RESERVOARTEKNIKK I, LABORATORY MANUAL

prepared by Curtis Whitson

September 4, 1979

Revised:

September 15, 1980

Revised:

September, 1983 IS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword .................................................. .i

How to Write a Laboratory Report 1

Title Page ... ... 1

Introduction .. .... .. ..... 1
Apparatus and Procedure ...
... ..
2
Results
..
2
Discussion
..... ...
3
Conclusions
...
3
Bibliography
..
3
Appendices 4
.... ........ ... ........
0 • • • • •

General 4
Example of a "Good Report" ... 5

Permeability; air 16

Object; Theory ••.••••••••••.••••• 16

Slip Phenomen (Klinkenberg effect) 17
Simple Rate Permeability Measurement 20
Multi Rate Permeability Measurement 22
Presentation of Result •.•..•••.•..•• 27

Permeability, liquid 30

Porosity and Capillary Pressure 36

Porosity .... 36
Laboatory Determination of Porosity ...
...
37
Capillary Pressure .•.•••..••• 39
Background and Introduction ••.••. 39
Centrifuge Experiment, Apparatur, etc. 41
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Relative Permeability 51

Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Volumetric Measuring System 52
Pressure Control Panel 53
Displacement Test ...•.. 53
Calculation of Relative Permeability 56
 i

FOREWORD

This lab manual is a collection and revision of older lab "write-ups"

together with some new presentations which i have included to (hopefully)
clarify the objective of this course. i have tried to give credit to those
who created material included herein, though in some cases the author was
not known. i take responsibility only for those mistakes they made which
i did not find during proof reading and revision.
Prof. S. Marsden (Stanford University) is responsible in the most part
for the section entitled "How to Write a Laboratory Report." i have modified
parts of his original work, yet it remains mainly unaltered. This section
is perhaps the most important one for the student to master. Great emphasis
will be placed on how well the student follows the guidelines presented in
this section; it will also be an invaluable guide when you begin writing
class projects, diplom thesis, and company reports.

The four rock and fluid. properties investigated in this course are:

1. porosity
2. permeability
3. capillary pressure
4. relative permeability

If any problems or questions arise when writing the lab reports, please
contact one of the persons supervising the course.

Curtis Whitson 4.9-1979

 1

HOW TO WRITE A LABORATORY REPORT

The reports of the experimental work will serve several purposes.

They will give the student experience in organizing a study on a
particular subject into a coherent, clear and neat presentation.
They will give practice in English and mathematics. They will
familiarize the student with some of the more important physical
properties of the rocks and fluids with which she/he will be
dealing in her/his professional life and how these properties are
functions of the important independent variables which she/he may
control. They will give the student an opportunity to interpret
unexpected results and explain erroneous ones. It is hoped that
in at least some cases the reports and the material therein will
give the student an insight into phenomena beyond that obtainable
from textbooks.
There are numerous forms for experimental reports: they vary from
one organization to the next and even within a given organization
there may be different forms for different types of work and
different types of readers. In this course we shall try to model
reports after papers in the technical journals. Admittedly, the
latter are not standardized but we shall use what might be
considered as a generally acceptable outline for such a paper,
modified somewhat to fill our needs.
A technical paper is divided into sections which may actually be
named or only the names implied. These sections are usually
presented in a given order; however, sometimes certain sections
are merely included in appendices rather than in the body of the
report. Unless there is good reason for modifying it, we shall
follow this outline:

(1) Title Page. Center at top of page: title, student's name.

Center at bottom page: partner's name, experiment number,
course name and number, data performed, date report submitted.
(2) Introduction. In a technical paper the introduction presents
the background of the subject, that is, what other people
have done in the field, other prior knowledge in the field,
and finally how this has led up to the problem investigated.
Often the last sentence of the introduction is merely a
statement of the problem or the aim of the research. With
this in mind, the introduction for our laboratory reports
might include (1) a description of the subject (2) its
measurement and its units. This might be followed by (3) a
brief mention of why the test is made. This part of the
report should be no longer than one half page, except for
reports covering the results of more than one laboratory period.
 2

(3) Apparatus and Procedure. In a technical paper these may

be separate sections or they may be relegated to an appendix.
Here we shall expect (1) a brief description of the apparatus
and (2) the principle upon which it is based. The general
procedure along with data taken should be given in enough
detail for one familiar with the apparatus and subject to
understand. Although the student must be familiar with
the details and safety precautions given in the procedure
sheet before performing the experiment; these details need be
no longer than one page unless the results of two experiments
are combined in one report.
(4) Results. In most technical papers this section is combined
with the next, but we shall consider it separately because
more detail is desired here than is given in technical papers.
It should include (1) a brief mention of what was done with
the data to put it into its final form. (2) Pertinent
formulae, with terms defined and units given, are necessary
unless they are so simple as to be able to be described
verbally. If the student neglected to take certain data,
mention should also be made of this. It is not necessary
to retabulate the raw data but the final results should be
tabulated and plotted; both of these should be referred to
in this section. The tables should have complete headings
(including units) and should be placed at the end of the
report along with the graphs. See attached handout.
Particular care should be taken in the preparation of the
graphs. Unless there is good reason, the dependent variable
should be on the ordinate (y-axis), the independent variable
on the abscissa (x-axis) and the origin or smaller numbers
in the lower left-hand corner. Exceptions to this rule may
exist when it has become conventional to plot data in certain
standard ways. The type of paper (cm, inch, semi-log,
log-log, etc.) should be selected with some thought. The
scales should be chosen carefully to use most but not
necessarily all of the page; avoid irregular scales (e.g.,
7 per cm). Set up the graph to avoid having points on the
border of the graph, if possible. The top of the graph should
be either at the top of the report or toward the binding
(left hand side). The border of the area of the graph paper
used should be outlined heavily. Sufficient numbers should
be given to avoid too much interpolation in reading the graph,
but at the same time they should not be crowded. Grid lines
(very thin or light) may run across the graph from these
numbers but should not intersect either plotted points,
the line running through the points, or the legend. Headings
for the coordinates should be given (not abbreviated) with
symbols and units (may be abbreviated), and these headings
should not be buried in the binding of the report. There
should also be a title, usually at the bottom of the report,
having the figure number, what has been plotted, material,
temperature (if important) and any other desirable information.
Lettering may be typed or done neatly freehand. If more than
 3

one set of data is plotted on a given graph, then different

symbols (hollow circles, squares, triangles, crosses) should
be used for each set, and these identified either at the end
of the title or by a "Legend" on the body of the graph.
With some exceptions, no more than three sets of data should
be drawn on one figure. Lines drawn for a set of points
should not run into or through the symbols, nor should they
cross or run into any other lines (including grids and borders).
If two ordinates with a common abscissa are put on one page,
then headings and units for each ordinate should be on the
right and left edge of the graph rather than in the legend
and the curves should have arrows indicating the appropriate
headings. Extrapolated lines should also be dashed. The
student should decide carefully whether one straight line,
one continuous curve, or a series of straight lines should
be drawn through the points; this decision should be based
on the theoretical relation between the variables plotted
as well as the nature of the errors in the experiment. Use
french curves to draw in smoothed lines.
(5) Discussion. Although this is the longest part of many
technical papers, it may be relatively short for some of
the reports. (1) It should include statements of what was
expected to happen and what was actually observed; if these
are not the same, then a well-thought-out explanation is
important and gives the writer an opportunity for worthwhile
discussion. (2) Sometimes an explanation of what was deduced
and how it was deduced is desirable. (3) A discussion of
the errors in the results and an estimate of the reliability
of the results is often desirable. If something beyond a
straightforward treatment of the data has been done (e.g.
statistical analysis or the determination of the constants
in the equation for a linear plot), this should be discussed
here although the description may be presented in the previous
section.
Finally, (4) there should be a discussion of where the
measurements made fit into the petroleum industry; this 9art
of the discussion should be no longer than one page, and
should be at the end of the section.
(6) Conclusions. These should be presented as complete sentences
with each one numbered. They (1) should be concise statements
of what was deduced from the experiment and should be worded
in such a way as to describe accurately the certainty of the
results. They (2) should also include important numerical
results. This section, along with the Introduction, is often
the only one of a technical paper read by busy people with
limited time, so it should include all of the important things
you have determined, even though some of the things brought
out in the Discussion are repeated.
(7) Bibliography. Itemize all literature references and data
sources consulted for the experiment and make reference to
 4

them in the body of the report by use of either a numerical

superscript or a number in brackets. These should be in the
form used in and required for publications of the Society
of Petroleum Engineers. (See attachment).
(8) Appendices. (1) The first appendix should include the data
taken in the laboratory; it should be the original data
sheet and need not be recopied. Only a heading need be
added. (2) A second appendix should consist of a discussion
of other methods of accomplishing the same thing done in
the experiment. This will usually be a brief description
of other instruments for making the measurements, that is,
their name, principle and method of operation, and advantages
or disadvantages in comparison with other methods. (3) Other
appendices may include such things as derivations of important
relations or, in general, anything that should be in the
report but would break up its continuity if placed within
the body of the report. (4) A derivation should start with
a physical picture of description of the system and include
a definition of terms.

