Lecture-1: Revision of metric space

Metric space: Let X be a non-empty set. A metric on X is a function d : X × X → [0, ∞) satisfying the
following conditions:
(i) d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y ;
(ii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x, y ∈ X ; (symmetry)
(iii) d(x, y) = d(x, z) + d(z, y) for all x, y, z ∈ X . (triangle inequality)
The pair (X, d) is called as metric space.
Example 1: Let X = R and d(x, y) = |x − y|, x, y ∈ R. Then d is a metric on X .
p
Example 2: Let X = Rn and d(x, y) = (x1 − y1 )2 + · · · + (xn − yn )2 , where x = (x1 , . . . , xn ) and y =
(y1 , . . . , yn ). Then d is a metric on X .

Example 3: Let X be a non-empty set. Define d : X × X → [0, ∞) as

(
1, x 6= y
d(x, y) =
0, x = y.

Then d is a metric on X known as discrete metric and (X, d) is called as discrete metric space.
Open and closed ball: An open ball in a metric space (X, d) centred at x0 (∈ X) of radius r (> 0) is given
by B(x0, r) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) < r}. Similarly, a closed ball in (X, d) centred at x0 of radius r is given by
B(x0 , r) = {x ∈ X : d(x, x0 ) ≤ r}.

Open set: A subset G of (X, d) is said to be an open set if for each x ∈ G there exists an open ball B(x, rx)
such that B(x, rx ) ⊆ G.
Example 4: Every metric space is open.
Example 5: Every open ball in a metric space is an open set.
Example 6: Arbitrary union of open balls is an open set.
What about the intersection of open balls? Is it open? Think.
Closed set: Complement of an open set is called as closed set.
Exercises:
1. Determine which of them is a metric on X where
(i) X = R, d(x, y) = (x − y)2.
(ii) X = R, d(x, y) = |x2 − y 2|.
(iii) X = the set of all bounded functions on [a, b], d(f, g) = supx∈[a,b] |f (x) − g(x)|.
(iv) X = R2, d(x, y) = |x1 − y1|, where x = (x1 , x2) and y = (y1, y2).
(v) X = R2, d(x, y) = |x1 − y1| + |x2 − y2| where x = (x1 , x2) and y = (y1, y2).
2. Sketch the open balls of unit radius centred at the origin in R2 with respect to the following metric:
p
(i) d(x, y) = (x1 − y1)2 + (x2 − y2)2 , where x = (x1, x2 ) and y = (y1, y2).
(ii) d(x, y) = |x1 − y1| + |x2 − y2|, where x = (x1 , x2) and y = (y1, y2).
max |xi − yi |, where x = (x1 , x2 ) and y = (y1 , y2 ).
(iii) d(x, y) = 1≤i≤2
3. Let (X, d) be a discrete metric space and x0 ∈ X . Describe B(x0 , 1), B(x0 , 2) and B(x0 , 1). What do you
conclude from this observation?
4. Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then prove that the intersection of finitely many open balls is an open set.
5. Give an example to show that infinite intersection of open balls is not an open set.
 Lecture-2: Definition and examples of topology
Let’s observe few things about open sets in a metric space (X, d). First, S X and the empty set ∅ are open
sets. Next, if {Ai : i ∈ I} is any collection of open sets in (X, d)T, then i∈I Ai is open (verify!). Finally, if
{Ai : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is any finite collection of open sets in (X, d), then ni=1 Ai is open (verify!). These observations
now set a ground to formally define topology.
Topology: A topology on a set X is a collection T of subsets of X with the following properties:
(i) ∅ and X are in T .
(ii) Any union of sets in T belongs to T .
(iii) Any finite intersection of sets in T belongs to T .
The pair (X, T ) is called as a topological space and the elements of T are called as open sets. The complement
of an open set is known as a closed set.
Example 1: Take T = {X, ∅}. Then T is a topology on X known as indiscrete topology.
Example 2: Take T = P(X), the power set of X . Then T is a topology on X known as discrete topology.
Example 3: Let X = {a, b, c}. Then following are the topologies on X :
(i) T = {X, φ, {a}}.

(ii) T = {X, φ, {a}, {a, b}}.

(iii) T = {X, φ, {a}, {b, c}}.

Example 4: Let X be a set. Define

Tf = {U ⊆ X : U c is finite or U c = X}.
Then Tf is a topology on X and is known as cofinite topology or finite complement topology.
Example 5: Let X be a set. Define
Tc = {U ⊆ X : U c is countable or U c = X}.
Then Tc is a topology on X and is known as co-countable topology.
Exercises: S
1. Show that if {Ai : i ∈ I} is any collection of open sets in a metric space (X, d), then i∈I Ai is an open set.
Tn
2. Show that if {Ai : 1 ≤ i ≤ n} is any finite collection of open sets in a metric space (X, d), then i=1 Ai is an
open set.
3. Find all the topologies on X in Example 3.
4. Prove that Tf and Tc are topologies on X as defined in Example 4 and Example 5, respectively.
 Lecture-3: Basis for a topology
Comparison of topologies: Let X be a set and T1 , T2 be two topologies on X . We say that T1 , T2 are
comparable if either T1 ⊆ T2 or T2 ⊆ T1. In case, if T1 ⊆ T2 , then we say that T2 is finer that T1 or T1 is
coarser than T2 or T2 is larger than T1 or T1 is smaller than T2 or T2 is stronger than T1 or T1 is weaker than T2 .
Discrete topology is the largest topology and the indiscrete topology is the smallest topology.
Basis for a topology: Let X be a set. A basis for a topology on X is a collection B of subsets of such that
(i) For each x ∈ X , there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B .
(ii) For any B1, B2 ∈ B, if x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 then there exists B3 ∈ B such that x ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 .
The elements of B are called as basis elements.
Topology generated by a basis: Let X be a set with a basis B. We define T as follows:
A subset U of X belongs to T if for each x ∈ U , there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊆ U .
Then T is a topology on X known as the topology generated by the basis B.
Proof of the fact that T is a topology: Clearly, X belongs to S T whereas ∅ ∈ T vacuously. Let {Ui : i ∈ I}
be any collection of elements of T . We need to show that U = i∈I Ui ∈ T . To this end, let x ∈ U . Then
x ∈ Ui for some i ∈ I . Since Ui ∈ T , there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊆ Ui ⊆ U .
To show that any finite intersection of elements of T belongs to T , it is enough to show that U1 ∩ U2 ∈ T
for any U1 , U2 ∈ T . The general case will follow from mathematical induction. To this end, let U1 , U2 ∈ T .
Suppose that x ∈ U1 ∩ U2 . Then there exist B1, B2 ∈ B such that x ∈ B1 ⊆ U1 and x ∈ B2 ⊆ U2. Since
x ∈ B1 ∩ B2 , there exists B3 ∈ B such that x ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 ⊆ U1 ∩ U2 . Thus U1 ∩ U2 ∈ T . This completes
the proof.
Remark: Note that every basis element belongs to T . That is, every basis element is an open set.
Example 1: The collection of all the open circular regions in R2 is a basis.
Example 2: The collection of all the open rectangular regions in R2 is a basis.
Example 3: All the singletons form a basis for a discrete topological space.
Example 4: {X} is a basis for an indiscrete topological space (X, T ).
Example 5: If (X, d) is a metric space, then the collection of all open balls forms a basis for a topology on X
induced by the metric d.
Exercises:
1. Let X = {a, b, c} and T = {∅, X, {a}, {a, b}}. Find a basis for T .
2. Let X = N, the set of all natural numbers. Let B be the collection of all doubletons of X . Is B a basis for
any topology on X ? Justify.

3. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and B = {a}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d} . Is B a basis for any topology on X ? If yes, find the
topology generated by B on X .
 Lecture-4: Basis for a topology continued
Proposition: Let X be a set and B be a basis for a topology T on X . Then T equals the collection of all
possible unions of elements of B.
Proof: Let {Bi : i ∈ I} be a collection of elements in B. Since each Bi ∈ T , it follows that S Bi ∈ T .
i∈I
Conversely,Ssuppose that U ∈ T . Then for each x ∈ U , there exists Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊆ U . This gives
that U = Bx . This completes the proof.
x∈U

Remark: Every metric space is a topological space where topology is generated by the basis consisting of all
open balls.
Proposition: Let B and B′ be bases for the topologies T and T ′, respectively, on X . Then the following are
equivalent:
(i) T is smaller than T ′ .
(ii) For each x ∈ X and each basis element B ∈ B containing x, there is a basis elements B ′ ∈ B′ such that
x ∈ B′ ⊆ B.

Proof: (i) =⇒ (ii): Let x ∈ X and B ∈ B with x ∈ B . Since B ∈ T and T ⊆ T ′, we get B ∈ T ′. Since T ′
is generated by B′ , there exists B ′ ∈ B such that x ∈ B ′ ⊆ B .
(ii) =⇒ (i): Let U ∈ T and x ∈ U . Since B generates T , there exists B ∈ B such that x ∈ B ⊆ U . By (ii),
there exists B ′ ∈ B′ such that x ∈ B ′ ⊆ B . Hence, x ∈ B ′ ⊆ U . Thus U ∈ T ′.
Standard topology on R: Let B = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}. Then B is a basis and the topology generated by B is
called as the standard topology on R. Note that the standard topology is induced by the metric d(x, y) = |x − y|
on R.
Lower limit topology on R: Let B = {[a, b) : a, b ∈ R}. Then B is a basis and the topology generated by B
is called as the lower limit topology on R.
Proposition: Lower limit topology is strictly larger than the standard topology on R.
Proof: Let T and Tl be the standard and lower limit topologies on R, respectively. Given a basis element (a, b)
of T and x ∈ (a, b), the basis elements [x, b) ∈ Tl and x ∈ [x, b) ⊂ (a, b). On the other hand, given [x, c) ∈ Tl ,
there is no open interval (a, b) that contains x and lies in [x, c). Thus Tl is strictly larger than T .
Exercises:
1. Let B = {(−∞, a) : a ∈ R}. Show that B is a basis. Determine whether the topology generated B on R is
smaller or larger than the standard topology on R.
2. Find a basis for the cofinite topology on N.
3. Find a basis for the co-countable topology on N.
4. Consider the cofinite and co-countable topologies on R. Determine which one is larger. Is the inclusion strict?
 Lecture-5: Order topology
Let X be a totally ordered set with order relation ≤. Given a, b ∈ X with a < b, we have four types of
subsets of X called as the intervals determined by a and b:
(a, b) = {x : a < x < b},

(a, b] = {x : a < x ≤ b},

[a, b) = {x : a ≤ x < b},
[a, b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}.
Basis for the order topology: Let X be a totally ordered set. Let B be the collection of all sets of the
following types:
(i) All open intervals (a, b) ⊆ X .
(ii) All intervals of the form [a0, b), where a0 is the smallest element (if any) of X .
(iii) All intervals of the form (a, b0], where b0 is the largest element (if any) of X .
The collection B is a basis (verify!) for a topology on X , which is called as the order topology.
Remark: If X has no smallest element, then there are no sets of type (ii). Similarly, if X has no largest element,
then there are no sets of type (iii).
Example 1: The standard topology on R is the order topology induced by the usual order on R.
Example 2: The order topology on N with usual order is generated by the basis consisting of all open intervals
and right-half open intervals of the form [1, n), n ∈ N. Note that every singleton is a basis element. Thus the
order topology is the discrete topology.
Example 3: Consider R × R with the dictionary order. To avoid any confusion, we denote an element of R × R
by a × b for a, b ∈ R. Thus, a × b < c × d if either a < c or if a = c, then b < d. Then the order topology on R2
is generated by the basis consisting of open intervals

  
a × b, c × d = a × y : b < y < d ∪ x × y : a < x < c, y ∈ R ∪ c × y : y < d .

Example 4: Let X = {1, 2} × N with the dictionary order. Then the order topology on X is not the discrete
topology (verify!).
Exercises:
1. Prove that B is a basis.
2. Prove that the order topology on X in Example 4 is not the discrete topology.
 Lecture-6: Product and subspace topology
Product topology: Let (X, T1 ) and (Y, T2) be two topological spaces. Consider the following collection of
subsets of X × Y :

B = U × V : U ∈ T1 and V ∈ T2
Then B is a basis (verify!) and the topology generated by B is called as the product topology on X × Y .
Remark: The collection B is not a topology on X × Y. For example, the union of two rectangles in R2 is, in
general, not a rectangle.
Theorem: Let (X, T1 ) and (Y, T2) be two topological spaces. If B1 is a basis for (X, T1 ) and B2 is a basis for
(Y, T2 ), then the collection

D = B × C : B ∈ B1 and C ∈ B2
is a basis for the product topology on X × Y.
Proof: Let (x, y) ∈ X × Y . Then by definition of the product topology, there exists U ∈ T1 and V ∈ T2 such
that (x, y) ∈ U × V ⊆ X × Y . Since B1 is a basis for T1 and B2 is a basis for T2 , there exists B ∈ B1 and
C ∈ B2 such that x ∈ B ⊆ U and y ∈ C ⊆ V . Thus, (x, y) ∈ B × C ⊆ U × V ⊆ X × Y. Next, suppose that
(x, y) ∈ (B1 × C1 ) ∩ (B2 × C2 ) for B1 , B2 ∈ B1 and C1 , C2 ∈ B2 . Note that
(B1 × C1 ) ∩ (B2 × C2 ) = (B1 ∩ B2 ) × (C1 ∩ C2 ).
Since B1 and B2 are basis, there exist B3 ∈ B1 and C3 ∈ B2 such that x ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 and y ∈ C3 ⊆ C1 ∩ C2 .
Thus, we get (x, y) ∈ B3 × C3 ⊆ (B1 × C1) ∩ (B2 × C2). This completes the proof.
Example 1: Consider R with the standard topology. Then the product topology on R × R is also called as
the standard topology on R × R. By the preceding theorem, all open rectangles form a basis for the standard
topology on R × R.
Subspace topology: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and Y be a subset of X . The collection

TY = U ∩ Y : U ∈ T
is a topology (verify!) on Y , called as the subspace topology and (Y, TY ) is called a subspace of (X, T ).
Proposition: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and (Y, TY ) be a subspace of (X, T ). Then the following
statements are true:
(i) If B is a basis for (X, T ), then BY = {B ∩ Y : B ∈ B} is a basis for (Y, TY ).
(ii) If U ∈ TY and Y ∈ T , then U ∈ T .
Proof: (i) Let y ∈ Y ⊆ X . Then there exists B ∈ B such that y ∈ B ⊆ X . Thus y ∈ B ∩ Y ⊆ Y . Further,
let y ∈ (B1 ∩ Y ) ∩ (B2 ∩ Y ) for some B1, B2 ∈ B. Note that (B1 ∩ Y ) ∩ (B2 ∩ Y ) = (B1 ∩ B2 ) ∩ Y. Since B is
a basis, there exists B3 ∈ B such that y ∈ B3 ⊆ B1 ∩ B2 . Clearly y ∈ B3 ∩ Y ⊆ (B1 ∩ B2) ∩ Y. Thus BY is a
basis for (Y, TY ).
(ii) Since U ∈ TY , there exists V ∈ T s.t. U = V ∩ Y. As both V and Y are open in X , it follows that U is
open in X . This completes the proof.
Exercises:
1. Let Rl and R denote the real line with the lower limit topology and the standard topology, respectively.
Describe the product topology on Rl × R. Is it smaller or larger than the standard topology on R × R?
2. Consider the standard topology on R. What is the subspace topology on N? What is the subspace topology
on Q? Compare both the subspace topologies.
 Lecture-7: Product and subspace topology continued
Theorem: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be topological spaces. Let (A, TA) and (B, TB′ ) be the subspaces of (X, T )
and (Y, T ′), respectively. Then the product topology on A × B is equal to the subspace topology of A × B
considered as a subspace of X × Y.
Proof: We show that the bases for the product topology and the subspace topology on A × B are same. This
will complete the proof. To this end, note that any open subset of (A, TA ) is given by U ∩ A where U ∈ T and
any open set of (B, TB′ ) is given by V ∩ B where V ∈ T ′. Thus, by definition of the product topology,
n o
B = (U ∩ A) × (V ∩ B) : U ∈ T , V ∈ T ′

is a basis for the product topology on A × B. Observe that

n o n o
B = (U ∩ A) × (V ∩ B) : U ∈ T , V ∈ T ′ = (U × V ) ∩ (A × B) : U ∈ T , V ∈ T ′ .

