X-ray
photon.
 In Compton scattering the affected electron is
ejected from the atom and ionisation results.
 The photon energy not absorbed by the
electron is deflected from the original path of
the incident photon as an X-ray of lower
energy.
 As the affected atom returns to its base state
low energy X-rays are emitted in all directions.

Compton Scattering

Pair Production
 In pair production a high energy X-ray photon

converts to an electron, positron pair following
interaction with either an orbital electron or an
atomic nucleus.
 Pair production occurs only above a threshold
energy of 1.02 MeV.
 A positron has a very short life expectancy, it
quickly interacts with an electron causing
annihilation of both particles.

Pair Production
 Annihilation of an electron, positron pair

produces scattered radiation at a characteristic
photon energy of 0.51 MeV.
 The electron produced in the pair production
event has high velocity and causes ionisation
and further production of scattered radiation.

Pair Production

Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering
 In coherent scattering there is no loss of

photon energy.
 The incident photon is effectively deflected
from its original path as it interacts with an
atom.
 The incident photon is momentarily absorbed
by the atom setting its orbital electrons in
oscillation, then re-emitted without energy
loss but in a new direction.
 Coherent scattering affects only very low
energy X-ray photons and is of little
importance in industrial radiography.

Coherent (Rayleigh) Scattering

Mode of Scatter vs Radiation Energy
 At radiation energies up to approximately

600 eV the photoelectric effect is the dominant
scattering mechanism.
 From 600 eV to approximately 6 MeV Compton
scattering predominates.
 Above 6 MeV pair production takes over as the
dominant effect.
 The total amount of scattering as a proportion
of the incident radiation is much greater at
energies below 1 MeV than it is at higher
energies.

Scatter
 Internal scatter: Originating within the

specimen.
 Side scatter: Walls and nearby objects in the
path of the primary beam.
 Back scatter: Materials located behind the
film.

Scatter
 Internal scatter originating within the

specimen

Scatter
 Side scatter from walls and nearby objects in

the path of the primary beam

Scatter
 Back scatter materials located behind the film

Checking For Back Scatter
British, European and American codes and

standards describe a method of checking for
back scatter.
 A lead letter B is attached to the back of the
film cassette during exposure.
 If a light image of the letter B appears in the
radiographic image then excessive back
scatter is present and the radiograph must be
retaken.
 A dark image of B does not indicate
backscatter!!!

Checking For Back Scatter
Light image
of B:
Reshoot
Dark image
of B:
Accept

Scattering Angle
 The angle formed between the direction of the

primary radiation beam and the direction of
travel of the scattered radiation is referred to
as scattering angle or angle of scatter.
Angle
of
scatter
Primary radiation

Scattering Angle
 Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of

less than or equal to 90 is side scatter or
internal scatter.
 Scattered radiation with a scattering angle of
greater than 90 is back scatter.

Scatter
Low scatter High scatter

Control of Scatter
 Collimation.
 Lead screens.
 Protection from back scatter.
 Beam filtration (X-ray only).
 Blocking.
 Diaphragms.
 Grids (oscillating).
 Increased beam energy.

Typical inherent unsharpness for

Pb screens/fine grain film
Radiation source Inherent unsharpness
(mm)
100 kV X-rays 0.05
200 kV X-rays 0.09
300 kV X-rays 0.12
400 kV X-rays 0.15
1000 kV X-rays 0.18
Iridium 192 0.17
Cobalt 60 0.35

Part 5: Exposure calculation

Determining The Correct Exposure
Knowing how to determine the correct exposure

to achieve the required radiographic film density
is essential for those involved in radiographic
testing.
Incorrect calculation can lead to lost time

caused by countless reshoots and the
subsequent increase in film costs.

Image Quality Film density
The degree of darkening of a processed film is

called optical density.
Optical density is a logarithmic unit:

𝐼1
𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝐼2
Where I1 is the incident light intensity and I2 is the
transmitted light intensity.
Thus if film density = 2, the incident light intensity is 100 x

greater than the transmitted intensity.