General
(1) Pages should be numbered; graphs should be labeled as
"Fig." followed by a number.
(2) Tables should be labeled as such ("Table") followed by
a number.
(3) Appendices should be labeled as such followed by a capital
letter (e.g., Appendix A).
The reports should be written in the third person impersonal.
Although a great deal of material is to be included in these
reports, every effort should be made to have them as concise as
possible. This can be done by a careful choice of words and by
avoiding unnecessary details.
 5
(Example of how a laboratory report should be written and presented)

Determination of permeability

Rune H. Hansen

Partners: K. Almenningen
G. Tyber¢
G. Jensen
Experiment Number II
Reservoarteknikk I
Date performed: October 9, 1979
Date submitted: October 20, 1979
Core no. 7
 6

INTRODUCTION

Permeability is the physical property determining the capacity

of porous media to transmit fluids. Permeability, also refered
to as absolute or liquid permeabilit½ is a constant for iso­
tropic media. Two methods are used in this exepriment to
determine permeability. Air is used as flowing medium in both
methods and measured air permeability depend on pressure due to
slippeage effects. A relation between liquid and air permea­
1
bility is given by Klinkenberg •

Using the air permeameter (first method), a single value of air

permeability is measured and liquid permeability is determined
from Klinkenberg's relation using a general correlation for the
Klinkenberg factor given by Heid, McMakon, et.al� Using the
Hassler cell (second method), several air permeabilities are
measured at different mean pressures in the core.

Liquid permeability is found by plotting air permeabilites

against the inverse of mean pressure., drawing, a best-fit
straight line through the points and extrapolating it to the
point where the inverse of the mean pressure is zero. T.he air
permeability at this point correspond to liquid permeability
since mean pressure is infinite and no slippage effect exists
at such conditions.

APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

In both methods permeability is measured by passing a fluid

of known viscosity through a core plug of known dimensions
and then measuring flow-rate and pressure drop. Permeability,
k, has units length squared and is defined by Darcy's law,

(1)

where q is flow-rate, µ is viscosity, A is cross-sectional

area and dp/dL is the pressure drop per unit length.
 7

Klinkenber/found the following relation between measured

air permeability and equivalent liquid permeability

( 2)

where pm is mean pressure in the core given as

( 3)

and b is the Klinkenberg factor, empirically determined as 2

b = 0.78 kL-o. 39 ( 4)

a) Air permeameter

The air permeameter shown in Fig. 1 is used to determine one

value of air permeability. Air flows through the core under a
known pressure differential and the flowrate is measured. Air
viscosity is found from a correlation giving air viscosity as
function of pressure and temperature (see Table 3).

b) Hassler cell

Using the Hassler cell (Fig. 2) to determine ·air permeability,

the pressure difference between inlet and outlet pressure is
the sum of pressure drops across each component in the apparatus
(Fig. 3).

P.in = lpc + 6prr + lp wm + pout ( 5)

( 6)

( 7)

where

( 8)
 8

since 6p can be considered negligible in this experiment.

wm

= p.in - 6p/2 ( 9)

and

(10)

Flowrates are measured for several different inlet pressures

and gas permeability is found asc"a function of pressure.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows dimensions and weight of core no. 7 used in

the experiment

Table 1 Dimensions and weight of core no. 7

Length . - 2.544 cm •
Diameter = 2.330 cm.
Cross-sectional area = 4.264 cm.
Weight (dry) = 21.934 gm.

Gas permeability, k , is calculated from Eq. l} mean pressure,

pm' is calculated from Eq. 3 and kL is determined by using a
trial and error routine to solve Eqs. 2 and 4. The results are
given in Table 1.

Table 1 Results from air permeameter experiment

T(° C) µ (10-7 Pa-s) q(cc/s) t,p(atm) pm(atm) kg(md) b(atm) � (md)

24 183.7 6.6 0.25 1.125 290.3 0.088 269.2

 9

Following results were obtained with the Hassler cell. Mean

pressure, pm is calculated from Eq. 8. ka is determined from
Eq. 1. Results and pertinent data are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 Results and data from Hassler cell experiment

-
p.in(atm) Llp(atm) pm(atm) qm(lo 3cc/min) k_(md)
d.
1/pm(atm 1)

5.0 0.705 4.648 0.678 175.6 0.215

4.5 0.714 4.143 0.652 166.7 0.241

4.0 0.688 3.656 0.615 163.4 0.274

3.5 0.720 3.140 0.637 161.6 0.318

3.0 0.716 2.642 0.662 169.0 0.379

2.5 0.734 2.133 0.656 163 .3 0.469

2.0 0.729 1.636 0.672 168.5 0.611

Plotting air permeability versus 1/p gives a negative

value of the Klinkenberg factor when linear regression is
used to define the best-fit straight line through the points.
k1 is equivalent to ka at 1/pm=0, and the following were
obtained:

kL = 169 md
b = -5.565

This is not consistent with results reported in the litterature3 14

and it was decided to eliminate the first reading (p.in = 5atm)
 10

in the further analysis. The following is then obtained for

liquid permeability and Klinkenberg factor.

kL = 162 md
b = 0.0513 atm

When calculated from Eq. 4 the Klinkenberg factor becomes

b = 0.1072
Fig. 4 shows air permeabilities as function of 1/p m and
equivalent liquid permeability.

DISCUSSION

The equivalent liquid permeabilities obtained from the two

methods show very bad agreement. The air permeameter is,
however easy and fast to use, considered to give the value
for liquid permeability of least accuracy. The core sample
used in the experiment did not fit into the rubber stopper,
i.e., the core was too slim, and air might have been flowing
outside the core sample as well as through it, giving too
high permeability measurements. Also, the fact that a general
correlation for the Klinkenberg factor is used, gives less
accuracy with this method.

The Hassler cell method is more time-consuming to use, but

considered to give more reliable results. Also this method
gave, however, bad results in this experiment. This is seen
from the negative value of the Klinkenberg factor, which is
physically impossible from the nature of the slippage effect.
The result obtained from the Hassler cell is considered to
to be the best result of the two, and no main reason for
errors was found using this method.
 11

CONCLUSIONS

1. Liquid permeability obtained with the air permeameter

was:
kL = 269.2 md.
2. Liquid permeability obtained with the Hassler cell was
kL = 162.3 md
3. The difference in liquid permeability determined from the
two methods was 66%.
4. The results obtained from the Hassler cell method are
considered to be the more reliable of the two results.

NOMENCLATURE

A = area, cm
b = Klinkenberg factor, atm
k = permeability, md
ka = air permeability, md
kL = equivalent liquid permeability, md
Patm = atmospheric pressure, atm
Pg = gauge pressure, atm
p.in = inlet pressure, atm
pm = mean pressure, atm
pOU t = outlet pressure, atm
�p = pressure drop, atm
�pC = pressure drop over the core, atm
�Prr = pressure drop over rate regulator, psi
�Pwm = pressure drop over wet meter, psi
q = flow-rate, cc/s
qatm = flow-rate at atmospheric pressure, cc/s
qm = flow-rate at mean pressure, cc/s
 12

REFERENCES

1. Klinkenberg, L.J.: "The Permeability of Porous Media to

Liquids and Gases", API Drill . and Prod. Prac, 1941,
pg. 200
2. Heid, J.G., McMakon, J.J., Nielson, R.F. and Juster, S.J.:
"Study of the Permeability of Rocks to Homogeneous Fluids",
API Drill. and Prod. Prac., 1951, pg. 230
3. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M. jr. and Whiting, R.L.:
"Petroleum reservoir engineering" 1960
4. Whitson, C.: "Reservoarteknikk I, Laboratory Manual" 1979
 13

2 MEDIUM

LARGE

1. COREHOLDER -
2. SELECTOR VALVE
3. PRESSURE GAGE-
4. PRESSURE REGULATOR
5• BLEED SCREW -

Fig. 1 Air permeameter.