The latter set is a basis for the subspace topology on A × B. This completes the proof.
Example 1: Let Y = [0, 1]. Then the basis for the subspace topology on Y consists of intervals of the form
(a, b), [0, a), (a, 1], [0, 1] and φ. Note that [0, a) and (a, 1] are not open on R but are open in Y . Also, the order
topology on Y is same as the subspace topology of Y .
Example 2: Let Y = [0, 1) ∪ {2}. Then {2} is open in the subspace topology of Y but not open in the order
topology of Y . Because, any basis elements of the order topology on Y containing 2 is of the form {x : x ∈ Y
and a < x ≤ 2} for some a ∈ Y . Such basis element is not contained in {2}.
Example 3: Let I = [0, 1]. Consider I × I with the dictionary order. Then the subspace topology on I × I
inherited from R× R with the dictionary order is not same as the (dictionary) order topology on I × I . For
instance, the set 21 × 12 , 1 is open in I × I in the subspace topology but not open in the order topology.
Exercises:
1. Consider R with the standard topology. What is the subspace topology on N? What is the subspace topology
on Y = {0} ∪ {1/n : n ∈ N}? Is the subspace topology on Y discrete? Justify.
2. Suppose that X is a topological space with the discrete topology. Is the subspace topology of a subset Y ⊆X
necessarily the discrete topology on Y ? Justify.
3. Suppose that X is a topological space with the indiscrete topology. Is the subspace topology of a subset
Y ⊆ X necessarily the indiscrete topology on Y ? Justify.

4. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and T be the topology on X given as


T = ∅, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, {b, c, d}, X .

Write down the subspace topology TY on the subset Y = {a, b, d}.

5. Consider R with the co-countable topology. Describe the subspace topology on N.

 Lecture-8: Closed sets
Closed sets: A subset F of a topological space (X, T ) is said to be closed if X\F is open.
Example 1: Let (X, T ) be the topological space. Then X and ∅ are closed sets, as they are the complement
of open sets ∅ and X , respectively.
Example 2: Consider R with the standard topology. Then [a, b] is a closed set. Moreover, every finite subset
of R is a closed set (verify!).
Example 3: Consider R2 with the standard topology. Then the set {(x, y) : x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0} is a closed set. In
fact, R2 \{(x, y) : x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0} = (−∞, 0) × R ∪ R × (−∞, 0), which is open in R2.
Example 4: Let (X, Tc) be the topological space with the cofinite topology. Then a closed set is either X or a
finite subset of X .
Example 5: Let (X, T ) be the topological space with the discrete topology. Then every subset of X is a closed
set.
Remark: That ‘if a set is not open, then it is closed’ is not true. For example, consider R with the standard
topology. Then (0, 1] is neither open nor closed.
Proposition: Let (X, T ) be a topological space. Then the following are true:
(i) X, φ are closed sets.
(ii) Any intersection of closed sets is a closed set.
(iii) Any finite union of closed sets is a closed set.
Proof: Exercise.
Theorem: Let (Y, TY ) be a subspace of the topological space (X, T ). Then a subset A ⊆ Y is closed in (Y, TY )
if and only if A = Y ∩ F for some closed set F in (X, T ).
Proof: Suppose that A = Y ∩ F for some closed set F in (X, T ). Then X\F is open in (X, T ) and hence,
Y ∩ (X\F ) is open in (Y, TY ). Note that Y ∩ (X\F ) = Y \A which is open in (Y, TY ). Thus, A is closed in
(Y, TY ).
Conversely, suppose that A is closed in (Y, TY ). Then Y \A is open in (Y, TY ). Hence there exists an open
set U in (X, T ) such that Y \A = Y ∩ U . Thus A = Y ∩ (X\U). This completes the proof.
Corollary: Let (Y, TY ) be a subspace of the topological space (X, T ). If A is closed in (Y, TY ) and Y is closed
in (X, T ), then A is closed in (X, T ).
Proof: If A is closed in (Y, TY ), then by the preceding theorem, there exists a closed set F in (X, T ) such that
A = Y ∩ F. Since Y is closed in (X, T ), it follows that A is closed in (X, T ).
Exercises:
1. Prove that every finite subset of R with the standard topology is closed.
2. Prove the above proposition.
3. Describe all closed subsets of R with the co-countable topology.
4. Find closed subsets of R with the lower limit topology. Compare them with closed subsets of R with the
standard topology.
 Lecture-9: Closure of a set
Closure of a set: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Then the closure of A is the
intersection of all closed sets containing A. The closure of A is denoted by A.
Remark: Clearly, A ⊆ A and A is always a closed subset of X . Also, A is closed if and only if A = A.
Neighborhood: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and x ∈ X . Then a neighborhood of x is an open set which
contains x.
Example 1: Consider R with the standard topology. Then (−ǫ, ǫ) is a neighborhood of 0 for each ǫ > 0.
Example 2: Consider X with the discrete topology and let x ∈ X . Then every subset which contains x is a
neighborhood of x.
Theorem: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Then
A = {x ∈ X : every neighborhood of x intersects A}.
Proof: Let us say,
B = {x ∈ X : every neighborhood of x intersects A}.
Suppose that x 6∈ B . Then there exists a neighborhood U of x such that U ∩ A = ∅. Hence A ⊆ X \ U . Since
X \ U is closed, it follows from the definition of the closure that A ⊆ X \ U . Thus x 6∈ A. Hence A ⊆ B .
Conversely, suppose that x 6∈ A. Then U = X\A is a neighborhood of x which does not intersect A. Hence
x 6∈ B . Thus B ⊆ A. This completes the proof.

Example 3: Consider R with the standard topology. Then we have the following:
1. If A = (0, 1], then A = [0, 1].
n o
2. If A = 1
n
:n≥1 , then A = A ∪ {0}.
3. If A = {0} ∪ (1, 2), then A = {0} ∪ [1, 2].
4. If A = Q, then A = R.
5. If A = N, then A = N.
6. If A = (0, ∞), then A = [0, ∞).
Limit point: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Let x ∈ X . We say that x is a
limit point of A if every neighborhood of x intersects A in some point other than x itself. In other words, x is a
limit point of A if (A\{x})∩U 6= ∅ for every neighborhood U of x. The set of all limit points of A is denoted by A′ .
Example 4: Consider R with the standard topology. Then we have the following:
1. If A = (0, 1], then A′ = [0, 1].
n o
2. If A = 1
n
:n≥1 , then A′ = {0}.
3. If A = {0} ∪ (1, 2), then A′ = [1, 2].
4. If A = Q, then A′ = R.
 5. If A = N, then A′ = ∅.
6. If A = (0, ∞), then A′ = [0, ∞).
Theorem: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Then A = A ∪ A′.
Proof: Suppose that x ∈ A′ . Then every neighborhood of x intersects A and hence, by the preceding theorem
x ∈ A′ . Thus A′ ⊆ A. Consequently, A ∪ A′ ⊆ A.
Conversely, suppose that x ∈ A. If x ∈ A, then clearly x ∈ A ∪ A′ and we are done. Suppose that x 6∈ A.
Since x ∈ A, every neighborhood of x intersects A. As x 6∈ A, so every neighborhood of x intersects A in a point
different from x. Thus X ∈ A′ and hence x ∈ A ∪ A′. This completes the proof.
Exercises:
1. Consider R with the standard topology. Then find A and A′ for the following:
(i) A = (0, 1) ∩ Q
(ii) A = (0, 1) ∩ (R \ Q)
(iii) A = Z ∪ (R \ Q)
2. Consider R with the lower limit topology. Then find A and A′ for the following:
(i) A = (0, 1) ∩ Q
(ii) A = (0, 1) ∩ (R \ Q)
(iii) A = Z ∪ (R \ Q)
(iv) A = (0, 1)
(v) A = [0, 1)
3. Consider R with the cofinite topology. Then find A and A′ for the following:
(i) A = (0, 1) ∩ Q
(ii) A = (0, 1) ∩ (R \ Q)
(iii) A = Z ∪ (R \ Q)
(iv) A = (0, 1)
(v) A = [0, 1)
(vi) A = Q
(vii) A = N
(viii) A = {1, 2, . . . , n}
 Lecture-10: Boundary and interior of a set
Boundary of a set: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . A point x ∈ X is said to be a
boundary point of A if every neighborhood of x intersects A and (X \ A). The set of all boundary points of A is
called as the boundary of A and is denoted by ∂A.
Remark: It immediately follows from the definition of the closure that ∂A = A ∩ (X \ A).
Example 1: Consider R with the standard topology. Then we have the following:
(i) If A = (0, 1), then ∂A = {0, 1}.
(ii) If A = [0, 1] then ∂A = {0, 1}.
(iii) If A = Z, then ∂A = Z.
(iv) If A = R, then ∂A = ∅.
Example 2: Consider R with the cofinite topology.
(i) If A = (0, 1), then ∂A = R.
(ii) If A = {1, 2, ..., n} then ∂A = A.
Interior of a set: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Then the interior of A is defined
as the union of all open sets contained in A. It is denoted as Int(A). A point x ∈ Int(A) is called as an interior
point of A.
Remark: It follows from the definition that Int(A) is always an open set and Int(A) ⊆ A.
Proposition: Let (X, T ) be a topological space and A be a subset of X . Then the following statements are
true:
(i) x ∈ Int(A) if and only if there exists a neighborhood U of x such that U ⊆ A.
(ii) Int(A) ∩ ∂A = ∅ and A = Int(A) ∪ ∂A.
Proof: (i) Suppose that x ∈ Int(A). Take U = Int(A). Then U is open and U ⊆ A. Conversely, suppose that
there exists a nbd U of x such that U ⊆ A. Since Int(A) is the union of all open sets contained in A, we get that
x ∈ U ⊆ Int(A).
(ii) Suppose that x ∈ Int(A) ∩ ∂A. Then by (i), there exists a neighborhood U of x such that U ⊆ A. By
definition of ∂A, U also intersects (X\A). This is a contradiction. Hence Int(A) ∩ ∂A = φ.
Suppose that x ∈ A. If x ∈ Int(A), we are done. So assume that x 6∈ Int(A). Thus every nbd of x intersects
A and is not contained in A. In other words, every nbd of x intersects A and (X \A). Hence x ∈ ∂A. Conversely,
suppose that x ∈ Int(A) ∪ ∂A. If x ∈ Int(A), then x ∈ Int(A) ⊆ A ⊆ A. If x ∈ ∂A, then by the definition of
∂A, every neighborhood of x intersects A, and hence, x ∈ A. This completes the proof.