Radiographic Film Density
National codes and standards for radiography of

welds and castings invariably define a minimum
level of film density:
 ASME V requires a minimum film density of
1.8 for X-radiography of welds and a minimum
of 2.0 for gamma techniques.
 EN ISO 17636-1 requires a minimum film
density of 2.0 for class A (basic techniques of
X- or gamma radiography of welds) and a
minimum of 2.3 for class B (improved
techniques).

 Radiographic films provide good contrast at

film densities exceeding about 1.5.
 Radiographs with a density exceeding 3.5 or
perhaps 4.0 cannot be properly viewed and
assessed on standard radiographic film
illuminators.
 Film density is easily measured using a
densitometer or by comparison with a
calibrated density strip.

Film density

Lack of density Excessive density

 Under exposure.  Over exposure.
 Developer  Developer
temperature too temperature too
low. high.
 Exhausted  Excessive
developer. development.
 Developer too weak.  Too strong a
solution.

Factors Affecting Exposure
 Specimen Radiographic
 Material type.  Film speed.
 Thickness.  Quality of radiation.
 FFD or SFD.
 Screens.
 Filters.
 Development.
 Density required.
 Intensity of radiation.

Exposure Charts
Exposure/ mAmin
45
45
40 35 30
Steel Thickness / mm
Steel Thickness / mm
30 35 40
25 20
20 25
15
15
10
10
5
5
Exposure / mAmin

Exposure Calculations
Radiographic equivalence chart

Radiation energy/isotope
100keV 150keV 220keV 400keV Ir192

Material
Steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.1
Aluminium 0.08 0.12 0.18 - 0.35
Al alloy 4.5% Cu 0.13 0.16 0.22 - 0.35
Titanium 0.5 0.45 0.35 - -

Equivalence Factors
 Equivalence factors vary with radiation quality.

 Equivalence factors are used to convert a
thickness of a given material to a
radiographically equivalent thickness of
another material for which exposure times are
known.
 For example: Convert 10mm of steel to an

equivalent thickness of copper using 100 kV
X-rays:
Te = 10 x 1.6 = 16 mm

Film Factors
Classification Manufacturer designation and film factor CF
EN ISO ASTM E
AGFA CF KODAK CF FUJI CF FOMA CF
11699-1 1815
9.0 6.5 9.0

C1 Special D2 DR 50 7.2 IX 25 R2
4.2 3.3 4.2
C2 D3 M 100 4.2 IX 50 R3
2.6 2.6
C3 Class 1 D4 MX 125 2.8 --- R4
1.6 1.6 1.6
C4 D5 T 200 1.7 IX 80 R5
1.0 1.0 1.0
C5 Class 2 D7 AA 400 1 IX 100 R7
0.7 0.6 0.7
C6 Class 3 D8 CX 0.7 IX 150 R8

Exposure Calculation
 Film speed chart
D7 D5 D4
Agfa
CX AA 400 MX12
Kodak 5
IX IX IX 80
Fuji 150 100
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8
10 12 14
Relative exposure
 Change of film: From CX to MX125.
Original exposure: 4 minutes.

Film factor for CX: 0.7
Film factor for MX: 2.8
2.8
New Exposure = 4∙ = 16 minutes
0.7

Change of FFD
Original exposure: 4 minutes.

Original FFD: 1000 mm.
New FFD: 750 mm.
2
750
New time = 4 ∙ = 2.25 minutes
1000

Characteristic Curves
 Increasing exposures are applied to successive areas of

a film.
 After development the film density is measured.
 The density is then plotted against the log of the
relative exposure.
The resultant graph is called the

characteristic curve
or
sensitometric curve
or
Hurter-Driffield curve (H&D curve)

Shoulder
Straight line
section
Toe

The relationship between

exposure time and
resultant film density is
non-linear.
The gradient of the film

characteristic curve is a
measure of film
contrast.

Film A is coarse grain and is

faster than Film B and C.
Film B is fine grain and it’s

speed is intermediate
between Film A and C.
Film C is ultra-fine grain and

is the slowest of the three.
A fast film requires a shorter

exposure time than a slow
film.

1.63 - 1.31 = 0.32 Antilog 0.32 = 2.1

Original exposure = 10 mAmin
New exposure = 2.1 X 10 = 21 mAmin
Using D7 film a
density of 1.5 was
achieved using an
exposure of
10 mAmin.
What exposure is
required to achieve
a density of 2.5?

