The Light-Dependent Reactions: Generating ATP and NADPH

Photosynthesis involves two main reactions: light-dependent and light-

independent. Light-dependent reactions involve sunlight-dependent steps,
converting ADP and NADP+ into ATP and NADPH. These reactions occur in
thylakoids of chloroplasts, which contain photosystems surrounded by
accessory pigments. Photosystems absorb sunlight and generate high-energy
electrons, which are passed to electron carriers embedded in the membrane.

Photosystem II, discovered after photosystem I, involves light-dependent

reactions. Chlorophyll molecules absorb light, raising electrons in chlorophyll
to higher energy levels. These high-energy electrons are passed to the electron
transport chain. As light continues, chlorophyll loses electrons, but the thylakoid
membrane provides new electrons from water molecules. Enzymes on the inner
surface of the thylakoid separate water molecules into two electrons, hydrogen
ions H+, and oxygen atoms O2. This process replaces lost electrons, leaving
oxygen gas in the air, which is essential for life.

The electron transport chain in photosynthesis involves proteins pumping H+

ions from the stroma into the thylakoid sac, regenerating electrons in
photosystem I. These electrons then pass to other carriers, including NADP+,
which in turn picks up the high-energy electrons and H+ ions at the outer
surface of the thylakoid membrane, forming NADPH, crucial in light-
independent photosynthesis reactions.

In photosystem II, hydrogen ions accumulate in the thylakoid space, creating a

positive gradient with respect to the stroma. This gradient provides energy for
ATP formation. The thylakoid membrane contains ATP synthase, which allows
H+ ions to pass through. This rotation of ATP synthase binds ADP and a
phosphate group, enabling light-dependent electron transport to synthesize both
NADPPH and ATP.
Light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis use light energy and water to
produce oxygen gas, convert ADP and NADP+ into ATP and NADPH, and
provide energy for building high-energy sugars from low-energy carbon
dioxide.

The Calvin Cycle, a remarkable process involving light-independent reactions,

involves the use of ATP and NADPH from light-dependent reactions to
synthesize high-energy sugars. Carbon dioxide molecules enter the cycle, which
is combined with existing 5-carbon compounds in the chloroplast stroma. This
process produces twelve 3-carbon compounds for every six carbon dioxide
molecules, which are converted into higher energy forms using ATP and
NADPH energy.

At midcycle, two 3-carbon molecules are removed from the Calvin cycle,
forming building blocks for plant metabolism and growth. The remaining ten
molecules are converted back into six 5-carbon molecules, combining with six
new carbon dioxide molecules to initiate the next cycle.

The Calvin Cycle is a process that uses six carbon dioxide molecules to produce
a single 6-carbon sugar molecule. This process removes carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and produces energy-rich sugars, which plants use to synthesize
macromolecules for growth and development. The light-dependent reactions
trap sunlight's chemical energy, while the light-independent reactions synthesize
stable, high-energy sugars from carbon dioxide and water.

Photosynthesis is influenced by various factors including temperature, light

intensity, and water availability. Enzymes function best between 0°C and 35°C,
and temperatures above or below this range can slow down photosynthesis.
High light intensity increases the rate, while water scarcity can slow or stop
photosynthesis. Dry plants, like desert plants and conifers, have waxy coatings
on leaves to reduce water loss and may have biochemical adaptations for more
efficient photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis under extreme conditions is typically limited by plants closing

small openings in their leaves to conserve water. However, some plants have
adapted to these conditions, known as C4 plants and CAM plants. C4 plants
have a specialized chemical pathway that captures low levels of carbon dioxide
and passes it to the Calvin cycle. This allows photosynthesis to continue under
intense light and high temperatures but requires extra energy in the form of ATP.
CAM plants, such as pineapple, desert cacti, and ice plants, use a different
strategy, incorporating carbon dioxide into organic acids during photosynthesis.