Exercises:
1. Find the boundary and the interior of the following sets in R with standard topology, lower limit topology,
cofinite topology and co-countable topology:
{1}, [a, b), (a, b], (a, b) ∪ {1, . . . , n}, (a, b) ∪ Q, {π, π 2 , π 3 } ∪ Q.
 Lecture-11: Continuous functions
Let us recall the definition of continuity of a function f : R −→ R at a point x0. We say that f is continuous
at x0 if for each ǫ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0)| < ǫ. In other words, for
every neighborhood V of f (x0 ), there is a neighborhood U of x0 such that f (U) ⊆ V . This realization gives us
a way to define a continuous function between two topological spaces.
Continuous function: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces. A function f : X −→ Y is said to
be continuous at x ∈ X if for each neighborhood V of f (x), there is a neighborhood U of x such that f (U) ⊆ V .
We say that f is continuous on X if f is continuous at each x ∈ X.
Proposition: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces and f : X −→ Y . Then f is continuous on X
if and only if inverse image of each open set in Y is open in X.
Proof: Suppose that f is continuous on X and let V be an open set in Y . In order to show that f −1(V ) is
open in X , we show that Int(f −1 (V )) = f −1(V ). Note that Int(f −1(V )) ⊆ f −1(V ). So suppose that x ∈ f −1(V ).
Since f is continuous at x and V is a neighborhood of f (x), therefore there exists a neighborhood U of x such
that f (U) ⊆ V. That is, x ∈ U ⊆ f −1(V ). Thus x ∈ Int(f −1 (V )). Hence f −1(V ) ⊆ Int(f − 1(V )) and so, f −1(V )
is open.
Conversely, suppose that inverse image of each open set in Y is open in X . Let x ∈ X and V be any
neighborhood of f (x). Since f −1(V ) is open in X , so take U = f −1(V ). Then f (U) = f (f −1(V )) ⊆ V. Thus f
is continuous at x. As x was arbitrarily chosen, it follows that f is continuous on X . This completes the proof.
Remark: If topology of the range space (Y, T ′) is given by a basis B, then to show the continuity of f , it is suf-
ficient to show the inverse image
S of every basis element open. Because, any open set V of Y can be written as a
S is−1
union of basis elements: V = Bi . Then f (V ) = f (Bi). So f −1 (V ) is open if f −1(Bi) is open for all i ∈ I .
−1
i∈I i∈I

Example 1: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces and f : X −→ Y be a constant function, say
f (x) = y0 for all x ∈ X . Then f is continuous. In fact, if V is any open set in Y , then
(
f −1 (V ) =
X, if y0 ∈ V ;
∅, if y0 ∈/ V.
Example 2: Let (X, T ) be a topological space. Then the identity map I : X −→ X is continuous.
Example 3: Let Td be the discrete topology and Ti be the indiscrete topology on a set X . Then the identity
map I : (X, Ti ) −→ (X, Td ) is not continuous.
Example 4: Let (X, T ) be a discrete topological space and (Y, T ′) be any topological space. Then every
function f : X −→ Y is continuous.
Example 5: Let (X, T ) be any topological space and (Y, T ′) be an indiscrete topological space. Then every
function f : X −→ Y is continuous.
Example 6: Let R with the standard topology and with the lower limit topology be denoted by Rs and Rl ,
respectively. Then the identity map I : Rs −→ Rl is not continuous. As the inverse image of [a, b), which is
equal to itself, is not open in Rs .
Exercises:
1. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and T1 , T2 be two topologies on X given by
 
T1 = X, ∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {a, b, c} , T2 = X, ∅, {b}, {c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, {b, c, d} .
Then which of the following functions f : (X, T1 ) −→ (X, T2 ) are continuous:
(i) f is identity map.
(ii) f (a) = b, f (b) = c, f (c) = d, f (d) = a
(iii) f (a) = f (b) = c, f (c) = f (d) = a
(iv) f (a) = f (b) = b, f (c) = f (d) = d
(v) f (a) = f (b) = f (c) = b, f (d) = a
What about the continuity of above functions f when f : (X, T2 ) −→ (X, T1 )?
 Lecture-12: Continuous functions continued
Theorem: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces and f : X −→ Y . Then the following statements
are equivalent:
(i) f is continuous on X .
(ii) For every subset A of X , f (A) ⊆ f (A).
(iii) For every closed set B of Y , the set f −1(B) is closed.
Proof: (i) =⇒ (ii): Suppose that f is continuous on X . Let A be a subset of X . We show that if x ∈ A,
then f (x) ∈ f (A). To this end, let V be a neighborhood of f (x). Then f −1(V ) is an open set containing x. By
definition of A, f −1(V ) intersects A, and hence, V intersects f (A). Thus f (x) ∈ f (A).
(ii) =⇒ (iii): Suppose that (ii) holds and B is any closed susbet of Y . Note that f (f −1(B)) ⊆ B. Therefore,
if x ∈ f −1(B), then f (x) ∈ f (f −1(B)) ⊆ f (f −1(B)) ⊆ B = B . Thus x ∈ f −1(B). Hence f −1(B) ⊆ f −1(B).
Consequently, f −1(B) = f −1(B), and hence, f −1(B) is closed.
(iii) =⇒ (i): Let V be any open set in Y . Note that
f −1 (Y \ V ) = f −1 (Y ) \ f −1 (V ) = X \ f −1 (V ).

By (iii), f −1(Y \V ) is a closed set, and hence, f −1(V ) is open. This completes the proof.
Homeomorphism: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces. A function f : X −→ Y is said to be a
homeomorphism if f is one-one, onto, continuous and f −1 is also continuous. Two topological spaces are said to
be homeomorphic if there exists a homeomorphism from one topological space to the other.
Proposition: Let (X, T ) and (Y, T ′) be two topological spaces and f : X −→ Y be a homeomorphism. Then
is open for every open set U in X.
f (U)
Proof: Since f −1 is continuous, then for every open set U in X , we get (f −1)−1(U) = f (U), which is open.
Example 1: Consider R with the standard topology. Then f : R −→ R defined by f (x) = 3x + 1, x ∈ R, is a
homeomorphism. In fact, f −1(x) = 13 (x − 1), x ∈ R.

Example 2: The function f : (−1, 1) −→ R defined by

x
f (x) = , x ∈ R,
1 − x2
is a homeomorphism.
Example 3: Any two open intervals are homeomorphic in the standard topology. In fact, for (a, b) and (c, d),
define f : (a, b) −→ (c, d) by  
x−a
f (x) = (d − c) + c, x ∈ (a, b).
b−a
Then f is a homeomorphism (verify!).
Remark: Since being homeomorphic is an equivalence relation, it follows from Example 2 and Example 3 that
any open interval is homeomorphic to R in the standard topology.
Example 4: Let R2 be with the standard topology. Consider the unit circle S ′ = {(x, y) : x2 + y2 = 1} with
the subspace topology. Define f : [0, 1) −→ S ′ by f (t) = (cos(2πt), sin(2πt)), t ∈ [0, 1). Then f is one-one, onto
and continuous. But f −1 is not continuous.
Exercises:
1. Determine whether the following functions are continuous, and whether they are homeomorphism. The
topology on R is the standard topology.
(i) f : (−1, 1) −→ [0, 1) defined as f (x) = |x|.
(ii) f : (−1, 1) −→ R defined as f (x) = 1−xx
.
(iii) f : R −→ [−1, 1] defined as f (x) = sin x.
(iv) f : R −→ R defined as f (x) = x3 .
2. Let X and Y be two homeomorphic topological spaces. If X is a discrete topological space, then what is the
topology on Y ?
3. 2. Let X and Y be two homeomorphic topological spaces. If X is an indiscrete topological space, then what
is the topology on Y ?
 Lecture-13: Continuous functions continued
Theorem: Let X, Y, Z be topological spaces. Then the following statements are true:
(i) If A is a subspace of X , the inclusion function j : A −→ X , defined as j(a) = a, a ∈ A, is continuous.
(ii) If f : X −→ Y and g : Y −→ Z are continuous, then the map g ◦ f : X −→ Z is continuous.
(iii) If f : X −→ Y is continuous and A is a subspace of X , then the restriction map f |A : A −→ Y is
continuous.
(iv) The map f : X −→ Y is continuous if X can be written as the union of open sets Uα such that f |U is α
continuous for each α.
Proof: (i) Let U be any open set in X . Then j −1 (U) = A ∩ U , which is open by definition of subspace topology.
(ii) Let U be any open set in Z . Then
(g ◦ f )−1 (U) = f −1 (g −1 (U)).
Since g is continuous, g −1(U) is open. Since f is continuous, f −1(g −1(U)) is open.
(iii) Note that f |A = f ◦ j . By (i) and (ii) f |A is continuous. Alternatively, let U be any open set in Y . Then
(f |A )−1 (U) = f −1 (U) ∩ A,
which is open by the definition of subspace topology.
S
(iv) Suppose that X = and f |U is continuous for each α ∈ I . Let V be any open set in Y . Then
Uα α
α∈I
(f |Uα )−1 (V ) = f −1 (V ) ∩ Uα for all α ∈ I . This gives that
[ [ [
f −1 (V ) = f −1 (V ) ∩ X = f −1 (V ) ∩ ( Uα ) = (f −1 (V ) ∩ Uα ) = (f |Uα )−1 (V )
α∈I α∈I α∈I

Since (f |U α
−1
) (V ) is open for all α ∈ I , we obtain f −1
(V ) is open. This completes the proof.
The pasting lemma: Let X = A∪B , where A and B are closed subsets of X . Let f : A −→ Y and g : B −→ Y
be continuous. If f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A ∩ B , then there exists a continuous function h : X −→ Y such that
h(x) = f (x) if x ∈ A and h(x) = g(x) if x ∈ B .

Proof: Define h : X −→ Y as follows: (

f (x), x ∈ A;
h(x) =
g(x), x ∈ B.
Then h is well-defined. We only need to check the continuity of h. To this end, let C be any closed set in Y .
Then h−1(C) = f −1(C) ∪ g −1(C) (verify!). Since f is continuous, f −1(C) is closed in A, and hence, f −1(C) is
closed in X . Similarly, g −1(C) is closed in X . Thus, h−1 (C) is closed in X . This completes the proof.
Example: Consider R with the standard topology. Let A = (−∞, 0] and B = [0, ∞). Let f : A −→ R be
defined as f (x) = x and g : B −→ R be defined as g(x) = . Then h : R −→ R is given by
x
2
(
x, x ≤ 0;
h(x) = x
2
, x ≥ 0.
If we take f (x) = x − 2 for x ≤ 0 and g(x) = x + 2, x ≥ 0, then there does not exist any such h. Suppose, if we
define (
x − 2, x < 0;
h(x) =
x + 2, x ≥ 0,
then h is not continuous. For example, the inverse image of (1, 3) is [0, 1) which is not open in R.
 Lecture-14: Box and product topology
Definition:QLet {Aα }α∈I be an indexed family of sets. Then the cartesian product of this indexed family,
denoted by Aα , is defined as
α∈I
( )
Y [
Aα = f :I → Aα f (α) ∈ Aα for each α ∈ I .
α∈I α∈I
Q
An element a ∈ Aα is denoted by a = (aα )α∈I .
α∈I

Q Let {Xα}α∈I be an indexed family of topological spaces. We can give two topologies on the product space
Xα as follows:
α∈I

The box topology: Consider the following collection of subsets of Q

Xα :
α∈I
( )
Y
Bb = Uα : Uα is open in Xα for each α ∈ I
α∈I

Then Bb is a basis (verify!) and the topology generated by Bb is called as the box topology.
The product topology: Consider the following collection of subsets of Q
Xα :
α∈I
(
Y
Bp = Uα : for each α ∈ I, Uα is open in Xα and Uα = Xα for all α ∈ I
α∈I
)
except for finitely many values of α .

Then Bp is a basis (verify!) and the topology generated by Bp is called as the product topology. It is clear that
Bp ⊆ Bb . Thus the box topology is, in general, larger than the product topology.

Remark:
Q If {Xα}α∈I is a finite collection of topological spaces, then the box topology and the product topology
on Xα are same.
α∈I

Theorem: Let {Xα}α∈I be an indexed family of topological spaces and Aα ⊆ Xα for each α ∈ I . If Q
Xα is
α∈I
given either the product or the box topology, then
Y Y
Aα = Aα .
α∈I α∈I

Proof: Let x = (xα )α∈I be an element of Q

Aα .
Q
Let U = Uα be a basis element for either the box topology
α∈I α∈I
or the product topology that contains x. Since
Q xα ∈ A α , it follows
Q that Uα ∩Aα 6= ∅. Choose yα ∈ Uα ∩Aα , α ∈ I.
Then y = (yα)α∈I belongs to both U and Aα. Thus x ∈ Aα.
α∈I α∈I
Q
Conversely, suppose that x = (xα )α∈I ∈ Aα in either topology. We need to show that xα ∈ Aα for
α∈I Q
each α ∈ I . Let β ∈ I be arbitrarily chosen. Let Vβ be any neighborhood of xβ . Consider the set Uα
Q α∈I
where Uβ = Vβ and Uα = Xα for α 6= β . Then Uα is open in both the topologies that contains x. Thus
α∈I
Q Q
Uα ∩ Aα 6= ∅ =⇒ Vβ ∩ Aβ 6= ∅ =⇒ xβ ∈ Aβ .
α∈I α∈I
 Lecture-15: Metric topology
Metric topology: Let (X, d) be a metric space and B be the collection of all open balls in X. Then B is a
basis and the topology generated by B is called the metric topology induced by d.
Example 1: Consider the metric d on R defined as d(x, y) = |x − y|, x, y ∈ R. Then the metric topology
induced by d is the standard topology on R.
Example 2: Consider the discrete metric on R. Then the metric topology induced by the discrete metric is the
discrete topology.
Metrizable space: A topological space (X, T ) is said to be metrizable if there exists a metric d on X such
that the topology induced by d is equal to T .
Proposition: Let T and T ′ be the topologies induced by the metrics d and d′ on a set X. Then T ′ is larger
than T if and only if for each x ∈ X and ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
Bd′ (x, δ) ⊆ Bd (x, ε).

Proof: Already done.

Example 3: Consider the following metrics on R2-
p
1. d1(x, y) = (x1 − y1)2 + (x2 − y2)2, x = (x1 , x2 ), y = (y1, y2).
2. d2(x, y) = |x1 − y1| + |x2 − y2|, x = (x1 , x2), y = (y1, y2).
3. d3(x, y) = max{|x1 − y1|, |x2 − y2|}, x = (x1, x2 ), y = (y1, y2).
Let T1 , T2 and T3 be the topologies induced by the metrics d1 , d2 and d3, respectively. Then T1 = T2 = T3
(verify!).
Definition: Let X be a topological space and (xn )n≥1 be a sequence of points in X. We say that (xn)n≥1
converges to a point x ∈ X if for every neighbourhood U of x, there exists N ∈N such that xn ∈U for all
n ≥ N.

Example 4: Any sequence in an indiscrete topological space X converges to every point in X.

Example 5: A convergent sequence is eventually constant in a discrete topological space.
The sequence lemma: Let X be a topological space and A ⊆ X. If there is a sequence of points of A converging
to x, then x ∈ A. The converse holds if X is metrizable.
Proof: Suppose that xn → x, where xn ∈ A. Then every neighbourhood of x contains all but finitely many xn .
Thus x ∈ A.
Conversely, suppose that X is metrizable. Let x ∈ A and d be the metric for the topology of X. Since x ∈ A,
for each n ≥ 1, Bd(x, n1 ) ∩ A 6= ∅. Let xn ∈ Bd (x, n1 ) ∩ A, n ≥ 1. Then {xn }n≥1 ⊆ A and xn → x. In fact, for any
open ball Bd(x, ε), choose N ∈ N such that N1 < ε. Then xn ∈ Bd(x, n1 ) ⊆ Bd(x, ε) for all n ≥ N. This completes
the proof.
Theorem (sequential criteria for continuity): Let X, Y be topological spaces and f : X −→ Y . If f is
continuous, then for every convergent sequence xn → x, the sequence (f (xn ))n≥1 converges to f (x). The converse
holds if X is metrizable.
Proof: Let f be continuous and (xn)n≥1 be any sequence which converges to x. We need to show that f (xn) →
f (x). Let U be any neighborhood of f (x). Then f −1 (U) is a neighborhood of x as f is continuous. Since
xn → x, there exists N ∈ N such that xn ∈ f −1 (U) for all n ≥ N . Thus, f (xn ) ∈ U for all n ≥ N , and hence,
f (xn ) → f (x).
Conversely, suppose that X is metrizable and for every convergent sequence xn → x, the sequence (f (xn ))n≥1
converges to f (x). To prove the continuity of f , we show that f (A) ⊆ f (A) for any subset A of X . Let x ∈ A.
Then by the sequence lemma, there exists a sequence (xn )n≥1 of points of A which converges to x. Hence
f (xn ) → f (x). Since f (xn ) ∈ f (A), again by the sequence lemma, f (x) ∈ f (A). This completes the proof.

