REHABILITATION

(REPAIR AND RENOVATION)

METAL STRUCTURES

COURSE 2
1. DEFECTS ON OLD METAL MATERIALS

Recall for cast iron the low tensile properties

and for wrought iron, the anisotropy of the
ductility and the harmful inclusions vis-a-vis of
assembly processes by welding.

For steels, in general, defects listed may be

found on materials prior the years 1975 - 1980
and are related to fabrication modes of the
time.
1) Weldability: weldability of metallic
materials used in the construction of bridges
has been the subject of prescriptions after the
use of welding as a method of assembly.

Accordingly, all riveted works, but also

welded ones (prior to 1970 approx.) must be
studied from the metallurgical point of view
in relation with this criterion.
Figure 21 shows the breakdown of a tension diagonal
truss under the effect of a small dimension welding
intended to attach a small part to the diagonal.

This arrangement resulted in the breakage of the

part by local quenching effect with formation of
brittle metallographic structures, the formation of a
crack and breakage of the part.
2) Fragility under shock:
the old steels, generally
non-weldable, are
sensitive to shocks and
exhibit breaks of solid
sheets due to lack of
plastic deformation.
3) The inclusionary state: The inclusions in steel are:
- oxides
- aluminates
- silicates
- sulfides
The first two, globular type, are little harmful to
welding, the other two, elongated type, generate
stress concentrations at the end of inclusions and
can initiate cold cracks that subsequently can grow
under fatigue effect.
4) Deep bubbles: the effervescence of steel or
insufficient calmage causes the formation of
pores whose oxidized surfaces are not closed
during rolling.

This defect weakens the material primarily in

the thickness direction (short transverse)
5) Laminations (destramare laminara):
The laminations correspond to the presence
of a secondary shrinkage during solidification
of the metal in the ingot or insufficient
chutage of the lingot head. This defect has
disappeared with the development of the
continuous casting (1975-1980). Resistance in
the thickness direction is essentially zero.

These imperfections on the faces are usually

oxidized and can have harmful dross residue
vis-a-vis the welding operations.
6) Straws : these surface defects correspond to
repliures during rolling with oxidized surfaces form a
discontinuity in the metal in the thickness direction.
 2. DATING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF
MATERIALS
To ensure the monitoring, maintenance and repair works, the first
point to be considered is the construction date and if there are
any repairs carried out. In general these elements are contained
in the book of construction, but often recognition and verification
of the mechanical properties of the materials used prove
necessary.
The characterization of steels can be achieved by chemical
analysis (carbon, manganese, silicon, ... content of embrittling
elements ...), metallography (structure, grain size, inclusions
condition ...), accompanied by, if the size of the samples allows,
mechanical tests (tensile tests and resilience).
 a. Chemical analysis

Chemical analysis is usually performed at spark spectrometer,

which allows quick characterization of the main components
excluding nitrogen. This process is not suitable for the analysis
of wrought iron, as the presence of inclusions can affect the
results. In this case, chemical analysis by dissolution is
preferred.

Interpretation of the results is used to characterize the

material (cast iron, steel), fabrication mode, the presence of
debilitating elements and, in part, to evaluate weldability.
 b. Metallographic examination

Metallographic examination completes the above analysis by

providing elements on the grain size and, consequently, the
fragility and on the state of inclusions for wrought irons and
old steels.

Accompanied by a measure of hardness, it allows us to

appreciate the characteristics and vis-à-vis behavior of the
welding assembly.
 c. Tensile tests and / or resilience

Larger samples are used to perform tensile tests and / or

resilience for a precise approach to these characteristics and
assignment to a grade and quality. In the case of the study of
a particular phenomenon, these samples allow the realization
of appropriate investigations.
Withdrawals from the old structure should be representative,
for different elements the achievement of samples is a
delicate operation that should be performed with knowledge
of the forces to which are subjected the elements without the
risk of weakening the structure.
The number of samples collected is still limited. Thus,
it is wise to collect multiple small samples at the
ends of the element for chemical analysis and
metallographic examination. The riveted structures
are very well suitable to this type of analysis.

