LAB 5

Name: Farai Dave

Demonstrator:Hassan Shah
ID:816038657
FIELD TRIP
Objectives
The objectives from this field trip involved a visit to the radiology facilities at Mount Hope
Medical Sciences Complex, Mt. Hope. The equipment viewed was the x-ray,
fluoroscopy,Computed Tomography(CT) scan, Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI) and Positron
emission tomography - computed tomography(PET-CT)

Introduction

X-Ray

X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that has high energy and a short
wavelength. They were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. X-rays are
commonly used in medicine to produce images of the inside of the body, but they also
have various other applications.The underlying principle behind how X-rays work is the
interaction between the X-ray photons and matter. When X-rays pass through the body,
they are absorbed or scattered by different tissues to varying degrees. Dense materials,
such as bones, absorb more X-rays, while soft tissues, like muscles or organs, allow
X-rays to pass through more easily. An X-ray machine generates a controlled beam of
X-ray photons. This machine consists of an X-ray tube and a detector. The X-ray tube
contains a cathode and an anode. When a high voltage is applied, electrons are emitted
from the cathode and accelerated towards the anode. As the electrons collide with the
metal target on the anode, X-ray photons are produced. The X-ray beam is directed
towards the body part being examined. It passes through the body, interacting with the
tissues along the way.As the X-ray beam passes through the body, it undergoes
attenuation. Some X-rays are absorbed by the tissues, while others are scattered in
different directions.On the other side of the body, a detector picks up the X-rays that have
passed through. The detector can be a photographic film, an image intensifier, or a digital
detector.The detected X-rays are converted into an image using various techniques. For
example, with a digital detector, the X-rays are converted into electrical signals, which
are then used to create a digital image on a computer screen. The resulting X-ray image
shows the varying degrees of absorption or scattering of the X-rays, providing valuable
information about the internal structures of the body.
Fluoroscopy

Fluoroscopy is a medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to generate real-time

images of the inside of the body. It is commonly used during medical procedures to guide
the placement of devices or to visualize the movement of organs or structures.

X-ray source: A machine called a fluoroscope emits a continuous beam of X-rays. These
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that can pass through the body. Patient
positioning: The patient undergoing the procedure is positioned between the X-ray
source and a specialized device called an image intensifier or flat-panel detector. The
image intensifier or detector converts the X-rays that pass through the patient into a
visible image. Image formation: As the X-rays pass through the patient's body, they are
absorbed to different degrees by the various tissues and structures. The X-rays that pass
through less dense tissues, such as muscles and organs, create darker regions on the
fluoroscopic image. The X-rays that are absorbed by denser structures, such as bones or
metal objects, appear as brighter areas on the image. Real-time visualization: The
fluoroscopic image is displayed on a monitor in real-time. This allows the medical
professional, such as a radiologist or a surgeon, to see the internal structures of the
patient's body in motion. Contrast agents: In some cases, contrast agents may be used to
improve the visibility of specific organs or blood vessels. These agents are typically
ingested, injected, or administered through other means, and they help highlight specific
areas of the body during the fluoroscopic examination.
Computed Tomography(CT)

A CT scan (computed tomography) is a medical imaging technique that combines X-rays