Exercises:
1. Prove Example 4 and Example 5.
2. Consider R with the standard topology, lower limit topology, cofinite topology and co-countable topology.
Find all the points to which the sequence 1/n converges in each of the given topologies.
3. Using the results obtained in Question 2, compute the closure of the set {1/n : n ≥ 1} in each of the given
topologies.
4. Consider R with the standard topology. Using the sequential criteria for continuity, determine all the points
where the following function is continuous:
(
x2 , if x is rational,
f (x) =
0, if x is irrational.
 Lecture-16: Quotient topology
Equivalence relation: A relation ∼ on a non-empty set A is said to be an equivalence relation if the following
conditions hold:
1. a ∼ a for all a ∈ A (reflexivity).
2. a ∼ b if and only if b ∼ a for all a, b ∈ A (symmetry).
3. If a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then a ∼ c for all a, b, c ∈ A (transitivity).
If ∼ is an equivalence relation on a non-empty set A, then it partitions A into disjoint equivalence classes,
where an equivalence class [a] of an element a ∈ A is defined as
[a] = {b ∈ A : b ∼ a}.
The set of all equivalence classes of elements of A is denoted by A/ ∼.
Example 1: Define a relation ∼ on N as n ∼ m if and only if n − m is divisible by 2. Then ∼ is an equivalence
relation N. Further, N/ ∼ = {[0], [1]}.
Example 2: Let A, B be two sets and f : A → B be any given function. Define ∼ on A as x ∼ y if and only if
f (x) = f (y). Then ∼ is an equivalence relation on A and A/ ∼ = {f −1(b) : b ∈ B}.
Let X be a topological space with an equivalence relation ∼ . Let X/ ∼ be the set of all equivalence classes
of elements of X. Then there is a natural map q : X → X/ ∼ defined as q(x) = [x]. Clearly, q is a surjective
(or onto) map. We want to give a topology on X/ ∼ such that q becomes continuous. To this end, we declare
a subset U of X/ ∼ an open set if and only if q−1(U) is open in X. This topology on X/ ∼ is called quotient
topology, X/ ∼ is called as quotient space and q is called as the quotient map. With this motivation, we can
generalize the notion of quotient map between any two topological spaces as follows:
Quotient map: Let X, Y be topological spaces and p : X → Y be a surjective map. The map p is said to be a
quotient map provided a subset U of Y is open if and only if p−1 (U) is open in X.
The condition of quotient map is stronger than continuity. For example, let Td and Ti be the discrete and
indiscrete topologies on a set X. Then the identity map I : (X, Td ) → (X, Ti) is surjective and continuous but
it is not a quotient map.
Definition: Let X, Y be two topological spaces and f : X → Y. Then the map f is said to be an open map if
f (U) is open in Y for every open set U in X. Similarly, f is said to be a closed map if f (A) is closed in Y for
each closed set A in X.
Proposition: Let X, Y be two topological spaces. If p : X → Y is a surjective continuous map that is either
open or closed, then p is a quotient map.
Proof: Suppose that p is surjective, continuous and open. Suppose that U is any open set in Y. Then by
continuity of p, p−1 (U) is open in X. Conversely, suppose that p−1 (U) is open in X for some subset U of Y. Then
p(p−1 (U)) = U is open in Y as p is an open map. This completes the proof.

Example: Let X = [0, 1] ∪ [2, 3] and Y = [0, 2]. Define p : X → Y as

(
x, x ∈ [0, 1];
p(x) =
x − 1, x ∈ [2, 3].
Then p is surjective, continuous and closed (verify!). Therefore, it is a quotient map. But p is not open as
p([0, 1]) = [0, 1], which is not open in Y.
 Lecture-17: Quotient topology continued
Proposition: Let X, Y be two topological spaces and p : X →Y be a bijective quotient map. Then p is a
homeomorphism.
Proof: Clearly, p is continuous. To show that p−1 is continuous, it is enough to show that p is open. Suppose
that U is any open set in X. Then p−1(p(U)) = U , which is open in X . Thus p(U) is open as p is a quotient
map. Hence p is open.
We now give a general definition of the quotient topology.
Quotient Topology: Let X be a topological space and A be a non-empty set. If p : X → A is a surjective
map, then there exists a topology on A with respect to which p is a quotient map. This topology on A is called
as the quotient topology induced by p.
Example: Consider R with the standard topology and A = {a, b, c}. Let p : R → A be defined as


a, x > 0;
p(x) = b, x < 0;


c, x = 0.

Then the quotient topology on A induced by p is {A, φ, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}.
Theorem: Let X, Y, Z be topological spaces and p : X → Y be a quotient map. Let g : X → Z be a map that
is constant on each set p−1({y}), y ∈ Y . Then g induces a map f : Y → Z such that f ◦ p = g . The induced
map f is continuous if and only if g is continuous. Further, f is a quotient map if and only if g is a quotient
map.
X
g
p

Y Z
f

Proof: Since g is constant on p−1 ({y}) for each y ∈ Y , we get that g (p−1 ({y})) is a singleton, say {ay }. We
define f : Y →Z as f (y) = ay for all y ∈ Y . Then by an abuse of notation {ay } = ay , we get


f (p(x)) = ap(x) = g p−1 ({p(x)}) = g(x) for all x ∈ X .

Thus f ◦ p = g .
Suppose that f is continuous. Since p is a quotient map, and hence continuous, we get that f ◦ p = g is also
continuous. Conversely, suppose that g is continuous. Let V be any open set in Z . Then g −1(V ) is open in X .
But g −1(V ) = p−1 (f −1(V )). As p is a quotient map and p−1 (f −1 (V )) is open, it follows that f −1 (V ) is open in
Y . Thus f is continuous.
Suppose that f is a quotient map, then g is the composition of two quotient maps, and thus, is a quotient
map. Conversely, suppose that g is a quotient map. Since g is surjective, so is f . Let V be any open set in
Z . Then g −1 (V ) = p−1 (f −1 (V )) is open. Since p is a quotient map, we get that f −1 (V ) is open. Suppose that
f −1 (V ) is open in Y for some subset V of Z . Then p−1 (f −1 (V )) is open in X . Since p−1 (f −1 (V )) = g −1 (V )
and g is a quotient map, it follows that V is open in Z . This completes the proof.
Corollary: Let X, Z be topological spaces and g : X → Z be a surjective continuous map. Let X ∗ be given by

X ∗ = g −1 ({z}) : z ∈ Z .
Give X ∗ the quotient topology. Then the map g induces a bijective continuous map f : X∗ → Z which is a
homeomorphism if and only of g is a quotient map.
X
g
p

X∗ Z
f

Proof: First, note that p−1(g−1(z)) = g−1(z) for all z ∈ Z . Hence, for any h ∈ g−1(z), g(h) = z. Thus g is
constant on each set p−1 (g −1(z)), z ∈ Z . Therefore, by the preceding theorem, g induces a continuous map
f : X ∗ → Z . Following the way we constructed f in the preceding theorem, we get f (g −1(z)) = z for all z ∈ Z .
This gives that f is bijective. Also f is a quotient map if and only of g is a quotient map. Note that a bijective
quotient map is a homeomorphism. This establishes the conclusion.
 Lecture-18: Connected space
Connected space: Let X be a topological space. A pair of non-empty open sets U, V is said to be a discon-
nection or separation of X if U ∩ V =∅ and X = U ∪ V. The space X is said to be connected if there does not
exist any disconnection of X.
Remark: If U, V is a disconnection of X, then both U and V are open as well as closed.
Proposition: A topological space X is connected if and only if the only subsets of X that are both open and
closed are the empty set and X itself.
Proof: Suppose that X is connected. Let A be a non-empty proper subset of X which is both open and closed.
There A, X \ A forms a disconnection of X, which is a contradiction.
Conversely, suppose that the only subsets of X that are both open and closed are empty set and X itself.
Suppose that U, V is a disconnection of X. Then U is non-empty proper subset of X that is both open A closed.
This is a contradiction.
Example 1: Consider X with indiscrete topology. Then X is connected.
Example 2: The space X with the discrete topology is disconnected.
Example 3: Real line with the lower limit topology is disconnected.
Example 4: Real line with the standard topology is connected. To see this, suppose that A is a non-empty
proper subset of X which is both open and closed. Then Ā = A and Int(A) = A. Also, Ā = Int(A) ∪ ∂A. Thus,
we get Int(A) ∪ ∂A = Int(A) which implies that either ∂A is empty or ∂A ⊆ Int(A). Since the boundary of a
non-empty proper open subset of R is non-empty, we get that ∂A ⊆ Int(A), which is a contradiction.
Exercises:
1. Find a disconnection for R with the lower limit topology.
2. Is R with cofinite topology connected? Justify.
3. Is R with co-countable topology connected? Justify.
 Lecture-19: Connected space continued
Lemma: Let X be a topological space and U, V is a disconnection of X. If Y is a connected subspace of X,
then either Y ⊆ U or Y ⊆ V.
Proof: Note that U ∩ Y and V ∩ Y are both open and disjoint subsets of Y whose union is Y. If both are
non-empty, then they will form a disconnection of Y. Hence, if Y is connected, then one of them must be empty.
Then, either Y ⊆ U of Y ⊂ V.
Theorem: Let A be a connected subspace of the topological space X . If A ⊆ B ⊆ A, then B is also connected.
Proof: Suppose that B = U ∪ V is a disconnection of B . Then by the preceding lemma, either A ⊆ U or
A⊆V. Suppose that A ⊆ U . Then A ⊆ U = U . Since U, V are disjoint, we get B ⊆ U , a contradiction.
Corollary: Let X be a topological space and A be a subset of X . If A is connected, then A is also connected.
Proof: Take B = A in the preceding theorem.
Theorem:
T Let XS be a topological space and {Aα : α ∈ I} be a collection of connected subspaces of X. If
then Aα is connected.
Aα 6= ∅,
α∈I α∈I
Proof: Suppose that x ∈ T Aα . Let U, V be a disconnection of S Aα . Then either x ∈ U or x ∈ V. Suppose
α∈I α∈I S
that x ∈ U. Since each Aα is connected, by the preceding lemma, Aα ⊆ U for all α ∈ I. Thus Aα ⊆ U, and
α∈I
hence, V must be empty. This is a contradiction.
Theorem: Let X, Y be topological spaces. If X is connected and f : X → Y is continuous, then f (X) is
connected.
Proof: Let U, V be a disconnection of f (X). Then f −1(U) and f −1(V ) are both open, disjoint and their union
is X. Since X is connected, we arrive at a contradiction. Thus f (X) is connected.
(
Example: Let f : R → R be defined as f (x) = x, x ≤ 0
2, x > 0
. Then f (R) = (−∞, 0] ∪ {2}, which is not con-
nected. Hence f is not continuous.
Totally disconnected space: A topological space X is said to be totally disconnected if its only connected
subspaces are singletons.
Example: A discrete topological space is totally disconnected. There are totally disconnected topological spaces
which are not discrete. For example consider R with the standard topology. Then the subspace Q is totally
disconnected but not a discrete space.
Exercises:
1. Does there exist a non-constant continuous function f : R → Q? Justify.
2. Consider R with the standard topology and A = { n1 : n ≥ 1} ∪ {0} be the subspace of R. Show that A is
totally disconnected but not a discrete space.
3. Show that Q, considered as a subspace of R with the standard topology, is totally disconnected but not a
discrete space.
 Lecture-20: Connected space continued
Theorem: Let Xj , 1 ≤ j ≤ n, be connected topological spaces. Then X = Q Xj is connected in the product
n

j=1
topology.
Proof: It is enough to prove the theorem for n = 2. The general case will follow from mathematical induction
on n. To see this, fix a ∈ X1 and b ∈ X2 . Since X1 × {b} is homeomorphic to X1 and X1 is connected, it follows
that X1 × {b} is connected. Similarly, {x} × X2 is connected for all x ∈ X1 . Consider
Tx = (X1 × {b}) ∪ ({x} × X2 ) , x ∈ X1 .
S
Since (x, b) ∈ (X1 × {b}) ∩ ({x} × X2), it follows that Tx is connected for all x ∈ X1. Note that Tx is
S x∈X
connected as (a, b) ∈ Tx for all x ∈ X1. Since Tx = X1 × X2 , it follows that X1 × X2 is connected.
1

x∈X1

Theorem: Let {Xα : α ∈ I} be a family of connected topological spaces. Then Q

Xα is connected in the
α∈I
product topology.
Proof: Fix a = (aα )α∈I ∈ Q
Xα . Let F be any finite subset of I . Define
α∈I

XF = x = (xα )α∈I : xα = aα for all α ∈ /F .
Q
Then XF is homeomorphic to Xj . Since each Xj is connected, by preceding theorem XF is connected. Let
S j∈F
Y = XF , F is finite. Since a ∈ XF for all finite subsets F of I , we get that Y is connected. Now we show that
F ⊆I
Q Q Q Q
Y = Xα . Note that Y ⊆ Xα , and hence, Y ⊆ Xα . Therefore, it is enough to show that Xα ⊆ Y .
α∈I α∈I Q Q α∈I α∈I
To this end, let x = (xα )α∈I ∈ Xα . Let Uα be a basis element containing x. Then there exists a finite
α∈I α∈I Q Q
subset F ⊆ I such that Uα = Xα for all α ∈/ F . Then Uα ∩ XF 6= ∅. Consequently, Uα ∩ Y 6= ∅. Hence,
α∈I α∈I
Q
x ∈ Y . Thus Xα is connected.
α∈I