 14

BARREL HASSLER SLEEVE,DIAPHRAGM

nn
r-r---. 11-

r
I

- - I
-
-- CAP
•
;•,.�.:-\ r ,__
....... '......
...,,
,.....,
,� t �• •
""
\•·•-"-
�-.�-�!t. I

,__
�: ....i!/
I
,-
.Iii

,-
I
-
CORE CORE SPACER

Fig. 2 Hassler cell

E F
A

A Pressure regulator O to 5 kg/an2

B Pressure gage.
C Mercury mmcmeter. 76 an H g operating range.
D Hassler cell and core.
E Fate regulating valve.
F Wet tesureter.

Fig. 3 Schematic of Hassler cell equipment

 180

175

170

s
'tJ

_c1 165
�
..
k
·r-1
L
r-1 Corresponding liquid permeability
.....
� 160
s
(I)

1,-j
(I)
0.

U)
m

155
(.!)

150 0.7 0.8

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 I-'
VI
Inverse of mean pressure, 1/pm, atm-1

Fig. 4 Gas permeability function for air.

 16.

L0 1 PERMEABILITY; AIR

Object

The object of this experiment is to measure the absolute

permeability of a core to a non - reactive fluid: air.
The effect of average pressure on gas permeability will
be investigated as well as a correlation between gas and
liquid permeability.

For the first method, a single value of air permeability

is measured by using the air permeameter. The liquid per­
meability is then determined from Klinkenbergs relation
using a general correlation for the Klinkenberg factor
given by Heid;McMakon et.al.Using the Hassler cell
(second method) ; several air permeabilities are measured
at different mean pressures in the core.

Theorv

Absolute permeability is measured by passing a fluid of

known viscosity through a core plug of measured dimensions,
and then measuring flow - rate and pressure drop. Permea­
bility, K, is defined by

KA
q =
µ

q = volume flow - rate, cc/sec

A = cross - sectional area, sq. cm.

µ = fl uid viscosity, centipoises, cp

 18.

�= the flowrate at average pressure, cc/sec.

Pm = average pressure, atm. abs.

Note that: ( 5)

Pa = 1 atm when measured with the wet testmeter.

= 1 atm
core atm

air ...s-wet test meter

__....C p
source

Slip Phenomenon
Permeability is usually measured by means of air flow, and
therefore, the behavior of gases during the flow at low pressures
and in fine capillaries is of interest. When the size of the
capillary approaches the mean free path of the molecules, gases
flow through it more rapidly than is predicted by Poiseulle's and
Darcy's Law. With gases, the individual molecules are in motion
and contribute a velocity effect whenever the mean free path
approaches the dimensions of the flow conduit.

Using glass capillary as a model, L. J. Klinkenberg (3) derived an

equation for correcting measured gas permeability for the effect
of mean free path of the molecules. This results in an equivalent
liquid permeability as indicated by Eq. 6.

KG = KL (1 + 4CA
r
) ( 6)

K8 = permeability to gas
KL = permeability to liquid or high density gas
A = mean free path of gas molecules under mean pressure at
which KG was measured
c = proportionality factor

r = radius of capillary
 19.

Since A for ideal gas is inversely proportional to pressure and

since r is fixed for a given porous medium

Kl".'= KL (1 + .E...) (7)

Pm

K
KL= 1 + Gb/ p m (8)

b= a constant primarily dependent on pore size (hence on

permeability) which increases in value as pore size
decreases, (Klinkenberg factor)
pm= mean pressure of gas flowing through po�ous medium.

It follows that a graph of permeability K'.:1

r- measured with a gas
at a series of pressures should be a straight line when it is
plotted versus the reciprocal of mean pressure, (1/o-m
) . That is,

where KL y-intercept at; = 0 (i.e., pm+ 00) and bKL= slone

=
-m
of the straight line. b, the Klinkenberg constant, can of course
be determined directly.

Heid, Mc Makon, et.al (4) studied the slip phenomena in natural

rocks having different air and liquid (paraffin) permeabilities.
Figure 1 shows results of their work when the factor b is plotted
against KL, some scatter of the data is evident. The line representing
the best linear fit of the data has the relationship.

-0.39
b= 0. 78 KL ( 9)

where KT.LJ is measured in md andb has units of absolute pressure •

 20.

10...--------�. _____.:____________--,

-3
--
--- --
-- •
. .
...
........... .
. . .. . .
-
2 •

. . :-,-.....�•·
. ••
. . . ·-·�. ,·�·. . . . . .
o.s
o •
"a•....::,
• • •
. 0.
itl
..
I :•
• • •

. . .. . .. . ..'-...:·. .
............. • •
.

0.3
b • •• .............. lo J>oo •

.
.-
0.2

·. . .
' �

. . ......
............
0.1 � ........... .

0.05

. • .
..
0.03
0.02 ........
.........
0.01 50 100 200 500 1000
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2 5 10 20
Kz

Figure 1. Plot of b factor against extrapolated

Klinkenberg permeability.

In re_porting routine core analysis results it is common nractice

to measure Kair
. at a single mean pressure and apply the relationships
of Equations 8 and 9 to obtain the equivalent liquid permeability, KL.

A. Single - rate Permeability Me-asurement (Air - Permeameter)

Apparatus
Figure 2 shows the details on the air permeameter. Air
flows through the core under a known pressure differential
and the flow rate is measured.

Procedure

1. Put the rubber stopper with sample into the coreholder sleeve and
lock it tight in the coreholder.
2. Turn selector valve to large.
 -----------------------------, 21.

2 MEDIUM

LARGE

1. COREHOLDER
2. SELECTOR VALVE
3. PRESSURE GAGE.
4. PRESSURE REGULATOR
5· BLEED SCREW .

Fig. 2 Air permeameter.

 22.
3. Close air regulator by adjusting so that 1 to 1½ centimeters of
threads show.
4. Open valve to air system {slowly).
5. Slowly open the pressure regulating valve (turn clockwise) until a
gage reading of 0.25 atm is obtained.
6. The preferred range on the flowmeter tube is between 20 and 140
divisions. If the float in the large tube rises above 20
divisions, a reading is taken.
If it remains below, the selector valve is turned to medium
and. the pressure is incresased to O •.5 atm.
Should the float fail to rise in either the large or medium
tube, the selector valve is turned to small and the pressure
increased to 1 atm.
Read flow rate indicated by flowmeter.
Read temperature.
7. Close air regulator by turning counter-clockwise until
pressure gauge indicates zero.
8. Close the valve to the air system.
9. Turn selector valve back to large.
10. Take out the core.

B Multi-rate Permeability Measurement (Hassler Cell)

Apparatus: C

E F
A

D
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of Hassler system including:

A : Pressure regulator (0 - 5 bars)

B : Pressure gage
C : Mercury manometer (76 cm Hg operating range)
D . Hassler cell and core holder
E R3. te regulating valve.
F Wet tes bneter.

Warning: Observe that mercury will overflow when the pressure

drop across the core exceeds the manometer operating range.
 23.
Also, observe that the difference between input and output
pressure is equal to the sum of pressure drops across each
component of the cell system. That is,

(11)

and

where

= inlet pressure, bar (absolute)

Pin
Pg = inlet pressure, bar (gage)

Ap = pressure drop across the core, bar (cm Hg initially)

C

Aprr = pressure drop across the rate regulator, bar

Ap = pressure drop across the wet test meter, bar

For all practical purposes, Apwm can be considered negilible.

Eq. 11 then reduces to

( 12)

When set by the regulator, pg (inlet pressure) is constant.

Thus Aprr in Eq. 12 is the independent variable which can be
controlled. ApC (pressure drop across the core) is the dependent
variable; therefore, you should be careful when adjusting -the
rate regulator for high inlet pressures. Provided the rate
regulator is closed, mercury overflow can not occur when
adjusting the pressure regulator. Overflow can occur, however,
when adjusting the pressure regulator if the rate regulator is
set to give a constant rate. You should not manipulate the two
regulators simultaneously.

Hassler Cell Description

The Hassler cell is shown in Fig. 4. A short description of
each piece of equipment is given below:

BARREL - functions to "cushion" the pressure differential between

atmospheric and internal pressures applied by radially loading
the core.
 24.