and computer processing to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. It allows
doctors to visualize internal structures with great clarity and is commonly used for
diagnostic purposes.X-ray tube and detector: The CT scanner consists of a circular
gantry that houses an X-ray tube and an array of detectors. The X-ray tube emits a
narrow beam of X-rays, which rotates around the patient during the scan. Patient
positioning: The patient lies on a table that slowly moves through the center of the
scanner's gantry. The position and orientation of the patient are carefully controlled to
ensure accurate imaging. X-ray beam and data acquisition: As the patient moves through
the scanner, the X-ray tube emits a series of X-ray beams. These beams pass through the
body and are detected by the detector array on the other side of the gantry. The detectors
measure the intensity of the X-rays that pass through the body. Multiple projections: To
create a CT image, the X-ray tube and detector rotate around the patient, acquiring data
from multiple angles. Each rotation produces a set of X-ray projections, capturing the
attenuation (weakening) of the X-rays as they pass through different tissues in the
body.Data processing and reconstruction: The data from the X-ray projections is sent to a
computer, which performs complex mathematical calculations to reconstruct a
cross-sectional image of the scanned area. This process is known as tomographic
reconstruction. Image display and analysis: The reconstructed CT image is displayed on
a monitor, where it can be viewed by a radiologist or other medical professionals. The
image reveals detailed information about the internal structures, such as organs, bones,
blood vessels, and tumors.
Magnetic Resonance imaging(MRI)

MRI, which stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, is a medical imaging technique
used to visualize the internal structures of the human body in great detail. It uses a
combination of strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate images.

Magnet: The patient lies down on a table that slides into the MRI machine, which
contains a large, powerful magnet. The magnet creates a strong magnetic field around the
patient's body. Alignment: The magnetic field causes the hydrogen atoms in the body,
particularly those in water molecules, to align in a specific direction. Radio Waves: The
MRI machine emits radio waves that are specifically tuned to match the energy required
to flip the aligned hydrogen atoms out of their alignment. When the radio waves are
turned off, the hydrogen atoms return to their original alignment and release energy in
the process. Detection: Specialized coils in the MRI machine detect the energy released
by the hydrogen atoms. These coils also emit radio waves to manipulate the atoms for a
more precise image. Data Collection: The detected energy signals are collected by the
MRI machine and processed by a computer. The computer uses the data to create
detailed cross-sectional images or slices of the imaged area. Image Reconstruction: The
computer assembles the collected data into a three-dimensional image of the imaged
area. This image can be viewed from different angles and used for diagnosis by medical
professionals.
Positron emission tomography-Computed Tomography(PET-CT)

PET-CT, which stands for Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography, is a

medical imaging technique that combines the functional information from PET and the
anatomical information from CT to provide comprehensive images of the human body. It
is commonly used in oncology to detect and stage cancer, as well as assess treatment
response.Injection of Radiotracer: A small amount of a radioactive substance, known as a
radiotracer, is injected into the patient's body, typically into a vein. The radiotracer is a
molecule that is chemically attached to a positron-emitting radioactive isotope, such as
fluorine-18 (F-18) or Iodine 131. Positron Emission: The radiotracer circulates through
the body and is taken up by cells in various organs or tissues. When the radiotracer
decays, it emits positrons, which are positively charged particles. Positron-Annihilation:
Positrons emitted by the radiotracer collide with electrons in the surrounding tissue. This
collision results in the annihilation of both particles, releasing two gamma rays (photons)
traveling in opposite directions. Gamma Ray Detection: Special detectors surrounding
the patient's body detect the gamma rays emitted during positron annihilation. The
detectors are typically arranged in a ring shape around the patient. Image Reconstruction:
The detected gamma ray data is sent to a computer, which uses advanced algorithms to
reconstruct a three-dimensional image of the distribution of the radiotracer in the body.
This image represents the functional information of the metabolic activity of tissues. CT
Scan: Simultaneously or immediately after the PET scan, a CT scan is performed. The
CT scan provides detailed anatomical information and helps precisely localize the areas
of abnormal radiotracer uptake from the PET scan. Fusion of Images: The PET and CT
images are combined or "fused" using specialized software, aligning the functional and
anatomical data. This fused image allows the visualization of both the metabolic activity
and the corresponding anatomical structures. Image Analysis: The fused PET-CT images
are analyzed by radiologists or nuclear medicine physicians to identify areas of abnormal
function or suspected disease. These images help with cancer diagnosis, staging, and
treatment planning.