2.07 - 1.63 = 0.44 Antilog 0.44 = 2.75 Using D7 film a

Original exposure = 10 mAmin
New exposure = 2.75 X 10 = 27.5 density of 2.5
mAmin was achieved
using an
exposure of
10 mAmin.
What exposure is
required to
achieve a
density of 2.5
using MX film?

Image Quality Indicators
 Image quality indicators (IQIs)
or
 Penetrameters
are used to measure radiographic sensitivity and

the quality of the radiographic technique used.

Definitions
 Radiographic sensitivity is the ability of
radiographic system to reveal discontinuity of
certain size on the radiographic image.
 It can also be defined as a measure of quality

of radiographic image. True radiographic
sensitivity is difficult quantity to measure.

Definitions
 IQI sensitivity: Is not an exact measure of the
true sensitivity of a radiographic technique.
 IQIs are used in radiography to ensure that

the general overall quality of a radiographic
technique is adequate.

 EN ISO 19232-1 Wire type IQIs

 EN ISO 19232-2 Step-hole type IQIs

 ASTM E 1025 Plaque type IQIs
Sensitivity is
measured in terms
2-2T where 2 equals
a plaque thickness of
2T 2T
2 % of the test
specimen thickness
1T
4T 1T and 2T is the hole
XX: IQI thickness thousandths of that is visible on the
an inch.
T: Plaque radiographic image.
thickness.

 IQI sensitivity is usually expressed as a

percentage of subject thickness.
 For single wall single image and double wall
single image techniques the single wall
thickness is generally taken as subject
thickness.
 For double wall double image techniques the
double wall thickness is used.

Determining The Correct Sensitivity
100 t
Sensitivity =
T
T: Subject thickness.
t: Thickness of thinnest discernible wire or step.

 IQIs should wherever possible be placed on

source side.
 For the double wall single image technique
this is not possible and IQIs are therefore
placed film side.
 Different requirements apply dependent on
whether the IQI is source or film side.

Part 6: Techniques

Radiographic Techniques
 Single wall single image (SWSI).

 Double wall single image (DWSI).
 Double wall double image (DWDI).

Technique: SWSI
(panoramic)
Required number of
exposures: 1
Location marker
placement: External
IQI placement: External

(followed by comparative exposure)

Technique: SWSI
(source internal and offset)
Required number of exposures:

See EN ISO 17636-1 figures.
Location marker placement:

External

Technique: SWSI (source

external)


External

Technique: DWSI

External

Technique: DWDI (elliptical)


Source side preferred
IQI placement: Must be source

side

Technique: DWDI
(superimposed)


Source side preferred
IQI placement: Must be source

side


 Identification
 Unique identification.

 Identification
 Pitch markers: Location markers.

Identification
 Pitch markers.
 IQI’s.

Localisation
 The through thickness position of a defect

cannot be determined by single exposure
radiography.
 A technique called tube shift or source shift

can be used to determine through thickness
position.

Localisation
Using similar
triangles:
(𝐗−𝐙) (𝐘−𝐙)
=
𝐭 (𝐭−𝐝)
Therefore:
𝒕(𝒀 −𝒁)
𝒅=t-
(𝑿−𝒁)

Part 7: Interpretation

Radiographic Interpretation
 In order to correctly interpret radiographs it is

essential that the interpreter has a good
knowledge of the product under examination and
the possible defects that may arise due to various
processes carried out on the test piece.

Welding Terminology
 Butt joints
Square Edged
Closed Open
Single Sided Butt

Vee Bevel
Double Sided Butt

Vee Bevel

Welding Terminology
 Fillet joints
Lap
Tee
Corner

Welding Definitions
 BS 499-1  NASA
 A union between  A continuous defect
pieces of metal at surrounded by
faces rendered parent material.
plastic or liquid by
heat pressure or
both.

Welds
An ideal weld must give a strong bond between

materials with the interfaces disappearing
To achieve this:
 Smooth, flat or matching surfaces.