HASSLER SLEEVE - this is a rubber tube which creates an

effective seal around the core when connected to the high
pressure reservoir (tank). Its main purpose is to prevent
leakage of gas flow around the core. For ease of inserting
the core, the diaphram can be connected to a vacuum pump upon
insertion.

VALVE SYSTEM - depending on whether the core is being inserted

or a seal is being created, the valve system will be conected
to the vacuum pump or high pressure nitrogen tank, respectively.
Caution: before applying the high pressure nitrogen to create
a seal around the core, be sure that the cap (see below) is
screwed on securely.

CORE SPACER - this piece is used to insert the core as well as

keeping the core in position when applying the pressure differential.
Note the corning on the end surface of the core spacer; this helps
create uniform flow across the end face of the core.

CAP - as mentioned above, the cap is used to secure the core

and core space before applying the high pressure nitrogen for
sealing.

BARREL 'HASSLER SLEEVE,DIAPHRAGM

........----1 ,--,..._

nln r
I I

-
;,.�...�.:- \. r.
- -• I - - CAP

- �....,;
..
I-
..._
\•· •.\\ ,.

-� -��·::
!� I

-
,i: .. _it�-
I
-- -• I
L .
I
""-\..-.I i......;,-

CORE CORE SPACER

Fig. 4. Hassler cell

 25.

Procedure

A. Preparation of Equipment:
1. Check that all valves and regulators are closed.
2 . Unscrew the cap and insert the core. If it is not
possible to insert the core using the core spacer,
use the following procedure:
- connect the vacuum pump to the valve system
- open the valve to the vacuum pump and turn on the
pump
- open the valve to the diaphram
- now use the core spacer to insert the core plug

3. Having placed the core in position, go through the

following steps:
- close the valve to the vacuum pump
- disconnect the pump from the valve system
- stop the pump
- open the vacuum valve to the atmosphere, then close again

4. Screw on the cap. Make sure the threads are not improperly
alligned.

5. To apply the high pressure nitrogen to the diaphram, go

through the following steps:
- open the valve on the top of the nitrogen tank (this
should be done with care!)
- by adjusting the needle valve on the nitrogen tank,
increase the pressure to 30 kg/cm 2
- open valve ( 2 ), allowing the nitrogen to enter the
valve system forming a seal around the core and core
spacer

6. Open the valve connecting the Hassler equipment to the

air system. The equipment is now ready for the experiment.
 26.

Experiment
A series of rate-pressure measurements are made to yield the
following two plots:

- rate, q, vs. pressure drop, �p

- gas permeability, kG' vs. mean pressure, pm

The first plot should be linear if flow is laminar, i.e.,

not turbulent. Deviation from linearity at higher rates
indicates turbulence; if data lie in the tunbulent region,
do not use them for the kG vs. p m plot.

The following procedure should be followed to obtain the

necessary data:

1. With the rate regulator closed (no flow through the core),
adjust the pressure regulator to obtain a four (4) bar
reading on the gage.

2. Very carefully open the rate regulator until a measurable

wet test meter value of 2 or greater is obtained.

3. Measure the pressure drop on b.he manometer and convert

cm Hg to bars by multiplying with 0.0133.

Note the inlet pressure.

Calculate the outlet pressure, and therefrom, the mean

pressure.

Convert the wet test meter rate to cc/s using Fig. 6;

determine the mean flow rate using Eq. 4 (Boyle's Law).

4. Repeat steps 2-3 using three or four higher rates

(maximum of 16 on the wet test meter scale) for the
same inlet pressure.

5. Lower the inlet pressure by an incrament of 0.5 bar.

Repeat steps 2-4. Stop when inlet pressure is 1.5 bars.
 27.

The following steps should be completed when the experiment

is finished.

1. Complete the following steps concerning the air system:

- bring the gauge pressure down to zero by adjusting the
pressure regulator
- close the rate regulator
isolate the Hassler equipment from the air system by
closing the appropriate valve,

2. Complete the following steps concerning the nitrogen system:

- close the valve on the top of the nitrogen tank
- open val�e (2) to the atmosphere
close the needle valve by turning it in the clockwise
direction
- close valves (1} and (2)

3. Take out the core from the Hassler celL·by completi:ng

the following:
- screw out the cap and take out the corespacer
- if .it was necessary to use the vacuum pump to insert
the core plug, you will most likely need it to retrieve
the plug as well. Hook up the vacuum line to the valve
system and apply vacuum for several minutes.
- take the Hassler cell out of the brace holders and turn
it in an upright position so that the plug will fall out

The experiment·is now completed and equipment disassemb£ed.

Presentation of Results:
Results of the laboratory work shall be submitted in the
form given by the lab report description notes within two
weeks. The report shall include the following observed and
calculated data:
a. Identification and description of the core:
Core No.
Lenath.
Area.
Weight (dry}
 28.

b. Experimental data.
Perrnearneter used.
Flowrneter number and reading.
Flow rate at mean pressure.
Temperature measured at the core holder.
c. Calculations:
Air permeability.
Equivalent liquid permeability.
To calculate the equivalent liquid permeability, K , go
L
through the following procedure:
1. Select a set of KL values in the range O. S < K
L
< 1000 (mD)
2. Calculate b from Equation 9.
3. Calculate KG from Equation 7 using exoerimental value
of Pm•
4. Plot log kG vs. log kL .
5. Use this plot with measured k
air determined experim­
entally to estimate k .
L

For the purpose of this experiment, 'the value of kL obtained

from the above procedure is sufficient. Another method
which could be used is to solve Eqs. 8 and 9 by trial and
error using kL found previously as a starting point. For
each iteration, plot assumed kL vs. k calculated. The
L°
intersection of this curve with the 45 line will be the
final answer.

d. List the data obtained with the Hassler cell in a

table; and plot Ka versus 1/pm.
Define KL from the plot and calculate the Klinken­
berg factor.

In your report, you should discuss in detail both methods of

measuring permeability and give suggestions as to why results
were different, if they·were. A theoretical value of the
Klinkenberg factor, b, should be compared with the value
determined using the multi-rate Hassler cell experiment. See
where the experimental value lie� on Fig. 1.
 29.

�,

I I

,_,
Q010
l l I
I ___,,,...l i .....

0.008 '(f-N'J�·· I

0.006
--
o.004 ttt:tttc::::::t::jjjj:::1:ij=::t=:::=:r±:t:::t:t'±:i:t±:i::J
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Temperature, °F

Fig. 6 Gas Viscosities at Atmospheric Pressure

" '•> ' - I "

·�

--

�
ffl
�
 30
L0 2: PERMEABILITY, LIQUID

Lig uid Permearneter.

Procedure.
A. Saturation of the core. (This procedure is valid for high
permeability cores, ie in the order of 100 m D or higher).
l. Fill the f lask half way up with the test fluid.
2. Pull the brass rod until the distance between the hook and
the rubber cork is about l cm.
3. Hook on the basket with the core and place -the rubber cork
in the bottle neck. Be c areful to keep the core above
the surface of the liquid •
4. Pull a vacuum for 5 minutes. Then, by pushing the rod down,
get the �ample underneath the liquid surface.
5. Disconnect the vacuum pump and then stop the pump.
6 •. Let the �ore remain in the liquid fa� a nother 5 minutes.
This 1s done to allow the fluid time to p enetrate into
the :pores.
7. Fill the weighing bottle with test fluid until the c ore is
covered. This is done to prevent desaturation.
The �ample is now ready for further experiments.

