LESSON 1: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY – ‘Love of wisdom’
SOCRATES, PLATO, and ARISTOTLE – ‘Big three’
philosophers
- Socrates was the mentor of Plato
- Plato was the mentor of Aristotle
ATHENS – Center of western thought (5th century BCE). Enjoyed
the status of being a city state and a democracy.
SOPHISTS – People who are skilled in discussions and debates.
First teachers of the west.
SOCRATES – Wanted to discover the essential nature of
knowledge, justice, beauty, and goodness.
- Was called the wisest person by the Oracle of Delphi.
THE DIALOGUES – Thoughts of Socrates under the book of
Plato’s writing.
SOCRATIC METHOD – or Dialectic method - This method
involves the search for the correct or proper definition of a thing.
- Ask questions and engage in discussion. Clarifying’s
one’s ideas and resolve logical inconsistencies. The goal is to
bring the person closer to the final understanding.
TRUE SELF – The soul by Mohamed Saber
ORACLE OF DELPHI – acted as its oracle back in 1400 BC
PLATO – (428 – 348 BCE) An ancient Greek philosopher. Best
known for Greek philosopher who helped form the foundation of
western philosophy and founded the Academy of Athens.Real
name is Aristocles, Plato was just his nickname.
- Dualist, there is both immaterial mind (soul) and
material body, and it is the soul that knows the form.
PLATO’S METAPHYSICS – A philosophical study on the caused
and nature of things, also known as the theory of forms. Tackled
in one of his well-known dialogues, “The Republic”.
PLATO’S THEORY OF FORMS:
• The forms are ageless and therefore are eternal.
• The forms are unchanging and therefore are
permanent.
• The forms are unmoving and indivisible.
PLATO’S TWO REALMS:
• THE REALM OF THE SHADOWS – Composed of
changing, ‘sensible’ things which are lesser entities
and therefore imperfect and flawed.
• THE REALM OF FORMS – Composed of eternal
things which are permanent and perfect. Source of all
reality and true knowledge.
3 COMPONENTS OF SOUL
• THE REASON is rational and is the motivation for
goodness and truth.
• THE SPIRITED is non-rational and is the will or the
drive toward action.
• THE APPETITES are irrational and lean towards the
desire for pleasures of the body.
THE ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE – “What people in the cave see
are only shadows of reality which they believe are real and
represents knowledge.”
THE SHADOWS OF REALITY – The shadows are the prisoners’
reality but are not accurate representation of the real world.
THE REAL KNOWLEDGE – The knowledge is attainable, and
that knowledge must be infallible and of the real. True knowledge
must possess both these characteristics.
PLATO’S SYMPOSIUM – can move from a state of imperfect
knowledge and ignorance to a state of perfection and true
knowledge.
“LOVE” FOR PLATO – Love is the way or knowing and realizing
the truth. Love is a process of seeking higher stages of being.
ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO – (354 – 436 CE) “The unlikely
saint”. He had no interest for religion in his early life and rejected
Christianity.
ST. AUGUSTINE’S VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE:
1. God as the source of all reality and truth.
2. The sinfulness of man.
THE ROLE OF LOVE FOR ST. AUGUSTINE
• LOVE OF PHYSICAL OBJECTS – Sin of Greed
• LOVE FOR OTHER PEOPLE IS NOT LASTING AND
EXCESSIVE LOVE FOR THEM – Sin of Jealousy
• LOVE FOR THE SELF – Sin of Pride
• LOVE FOR GOD – Supreme virtue and real
happiness.
“ALL THINGS ARE WORTHY OF LOVE BUT THEM MUST BE
LOVE PROPERLY.”
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RENE DESCARTES – (1596 – 1650) Considered as one of the
Rationalist Philosophers of Europe (this groups of Philosophers
considered truth as a universal concept).
- Introduced Cartesian Method and invented analytic
geometry. In his method, he asked himself “is there anything I
can know with certainty?”
-Believed that reasoning could produce absolute truth
about nature, existence, morality, and God. Truths can be
discovered are a PRIORI.
TWO POWERS OF HUMAN MIND (THROUGH MATH):
• INTUITION – The ability to apprehend direction of
certain truths.
• DEDUCTION – The power to discover what is known
by progressing in an orderly way from what is already
known (step-by-step process).
COGITO ERGO SUM – ‘I think, therefore I am.’ This phrase is
Descartes’ legacy and the first principle of his philosophy. He
believes that to doubt is to think.
SOUL / MIND (ALSO THE SELF) – Substance that is separate
from the body.
BODY – For Descartes, is like a machine that is controlled by the
will and aided by the mind.
TWO DIMENSIONS OF THE SELF:
• The self as a thinking entity
• The self as a physical body
JOHN LOCKE – (1632 – 1704) He’s interest is on the workings
of the mind, particularly the acquisition of knowledge.
- Contrary to Descartes, he believed that knowledge
results from ideas and experiences.
DAVID HUME – (1711 – 1776) He was credited with giving
empiricism its most precise formulation. He relied on the
scientific method before, believing that is could analyze human
nature and explain the workings of the mind.
- He discovered the limitations of the mind and his
optimism turned into skepticism.
- He believed that the self was a product of the
imagination and there was no permanent self.
PERCEPTIONS – The mind receives materials from the senses.
TWO TYPES OF PERCEPTIONS:
• IMPRESSIONS – Immediate sensations of external
reality. More vivid that the ideas it produces.
• IDEAS – Collection of these impressions.
THREE PRINCIPLES ON HOW IDEAS RELATE TO ONE
ANOTHER:
1. The Principle of Resemblance
2. The Principle of Contiguity
3. The Principle of Cause and Effect
IMMANUEL KANT – (1724 – 1804) German Philosopher widely
considered to be one of the most prominent and vital dignitaries
in Western Philosophy history, especially in the philosophy of
ethics and metaphysics.
- Became interested in metaphysics and epistemology
after reading the works of the philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz.
Kant’s most famous works include “Critique of Pure
Reason” (1781), “Critique of Practical Reason” (1788), and
“Critique of Judgement” (1790).