 Surfaces shall be free from contaminants.
 Metals shall be free from impurities.
 Metals shall have identical crystalline structures.

Welding
A union between pieces of metal at faces rendered plastic or

liquid by heat, pressure or both.
BS 499-1
Possible energy sources
 Ultrasonics.
 Electron beam.
 Friction.
 Electric resistance.
 Electric arc.

Electric Arc Welding
Electrode
Power
supply
Work piece
Clamp
(earth)

 Electric discharge produced between cathode

and anode by a potential difference (40-60
volts).
 Discharge ionises air and produces -ve
electrons and +ve ions.
 Electrons impact upon anode, ions upon
cathode.
 Impact of particles converts kinetic energy to
heat (7000oC) and light.
 Amperage controls number of ions and
electrons, voltage controls their velocity.

Arc welding processes:

 Manual metal arc.
 Tungsten inert gas.
 Metal inert gas.
 Submerged arc.
Differences between them:

 Methods of shielding the arc.
 Consumable or non-consumable electrode.
 Degree of automation.

Zones in Fusion Welds
 Parent material or base metal

 Heat affected zone
 Fusion zone

Manual Metal Arc Welding
 Shielding provided  Welder controls

by decomposition of  Arc length.
flux covering.  Angle of electrode.
 Electrode  Speed of travel.
consumable.
 Amperage settings.
 Manual process.

Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Consumable
electrode
Flux
Arc coating
Evolved gas
shield
Core
Slag
wire
Parent metal
Weld metal

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
Gas nozzle
Non-
Filler wire consumable
tungsten
electrode
Gas shield
Arc
Parent metal Weld metal

Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
Gas
nozzle
Consumable
electrode (filler wire)
Reel feed
Gas
Arc shield
Parent metal Weld metal

Submerged Arc

Submerged Arc
Flux Consumable
retrieval electrode Reel feed
Slag
Flux feed
Weld metal Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Classified by shape Classified by position
 Longitudinal  HAZ
 Transverse  Centreline
 Branched  Crater
 Fusion zone
 Chevron
 Parent metal

Welding Defects
Cracks
Four crack types:
 Solidification cracks.
 Hydrogen induced cracks.
 Lamellar tearing.
 Reheat cracks.

Welding Defects
Cracks
 Solidification
 Occurs during weld solidification process.
 Steels with high sulphur content (low ductility
at elevated temperature).
 Requires high tensile stress.
 Occur longitudinally down centre of weld,
 eg crater cracking.

Welding Defects
Solidification cracking

Welding Defects
Cracks
 Hydrogen Induced
 Requires susceptible grain structure, stress
and hydrogen.
 Hydrogen enters via welding arc.
 Hydrogen source, atmosphere or
contamination of preparation or electrode.
 Moisture diffuses out into parent metal on
cooling.
 Most likely in HAZ.

Welding Defects
Hydrogen cracking

Welding Defects
Cracks
 Lamellar tearing
 Step like appearance.
 Occurs in parent material or HAZ.
 Only in rolled direction of the parent material.
 Associated with restrained joints subjected to
through thickness stresses on corners, tees
and fillets.
 Requires high sulphur or non-metallic
inclusions.

Welding Defects
Lamellar tearing
Restraint
High
contractional
stress
Lamellar tear

Welding Defects
Cracks
 Re-heat cracking
 Occurs mainly in HAZ of low alloy steels
during post weld heat treatment or service at
elevated temperatures.
 Occurs in areas of high stress and existing
defects.
 Prevented by toe grinding, elimination of poor
profile material selection and controlled post
weld heat treatment.

Welding Defects
Incomplete root
penetration
Causes
 Too large or small a root
gap.
 Arc too long.
 Wrong polarity.
 Electrode too large for joint
preparation.
 Incorrect electrode angle.
 Too fast a speed of travel
for current.
Welding Defects
Incomplete root fusion

Causes
 Too small a root gap.
 Arc too long.
 Wrong polarity.
 Electrode too large for joint
preparation.
 Too fast a speed of travel for
current.

Welding Defects
Root concavity
Causes
 Root gap too large.

 Insufficient arc
energy.
 Excessive back purge
TIG.