B. Measurement o f viscosity.
1. Prepare a canst. temperature bath
Adjust the temperature control knob on the water tap to
the desired temprature.
-""# -·---
Turn on the water.
Check the tenperature using a thermometer.
Adjust the temperature control knob unti 1. the desired
temperature is· reached.
Fill the jar with water.
2. Add test fluid to the viscometer until the liquid level
in the l ower bulb is between the two reference marks.
3. Warm up the viscometer with the testfluid to the desired
temperature. ·
Lower a thermometer (carefully) down to the testfluid in
in the viscosimeter after having wiped off any water.
 31

Adjust the temperature · control knob to a se�ting 5 °c

above/below the d esired tenperature (depending on whether
an increase or a decrease in temperature is wanted) •
Place the viscometer under the water t:ap.
Stop the water when the testfluid has reached the desired
temoera ture .•
4• Place the viscometer in the bath. The water le·vel shall be
just below the lower reference mark on the upper bulb.
5. Slowly suck the test fluid thru the�capilla:ry tube to a point
above the reference marks on the upper bulb.
6. Allow the testfluid to drain thru the capillary tube.
Measure the time for the liquid level to drop from the u pper
to the lowe� reference.mark on the upper bulb.
7. Determine the density of the testfluid using the Sartorius
2400 balance and a pycnometer of 25 ml colume.
·-
-. ..
Deterrnina�ion of liquid permeability •
1. Put the rubber stopper with sample into the coreholder sle eve
and lock it tight in the coreholder.
2. Close the air regulator by adjusting so that l to 1� cm of
threads show.
3. Close the pinch coc k .
4 .. · Fill the separatory funnel (9) with test £luid.
5. Open the cut off valve {3) .
6. Turn discharge - fill valve (6) to f ill as indicated on the
attached drawing. (Turn fully counter - clockwise).
7. Open the pinch cock a nd let the l iquid flood the coreholder_...
and tl;e burette.
8. When the liquid level is well above the upper reference mark,
close the cut off valve (3) .
9. Open the valve to the a ir system.
10. Adjust the gage pressure to 1.5 atm.
11. Turn discharge - f ill valve (6) to discharge. ( Turn fully
clockwise).
12. Determine the time necessary for the liquid level to drop
from the upper t o the lower reference mark.
13. Close the air regulator by turning counter clockwise until
the pressure gage indicates zero. i
14. Close the valve to the air.system.
 32

l$. Take out the coreo

L6. Turn discharge - fill valve (6) to fill and let the liquid
in the burette drain into a small container.
l7. Open the cut off valve (3) and drain off the liquid in the
separatory funnel.
LB. Put the core in a weighing bottle and fill it up with test
fluid to cover the sample.
l9. Clean up any spilt liquid using porous paper •

..
..

4301-000-00

'Viscosity B_ath
 33
LIQUID PERMEA.�ETER
rhe discharge-fill valve
�s turned to •discharge• by
opening �he valve· and �o
•fill• by closing t.he valve

r·
-a
i'

i
I
I
I ..
I
LI . '
i
I

.I
l
-s

0 i

!. COREHCLDER
%. FlU CONNECTION
3. CUTOFF VALVE
4. OVERFLOW TUBE
5. SURETTE
6. DISCHARGE-FILL VALVE
7. ?�ESSURE REGULATOR
 34

Presentation of results.
Results of the laboratory work shall be submitted in the form of
a report within one week. �he report shall include the following:
a) Identification and discription of the core.
Core no
Length
Area
Weight (dry)
Bulk volume.
b) Experimental data.
Viscosimeter no:
Capillary const, C:
Flowtime sec at 15 oc
Flowtime sec at 20 oc
Flowtime sec at 25 Oc
Density of paraffine at 20 °c:
Weight of core (saturated) :

Permeameter no ..
Gage pressure
.
Temprature of paraffine as read on the coreholder
Volume of liquid flowed thru the core .
Time necessary to flow the above volume thru the core:
c) Calculations.(Show all calculations).
1. Correct the measured density for thermal expansion using
the formula
= 1 dv 6v
V (dt } p l:i.T

where S = •934 X 10
_3

2. Compute the viscosity at each temprature and plot viscosity vs

temprature on log-log paper.
Kinematic Vi$COSity v = C t {centistokes}
Viscosity µ = v p {centipoise}
where t {sec}
p {gram/ml}
 35

3. Compute the liquid permeability.

From your chart, obtain the viscosity at the· temprature read
on the coreholder thermometer.
4. Compute the porosity. (The influence of air on the weight is
neglible).

d) Compare the actual liquid permeability with the equivalent

estimated from the Air permeameter - and Hassler Cell experiment.
Also compare the porosity obtained with the result from L@ l o ::::;;::-"

If there are substantial differences between the results, try to

list some possibilities which may explain the aiscripancies.

·- ..
 36.

L0 3 POROSITY AND CAPILLARY PRESSURE

Porosity is the physical property of a.rock defining

the fraction (or �ercent ) of the total bulk volume occupied
by one or more fluids - oil, gas and/or brine (water with
saturated salts). Porosity is an important property in
reservoir engineering because it indicates the maximum
possible volume fraction of a reservoir containing tiydro­
carbons.

A homogeneous reservoir rock has constant porosity

throughout,i. e. porosity is spacially indepentent. Realis­
tically, there is no such thing as a true homogeneous reser­
voir. Porosity is a strong function of geological develop­
ment and thus often varies in all spatial directions. By
determining porosity at several intervals in a reservoir,
one can calculate an average porosity. It is generally
accepted that the best average of several porosity values
measured at various points along a vertical line (that is
the well bore) is the arithmetic average.

Well bore

::J cp l
1
cpavg = 4 ( cp l + cp 2 + cp 3 + cp 4)
cp 2
General Form: Arithmetic Average
0
·r-1
.µ cp 3
sl-1 1 !!
cpavg = - I <Pi
(1j

Ni=l for N values

0
....J <h

Fig. 1. Averaging of porosity

 37.

There are two methods of determining porosity,

logging devices and laboratory experiments. There are
advantages and disadvantages with both methods. Logging
devices are always used due to the importance of on-site
information about rock and connate fluid properties. If
economics allow (i.e., if the operator is a large corpo­
ration), laboratory methods will be used to check and
verify these porosity values by simple core analysis.

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF POROSITY

We are interested in the laboratory determination of
porosity. This procedure is the first and easiest�to­
measure property evaluated in core anal¥sis. Two methods for
determination of porosity are given below.

1) Water Saturation Technique

If we take a core plug of height.< h, and diameter, d,
the bulk volume,vb , is given by

(1)

The weight of the rock matrix, where the pore volume

is full of air, is found by weighing the core on a balance.

Now, we put the core plug under vacuum until we are

certain that no air remains in the pore volume. Water - a
fluid of known density ('pw = 1.0 gm/cc) - is allowed to fill
the pores of the plug.

The water-saturated plug is weighed on a balance,

making sure no "excess" water drops exist on the outside of
the plug. The weight of the water w� , is then calculated
20
as the difference in weight between the water saturated plug
and the dry (air-filled} plug.

Wt.H2O· = WtH20- fillec. -l'lta-ir filled (2)

 38.

The volume o f water corresponding t o this weight (mass)

o f wat er is given by

WtH O (gm)
= 2
(3 )
1.0 (gm/cc)

The volume o ccupied by the pores of the core plug is

= ( 4)
vpore

and the porosity, by definition, is

V
= pore (5a)
Vb

V
,-h
= pore (100) (5b)
'+'% Vb
 39.

CAPILLARY PRESSURE

The following text is mostly taken from a CORE LABS manual.

To give proper credit, all material taken therefrom is itilicized,
all other comments being my own. Several Core Labs figures are
also included and credit is given in those instances.
A. Background and Introduction
Capillary pressure exists whenever two immiscible phases are present
in a fine bore tube, and is defined as the pressure drop across the
curved liquid interface.
Capillary pressure in a tube can be calculated if the fluid interfaciat
tension, rock-fluid contact angle, and the tube radius are knoTJn. Capillary
pressure can also be expressed as a hydrostatic head. It is equal to the
product of the height of the liquid rise, the density difference of the two
liquids, and the gravitational constant.
The height at which a wetting liquid wilt stand above a free level is
directly proportional to capillary pressure. It is therefore proportional
to the interfaaiat tension and cosine of the contact angle, and inversely
related to the tube radius and fluid density difference.
Water is retained by capillary forces as hydrocarbons accwrrulate in
productive reservoirs. The water is referred to as connate or i;iterstitiat.
In water-wet rocks, water coats the rock surfaces and occupies the smallest
pores. Hydrocarbons occupy the center of the larger pores.
The magnitude of the water saturation retained is proportional to the
capillary pressure -- which is controlled by the rock-fluid system (properties).
Water-wet coarse grain sand and oolitic and vuggy carbonates with large
pores, have low capillary pressure and low intersitial water content. Silty
fine grain sands have high capillary pressure and high water content.
Reservoir water saturation decreases with increased height above the
hydrocarbon-water contact. A "minimum" or "irreducible" water saturation
is reached if sufficient closure and hydroacrbon column exists. The formation
containing irreducible water produces only hydrocarbons.
The zone of varying water saturation is caUed the "transition zone."
Formations located within this zone will produce water and hydrocarbons
(the amounts depending on where within the transition zone the well is producing).