Theorem: Consider R with the standard topology. A subspace of R is connected if and only of it is an interval.
Proof: Let X be a subspace of R which is connected. Suppose that X is not an interval. Then there exist real
numbers x, y, z with x < y < z such that x, z ∈ X but y ∈/ X . Then X = ((−∞, y) ∩ X) ∪ ((y, ∞) ∩ X) is a
disconnection of X , which is a contradiction.
Conversely, suppose that X is an interval. Let X = A ∪ B be a disconnection of X . Since A and B are
nonempty, let x ∈ A and z ∈ B . Since A and B are disjoint, x 6= z. Let x < z. Since X is an interval, [x, z] ⊆ X
and each point in [x, z] is either in A or in B . Let y = sup([x, z] ∩ A). Clearly, x ≤ y ≤ z. Since A is closed, we
must have y ∈ A. Hence y < z. Again, by the definition of supremum, for every ε > 0 with y + ε ≤ z, y + ε ∈ B .
Since B is closed, y must be in B . This contradicts the fact that A and B are disjoint. Hence X is connected.
This completes the proof.
Corollary (Intermediate value theorem): Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous. If c lies between f (a) and f (b),
then there exists x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = c.
Proof: Since [a, b] is connected and continuous image of a connected set is connected, f ([a, b]) must be an
interval, say I. If c lies between f (a) and f (b), then c ∈ I , and hence, there exists x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = c.
 Lecture-21: Path connected space
Definition: Let X be a topological space and x, y ∈ X. A path in X from x to y is a continuous map
γ : [0, 1] → X such that γ(0) = x and γ(1) = y. A topological space X is said to be path connected if every pair
of points in X can be joined by a path in X .
Example: Consider Rn with the standard topology. For x = (x1 , . . . , xn) ∈ Rn, define kxk = (x21 + · · · + x2n) .
1
2

The open ball B(x, r) centred at x and of radius r is defined as B(x, r) = {y ∈ Rn : kx − yk < r}. Then B(x, r)
is path connected. In fact, for any y, z ∈ B(x, r) define γ : [0, 1] → B(x, r) by γ(t) = yt + (1 − t)z. Then
γ(t) − x = t(y − x) + (1 − t)(z − x).
Thus, kγ(t) − xk ≤ tky − xk + (1 − t)kz − xk < r.
Proposition: Every path connected space is connected.
Proof: Suppose that X is path connected. Let X = U ∪ V be a disconnection of X . Let x ∈ U and y ∈ V .
Then there exists a path γ : [0, 1] → X such that γ(0) = x and γ(1) = y . Since γ([0, 1]) is connected, therefore
γ([0, 1]) ⊆ Uor γ([0, 1]) ⊆ V . In both the cases, we get a contradiction that x ∈ U and y ∈ V . Thus, X is
connected.
Proposition: Let X be path connected space and Y be a topological space. If f : X → Y is continuous, then
f (X) is path connected.
Proof: Let f (x), f (y) be any two points in f (X). Since X is path connected, there exists a path γ : [0, 1] → X
such that γ(0) = x and γ(1) = y . Define, η : [0, 1] → f (X) by η = f ◦ γ . Then η is a path in f (X) joining f (x)
and f (y). Thus f (X) is path connected.
Example: The unit sphere S n−1 in Rn is path connected where
S n−1 = {x ∈ Rn : kxk = 1} .
In fact, define f : Rn \ {0} → S n−1 by f (x) = x
kxk
. Then f is continuous and onto. Therefore, by preceding
proposition, S is path connected.
There are connected topological spaces which are not path connected. For example, consider the following
subset of R2    
1
S= x, sin :0<x≤1 .
x
Then S is connected as it is a continuous image of (0, 1]. Hence S is also connected. The set S is known as the
topologist’s sine curve.
Proposition: S is not path connected.
Proof: We prove that there is no path joining (0, 0) and any point in S . On contrary, suppose that there is a path
γ : [0, 1] → S such that γ(0) = (0, 0) and γ(1) = (x0 , y0) ∈ S . Note that A = {t ∈ [0, 1] : γ(t) ∈ {0} × [−1, 1]}
is closed because A = γ −1({0} × [−1, 1]) which is an inverse image of a closed set under the continuous map f .
Hence, A has largest element, say b. Then γ : [b, 1] → S is a path such that γ(b) ∈ {0} × [−1, 1] and γ(t) ∈ S
for all b < t ≤ 1. Let γ(t) = (x(t), y(t)). Then x(b) = 0 and x(t) > 0, y(t) = sin x(t)1
, for all t > b. Now for
 
given n, choose un with 0 < un < x(b + n1 ) such that sin u1 = (−1)n . By intermediate value theorem, there
n
   
exists tn with b < tn < b + n1 such that x(tn ) = un. Then y(tn) = sin x(t1 ) = sin u1 = (−1)n . Since tn → b
n n

but y(tn) does not converge, this contradicts the continuity of y , and hence, the continuity of γ .
 Lecture-22: Components of connected space
Definition Let X be a topological space. We define a relation ∼ on X as x ∼ y if there exists a connected
subspace of X containing both x and y . Then ∼ is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence classes are called
components (or connected components) of X .
Example 1 If X is a discrete space, then its components are precisely all the singletons.
Example 2 If R has the standard topology, then R itself is the only component.
Example 3 If R has the lower limit topology, then its components are only singletons.
Theorem Let X be a topological space. The components of X are connected disjoint subspaces of X whose
union is X , such that each non-empty connected subspace of X intersects with only one of them.
Proof: That every component is connected follows from the definition. Since components are equivalence classes,
it follows that they are disjoint, and their union is X . Now suppose that Y is a connected subspace of X that in-
tersects two components, say C1 and C2. Let x ∈ Y ∩C1 and y ∈ Y ∩C2 , but then x ∼ y , which is a contradiction.
Definition Let X be a topological space. We define another equivalence relation ∼ on X by x ∼ y if there is
a path in X from x to y . Then ∼ is an equivalence relation, and the equivalence classes are called the path
components of X .
Example The topologist’s sine curve S has one component, which is S itself but has two path components, one
is S and other is {0} × [−1, 1].
Theorem The path components of X are path-connected disjoint subspaces of X whose union is X , such that
each path-connected (non-empty) subspace of X intersects only one of them.
Proof Similar to the previous theorem.
Definition A topological space X is said to be locally connected at x ∈ X if for every neighborhood U of x,
there is a connected neighborhood V of x such that x ∈ V ⊂ U. If X is locally connected at each point x, then
it is said to be locally connected.
Example Each interval as well as the whole real line is both connected and locally connected. The subspace
(0, 1) ∪ (1, 0) is not connected but it is locally connected. The set of all rationals is neither connected nor locally
connected.
Theorem A topological space X is locally connected if and only if for every open set U of X , each component
of U is open in X .
Proof: Suppose that X is a locally connected space. Let U be an open subset of X and C be a component of
U . If x ∈ C , then there exists a connected neighbourhood V of x such that x ∈ V ⊆ U. Since C is a component
we must have V ⊆ C. Thus C is open in X.
Conversely, suppose that components of open subsets are open in X. Let x ∈ X and U be a neighborhood of
X. Let C be a component of U containing x. Since C is connected and it is open by hypothesis, it follows that
X is locally connected.
 Lecture-23: Compact space
Compact Space: SLet X be a topological space. A collection C = {Ui : i ∈ I} of subsets of X is said to
be a cover of X if Ui = X . A subcover of X is a subcollection of C which is a cover of X . A collection
i∈I S
C = {Ui : i ∈ I} of subsets of X is said to be an open cover of X if each Ui is open and Ui = X . The
i∈I
topological space X is said to be compact if every open cover of X contains a finite subcover of X .
Example 1: Any topological space X which contains only finitely many points is compact because every open
cover of X has a finite number of open sets in this case.
Example 2: R with the standard topology is not compact. In fact, C = {(−n, n) | n ≥ 1} is an open cover of
R that does not contain any finite subcover of R.
Example 3: Consider R with the standard topology and let Y = {0} ∪ {1/n | n > 1}. Then Y is compact.
To see this, let C be any open cover of Y . Let U ∈ C be such that 0 ∈ U . Note that U = (a, b) ∩ Y . Since
1/n → 0, there exist at most finitely many n1 outside U , say 1, 12 , . . . , N1 . Choose Uj ∈ C such that 1j ∈ Uj ,
1 ≤ j ≤ N . Then {Uj : 1 ≤ j ≤ N} ∪ {U} is a finite subcover of Y .

Proposition: Let Y be a subspace of a topological space X . Then Y is compact if and only if every cover of
Y by open sets in X contains a finite subcollection covering Y .
Proof: Suppose that Y is compact, and let C = {Ui : i ∈ I} be a cover of Y by open sets in X . Then
{Ui ∩ Y : i ∈ I} is an open cover of Y by open sets in Y . Since Y is compact, so there exists a finite subcover
{Ui ∩ Y, . . . , Ui ∩ Y } of Y. Then {Ui , . . . , Ui } is a finite subcover of Y by open sets in X .
n n
Conversely, suppose that the given condition holds. Let C = {V1 : i ∈ I} be an open cover of Y by open
1 1

sets in Y . Then Vi = Y ∩ Ui for some open set Ui in X. Thus, {Ui : i ∈ I} is a cover of Y by open sets in
X. By hypothesis, there exists a finite collection {Ui , . . . , Ui } which covers Y. Hence, {Vi , . . . , Vi } is a finite
n n
subcover of Y. Thus Y is compact.
1 1

Theorem: Every closed subspace of a compact space is compact.

Proof: Let Y be a closed subspace of the compact space X . Let C be a cover of Y by open sets in X . Then
C˜ = C ∪ {X \ Y } is an open cover of X . Since X is compact, there exists a finite subcover of X . If this finite
subcover contains X \ Y , remove it from the subcover. The resultant subcollection will be a subcover of Y with
open sets in X . Therefore, by the preceding proposition, Y is compact.
 Lecture-24: Compact space continued
Theorem: The image of a compact space under a continuous map is compact.
Proof: Let X be a compact topological space, Y be any topological space and f be a continuous
:X →Y
map. Let C be an open cover of f (X) by open sets in Y . Then {f (U) : U ∈ C } is an open cover of X . Since
−1

X is compact, there exists a finite subcover, say {f −1 (U1 ) , . . . , f −1 (Un )} of X . Then {U1 , . . . , Un } is a finite
subcover of f (X). Thus f (X) is compact.
Tychonoff’s Theorem:(without proof) Let {Xi : i ∈ I} be a family of compact topological spaces. Then Q Xi
i∈I
is compact in the product topology.
Finite intersection property: A collection A of subsets of a topological space X is said to have the finite
n T
intersection property if for every finite subcollection {Ai , . . . , Ai } of A , the intersection
n Aij 6= ∅.
j=1

Theorem: A topological space X is compactTif and only if for every collection A of closed sets in X with the
finite intersection property, the intersection F 6= ∅.
F ∈A
Proof: Suppose that X is compact. Let A = {Fi : i ∈ I} be a collection of closed sets in X with the finite
intersection property. Then C = {X \ Fi : i ∈ I} is a collection of open subsets of X . We claim that C is
not an open cover of X . In fact, if C is an open cover of X , then it contains a finite subcover of X , say
{X \ Fi , . . . , X \ Fi }. Hence
1 n

n n
! n
[
\ \
X \ Fij = X ⇒ X \ Fij =X ⇒ Fij = ∅,
j=1 j=1 j=1
S T
which contradicts the finite intersection property of A . Thus (X \ Fi ) 6= X ⇒ i∈I Fi 6= ∅.
i∈I
Conversely, suppose that the given condition holds. Let C = {Ui S: i ∈ I} be any open cover T of X . Then
A = {X \ Ui : i ∈ I} is a collection of closed subsets of X . Further, Ui = X implies that (X \ Ui ) = ∅.
i∈I i∈I
Thus, A does not have the finiten intersection property. Hence, there exists a finite subcollection of A , say
T
S
{X \ Ui , . . . , X \ Ui } such that
1 n X \ Ui = ∅ ⇒ nj=1 Uij = X . Hence X is compact.
j
j=1

Extreme value theorem: Let X be a compact space and Y be an ordered set in the order topology. If
f :X →Y is a continuous map, then there exist points c, d ∈ X such that f (c) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (d) for every x ∈ X .
Proof: Let m = x∈X inf f (x) and M = sup f (x). We claim that m, M ∈ f (X). On contrary, suppose that
x∈X
M ∈ / f (x). Then C = {(−∞, a) : a ∈ f (X)} is an open cover of f (X). Since f (X) is compact, C contains a
finite subcover of f (X), say {(−∞, a1 ) , . . . , (−∞, an )}. Let aj = max {a1, . . . , an }. Then aj = sup f (x) = M,
x∈X
which is not in f (X). This is a contradiction. Hence there exits a point d ∈ X such that f (d) = M . Similarly,
we can show that f (c) = m for some c ∈ X .
 Lecture-25: Compactness in metric space
Definition: Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be a nonempty subset of X . For x ∈ X , the distance from x to
A is defined as
d(x, A) = inf{d(x, a) : a ∈ A}.
The diameter of the set A is defined as
dia(A) = sup {d (a1 , a2 ) : a1 , a2 ∈ A} .

The Lebesgue number lemma: Let (X, d) be a compact metric space and C be an open cover of X . Then
there exists a δ > 0 such that for each subset A of X with dia(A) < δ, there exists an open set U ∈ C containing
A. The number δ is called as the Lebesgue number for the open cover C .
Proof: Let C be an open cover of X . If X ∈ C , then any positive number is a Lebesgue number for C . So,
suppose that X ∈/ C . Since X is compact, C has a finite subcover of X , say {U1, . . . , Un }. Let Fj = X \ Uj , 1 ≤
j ≤ n, and define f : X → R by
n
1X
f (x) =
n
d (x, Fj ) . (1)
j=1

We claim that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ X . On contrary, suppose that f (x) = 0 for some x ∈ X . Then we get that
for all j = 1, . . . , n. Thus x ∈ Fj for all j = 1, . . . , n. This gives that
d (x, Fj ) = 0
n
\ n
[
x∈ (X \ Uj ) = X \ Uj = X \ X = ∅.
j=1 j=1

This is a contradiction. Since f is continuous (verify!), let δ be the infimum of f . Note that δ > 0. We
show that δ is our required Lebesgue number. Let A be a subset of X with dia(A) < δ. Choose a point
x0 ∈ A. Then A ⊆ B (x0 , δ), the open ball centred at x0 with radius δ . Let d (x0 , Fi ) be the maximum of
d (x0 , F1 ) , . . . , d (x0 , Fn ). Then
δ ≤ f (x0 ) ≤ d (x0 , Fi ) .
Thus B (x0 , δ) ⊆ X \ Fi = Ui . Hence A ⊆ Ui . This completes the proof.
Uniform continuity: Let (X, dX ) and (Y, dY ) be two metric spaces. A function f : X → Y is said to be
uniformly continuous if for given ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that for every pair of points x, y ∈ X ,
dX (x, y) < δ =⇒ dY (f (x), f (y)) < ε.