Welding Defects
Excess root penetration
Causes
 Excessive amperage
during welding of
root.
 Excessive root gap,
poor fit up.
 Excessive root
grinding.
 Improper welding
technique.

Welding Defects
Root undercut
 Causes
 Root gap too large.
 Excessive arc energy.
 Small or no root face.

Welding Defects
Cap undercut
Causes
 Excessive welding current.
 Welding speed too high.
 Excessive weave.
 Electrode too large.

Welding Defects
Lack of fusion
Causes
 Contaminated weld
preparation.
 Amperage too low.
 Amperage too high (welder
increases speed of travel).

Welding Defects
Incompletely filled groove

Lack of side wall Fusion
 Causes
 Insufficient weld metal
deposited.
 Improper welding
technique.

Welding Defects
Inter run incompletely filled groove

Causes
 Insufficient weld metal deposited.
 Improper welding technique.

Welding Defects
Gas pores/porosity:
Causes
 Excessive moisture in flux or preparation.
 Contaminated preparation.
 Low welding current.
 Arc length too long.
 Damaged electrode flux.
 Removal of gas shield.

Welding Defects
Inclusions: Slag
Causes
 Insufficient cleaning between passes.
 Contaminated weld preparation.
 Welding over irregular profile.
 Incorrect welding speed.
 Arc length too long.

Welding Defects
Inclusions: Tungsten
Causes
 Contamination of weld caused by tungsten
touching weld metal or parent metal during
welding using the TIG welding process.

Welding Defects
Burn through
Causes
 Excessive amperage during welding of root.
 Excessive root grinding.
 Improper welding technique.

Welding Defects
Spatter
Causes
 Excessive arc energy.
 Excessive arc length.
 Damp electrodes.
 Arc blow.

Welding Defects
Arc strikes
Causes
 Electrode straying onto parent metal.
 Electrode holder with poor insulation.
 Poor contact of earth clamp.

Welding Defects
Mechanical damage
Chisel Marks Pitting Grinding

Corrosion Marks

Interpretation of Radiographs
Radiographic Details
Source of 150 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 450
Technique SWSI Development Standard
TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-200 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 10

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter N/A

Film Artefacts
 During radiography and film processing

images can be formed which are not due to a
defect or a change in component thickness.
 Such images are referred to as artefacts.

Film Artefacts
 Crimp marks.
 Dirty intensifying screens.
 Scratched intensifying screens.
 Static marks.
 Reticulation.
 Solarisation.
 Chemical or water splashes.
 Diffraction mottling.
 Drying marks.
 Streakiness.

Film Artefacts
Film crimped
before exposure

Film Artefacts
Film crimped
after exposure

Film Artefacts
Dirty
intensifying
screens

Film Artefacts
Scratched
intensifying
screens
May appear as either light

or dark images often
difficult to identify.

Film Artefacts
Static
marks
Release of static electricity

due to poor film handling
and dry ambient
conditions.

Film Artefacts
Reticulation
Mottled effect caused by

extreme temperature
change during
processing.

Film Artefacts
Solarisation
 Solarisation is image reversal due to extreme
over exposure or exposure to light during
development.

Film Artefacts
Water/developer
splashes
(Before development)

Film Artefacts
Fixer/stop-bath
splashes
(Before development)

Film Artefacts
Diffraction
mottling
Mottled effect
sometimes seen in x-
radiography of large
grained materials.

Film Artefacts
Drying marks
 Dark marks caused by uneven drying.

Film Artefacts
Streakiness
caused by
poor agitation
during development

Film Density (a) Weld (b) Parent

1.4 Material
2.7
IQI Type No. of wires or steps visible
None N/ A
Sensitivity calculation in full
N/ A
The film density is less than 2.0. No IQI present. No

identification or location markers present. A reshoot is
required.


1. Crater crack, 85 from datum 3 long.

2. Tool mark, 90 from datum.
3. Undercut, 125 from datum, 35 long (intermittent).
4. Wormholes and porosity, 145 from datum, 30 long.