Pore size distribution (textural effect) influence the magriitude of the

irreducible water saturation and height of the transition zone. The smaUer
the pores, the lower the peITneability, and the higher the water saturation.
 40.

Rock wettability influences the capillary pressure and hence the water
retentive properties of a formation. Oil-wet rocks have a reduced or
negligible transition zone, and may contain lower irreducible saturations.
Low fluid interfacial tension reduces the transition zone, while high
interfacial tension extends the zone.
Saturation history infiuences the capillary pressure-water saturation
relationship, and hence the transition zone. Drainage saturation results
from drai�age of the wetting phase (usually water) from the rock as hydrocarbons
accumulate. Imbibition saturation results from increase in the wetting, phase
(usually water} and expulsion of hydrocarbons. A lower water saturation
exists at any height within the transition zone.
A large density difference between water·and hydrocarbons (water-gas)
suppresses the transition zone. A small density difference (water-heavy oil)
increases the transition zone.

The magnitude of water saturation at any height in a reservoir is a

function of 1. pore geometry, 2. rock wettability, 3. interfacial tension,
4. saturation history, and 5. difference in fiuid densities. These
variables control capillary pressure; therefore, a relationship exists
between water saturation, height and capillary pressure. (These relationships
are derived and presented following this discussion).

Laboratory-derived capillary pressure curves on samples of reservoir

rock can be used to :relate reservoir water saturation to height above the
free water level. When converting capillary pressure to equivalent height,
differences in interfacial tension and contact angle between the laboratory
and reservoir systems must be accounted for.
Water and oil gradients used in the conversion correspond to reservoir
values at initial reservoir temperature and pressure.
Laboratory capillary pressure tests are made with a variety of fluids
that differ from reservoir fluids. Mercury can be injected into evacuated
cores to yield capillary pressure - wetting phase saturation relationships.
(Recourse to mercury injection will possibly be avoided in this lab.
However, some students will be encouraged to use the mercury equipment to
use as a check against the centrifuge method which has proved difficult
to use in the past.)

In carbonates, capillary pressure often trend with porosity. Lower

irreducible water saturation accompanies higher porosity. Permeability
is sometimes a better correlating parameter than porosity. A combination
of permeability and porosity is sometimes required to correlate capillary
pressure data.
Capillary pressure - water saturation curves for sandstone formations
typically correlate better with permeability than with porosity. The high
water saturation in the low permeability rock reflects high retentive forces
in the small pore spaces.
No generalized capillary pressure-saturation relationship exists for
all formations.
 41.

B. Centrifuge Experiment

A simple method for determining capillary pressure experimen­

tally is with a high speed rotational �entrifuge. A small core
plug is saturated with water (oil is used occasionally in
commercial labs) and spun at a high rate. In essence, this method
creates a "false" gravity effect which allows redistribution
of fluid saturation in an analogous manner to the natural
distribution of fluids in the transitional zone of an oil or gas
reservoir.
The direct relation between rotational speed and induced
capillary pressure, together with visual observation of saturation
changes (via a strobeoscope), allow the capillary pressure - water
saturation relation to be determined directly •.
Fig. 1 gives a visual aid in understanding the mathematical
relation between rotational speed, capillary pressure and
saturation.

p = fluid density (gm/cc)

g = induced gravitational
acceleration (cm/sec 2 )

Fig. 1 Pictorial view of the core plug.

The average water saturation on the plug.at ?ressure, p,

is given by
L L
sw = 1 I S(p)dh = L1 I S(pgh)dh (1)
0 0

where p = pgh (2)

The maximum capillary pressure which can be obtained in

the plug is at h=L; let us define this pressure as P. Taking
the derivative of Eq. 2 w.r.t. p and inserting in Eq. 1 gives,
P
l P dp = S(p)dp
Sw = J §j_pl • PSw J
L o pg
( 3)
o
 42.
Taking the derivative of Eq. 3 w.r.t. ("with respect to") p
gives,
d(PSw)
s w ( p) ( 4)
dp

Eq. 4 can be solved graphically from a plot of PSw versus p.

A more accurate method is to curve-fit PSw vs p and take the
derivative of the resulting "best-fit" equation. Either method
can be employed by the student.

C. Derivation of the Pressure-Rate Equation

A mass rotating in a circle at speed, v, (perpendicular to

the line of radius, i.e. tangential) has an acceleration, a, in
the radial direction given by
2
a = V
r (5)

where r is the radial distance from the center of rotation to

some distance r in the arc of the circle (for our purpose,
r will lie between the distance from the "near" end to the
"far" end of the plug, see Fig. 2 ).
The speed, v, is a direct function of rotations/minute,n,
given by

2 nrn
v =
� ( 6)

Subsituting Eq. 6 in Eq. 5 gives

a = < 2 rrrn ) 2 = l.0966 (10- 2 )rn 2 (7)

2
(60) r
which states that radial acceleration is proportional to the
radius and the square of rotational rate (speed).
 43.�

Fig. 2 Simplified view of the centrifuge and core plug.

It is obvious that acceleration varies over the radius

of rotation. Fig. 2 shows a simplified picture of the centrifuge
and plug. It can be shown that when the ratio of r1;r2 > 0.8,
we can assume a constant acceleration over the length of the plug.
The acceleration generated by the rotational movement is analogous
to the gravitational acceleration experienced in a reservoir.
Radial acceleration calculated from Eq. 7 is substituted in
Eq. 2 to give the resulting relation between induced (capillary)
pressure and rotational rate, noting that h is set to L,

(8)

-
When we use the definition of r = ½(r 1+r 2) and note that L = r2 -r1,
we arrive at the final expression*

-3 2 2 2
p = 5.483(10 )pn (r 2 - r ) (9}
1

where the units in Eq. 9 are

p: dynes/cm 2
p: gm/cm 3
r 2,r 1: cm
n: rotations/min

If, instead, we desire (capillary) pressure in atmospheres (atm),

Eq. 9 becomes

2 2 2
p = 5.411(10 -9)pn (r 2 - r1) (10)

* Wit.h the assumption that acceleration does not vary within the
length of the plug, we can conclude that the pressure is also
essentially constant over the length of the plug. This means that
p = P for all practical matters.
 s 44.
J

r� �-
lfSINI. Ot 4 $
I /
•
s, J
,."'\ ✓-4-!
-e...l z-·@ _, I /

p...:: g./'f!
�1 ,.... ...,
� '), ..• '-aa
,

ts �.. ut'"'i1 ,r./

ll 15 IJ -rr

''"'"
•! llld'lllllfllrtl
@ SPUO

�
.z • °" •
Mjl!N l'Olllflt

tlcll
• ·t
2 s
,:,Y" ,, -
r
........,...,✓.•
.�..,
l #\.,,5
11oro• STOf'PED
@srMIT

i,.S
�@ Ht
... -:" 'I,

.,....

·"
(@
<,
#..
,¥J>,, ·� � 0
c.....

0AMON/IEC DIVISION

Fig. 3 Kontrollpanel for PR-6000 Refrigerated Centrifuge

Fig. 4- Elektronisk stroboskop

 45.

Conversion between atmospheres and psi (pounds per square

inch) is 14.22 psi = 1.00 atm. The "false" pressure, p,
corresponds to an "average" (capillary) pressure at an "average"
saturation, S . When reporting the final results of the
experiment, give the capillary pressure the symbol "p ", not "p".
Also, do not write "Sw", but use the SPE symbol "S "
w ·

APPARATUS (See Fig. 3)

Model PR-6000 Refrigerated Centrifuge is used. This centrifuge

is completely automatic, and all controls and gauges necessary
to operate it are located on the instrument panel.

1) Main power

2) Brushes (wear-indicator)

3) Speed indicator (accuracy of + 2% of full scale)

4) Feedback speed control (the speed is selected anywhere

within 400 to 6000 rpm)

5) Temperature control (to avoid error due to vaporization,

temperature should be kept at 20° c)

6) Temperature switch

7) Dual timer (not used in this experiment)

 46.

8) Brake (brake.is not actuated until STOP button

is pressed)

9) "Rotor Stopped" indicator (cover may be opened when

the indicator light is on)

10) Start and stop controls.

----------
The Strobe

A strobe is an oscillating light synchronised to a fast, repeated

movement to "freeze" or slow down the speed of it for observing
the rotating object.

In this experiment the light is synchronised to the coreholders

in the centrifuge. The rotating movement of the coreholders are
"frozen" by the stroboscope and the volume of water in the
desired pipette can be measured. A list of devices on the strobe
are listed below.