Example: The map f (x) = x on R is uniformly continuous but f (x) = x2 is not uniformly continuous.
Uniform continuity theorem: Let f : X → Y be a continuous map of the compact metric space (X, dX ) to
the metric space (Y, dY ). Then f is uniformly continuous.




Proof: Let ε > 0. Consider the open cover CY = B y, 2ε : y ∈ Y of Y . Then CX = f −1 B y, 2ε : y ∈ Y
is an open cover of X . Let δ be the Lebesgue number of CX .


Then if x, y ∈ X are such that dX (x, y) < δ, the
set A = {x, y} has diameter lesser than δ, so A ⊆ f B y, 2 for some y ∈ Y . Hence, dY (f (x), f (y)) < ε.
−1 ε

Exercises:
1. Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be a non-empty subset of X . Then prove that for x ∈ X , d(x, A) = 0 if
and only if x ∈ A.
2. Show that the function f defined by (1) is continuous.
 Lecture-26: Limit point compactness
Limit point compactness: A topological space X is said to be limit point compact if every infinite subset of
X has a limit point.
Example 1: R with the standard topology is not limit point compact as N has no limit points.
Example 2: Consider R with the standard topology. Then X = [0, 1], with subspace topology, is limit point
compact by virtue of Bolzano-Weierstrass property.
Example 3: Consider R with the lower limit topology. Then X = [0, 1], with subspace topology, is not limit
point compact as {1 − n1 : n ≥ 1} has no limit point in X .
Theorem: Compactness implies limit point compactness. The converse is not true.
Proof: Suppose that X is a compact space. Let A be an infinite subset of X . Assume that A has no limit point.
Then A is closed. Let Ua be a neighbourhood of a ∈ A such that Ua ∩ A = {a}. Then {Ua : a ∈ A} ∪ (X \ A) is
an open cover of X . Since X is compact, it has a finite subcover of X , say {Ua , . . . , Ua } ∪ (X \ A). Since X \ A
n
does not intersect A and Uaj ∩ A = {aj } , 1 ≤ j ≤ n, it follows that A is a finite set. This is a contradiction.
1

Thus A must have a limit point.

To see that converse is not true, let Y = {a, b} be with the indiscrete topology and N be with the discrete
topology. Consider X = Y × N with the product topology. Then X is limit point compact. In fact, if A
is any non-empty subset of X and (a, n) ∈ A, then (b, n) is a limit point of A. But X is not compact as
{Y × {n} : n ∈ N} is an open cover of X which does not have any finite subcover of X .

Sequentially compact space: A topological space X is said to be sequentially compact if every sequence in
X has a convergent subsequence.
Theorem:(without proof) Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the following statements are equivalent:
(i) X is compact.
(ii) X is limit point compact.
(iii) X is sequentially compact.
We have already seen that (i) implies (ii). To see that (ii) implies (iii), note that if (xn )n≥1 is a sequence
of finitely many distinct points, then it contains a constant subsequence with constant value being one of these
points. If the sequence (xn )n≥1 contains infinitely many distinct points, then by (ii), it has a limit point, and
hence, it has a convergent subsequence. That (iii) implies (i) is the hardest part of the proof and the interested
readers are referred to the text book.
 Lecture-27: Separation axioms
T0 -space: A topological space X is said to be a T0 -space if for any two distinct points x, y ∈ X, either there
exists an open set U containing x but not y, or there exists an open set V containing y but not x.
T1 -space: A topological space X is said to be a T1-space if for any two distinct points x, y ∈ X, there exist
open sets U, V such that x ∈ U but y 6∈ U and y ∈ V but x 6∈ V.
T2 -space (Hausdorff space): A topological space X is said to be a T2 -space if for any two distinct points
x, y ∈ X , there exist open sets U, V such that x ∈ U, y ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅.

Regular space: A topological space X is said to be a regular space if for any closed set F and a point x 6∈ F,
there exist open sets U, V such that x ∈ U, F ⊆V and U ∩ V = ∅. A topological space which is T1 and regular
is called as a T3 -space.
Normal space: A topological space X is said to be a normal space if for any disjoint closed sets F1 and F2 ,
there exists open sets U, V such that F1 ⊆ U, F2 ⊆ V and U ∩ V = ∅. A topological space which is T1 and
normal is called as a T4 -space.
Proposition: (i)T4 =⇒ T3 =⇒ T2 =⇒ T1 =⇒ T0 . These implications can not be reversed in general.
Proof: Exercise.
Proposition: A topological space is a T1- space if and only if each point (or each singleton) is a closed set.
Proof: Suppose that X is T1 . Let x ∈ X. Then for each y ∈ X \ {x}, there exists an open set V such that y ∈ V
and x 6∈ V . Thus X\{x} is open and hence {x} is closed.
Conversely, suppose that {x} is closed for all x ∈ X. Hence for each x, y ∈ X, consider U = X\{y} and
V = X\{x}. Then x ∈ U but y 6∈ U and y ∈ V but x 6∈ V. Thus X is T1 .

Proposition: If X is a Hausdorff space, then every finite subset of X is closed.

Proof: Since X is T1 , each point is closed. Hence every finite subset of X is closed.
Remark: Let X be a T1 -space. If X is a finite set, then the topology on X is the discrete topology.
Proposition: If X is a Hausdorff space, then a sequence of points of X converges to at most one point of X .
Proof: Suppose that X is a Hausdorff space and (xn)n≥1 is a sequence of points of X . Assume that (xn)n≥1
converges to two distinct points x and y . Then there exist two disjoint open sets U, V such that x ∈ U and
y ∈ V . By definition of convergence, both U and V contain all but finitely many points of (xn )n≥1 . This is a
contradiction. Thus, we must have x = y .
Exercises:
1. Find the examples of the topological spaces to justify that the implications in the first proposition can not
be reversed in general.
 Lecture-28: Hausdorff space
Theorem: Let X be a T1 -space and A be a subset of X . Then x ∈ X is a limit point of A if and only if every
neighborhood of x contains infinitely many points of A.
Proof: If every neighborhood of x contains infinitely many points of A, clearly it intersects A at a point other
than x. So x is a limit point of A.
Conversely, suppose that x is a limit point of A. Let U be a nbd of x which contains only finitely many
points of A. Suppose that U ∩ (A \ {x}) = {x1 , . . . , xm }. Since X is T1, {x1 , . . . , xm} is a closed set. Then
U ∩ (X \ {x1 , . . . , xm }) is an open set containing x which does not intersect A\{x}. This contradicts the fact
that x is a limit point of A. This completes the proof.
Theorem: Product of Hausdorff spaces is a Hausdorff space.
Y
Proof: Let {Xi : i ∈ I} be a family of Hausdorff spaces and let X = Xi. Let x = (xi )i∈I , y = (yi)i∈I , be two
i∈I
distinct points in X . Then there exists i0 ∈ I such that xi 6= yi . Since Xi is Hausdorff, there exists open sets
0 0 0
U, V in Xi such that xi ∈ U , yi ∈ V and U ∩ V = ∅. Now consider
0 0 0

Y
e=
U Ui where Ui 0 =U and Ui = Xi for i 6= i0;
i∈I
Y
Ve = Vi where Vi 0 =V and Vi = Xi for i 6= i0 .
i∈I

Then Ue and Ve are disjoint open sets in X such that x ∈ Ue and y ∈ Ve . Hence X is Hausdorff.
Theorem: Every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed.
Proof: Let Y be a compact subspace of the Hausdorff space X . We show that X \ Y is open in X . To this
end, let x0 ∈ X \ Y. Then for every y ∈ Y , there exist disjoint open sets Uy , Vy such that x0 ∈ Uy and y ∈ Vy .
The collection C = {Vy : y ∈ Y } is an open cover of Y . Since Y is compact, C has a finite subcover, say
{Vy , . . . , Vy }. Take
1 n

n
\ n
[
U= Uyj and V = V yj .
j=1 j=1

Then x0 ∈ U and U ∩ Y = φ. Thus X \ Y is open, and hence, Y is closed.

Corollary: If Y is a compact subspace of the Hausdorff space X and x0 6∈ Y , then there exist disjoint open
sets U and V containing x0 and Y , respectively.
 Lecture-29: Compact subspaces of R
Proposition: Let f : X → Y be a bijective continuous map. If X is compact and Y is Hausdorff, then f is a
homeomorphism.
Proof: Suppose that X is a compact space, Y is a Hausdorff space and f : X → Y is a bijective continuous map.
To show that f is homeomorphism, it is enough to show that f is a closed map. To this end, let A be a closed
subset of X , then A is compact, and hence, f (A) is a compact subspace of Y . Since Y is Hausdorff, f (A) is closed.
Proposition: Every compact subspace of a metric space is closed and bounded.
Proof: Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be a compact subspace of X . Since X is Hausdorff, A must be
closed. Let C = {B(x, ǫ) : x ∈ A} be an open cover of A consisting of open balls of radius ǫ. Since A is compact,
C has a finite subcover of A, say {B(x1 , ǫ), . . . , B(xn , ǫ)}. Take r > 2nǫ. Then A ⊆ B(x1 , r), and hence, A is
bounded.
Remark: Converse of the preceding proposition is not true in general. For example, take an infinite set X with
the discrete metric. Then every subspace of X is closed and bounded but no infinite subspace of X is compact
(how?).
Heine-Borel Theorem: Consider R with the usual metric d(x, y) = |x − y|. A subspace of R is compact if
and only if it is closed and bounded.
Proof: Let A be a compact subspace of R. Then by previous proposition A is closed and bounded.
Conversely, suppose that A is a closed and bounded subspace of R. To show that A is compact, it is enough
to show that [a, b] is compact. Because, if A is closed and bounded, then A ⊆ [a, b] for some a, b ∈ R. Since
closed subspaces of a compact space are compact, showing that [a, b] is compact will imply that A is compact.
To this end, let C = {Ui : i ∈ I} be an open cover of [a, b]. Without loss of generality, we may assume that
Ui = (ai , bi ), i ∈ I. Let a ∈ (a1 , b1 ) and b ∈ (a2 , b2 ). If (a1 , b1 ) ∩ (a2 , b2 ) 6= ∅, then [a, b] ⊆ (a1 , b1 ) ∪ (a2 , b2 ),
and we are done. If (a1 , b1) ∩ (a2 , b2 ) = ∅, then [a, b] ⊆ (a1 , b1 ) ∪ (a2, b2 ) ∪ [b1 , a2]. Now consider the interval
[b1 , a2 ]. By similar arguments, there exist interval (a3 , b3 ), (a4 , b4 ) such that b1 ∈ (a3 , b3 ) and a2 ∈ (a4 , b4 ).
If (a3 , b3) ∩ (a4 , b4 ) 6= ∅, then [b1 , a2 ] ⊆ (a3 , b3) ∪ (aS44 , b4 ), and we are done. If (a3 , b3 ) ∩ (a4 , b4 ) = ∅, then
[b1 , a2 ] ⊆ (a3 , b3 ) ∪ (a4 , b4 ) ∪ [b3 , a4 ]. Thus [a, b] ⊆ j=1 (aj , bj ) ∪ [b3 , a4 ]. Continuing this process, we get two
bounded sequences b1 < b3 < b5 < . . . and a2 > a4 > a6 > . . .in [a, b]. Note that b2n−1 < a2m for all m, n ≥ 1.
Hence supn≥1 b2n−1 ≤ inf m≥1 a2m . As a matter of fact, supn≥1 b2n−1 = inf m≥1 a2m (verify!). Let s = supn≥1 b2n−1 .
Note that s < b. Thus there exists i0 ∈ I such that s ∈ (ai , bi ). Since b2n−1 converges to s, there exists
N1 ∈ N such that b2n−1 ∈ (ai , bi ) for all n ≥ N1 . Also, as a2m converges to s, there exists N2 ∈ N such that
0 0

0 0
a2m ∈ (ai , bi ) for all m ≥ N2 . Let N0 = max{N1 , N2 }. This gives that
0 0

2N
[ 0 −1

[a, b] = (aj , bj ) ∪ (ai0 , bi0 ).

j=1

Generalized Heine-Borel Theorem: Consider Rn with the standard topology. A subspace of Rn is compact
if and only if it is closed and bounded.
Proof: Exercise. Hint: Use Tychonoff’s theorem.
 Lecture-30: Locally compact spaces
Locally compact space: A topological space X is said to be locally compact at x ∈ X if there exists a compact
subspace of X which contains a neighbourhood of x. If X is locally compact at each x ∈ X, then X is said to
be locally compact.
Example 1: R with standard topology is locally compact, because for every x ∈ R, there exists [a, b] such that
a < x < b. Clearly, x ∈ (a, b) ⊆ [a, b].
Example 2: Rnwith standard topology is locally compact. In fact, for every x ∈ Rn , take the closed ball
centered at x of some positive radius r. Then the open ball of radius r with center x is a neighbourhood of x
contained in that closed ball.
Y
Example 3: Let I be an infinite set. Then R is not locally compact as none of its basic open sets are
i∈I
contained in compact subspaces.
Compactification: If Y is a compact Hausdorff space and X is a proper subspace of Y whose closure equals
Y, then Y is said to be a compactification of X. If Y \X equals a single point, then Y is called the one point
compactification of X.
Example 1: The one point compactification of R is homeomorphic to the circle.
Example 2: The one point compactification of R2 is homeomorphic to the sphere.
Theorem (without proof): A topological space X has a one-point compactification Y if and only if X is
a locally compact Hausdorff space that is not itself compact. The space Y is uniquely determined up to a
homeomorphism.
Theorem : Let X be a Hausdorff space. Then X is locally compact if and only if given x ∈ X and a neigh-
bourhood U of x, there is a neighbourhood V of x such that V is compact and V ⊆ U.
Proof: Suppose that X is locally compact. Let x ∈ X and U be a neighbourhood of x. Let Y be the one point
compactification of X. Then Y \ U is closed in Y , and hence, compact subspace of Y. Thus, there exist disjoint
open sets V, W such that x ∈ V and Y \ U ⊆ W. Note that V is a compact subspace of Y such that V ⊆ U. The
converse follows from the definition of locally compact space.
 Lecture-31: Locally compact spaces continued
Proposition: Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff and A be a subspace of X . If A is closed in X or open in
X, then A is locally compact.
Proof: Suppose that A is closed on X . For every x ∈ A, let C be a compact subspace of X containing the
neighbourhood U of x. Then C ∩ A is closed in C and hence compact. Also it contains the neighbourhood U ∩ A
of x in A. Thus, A is locally compact.
Suppose that A is open in X. Given x ∈ A, by preceding theorem, we get a neighbourhood V of x such that
V is compact and V ⊆ A. This gives that A is locally compact.