Experimental Details and Precautions

During this field trip we were introduced to the various imaging equipment and its uses as will as its
risks. Each of the equipment had its specific use in order to diagnose and treat. Ultimately, we were told
about how the ones performing imaging have to take steps in order to protect themselves from constant
radiation as high doses of radiation can lead to illness overtime.

Precautions

Radiologists take several precautions while performing X-rays to ensure the safety of patients and
themselves. Some common precautions include: Wearing protective clothing: Radiologists wear lead
aprons, gloves, and thyroid shields to minimize exposure to radiation or use proper shielding:
Radiologists use lead-lined rooms or shields to prevent radiation from leaking into other areas. 2.
Positioning the patient correctly: Proper positioning to help obtain clear images on the first attempt,
reducing the need for retakes and further exposure. 3. Using the right equipment and technique:
Radiologists need to choose appropriate X-ray machines in order not to expose patients to unnecessary
radiation and adjust the settings specifically for each patient, ensuring the lowest effective dose of
radiation is used.

Discussion

X-ray

An x-ray is a type of ionizing electromagnetic radiation which emerges from a highly evacuated tube,
and it results from the excitation of the inner orbital electrons, by bombarding the target anode with a
stream of electrons from a heated cathode.

Advantages

The x-ray is commonly used as it is a cheap and simple technique, it utilizes lower radiation when
compared to other scans such as the CT scan, x-rays are not absorbed much by air which prevents the
need to place the patient in an evacuated chamber, it aids in diagnosis of tumours easily without
requiring surgical intervention, allow for identification of injury or abnormal bones, and to locate
foreign objects in the body.

Disadvantages

However, x-rays can be disadvantageous because they do not provide 3D information on structures in
the body, the presence of bones in the scans can impede diagnostic information about other structures,
x-rays do not interact very strongly with lighter elements, it can cause mutations in cells which often
leads to cancer due to the ionizing strength of the x-ray, and x-rays do not provide the best image
quality .

CT scan

A computerized tomography (CT) scan is a specialized type of x-ray which allows for a series of x-ray
images to be taken from different angles around the body and through the use of a computer, creates
cross sectional images of the bones, blood vessels and tissues inside the body .

Advantages

The use of the CT scan can be advantageous to medical professionals as they provide highly detailed
images of the internal structures, they are a painless and non-invasive method to use, they are highly
precise as they provide a very clear image of the location of structures in the body, it is better for
obtaining images of the bony lesions in the body, faster than methods such as the MRI, their use is at a
moderate cost and they carry a small risk of irradiation.

Disadvantages

CT scans also come with some disadvantages, namely, they deliver a relatively high dosage of radiation
into the body and this becomes a problem when repeated scans must be conducted, when contrast
material is used for the CT scan, some patients can have allergic reactions to the dye medium, CT scans
can sometimes lead to misinterpretations of the scans as other internal conditions can be highlighted
which are not related to the main focus of the scan, they provide poor resolution in demyelinating
lesions, and the patients who utilize this test are also sensitive to acute hemorrhaging .

MRI scan

Magnetic resonance imaging, also known as MRI, is a non-invasive procedure in which tissues of high
fat and water content are observed, as other imaging methods are not able to provide detailed imagery
of these structures (Miller-Keane Encyclopedia and Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing, and Allied Health
2003). An MRI provides information about the chemical composition of these tissues, which allows for
the medical professional to distinguish healthy cells from abnormal cells.

Advantages

Advantages of using this imaging method are MRI’s are useful in scanning and detecting abnormalities
of the soft tissue structures of the body, it does not involve and kinds of radiation therefore it can be
used on pregnant women and babies, the MRI provides very clear and high quality imagery of
structures in the body, and conducting an MRI can provide information on the blood circulation
throughout the body and blood vessels enabling circulation problems to be detected.

Disadvantages

disadvantages of this method are that MRI’s are conducted in an enclosed space, which makes people
feel unsteady if they are claustrophobic, the MRI is a very loud machine which can also make patients
feel uncomfortable, and the MRI machine is an expensive machine .