1) Power switch

2) RPM control. Controls the flashrate of the light.

3) Range switch. Selects one of three RPM-ranges (internal

oscillator), plus three external input
positions.
RPM-range
110-690 RPM - high intensity 700 RPM max
670-4170 RPM - medium intensity 4.000 RPM max
4000-25000 RPM - low intensity 25.000 RMP max
 47.

4} Calibration indicator lamp

5) High cal., Low cal.

6) Output trigger jack

7} Input jack

8) Reflector lamp assembly

9} Power Cord

10) Holder Pin

Connected to the equipment showed in Fig. 4 is a flash delay

which makes it possible to switch the observation from one
coreholder to another.

PROCEDURE

1. Weigh saturated cores.

2. The centrifuge must be symetrically loaded.

NB. Difference in weight of diametrically corresponding
cores must not exceed 0.5 gram. Arrange the volumetric
scales of the pipettes to turn upward.

3. Select RPM and temperature (20° c). Start at 350 RPM.

Select brake-force by turning the "Brake"-switch. The scale
is graded from 1 to 9, and indicates an increasing brake-force
with increasing number. (Use 5 or 6). Switch "Main power"
to "on" position. Press "Start"-button.
 48

. 4. Locate the strobe on the centrifuge cover. Note the following

about the operation of the strobe:

a. Switch "Power" on. Wait for 10-15 sec.

b. Select suitable range for RPM measurement by

rotating the lever (3).
(Use 350-4170 rpm in this experiment).

c. To find the correct speed, start with a higher RPM

on the strobe than the actual RPM in the centrifuge.
Gradually decrease RPM on the strobe by rotating the
plastic ring (2) until a stationary image appears.

d. Turn range switch at flash-delay panel to position 2.

e. Turn the lever (3) to position "LINE/EXIT INPUT".

Then turn the plastic ring until a stationary
syncronized image appears.

f. To get different coreholders under the strobe, turn

"DELAY" switch from O +

5. Maintain this RPM (constant) until no more water is released.

6. When equilibrium is achieved, measure the volume of water in

the pipette.

7. Select a higher RPM.

8. Repeat the procedure from 4b).

9. After a sufficient number of measurements (7-9), switch

"RANGE" and "POWER" on the strobe to "OFF" position.

10. Press "STOP" button. When "ROTOR STOPPED" indicator lights,

switch "MAIN POWER" to "OFF" position. Take the coreholders out.
 49.

• 11. Weigh the cores.

12. Dry the cores.

13. Weigh dry cores and measure diameter and length.

·.1.au1.e 1. 1..,a1.cu.La1:1.on ::meet ror ueterm1nat1on ot capillary Pressure from Centrifuge Expe_riment.

"C1 I
I

(7) (8)
Wt PH 0 -9 2 2 ·
5.4 11(10 ) (r -r )
Sample D L Wtsat rl r2 V sat 2 1
d ry 2
I. D. (cm) (cm) (gm) (gm) (gm/cc) (cm) (cm) (cc)

1.00 11.5

DYNAMIC DATA
(1) ( 2) (. 3). (4) (5) (6)
RPM vobs Pc l:::.Vw sw p•S
C W
sw DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES:
(cc) (atm) (cc) (frac) (atm) (frac)
350 (1) V 0 bS = observed volume of
water
(2) Pc = cl•(RPM)2

(3) AV
w = V sat - V obs

(4) Sw = AVw / Vsat

(5) (2) • (4)

d(p•CS)
W
(6) SW =
dpc
(determined graphically
from a plot of p•S
C W
versus Pc )

(7) r2 = r1 + L
VI
0

(8) V sat = (Wtsat- Wt dry)/pH 0

2.
 51.

L0 4 RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

The object of th±s experiment is to measure relative

permeabilities of gas and water using a displacement process.
The displacing fluid is gas and the displaced fluid is water.

Apparatus
The Core Laboratories relative permeability apparatus
consists of a pressure control panel, core holder and flow
measurement panel. A schematic diagram of the equipment is
given in Fig. 1. The equipment is designed to permit simultan­
eous measurement of volumetric flow rates of gas and water
produced from a sample (core plug) subjected to an external
gas-drive under a constant pressure differential. The cum­
mulative volume of produced water is collected in a receiving
tube. The total (gas plus water) produced volume is indicated
by the displacement of water from calibrated glassware. This
measuring system has been calibrated at pre-selected increments
of total produced fluid volumes. The selected values have been
chosen to yield a relatively uniform distribution of gas-water
saturations in the core. The resultant data, together with time
and differential flooding pressure measurements, are used to
calculate relative permeabilities of the two phases.
Downstream pressure in the system is atmospheric throughout
the test. Consequently, the differential pressure is equal to the
gas-injection pressure (measured in "gauge" units). Technically
speaking, this assumption is not exactly correct due to the head
of water in the burette during the initial phase of displacement.
However, except in instances of very low pressure differentials
required to test highly permeable samples, the head of water in the
burette can be ignored. As soon as the water level passes out-of
the burette, the downstream pressure is atmospheric (zero gauge).
 52.

Procedure: Part I (Volumetric Measuring System)

The panel containing the burette and three calibrated

bottles is prepared for use as follows (see Fig. 2):

1. Connect a vessel containing degassed fresh or distilled

water to valve 8, which should be in the closed position.
Make sure the connecting hose is filled with water before
making the connection.

2. Manipulate valves 9, 10 and 11 to connect the bottles with

vent line C; turn them to FILL position. Close valves 12
and 13.

3. Open valve 8 and permit the water to gravity-feed from the

above-mentioned vessel into the bottles, purging all air
bubbles. Care must be taken to avoid subjecting the bottles
to excessive internal pressures when filling them with water.

4. Close valves 10 and 11 (i.e., turn them to RUN) after water

has completely filled the two small bottles and flows into
the vent line C. When the large bottle has been filled,
rotate the handle of valve 9 through 90 degrees in the
clockwise direction (to RUN position). Open valve 13 and
allow the water to flow into the burette, purging all air
bubbles. Using valve 13, advance the right-hand side of the
water level in the burette to a point about 0.5 cubic
centimeters to the left of the "start" mark on the burette.
Close valve 13.

5. Close valve 8, disconnect the water line used to fill the

system and then open valve 8 to the drainage system below.

6. Set up the inverted cylinder for measuring gas flow after

the large bottle has been emptied. First fill the 1000 cc
cylinder with water. Also fill the glass container with
about 10 cm water. Invert the cylinder, holding a piece of
thin plastic over its mputh to avoid spillage/loss, and
place it in the glass container. Remove the plastaic piece.
Put the plastic hose leading from line D into the mouth of
the cylinder. Note the initial air/water contact in the
cylinder.
 53.

Procedure: Part II (Pressure Control Panel)

The gas-injection pressure for a pressure range of 0-15

psig is established as follows (see Fig. 1):

1. Adjust the regulator on the nitrogen cyliner to

9 kg/cm�

2. Close valve nos. 1, 4, 6, 8, 9, and 10.

3. Open valve nos. 2, 3, 5, and 7.

4. Adjust regulator A, turning it clockwise, to raise pressure

to 30-40 psig as read on the 0-100 psig center gauge.
Adjust regulator B to read 10 psig as indicated on the
right-hand 0-15 psig gauge.

Procedure: Part III (Displacement Test)

Remove the sample to be tested from the water-filled

container. Wipe off the excess water from the sample surfaces
and reweigh�as a check against previously measured saturated
weight. Perform the displacement test as follows (see Fig. 2):

1. Close the vent valve (turn to the right) and open the
vacuum valve (turn to the left) on the core holder panel.

2. Insert the sample and the outflow "end-butt" into the layer
end of the core holder barrel, locking the end-butt in place.

3. Insert the inflow end-butt into the upper end of the core
barrel, making sure that valve 6 is securely closed and
valve 7 is open for venting. Tighten the large knurl­
handled screw sufficient to achieve a loose fit between the
end-faces of the sample and the end-butts. This will allow
the rubber sleeve to contract when the vacuum is vented and
assist in aligning the vertical axes of the sample and the
end-butts.

4. Close the vacuum valve and vent the core holder. Tighten
the large knurl-handled screw to a snug fit.
 54.

5. Close the vent valve and slowly open the pressure valve
to establish a sleeve pressure of about 15 kg/cm�

6. Put a few cc's of oil in the receiving tube and shake in

order to make the inside wall oil-wet. Pour out the oil
except for a small amount in the bottom (say 0.1 cc).
Assemble the receiving tube and stopper as shown in
Fig. 2.