Proposition: (i) A topological space X is regular if and only if given a point x ∈ X and a neighbourhood U
of x, there exists a neighbourhood V of x such that V ⊆ U.
(ii) A topological space X is normal if and only if given a closed set A and an open set U containing A, there is
an open set V containing A such that V ⊆ U.
Proof: (i) Suppose that X is regular. Let x ∈ X and U be a neighbourhood of x. Let B = X \ U. Then B is
a closed set. By the definition of regularity, there exist disjoint open sets V, W such that x ∈ V and B ⊆ W.
Note that V ∩ B = ∅ because, if y ∈ V ∩ B , then W is a neighbourhood of y which does not intersect V, a
contradiction. Thus V ⊆ U.
Conversely, suppose that the given condition holds. Let x ∈ X and A be a closed subset of X such that
x∈ / A. Then U = X \ A is a neighbourhood of x. Hence, by the hypothesis, there exists a neighbourhood V of
x such that V ⊆ U. Note that A ⊆ X \ V . Thus, V and W = X \ V are the required disjoint open sets which
separate x and A. Hence, X is regular.
(ii) The proof is similar to that of (i) and can be obtained by replacing the point x by the closed set A.
Theorem: (i) A subspace of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff.
(ii) A subspace of a regular space is regular.
(iii) Product of regular spaces is regular.
Proof: (i) Let X be a Hausdorff space and Y be a subspace of X . Let x, y be two distinct points in Y. Since X
is Hausdorff, there exist disjoint open sets U, V such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V. Then U ∩ Y and V ∩ Y are disjoint
neighbourhoods of x and y in Y.
(ii) Let Y be a subspace of a regular space X . Let x ∈ Y and B be a closed subset of Y not containing x. Let B
denote the closure of B in X. Then B∩Y = B . Thus x 6∈ B . By regularity of X , there exist disjoint open sets U, V
such that x ∈ U and B ⊆ V. Thus U ∩Y and V ∩Y are disjoint open sets in Y such that x ∈ U ∩Y and B ⊆ V ∩Y.
Y
(iii) Let {Xi : i ∈ I} be a family of regular spaces and let X = Xi . Let x = (xi )i∈I be a point in X and U be a
i∈I Y
neighbourhood of x in X . Without loss of generality, we may assume that U is a basis element. Then U = Ui
i∈I
where Ui = Xi for all i ∈ I except
Q finitely many. Since each Xi is regular, there
Q existsQa neighbourhood Vi of
xi such that Vi ⊆ Ui . Then V = i∈I Vi , is a neighbourhood of x and V = i∈I Vi ⊆ i∈I Ui = U. Thus X is
regular.
 Lecture-32: Product of normal spaces need not be normal
Proposition: Let Rl denote the real line with the lower limit topology. Then Rl is normal but Rl × Rl is not
normal.
Proof: Let A, B be two disjoint closed subsets of Rl . For each a ∈ A, choose anSopen set [a, xa) not intersecting
S
B, and for each b ∈ B choose an open set [b, xb ) not intersecting A. Then U = a∈A [a, xa ) and V = b∈B [b, xb )
are disjoint open sets such that A ⊆ U and B ⊆ V.
Suppose that Rl × Rl is normal. Let L = {(x, −x) : x ∈ R}. Then L is closed in Rl × Rl and L has the
discrete topology. Thus, every subset of L, being closed in L, is also closed in Rl × Rl . Let A be a non-empty
proper subset of L. Since A and L \ A are closed in Rl × Rl , and Rl × Rl is normal, let UA and VA be disjoint
open sets such that A ⊆ UA and L \ A ⊆ VA. Let D = {(p, q) : p, q ∈ Q}. Note that D is a dense subspace of
Rl × Rl . Now define a map θ : P(L) −→ P(D) as

D ∩ UA
 if A is non-empty proper;
θ(A) = ∅

if A = ∅;

D if A = L.
Here P(X) denotes the power set of a non-empty set X . We show that θ is injective. Let A, B be two disjoint
subsets of L. Let x ∈ A and x 6∈ B . Then x ∈ L \ B . So x ∈ UA ∩ VB . Note that UA ∩ VB is a non-empty
open set. Since D is dense, UA ∩ VB must contain points of D. These points belong to UA but not to UB . Thus
D ∩ UA 6= D ∩ UB , and hence θ is injective.
We now construct an injective map φ : P(D) −→ L. To this end, we first define ψ : P(N) −→ R as
(
ψ(S) =
X∞
ai
, where ai = 0 if i ∈ S ;
i=1
10 i
1 if i 6∈ S.
Then ψ is injective. Since Card(P(N)) = Card(P(D)), there exists a bijective map η : P(N) −→ P(D). Similarly,
there exists a bijective map ζ : R −→ L. Then put φ = ζ ◦ ψ ◦ η−1 which is an injective map from P(D) to L.
ψ
P(N) R

η ζ

P(D) L
φ

The composition φ ◦ θ is an injective map from P(L) to L. This gives that Card(P(L)) ≤ Card(L), which
contradicts the fact that Card(P(L)) > Card(L). This completes the proof.
Remark: Since Rl is normal and Hausdorff, it follows that Rl is regular. Hence Rl × Rl is regular. The above
proposition gives an example of a regular space which is not normal.
 Lecture-33: Countability axioms
Theorem: Every metric space is normal.
Proof: Let (X, d) be a metric space and A, B be two disjoint closed subsets of X . For each a ∈ A, choose the
open ball B (a, εa) which does not intersect B . Similarly, for each b ∈ B , choose the open ball B (b, εb) which
does not intersect A. Define [  εa  [  
U= B a, and V = B b, εb .
a∈A
2 b∈B
2
Then U, V are open
sets such that
A ⊆ U , and Bε ⊆ V . It remains to show that U and V are disjoint. To this
end, let z ∈ B a, 2 ∩ B b, 2 . Then d(a, z) < 2 and d(b, z) < 2 . Thus, d(a, b) ≤ d(a, z) + d(b, z) < ε +ε
ε
a ε
b a ε b a
2
. If
b

εa ≤ εb , then d(a, b) < εb , and hence, a ∈ B (b, εb ). If εb ≤ εa , then d(a, b) < εa , and hence, b ∈ B (a, εa ). None
of the above situations is possible. Thus U ∩ V = ∅.
Theorem: Every compact Hausdorff space is normal.
Proof: Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and A, B be two disjoint closed subsets of X . Then both A and B
are compact. We have already seen that a point and a compact subspace in a Hausdorff space can be separated
by two disjoint open sets. Hence, for each a ∈ A, let Ua , Va be disjoint open sets such that a ∈ Ua and B ⊆ Va .
Then {Ua : a ∈ A} is an open cover of A. Let {Ua , . . . , Ua } be a finite subcover. Then take
1 n

U = Ua1 ∪ · · · ∪ Uan and V = Va1 ∩ · · · ∩ Van .

Note that U, V are disjoint with A ⊆ U and B ⊆ V .

Countability axioms
First countable: A topological space X is said to have a countable basis at x if there is a countable collection
B of neighborhoods of x such that each neighborhood of x contains at least one of the elements of B. A space
that has a countable basis at each of its points is said to be first countable.
Second countable: A topological space is said to be second countable if it has a countable basis.
Lindelöf space: A topological space is said to be Lindelöf space if every open cover has a countable subcover.
Definition: A subset A of a topological space X is said to be dense if Ā = X .
Separable space: A topological space is said to be separable if it has a countable dense subset.
Example: Every metric space is first countable. In fact, at every point x, the open balls of rational radii centred
at x form a countable basis at x. However, not every metric space is second countable. For example, let X be
the collection of all bounded sequences of real numbers. For x = (xn )∞
n=1 , y = (yn )n=1 in X , define
∞

d(x, y) = sup |xn − yn | .

n>1

Then (X, d) is a metric space. If (X, d) is second countable, then every discrete subspace of (X, d) must be
countable. But the subspace A of X which contains all binary sequences, is a discrete subspace of X which is
not countable. This is a contradiction. Thus, (X, d) is not second countable.
Example: R with standard topology is first countable, second countable, Lindelöff and separable.
 Lecture-34: Countability axioms continued
Theorem: A subspace of a first countable space is first countable; and a countable product of first countable
spaces is first countable. A subspace of a second countable space is second countable; and a countable product
of second countable spaces is second countable.
Proof: We prove the second countable case. The proof for the case of first countable is similar. Suppose that
X is second countable with a countable basis B . If A is a subspace of X , then {B ∩ A : B ∈ B} is a countable
basis for A. Thus, A is second countable. Y
Let Xn , n ∈ N, be second countable with countable basis Bn . Then the collection of all products Un
n∈N
where
Y Un ∈ Bn for finitely many values of n and Un = Xn for all other values of n, is a countable basis for
Xn . This completes the proof.
n∈N

Theorem: Let X be a topological space. Then the following statements are true:
(i) Let A be a subset of X . If there is a sequence of points of A which converges to x, then x ∈ Ā. The converse
holds if X is first countable.
(ii) Let f : X → Y . If f is continuous, then for every convergent sequence xn → x in X , the sequence f (xn )
converges to f (x). The converse holds if X is first countable.
Proof: (i) If (xn )∞n=1 is a sequence of points of A which converges to x, then every neighbourhood of x contains
all but finitely many xn . Hence x ∈ Ā.
Conversely, suppose that X is first countable and x ∈ Ā. Let B = {Bn : n ∈ N} be a countable basis at x.
Since B1 is a neighbourhood of x, it contains a point x1 of A other than x. Next, B1 ∩ B2 is a neighbourhood
of x, it contains a point x2 of A other than x. Similarly, for each n ∈ N, B1 ∩ · · · ∩ Bn contains a point xn of A
other than x. Clearly, the sequence (xn )∞ n=1 lies in A which converges to x.

(ii) Suppose that f is continuous and xn → x. Let V be a neighbourhood of f (x). Then f −1(V ) is a neighbour-
hood of x. Hence xn ∈ f −1(V ) for all n ≥ N . Thus, f (xn ) ∈ V for all n ≥ N .
Conversely, assume that X is first countable and the convergent sequence condition is satisfied. Let A be a
subset of X . If x ∈ Ā, then by (i) there is a sequence (xn )∞ n=1 in A such that xn → x. Then f (xn ) → f (x).
Since f (xn ) ∈ f (A), it follows from (i) again that f (x) ∈ f (A). Thus f (Ā) ⊆ f (A). Hence f is continuous.
Lemma: A subset of a topological space is dense if and only if it intersects every non-empty open subset.
Proof: Let A be a dense subset of a topological space X . Let U be a non-empty open subset of X . If x ∈ U ,
then x ∈ A = X . Thus, U intersects A. Conversely, if A intersects every non-empty open subset, then clearly
A = X.

Theorem: (i) If X is second countable, then X is Lindelöff.

(ii) If X is second countable, then X is separable.
Proof: (i) Suppose that X is second countable. Let B = {Bn : n ∈ N} be a countable basis for X . Let C be an
open cover of X . For each n ∈ N, choose an element Cn ∈ C containing Bn . Then {Cn : n ∈ N} is a countable
subcollection of C . We show that {Cn : n ∈ N} covers X . Let x ∈ X . Then x ∈ Bm for some m. Consequently,
x ∈ Bm ⊆ Cm .

(ii) Suppose that X is second countable. Let B = {Bn : n ∈ N} be a countable basis for X . From each basis
element Bn , choose xn ∈ Bn and form the set D = {xn : n ∈ N}. Clearly, D is countable. Note that D intersects
every non-empty open subset of X . Hence, by preceding lemma, D is dense. Thus, X is separable.
 Lecture-35: Countability axioms continued
Proposition: Let Rl denote the real line with the lower limit topology. Then Rl is first countable, Lindelöf and
separable but not second countable.