TWI Training & Examination Services
Radiographic Interpreter
Name: Joe Bloggs Date: 01/ 01/ 01

Reference No. 097-201 Material Carbon Steel
Welding Details
Root Gap 3 Root Face 1.5 Material 8

Thickness
Process SMAW
Joint Prep. Single Vee
Diameter 324 mm
Radiographic Details
Source of 180 kV X-Ray Film Type Agfa D7

Radiation
Screens Pb 0.125 mm front & back FFD/SFD 400
Technique DWSI Development Standard

Film Density (a) Weld (b) Parent

1.2 Material
1.7
IQI Type No. of wires or steps visible
10ISO16 2
Sensitivity calculation in full
0.32/ 8 x 100 = 4%
The film density is less than 2.0. The sensitivity is greater than
2%. No identification or location markers present. The IQI is
cannot be properly identified. A reshoot is required.


1. Suspected LORF, difficult to interpret due to thickness

change, 0-75mm.
2. Porosity, Datum + 120, 45mm long.
3. Lack of penetration, 2 sections 110-130mm and 145-
168mm.
4. Undercut (cap), intermittent full length, both weld
toes.

1. Transverse crack probably caused by Cu pick-up.

2. Scattered pores/wormholes and small slag inclusions.
3. Intermittent minor cap undercut.

1. Linear porosity indicating lack of fusion.

1. Tungsten Inclusion.

1. Lack of fusion.
2. Cap undercut.
3. Dense metal inclusions.

1. Linear slag inclusions indicating lack of fusion.

2. Weld spatter.

1. Crack, probably solidification crack.

1. Lack of root penetration.

2. Burn through.
3. Undercut.
4. Uneven penetration bordering excessive, full
length.

Part 8: Safety

Radiation Safety
 Due to the hazardous nature of ionising radiation

it is important to understand the basic principles
of radiation safety and have an understanding of
the current legislation regarding radiation
protection.

Radiation Safety
Principles
 Justification
 Optimisation ALARA
 Limitation

Radiation Safety
Units of dose
Gray
The amount of radiation that will deposit one joule

of energy/kg of absorber.

Radiation Safety
Units of dose
Quality factor
The degree of biological damage caused by a

quantity of radiation.

Radiation Safety
Units of dose
Sievert: Radiobiological effectiveness,

Grays x QF.

Radiation Safety
Quality factors
 X or gamma rays: QF = 1.
 Beta particles: QF > 1.
 Alpha particles: QF = 20.
Penetrating power
 X or gamma: 600mm of steel.
 Beta particles: Sheet of paper/layer of skin.
 Alpha particles: Less than 1cm of air.

Radiation Safety
Safe working
 Controlled area: Any area in which the dose will
exceed 3/10th annual dose for employees aged
18 or over.
7.5mSvh-1: Maximum dose rate at the barrier.

Radiation Safety
Safe working
 Supervised area: Any area in which the

dose rate will exceed 1/3rd that of
controlled area.

Shielding
The intensity of radiation is reduced by absorption

as is passes through matter.
Half value layer
The thickness of any material that will reduce the

radiation intensity to one half its initial value.

Shielding: Half and Tenth Value layers
t
I I x2
0 HVL
t
I I x 10
0 TVL

Radiation Safety
Calculating safe distances
D1  2
 R1  D2   R2
2
D1: Original distance.

D2: Required distance.
R1: Original dose rate.
R2: Required dose rate.

Radiation Safety
D1  2
 R1  D2   R2
2
D2 
D1  2
 R1
R2

Radiation Safety
D2 
D1 2
 R1
R2
Dose rate at 1m also called output.
 Co 60 13 mGy/hr/Ci.
 Ir 192 4.8 mGy/hr/Ci.
 Yb 169 1.25 mGy/hr/Ci.

Radiation Safety
Calculating safe distances: For 20 Ci of Co60
D2 
1 13mGy / hr / Ci  20Ci 1000 1
7.5 Sv/hr
Safe distance = 186.2m

Radiation Safety
Personnel
 Radiation protection advisor (RPA).
 Radiation protection supervisor (RPS).
 Classified persons.
 Trainee.
 Others.

Radiation Safety
Safe distances
 Controlled area: Any area in which the dose

is likely to exceed 6mSv/yr or 3/10th annual
dose for employees 18+.
 7.5mSvh-1: Maximum dose rate at the

barrier.