7. Insert the delivery tube into the prepared hole in the

stopper. Slide the stopper up on the delivery tube until
the open end of the delivery tube is below the wide
diameter portion of the receiving tube. Make sure the
delivery tube is touching the wall of the receiving tube.

8. Insert the rubber stopper attached to the glass tube and

connected to line B into the open end of the burette.

9. Connect line B to the brass hose connection which is part

of the receiving tube assembly.

10. Close valve 7 on the core holder end-butt.

11. Slowly open valve 13 and observe that the water level in the
burette moves slightly to the right and stops. This is
caused by a slight increase in the gas volume in the receiving
tube and in connecting line B. This is due to a small
reduction in pressure resulting from the head of water in
the burette. If there are no leaks in the system, the water
level will remain stationary. With practice, the water level
can be initially positioned so that after opening valve 13,
the right-hand side of the water level will shift exactly
to the "start" mark. If, however, the water level comes to
rest either to the right or left of this mark, the volumetric
difference between "start" and the leading (right-hand)
edge of the water level, as indicated by the buretted
calibrations, should be noted. This incremental volume
should then be added, if the leading edge is to the left of
"start�• or subtracted, if to the right, to each of the
preselected levels of total fluid production when recording
these data for subsequent purposes.
 55.

Also, read the amount of oil in the receiving tube at

the start, and subtract this value from the water produced
readings.

12. Zero the electrical timer.

13. Commence the test by simultaneously opening valve 6 and

starting the electric timer. As the leading edge of the
water level reaches each of the preselected calibration
marks, simultaneously read the water production (in cc),
time (in sec) and gas injection pressure (psig), the
latter being a constant. Each set of readings should be
recorded on the data sheet opposite the total volume
reading (corrected if necessary) corresponding to the
calibration mark.

14. If .the water level in the largest of the three calibrated

bottles reaches the mark indicating a total produced volume
of 1775 cc's, rotate the handle of valve 9 through 90 degrees
in a clockwise direction (to METER position) while simultan­
eously closing valve 8. Measurement of the total produced
volume is thereby continued with the inverted cylinder
system. Time, pressure and water readings are taken until
50% of the water in place has been produced (or until the
inverted cylinder has been emptied). It should be noted
that since the inverted cylinder was ze�oed in the
beginning, all readings made from the cylinder should be
added to the 1775 cc value.

15. When the test is completed, open valve 12 to drain any

water that might have collected in the trap. This should
be done prior to cutting off the injected gas.

16. Close valve 6 and open valve 7.

17. Close sleeve pressure valve on the core holder and vent.

18. Close the vent valve and open the vacuum valve.

19. Remove the sample from the core holder. Close the nitrogen
supply and turn the regulator to zero pressure. Vent the
pressure control panel using valve 2.
 56.

Calculation of Relative Permeability

The theory supporting the calculation of relative permeability

using the equipment/procedure described above was presented in an
early SPE publication. A description is also given in Amyz, Bass
and Whiting's book: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, pg. 188.
From the two references, the following equations were taken:

(1)

(2)

sg = sg - V . •f
pi w (3)

A·k·krg •t:1p
qq = ( 4)
µ •L
g-

where

A = cross-sectional area of the core, cm 2

fw = fractional flow of water in the total fluid stream
k = absolute permeability, md
krg= relative permeability of gas, fraction of absolute
permeability
krw= relative permeability of water, fraction of absolute
permeability
L = length of the core, cm
qg = gas flow rate, cc/s
Rs = average flowing gas-water ratio, cc/cc
Sg = average gas saturation in the core, fraction
Sg0 = gas saturation at the outlet face of the core, fraction
Vpi.= cumulative injection of gas in pore volumes, cc
�P = pressure drop across the core, psi
µg = gas viscosity, cp
µw = water viscosity, cp
 57.

Table 1 gives a data sheet and procedure for calculating

· the relative permeabilities of gas and water. Columns 1, 2
and 3 are recorded during the experiment whereas other data
are calculated from these data. The following notes give
definitions and nomenclature of the calculated quantities in
columns 1 - 17.

1. t cumulative time, sec.

2. V : cumulative volume of gas and water measured from

the preselected intervals on the glass bottles (and
possibly inverted cylinder).

3. Np : cumulative water volume produced, measured in the

receiving tube (see Fig. 2), cc

4. AV : incremental gas and water volumes defined as the

difference between V corresponding to AV and the
previous value of V, cc

5. ANp : incremental water volumes defined as the difference

between Np corresponding to AN and the previous value of
P
N , cc
p

6. AG : incremental gas volumes defined as the difference

P
between Gp corresponding to AG and the previous value of
P
Gp, cc (note that Gp is merely V - N p)

7. R5 : average flowing gas-water ratio, cc/cc

8. krg/k rw : gas-water relative permeability ratio

9. V : average total (gas plus water) volume produced

through any given production interval, cc This value
is found by taking the total cumulative gas and water
volumes produced through the preceding step, and adding
the log-mean average gas and water volume produced for
the current step.
 58.

10. Np : average volume of water produced through any

given production interval, cc. This value is found
by taking the cumulative water volume produced through
the preceding step and adding the arithmetic average of
the water produced for the current step, i.e., Np =
N n- l + ½AN •
p, p

11. Gp : average volume of gas produced through any

given production step, refered to mean pressure
conditions, cc� G p = (V - Np ) • C 1

12. Vmp : average volume of gas and water produced through

any given production step, refered to mean pressure, cc;
Vmp = Gp + Np

13. fw fractional flow of water in the total fluid stream

at mean pressure conditions:

AN 1
fw = AN + AG = 1 + AG/AN l/(l + Rs ) ( 2)
p pcl p p =

14. terminal or end-face gas saturation, fraction of

pore volume:,

N - fw •V
sg = E ( 3)

15. At : incremental time of any given production step, sec.

16. krg : relative permeability to gas:

AG.
k rg = --12 . c 2 (4)
t

17. Sg average gas saturation:

s g = Np/V p (5)
 59.

where

V = pore volume of the core, cc

P
c = Boyle's Law correction factor for mean pressure
1
c = flow constant for a given sample, s/cc
2

It should be helpful to use the following simplified equations

for completing Table 1. A number in a bracket, e.g., (6) refers
to the result or data contained in column 6.

(4) AV = (2). -
J.
(2).i- l

(5) ANp = ( 3).J. - ( 3) i-

. 1

(6) AGp = (4).l. - (5) i

(7) R s = Cl•(6 >/ ( 5)i

( 8) k g/kw = (7 ) · µg /µ
i w

V = (2).
(9)
i- l +0.414•(4).
J.

(10) Np = (3).
1.- l
+0.5•(5).l.

(11) Gp = [(9).
J.
- (10) i].c1

(12) V mp = (10).
l.
+ (11).
J.

(13) fw = 1 / [(7).l. +1.0 ]

(10).
l.
- (12).(13).
(14) s g = J. J.

p
(15) At (1). - (1).
.l. 1.- 1

(16) krg = c 2 • < 6 >.

.l.
/ (15)..l.

(17) s g = (10).
.l.
/Vp
,.,.,._,..._._..., ..1- '- .LV'-''--'-'-U..L,;;;;; .LVJ.. '--U..l..'--U...L.0.1.....L.H';:j ':J0.0-V.L.L J..<::.LCl\...LV<:: f:'CJ..1111:::ClJJ.J...J...J..l..Y J...LV111 '::JCl::I U.J..1:l}:J.J..Cl.l..;t::!1111::::Ht.. UCI.\..CI.•

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t V Np bi. V L\Np L\G Rs kg/kw v Np Gp vmp fw sg D.t . krg

p
(sec) (cc) (cc) (cc) (cc) (cc) (cc/cc) (cc) (cc) (cc) (cc) (sec)

0 0 0 - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
1
3
7
17
37
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180
330
590
1100
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The relative permeability ratios (col. 8) should be plotted versus the end-face displacing gas saturations
(col. 14) on semi-log paper. In like manner, the relative permeabilities to gas (col. 16) should be plotted
versus average gas saturation (col. 17) on coordinate paper. Relative permeability ratios and relative
permeabilities to water can then be read from their respective plots at a common gas saturation. Relative
permeabilities to water are then calculated by dividing the relative permeability to gas by the relative
permeability ratio at the same saturation.
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