Proof: For each x ∈ Rl , x, x + n1 : n ∈ N is a countable basis at x. Thus, Rl is first countable. Clearly, Q
is dense in Rl . Hence, Rl is separable.
To see that Rl is not second countable, let us assume, on contrary, that Rl is second countable and B is a
countable basis for Rl . For each x ∈ Rl , choose a basis element Bx ∈ B such that x ∈ Bx ⊆ [x, x + 1). If x 6= y ,
then Bx 6= By . Thus, B must be uncountable, which is a contradiction. Hence, Rl is not second countable.
Now we show that Rl is Lindelöf. Let C be any open cover of Rl . Without loss of generality, we may assume
that C consists of only basis elements. So let C = {[aα , bα ) : α ∈ I}. Let
[
A= (aα , bα ) .
α∈I

We show that R \ A is countable. To this end, let x ∈ R \ A. Then x ∈ [aβ , bβ ) for some β ∈ I . Since x does
not belong to the open interval (aβ , bβ ); hence x = aβ for some β ∈ I . Choose such a β and then choose qx ∈ Q
such that qx ∈ (aβ , bβ ). Since (aβ , bβ ) ⊆ A, so is the interval (aβ , qx) = (x, qx ). It follows that if x, y ∈ R \ A
with x < y , then qx < qy . Because, if qy ≤ qx , then x < y < qy ≤ qx . This gives that y ∈ (x, qx ) ⊆ A, which is a
contradiction. Hence, the map x 7→ qx is injective, which establishes that R \ A is countable.
For each point in R \ A, choose a member of C containing it. By this, we obtain a countable subcollec-
tion C ′ of C covering R \ A. Note that A is an open set covered by the intervals (aα, bα ) , α ∈ I . Since A is
second countable (as a subspace of R with standard topology), {(aα , bα ) : α ∈ I} has a countable subcollection
C˜ = {(aα , bα ) : α ∈ J}, where J is a countable subset of I . Put C ′′ = {[aα , bα ) : α ∈ J}. Then C ′ ∪ C ′′ is a
countable subcover of Rl . Thus, Rl is Lindelöf.
Lemma: Closed subspace of a Lindelöf space is Lindelöf.
Proof: Let A be a closed subspace of a Lindelöf space X . Let C be any open cover of A. Then C ∪ {(X \ A)} is
an open cover of X . Since X is Lindelöf, C ∪ {(X \ A)} has a countable subcover, say C˜. If C˜ contains (X \ A),
discard it. The resultant will be a countable subcover of A. This A is Lindelöf.
Remark: A subspace of a Lindelöf space need not be Lindelöf. Let I = [0, 1]. Then I ×I with the dictionary or-
der topology is compact, and hence, Lindelöf. However, A = I ×(0, 1) is not Lindelöf. Because {x}×(0, 1), x ∈ I ,
forms an open cover of A which can not have a countable subcover.
Proposition: The product of two Lindelöf spaces need not be Lindelöf.
Proof: We show that Rl × Rl is not Lindelöf. On contrary, suppose that Rl × Rl is Lindelöf. Note that
L = {(x, −x) : x ∈ R} is a closed subspace of Rl × Rl . Hence, by the preceding lemma, L is Lindelöf. Note that
L is uncountable and a discrete subspace of Rl . Hence, the open cover of L consisting of singletons from L does
not have any countable subcover. Consequently, L is not Lindelöf, which is a contradiction. Thus, Rl × Rl is
not Lindelöf.
Proposition: (i) Open subspace of a separable space is separable.
(ii) Closed subspace of a normal space is normal.
Proof:(i) Let Y be an open subspace of separable space X . Let D be a countable dense subset of X . Let
DY = D ∩ Y . If U is any open subset of Y , then U is also open in X . Thus, DY ∩ U = D ∩ Y ∩ U = D ∩ U 6= ∅.
Since DY intersects every open subset of Y , DY is a dense subset of Y . Clearly, DY is countable. Thus, Y is
separable.
(ii) Let Y be a closed subspace of a normal space X . Let A, B be two disjoint closed subsets of Y . Then A, B
are closed in X . Since X is normal, there exist disjoint open sets U, V such that A ⊆ U and B ⊆ V . Take
U1 = U ∩ Y and V1 = V ∩ Y . Then U1 , V1 are disjoint open sets in Y such that A ⊆ U1 and B ⊆ V1 . Thus, Y is
normal.
Example: A subspace of a separable space need not be separable. Note that Rl × Rl is separable, but
L = {(−x, x) : x ∈ R} is a discrete uncountable subspace, which can not be separable.
Example: A subspace of a normal space need not be normal. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and T = {X, ∅, {d}, {b, d},
{c, d}, {b, c, d}}. Note that X does not have any pair of disjoint closed sets; hence, X is normal. Take Y =
{b, c, d}. Then TY = {Y, ∅, {d}, {b, d}, {c, d}}. Then {b} and {c} are disjoint closed sets in Y which can not be
separated by disjoint open sets in Y .
Proposition: Every separable metric space is second countable.
Proof: Let D be a countable dense subset of a metric space (X, d). Then, open balls of rational radii centered
at the points of D form a countable basis for (X, d). Hence, (X, d) is second countable.
 Lecture-36: Urysohn’s lemma
Theorem: Every second countable regular space is normal.
Proof: Let X be a regular space with a countable basis B. Let A, B be disjoint closed subsets of X . Each point
x of A has a neighbourhood U not intersecting B . Choose a neighbourhood V of x such that x ∈ V ⊆ V̄ ⊆ U .
Choose a basis element in B containing x and contained in V . Such choices of basis elements for each x ∈ A,
will give a countable open cover of A. Let us call this open cover {Gn : n ≥ 1}. Similarly, we get aScountable
open cover of B , say {Hn : n ≥ 1} such that H̄n ∩ A = ∅ for all n ≥ 1. Note that the sets G = Gn and
S n≥1
H= Hn are open sets containing A and B , respectively. Now, we construct disjoint open sets out of G and
n≥1
H containing A and B , respectively. To this end, define
n
[ n
[
′
Gn = Gn \ H̄j and ′
Hn = Hn \ Ḡj , n ≥ 1.
j=1 j=1

Note that Gn and Hn are open sets for each n ≥ 1 and G′n : n ≥ 1 covers A, because each x ∈ A
′ ′
belongs to
Gn for some n, and x does not belong to any H̄n . Similarly, Hn : n ≥ 1 covers B . Now set
′

∞
[ ∞
[
G =
′
Gn
′
and ′
H = Hn .
′

n=1 n=1

We show that G ∩ H = ∅. Let x ∈ G ∩ H . Then x ∈ Gn ∩ Hm for some n, m. Suppose that n ≤ m. Then

′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′

x ∈ Gn . Since n ≤ m, x ∈
/ Ḡn , a contradiction. Similarly, we conclude the case m ≤ n. This complete the proof.

Urysohn’s lemma: Let X be a normal space, and let A, B be disjoint closed subspaces of X . Then there
exists a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}.
Proof: Let U be an open set containing A and not intersecting B . By normality, there exists an open set V 1

such that
2

A ⊆ V 1 ⊆ V̄ 1 ⊆ U.
2 2

Now, V is an open set containing the closed set A, so we get

1
2

A ⊆ V 1 ⊆ V̄ 1 ⊆ V 1
4 4 2

Also, U is an open set containing the closed set V̄ , so we get 1

2

V̄ 1 ⊆ V 3 ⊆ V̄ 3 ⊆ U.
2 4 4

Consequently, we obtain
A ⊆ V 1 ⊆ V̄ 1 ⊆ V 1 ⊆ V̄ 1 ⊆ V 3 ⊆ V̄ 3 ⊆ U
4 4 2 2 4 4

Continuing in this way, for each dyadic rational number q = 2m , where m = 1, 2, . . . , 2n − 1 and n = 1, 2, 3, . . .,
n

we obtain an open set Vq such that if q1 < q2 , then

A ⊆ Vq1 ⊆ V̄q1 ⊆ Vq2 ⊆ V̄q2 ⊆ U.
Now define f on X as follows: (
1 if x ∈
/ Vq for all dyadic q,
f (x) =
inf{q : x ∈ Vq }.
Clearly, f (x) ∈ [0, 1] for all x ∈ X . Note that f (A) = {0} and f (B) = {1}. It remains to show that f is
continuous. It is enough to show that f −1([0, a)) and f −1((b, 1]) are open for all a, b ∈ (0, 1). Note that f (x)S < a
if and only if inf {q : x ∈ Vq } < a if and only if there exists q < a such that x ∈ Vq . Hence, f −1([0, a)) = Vq ,
q<a
which is open. Further, f (x) > Sb if and only
if inf {q : x ∈ Vq } > b if and only if there exists q > b such that
x ∈ X \ V̄q . Hence f −1 ((b, 1]) = q>b X \ V̄q , which is open. This completes the proof.
 Lecture-37: Tietze extension theorem
Corollary: Let X be a normal space, and let A, B be disjoint closed subspaces of X . If [a, b] is any closed
interval, then there exists a continuous function f : X → [a, b] such that f (A) = {a} and f (B) = {b}.
Proof: By Urysohn’s lemma, there exists a continuous function g : X → [0, 1] such that g(A) = {0} and
g(B) = {1}. Define f = (b − a)g + a. Then f : X → [a, b] and f (A) = {a}, f (B) = {b}.

Tietze extension theorem: Let X be a normal space, F be a closed subspace of X and f : F → [a, b] be a
continuous function. Then f has a continuous extension f˜ : X → [a, b].
Proof: In view of the above corollary, we may assume, without loss of generality, that a = −1 and b = 1. Define
f0 = f . Let    
1 1
A0 = x : f0 (x) ≤ − and B0 = x : f0 (x) ≥ .
3 3
Then A0 and B0 are nonempty disjoint closedsubsets of F , and hence, closed 1subsets of X . By Urysohn’s lemma
there exists a continuous function g0 : X −→ − 3 , 3 such that g0 (A0) = − 3 and g0 (B0 ) = 3 . Next, define
1 1 1

f1 on F by f1 = f0 − g0 . We claim that |f1 (x)| ≤ 32 for all x ∈ F . To see this, we consider the following cases;
Case I: x ∈ A0 .
Then f0(x) ≤ − 31 , g0(x) = − 13 . Hence f1 (x) = f0 (x) − g0(x) ≥ − 23 .
Case II: x ∈ B0 .
Then f0(x) > 31 and g0(x) = 13 . Hence, f (x) = f0 (x) − g0(x) ≤ 23 .
Case III: x ∈/ A0 ∪ B0 .
Then − 13 < f0(x) < 31 . Hence |f0(x) − g0 (x)| ≤ 23 . This proves the claim. Now define
       
1 2 1 2
A1 = x : f1 (x) ≤ − and B1 = x : f1 (x) > .
3 3 3 3




Then, in the same
way, there exists a continuous function g1 : X → − 13 32 , 13 32 . such that g
1 (A1 ) = − 13 32
and g1 (B1 ) = 13 32 . Now define f2 on F as f2 = f1 − g1 = f0 − g0 − g1. Note that |f2(x)| 6 32 2 for all
x ∈ F .
Continuing in this manner, we get a sequence (fn )n>0 of functions defined


on F such that |fn (x)| ≤ 23 n ; and
a sequence (gn)n>0 of functions defined on X such that |gn (x)| ≤ 31 23 n with fn = f0 − (g0 + g1 + · · · + gn−1) .
P
∞
P
∞
Since 13 23 n = 1, it follows that gn converges uniformly to a continuous function, say f˜ on X such that
n=0 n=0
n
|f˜(x)| ≤ 1. Further, on F we get that fn → f0 − f˜. Since |fn | ≤ 32 → 0 as n → ∞, we conclude that
f˜ = f0 = f on F . Thus, f˜ is a continuous extension of f. This completes the proof.

Remark: The assumption that F is closed can not be relaxed in the Tietze extension theorem. For example,
let X = [0, 1] with the standard topology and F = (0,
1]. Clearly, X is normal and F is not a closed subspace of
X . Consider f : X → [−1, 1] defined as f (x) = sin x1 . It is easy to see that f can not be extended continuously
to X in any manner whatsoever.
 Lecture-38: Urysohn’s metrization theorem
We need the metric space (l2 , d) in the proof of Urysohn’s metrization theorem, where
n ∞
X o
2
l = (xn )n≥1 : |xn |2 < ∞
n=1

and the metric d on l2 is defined as:

X
∞ 1/2
d(x, y) = |xn − yn | 2
for all x = (xn )n≥1 , y = (yn )n≥1 ∈ l2 .
n=1

Urysohn’s metrization theorem: Every second countable T4 space is metrizable.

Proof: We will show that there exists a homeomorphism f from X onto a subspace of l2 . If X has finitely
many points, then clearly, being T4 , X is a discrete space, and hence, metrizable. So we may assume that
X has infinitely many points. Since X is second countable, let B = {Bn : n ≥ 1} be a countable basis for
X . For x ∈ X , there exists Bn ∈ B such that x ∈ Bn , then by normality there exists Bm ∈ B such that
x ∈ Bm ⊆ B̄m ⊆ Bn . The collection of all these ordered pairs (Bm , Bn ) is countable, so we can arrange
them in a sequence, say P1, P2, . . .. By Urysohn’s lemma,
for each ordered pair Pj = (Bm, Bn ), there exists a
continuous
 function f j : X → [0,1] such that fj Bm = {0} and fj (X \ Bn ) = {1}. We define f : X → l2 as
f (x) = f1 (x), f 2(x) , . . . , j , . . . .
2 f (x) j

We now show that f is injective. Let x, y ∈ X with x 6= y . Since X is T4, and hence, T2, there exist disjoint
open sets U, V such that x ∈ U and y ∈ V . Then there exists Bm , Bn such that x ∈ Bm ⊆ Bm ⊆ Bn ⊆ U 1 1 1 1 1
and there exist Bm , Bn such that y ∈ Bm ⊆ Bm ⊆ Bn ⊆ V . Thus, there exists j ≥ 1 such that fj (x) = 0
and fj (y) = 1. Thus, f (x) 6= f (y). Hence f is injective. Thus, f : X → f (X) is a bijective map.
2 2 2 2 2

Next, we show that f : X → f (X) is continuous. Let x0 ∈ X and ε > 0. We show that there exists a
neighborhood H of x0 such that f (H) ⊆ B (f (x0 ) , ε). Note that for each y ∈ X ,
X∞ 2 X∞
fj (y) − fj (x0 ) 4
≤ 2
< ∞.
j=1
j j=1
j

P
∞ 2
This shows that fj (y)−fj (x0 )
j
converges uniformly for all y ∈ X . Hence for given ε > 0, there exists N ∈ N
j=1
P
∞ 2
such that fj (y)−fj (x0 )
j
< ε2
2
. Consequently,
j=N +1

X∞ 2 XN 2
fj (y) − fj (x0 )
2 fj (y) − fj (x0 ) ε2
d (f (y) − f (x0 )) = < + .
j=1
j j=1
j 2
2
Since each fj is continuous, there exists a neighborhood Hj of x0 such that y ∈ Hj ⇒ fj (y)−fj (x0 )
j
< ε2
2N
for all
T
N
j = 1, . . . , N .
Put H = Hj . Then y ∈ H ⇒ d (f (y) − f (x0))2 < ε2. Thus f (H) ⊆ B (f (x0 ), ε) .
j=1
Finally, we show that f −1 : f (X) → X is continuous. Equivalently, we show that f : X → f (X) is an open
map. It is sufficient to show that f (Bn ) is open for all Bn ∈ B. To this end, let x ∈ Bn . Then there exists
Bm ∈ B that x ∈ Bm ⊆ Bm ⊆ Bn . Let Pj = (Bm , Bn ). Take ε < 2j1 . Then 0 0

X∞ 2
fj (y) − fj (x) 1 1
d(f (y), f (x)) < ε ⇒ < ⇒ |fj (y) − fj (x)| < .
j=1
j 4j02 0 0
2

Since x ∈ Bm , fj (x) = 0, and hence, |fj (y)| < 12 . Since fj (x\Bn ) = {1}, we must have y ∈ Bn . This shows
that f (x) is an interior point of f (Bn ). This completes the proof.
0 0 0