TABULA RASA – Blank slate. Locke contended that ideas are TRANSCENDENTAL APPERCEPTION – Experience of the self
not innate but rather the mind at birth is a tabula rasa. and its unity with objects.

THREE LAWS ACCORDING TO LOCKE: MIND (based on Kant) – Kant defined mind as not just a passive
receiver of sense experience but rather actively participates in
1. LAW OF OPINION – Actions that are praiseworthy are knowing the objects it experiences.
called virtues and those that are not are called vice.
2. CIVIL LAW – Right actions are enforced by people in EMPIRICISM RATIONALISM IMMANUEL
authority. KANT
3. DIVINE LAW – Set by God. Deemed to be the true law All knowledge of Knowledge is Knowledge as a
for human behavior. Eternally true and the one law that matters of fact acquired through results of human
man should always follow. either arises from reason, without understanding
experience or the aid of senses. applied to sence
RATIONALISM – Viewpoint that knowledge mostly comes from requires experience.
intellectual reasoning. experience for its
validation.
EMPIRICISM – Viewpoint that knowledge mostly comes from
using your senses to observe the world.

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TWO MAIN FACULTIES OF THE MIND: - He stated that perception is not purely the result of
sensations nor is it purely interpretation. Rather, consciousness
• SENSIBILITY – Allows us to perceive the world is a process that includes sensing as well as
through our senses. interpreting/reasoning.
• UNDERSTANDING – Allows us to organize and make
sense of this information.

SIGMUND FREUD – Austrian neurologist. Freud made use of

methods like free association and dream analysis for his clinical
practice. Freud made use of methods like free association and
dream analysis for his clinical practice.

STRUCTURES OF THE MIND - he made use of the typical

iceberg to show how the mind works based on his theorizing.

1. ID – Pleasure principle
2. EGO – Reality principle
3. SUPEREGO – Morality principle

GILBERT RYLE – English Philosopher. Contradicted Cartesian

Dualism. Stated that many of the philosophical problems were
caused by the wrong use of language.

RYLE’S 2 TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE:

• Knowing that
• Knowing how – more important type of knowledge.

"A person may acquire a great bulk of knowledge but without the
ability to use it to solve some practical problems to make his life
easier, this bulk of knowledge is deemed to be worthless"

PATRICIA and PAUL CHURCHLAND – Canadian-American

and Canadian Philosophers.