Radiation Safety
Safe distances
Supervised area: Any area in which the dose is
likely to exceed 1mSv/yr or 1/10th of annual dose
for employees 18+.

Controlled Area
You are required to follow special

procedures to restrict exposure/prevent
accidents
 During site radiography: Around the
radiography position, wherever the dose rate
is 7.5Sv/h or more.
 Inside an x or gamma radiography compound.
 Inside a source store.
 Controlled area may be set up following an
incident.

Controlled Areas
Access is restricted to
• Classified workers.
• Others working under a written arrangement.
 Local rules.
 Radiation protection supervisor.
 Boundary is physically demarcated.
 Warning notices.
 Routine radiation monitoring.
 Personal dosimetry must be used.

Supervised Area
There are no special procedures to

follow but the area is kept under
review by monitoring to pick up any
change in conditions
Some areas in a radiographic installation:
 Where dose rates are higher than background.
 Around enclosures where gamma sources are used.

Supervised Area
 Boundaries are not physically demarcated.

 Warning signs not always legally required but
sometimes useful.
 No restriction on access.
 Routine monitoring is carried out.
 Area is described in the local rules.

Local Rules
Written document describing how to:

 Carry out the work in accordance with the legislation.
 Restrict exposure.
 Prevent accidents.

Local Rules
Read and work in accordance with your

employer’s local rules
Local rules will always include:

 Name and contact details of the RPS.
 The dose investigation level.
 Description of any controlled or supervised
areas.
 Written arrangements for non classified people
working in a controlled area.
 Summary of the contingency plan.

Radiation Safety
Monitoring
 Ionisation chamber.
 Geiger muller tube.
 Scintillation counter.
 Film badge.
 Thermo-luminescent dosimeter (TLD).
 Quartz fibre electroscope.
 Audible monitors (personal monitor).

Survey Meters
Survey meters produce a reading of the current

dose rate, usually in mSv/h or mSv/h.
Three types are used in industrial radiography:
1. Geiger counters.
2. Ionisation chambers.
3. Scintillation counters.

Survey Meters
 For the detection of X or gamma radiation geiger

counters are usually used.
 Geiger counters are effectively high voltage
ionisation chambers.
 They are designed to produce pulses of current
when exposed to radiation.
 The number of pulses produced can be related to
the radiation dose rate.
 Geiger counters are more compact and more
durable than standard ionisation chambers and
have a wider measurement range.

Survey Meters
 Ionisation Chamber
When the gas is
ionised a
current can flow
through the
chamber.
The magnitude
of the current is
related to the
AMMETER
intensity of
ionising
radiation.

Survey Meters
 Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive to low

levels of radiation.
 They are useful for checking for contamination.
 A scintillation counter uses a phosphor which flashes
in the light spectrum when exposed to ionising
radiation.
 Flashes of light are detected by a photomultiplier
tube.
 Different phosphors are used for different
applications: eg sodium iodide for X and gamma ray
detection or zinc sulphide for alpha particles.

Radiation Dose Monitoring
 Quartz fibre electroscopes, film badges,

thermo-luminescent dosimeters and some
types of personal monitor are all devices for
measuring total radiation dose over a period
of time.
 TLDs use a lithium fluoride (LiF) phospor.
 When exposed to ionising radiation LiF stores
energy which is later released as flashes of
light when the phosphor is heated.

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Radiographic testing (RT)

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 To explain the basic theory of X- and gamma radiography.

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 Discovered X-rays during

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 Discovered the radioactive

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 Invented the X-ray tube

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First radiograph 22 December 1895.

First x-ray tube belonging

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 X-rays are capable of passing straight through

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 Directly produces a permanent record.

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 Atoms are thought to consist of a positively

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 Protons have positive charge and by definition

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The nucleus of the atom is made up of protons and

Proton: Positive charge.

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 Atoms of an element having the same atomic

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 Some isotopes are stable, others are not.

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Gamma particles or photons: 

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 Curie: 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations/second.

Cobalt 60: 5.3 years.

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 At the level of individual atoms radioactive

 A 2 x 1mm cylinder of Iridium contains around

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