PET-CT scan

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan is an imaging method in which a radioactive substance called
a tracer is injected or ingested for the purpose of determining diseases in the body and showing how
organs and tissues are working by showing areas of greater absorption which may indicate disease .

Advantages

Some advantages of PET- CT scans are they allow for studying the body function through biochemical
means, PET-CT scans are used as an alternative to a biopsy to determine how much a disease has
spread, allow for distinguishing of cancerous and non-cancerous tumours, used for early diagnosis of
neurological disorders and there is a low risk of infection.

Disadvantages

Some disadvantages of a PET-CTscan are the radioactive tracer can cause allergic reactions, the
radioactive compound used as tracer is short-lived, but contains twice the amount of radiation a s a
traditional x-ray, the procedure is expensive to conduct as the machine itself is costly and the test is time
consuming as each test takes about 45 minutes to one hour to conduct.

Comparison

PET-CT (Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography) and CT (Computed

Tomography) scans are both valuable medical imaging techniques, but they serve different
purposes.

A CT scan uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the body. It provides
information about the body's anatomy, such as the size, shape, and density of organs and
tissues. CT scans are commonly used to diagnose a wide range of conditions, including
trauma, tumors, infections, and bone abnormalities. They are particularly useful for
examining bones, lungs, and the abdomen.

On the other hand, a PET scan is a nuclear medicine imaging technique that uses a
radioactive tracer to visualize the body's metabolic processes and functions. It provides
information about the body's cellular activity and metabolism. PET scans are often used to
detect and stage cancers, evaluate brain disorders (such as Alzheimer's disease), and assess
the viability of cardiac tissue after a heart attack.PET-CT scans combine the functional
information obtained from PET with the anatomical information provided by CT. By
overlaying the two sets of images, PET-CT scans can provide a more comprehensive
evaluation of the body's structure and function. They are particularly useful in oncology, as
they can help determine the precise location of abnormal metabolic activity seen on a PET
scan within the body's anatomical context.

Therefore, the choice between PET-CT and CT scans depends on the specific medical
condition being investigated. CT scans are excellent for visualizing anatomy, while PET-CT
scans provide additional functional information. Your healthcare provider will determine
which type of scan is most appropriate for your situation based on your symptoms, medical
history, and the diagnostic question at hand.

Conclusion

In this research project, the following medical imaging tests were discussed: x-ray,
fluoroscopy, CT scan, magnetic resonance imaging scans (MRI scans), and positron
emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) scan. The x-ray is used to provide
images of bones and some soft tissues, and it is a non-invasive, type of ionizing
electromagnetic radiation which emerges from a highly evacuated tube, and it results from
the excitation of the inner orbital electrons, by bombarding the target anode with a stream of
electrons from a heated cathode. A CT scan is a specialized type of x-ray which allows for a
series of x-ray images to be taken from different angles around the body and through the use
of a computer, creates cross sectional images of the body parts.

References

Der Sarkissian, Carol. 2019. “What is an Ultrasound?”. WebMD.

https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/what-is-an-ultrasound#1

Fairlex Parker Medical Dictionary. 2012. “x-ray. (n.d.)”. Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary.
https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/x-ray

Fitzpatrick, Mark. 2017. “Advantages and Disadvantages of X-Rays.”. Healthfully.

https://healthfully.com/12372451/advantages-disadvantages-of-x-rays

Gaillard, Frank, Dixon, Andrew, Goel, Ayush. Knipe, Henry, Hacking, Craig, and Bell, Daniel.
2013. “History of Radiology”. Radiopedia.
https://radiopaedia.org/articles/history-of-radiology?lang=us

Levy, Jason and Zieve, David. 2018. “PET Scan”. Medline Plus.
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003827.htm Mayo Clinic Staff. 2020. “Ultrasound.”. Mayo
Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/ultrasound/about/pac-20395177