- PATRICIA coined the term neurophilosophy that aims

to explore the relevance of the neuroscientific studies to the
philosophy of the mind. The biochemical properties of the brain
according to this neurophilosophy is responsible for man's
thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

"Man is endowed with more than just physical or neurological

characteristics. Despite research findings, neurophilosophy
states that the self is real, that it is the tool that helps the person
tune in to the realities of the brain and the extant reality"

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY – “Philosopher of the Body”.

French Phenomenological Philosopher. The center of his
philosophy is the emphasis placed on the human body as the
primary site of knowing the world.

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 LESSON 2: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGY - one of the disciplines in the social sciences which
aims to discover the ways by which the social
surrounding/environment influences people’s thoughts, feelings,
and behavior.
- the study of human social relationships and
institutions where it is a field of study that analyzes and explains
important matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the
world.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD – (1863-1931) A sociologist, was
intrigued by how we acquire self-awareness. Thought that our
social interactions had a major role in the development of our
sense of self.
- Argues that since the “self” must be established
through social interaction and interpersonal connections in order
to exist.
CHARLES HORTON COOLEY – An American sociologist and
sociology professor who used the socio-psychological approach
to understand how societies work.
- He is known for his criticism of apparently successful
nations, such as England and the United States. Noting that
selfish individualism prevented them from achieving an ideal
society.
LOOKING-GLASS SELF - means that people see themselves
as others see them as if reflected in a mirror. It can be explained
as the reflection of what we think we appear in front of others or
how we are viewed and conceived by others.
- Cooley called it the looking-glass self because it is a
product of social interaction. Social interaction acts as a mirror
that helps individuals to measure their worth, values, and
behavior.

3 PHASES OF THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING A SELF

MEAD’S THEORY (3 stages of self-development as a child) 1. Imagining how others see one’s self.
2. Imagining how others respond to what they see.
• PREPARATORY STAGE – A self does not form at 3. Imagining how one’s self feel about others response.
birth. Without a clear knowledge of what they are
copying, children imitate the behaviors around them.
• PLAY STAGE – Realization that they are not alone
ERVING GOFFMAN – (1922 – 1982) A Canadian American
and there are others whom they need to take into
sociologist, social sociologist, and writer. Known to be the most
consideration.
influential figure in America sociology in the 20th century.
- Understanding the symbol
- Role taking
• GAME STAGE – Ability to respong not just one but
several members of his/her social environment. Start to “THE PRESENTATION OF THE SELF IN EVERYDAY LIFE” –
consider multiple task and diverse forms of relationship a book that was published in the U.S. in 1959.
- Generalized other
- He wrote how he observed that people early in their
STAGE EXISTENCE CHARACTERISTICS social interactions learned to slant their presentation of
OF SELF themselves in order to create preferred appearances and satisfy
PREPARATORY None Imitates another particular people.
STAGE
PLAY STAGE Developing Role-taking
GAME STAGE Present Generalized other IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT – Means creating an impression
of something in the society. Understanding this can help us
emphasize the qualities that we want to shine through and how
to be more at ease with others.
I SELF – When the person initiates or performs a social action,
the self functions as a subject.

ME SELF – When the person takes the role of the other, the self DRAMATURGICAL APPROACH - Goffman used the phrase
function as an object. face-work to describe another aspect of the self.

• FRONTSTAGE SELF – The self we are likely to show

to the world.
• BACKSTAGE SELF – Refers to that aspect of self
which we really are.

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LESSON 3: FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ANTHROPOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY - A field of social science that focuses on the

study of man and the totality of what it means to be human.

4 SUBFIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY:

• ARCHEOLOGY
• BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
• LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY
• CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

ARCHEOLOGY - Focus is the past and how it may have

contributed to the present ways of how people conduct their daily
lives. People a are so similar and yet so different.

BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY - Focuses primarily on how

human adapts to different environments and human evolution.
While human beings do vary in their biological makeup and
behavior, there are a lot more similarities among them than there
are differences.

LINGUISTIC ANTHROPOLOGY - Focuses on using language

as a means to discover a group's manner of social interaction
and one's worldview.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY:

THEORY OF CULTURAL DETERMINISM - human nature is

determined by the ideas, meanings, beliefs, and values learned
as members of a society.

IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURAL DETERMINISM:

• POSITIVE IMPLICATIONS - Human beings can be

shaped/formed to have the kind of life they prefer.
Possibility is endless.
• NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS - People have no control
over what they learn and blindly accept the learning
their cultures expose to them. Place human under the
mercy of culture.

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