The samples collected on a welded structure always

will be done after careful examination so they don’t
generate any notch effect on the elements that could
develop into cracking the structure.
These element end samples are taken by cutting
without heating, or by performing chips by drilling
allow the following analyzes :
■ Chemical analysis of the main elements C, Mn, Si, and
impurities S, P, N. For newer steels, analysis of dispersoids
Ni, V may submit additional information. This analysis
should assess the mode of development and the risks
associated with the presence of impurities. For wrought
irons, analysis spectrometer spark is not recommended
because the matrix is too heterogeneous, the dissolution
analysis will be preferred.
■ Metallographic examination allows to assess the state of
material inclusions and their impact on weldability.
■ The hardness measurement is used to assess the strength
characteristics of the material in reference to EN ISO 14577
- 03155 A classification index.
If it is possible to take larger samples, it will lead to the
production of mechanical testing, tensile, resilience for
example. It is often difficult to meet the sampling locations of
specimens defined by the standards. The presence of
segregation, edge effect ... must be taken into account in
interpreting the results against standards.
In a tensile test, a sample of 150 mm seems minimal
respecting the way of sampling: cross direction for sheet
metal and long direction for profiles. For impact tests,
sampling is systematic in longitudinal direction; the
dimensions of the standard specimens are the rule.
3. GENERAL APPROACH TO THE DIAGNOSIS
AND REPAIR PROJECT
Any repair of a structure must be preceded by a diagnosis of the
structural disorders encountered. In this context, a number of
data must be grouped :
■ the type of structure and its functions;
■ the manufacture date and for the repairs or reinforcements
made, if appropriate;
■ the geometry of the structure;
■ the characteristics of the materials used :
- yield,
- breaking load,
- elongation characteristic of the ductility,
- weldability (Ceq, inclusionary state ...) ;
■ existing defects observed during the detailed inspection:
- cracks (location, dimensions ...),
- corrosion: type of corrosion, assessment of residual
sections ...
- deformations,
- assembly defects: cracking of the weld, riveted or
bolted assembly weakening,
- ….
■ consultations made, if necessary, for the understanding
of disorders and / or operation of the structure;
■ recalculation of the structure if it is made.
These elements should allow the understanding of disorders,
their appearance and operation of the structure in the state. The
analysis of these elements can be concluded on or diseases that
affect the work. For example :
■ rusting : lack of maintenance in corrosion protection;
■ corrosion with reduction of the resistant section : sensitive
material, exposure, poor structural arrangement ...
■ cracking : fragility, shock, stress, fatigue material, fatigue of
welded joints ...
■ riveted and / or bolted connections : weakening, rupture of
elements, design flaws, implementation flaws, modifications,
solicitation excess ...
■ ….
The recalculation of the structure will generally
be realized with current means, but it will be
necessary to question the simplifying
assumptions of the period of construction and
integrate the observations made during the
detailed inspection (eg following section
reduction corrosion…)
Depending on the case, it will be necessary to
adjust the charges and surcharges taken into
account and to use sophisticated models such as
finite element analysis to appreciate the stress
concentrations that can cause the formation of
cracks.
 Thus the repair project may be prepared taking into account
the origin of the observed disorders. The project will also
examine the phasing of the work and the repercussions on
the structure, for example :
■ replacing an element generates a charge transfer to the rest of the
structure as is necessary to temporarily compensate. Moreover, the
element replaced, unless special provision, does not contribute to
the recovery of the own weight of the structure;

■ reinforcing a section provides increased stiffness and,

consequently, a change in the distribution of forces
4. METHODS AND REPAIR TECHNIQUES FOR
STRUCTURES
The set of techniques and construction methods
are used for repair, either in the workshop in
preparation of items, either on-site to connect
these elements to the existing structure.

Modern steels are produced for assembly by

welding. This concern did not exist for the old
metal materials, whose assembly was achieved
by bolting and/or riveting. Since the 1950’s,
steelmakers developed metallurgical weldability
concepts to evolve methods of assembly.
Any repair project must be a study that begins with the
knowledge of the metallic material and its metallurgical
behavior in order to assess the welding behavior, adjust the
settings and, if applicable, exclude thereof for the benefit of
joining techniques such as riveting or bolting.

Given the different mode of operation of these assembly

techniques, it is not possible to use them partially on the
same assembly. This course present these modes of
assemblies and application features in case of old metal
materials.
 1. Replacement of damaged elements

Numerous structures consist of triangulated structures

internally indeterminate and it is often possible to remove a
bar (diagonal or amount) without jeopardizing the stability of
the structure under own weight. If we are content to
disassemble a bar and to replace it without special
precautions, it is clear that the new bar will not participate in
the resistance of the structure under the effect of dead loads.
It is therefore appropriate to establish a provisional device
capable of balancing the existing efforts to replace the bar. In
the case of a tension member, the device can be easily
achieved by using prestressing bars.
In the case of a compressed bar, it is possible
to imagine a similar device consisting of struts
and jacks but such a system is cumbersome
and difficult to anchor at its ends.

To avoid stress and strain parasites, we must

ensure that the resultant of the efforts in the
provisional device is carried by the average
fiber of the bars.
It is not always easy to know with precision the exact
existing efforts in a bar (poorly known dead loads,
imposed deformations at work, construction phasing
unknown or unfamiliar, etc.).

To compensate for the lack of information, it is

possible to proceed as follows :
- loading provisional device with the effort given by
the calculation;
- realization of an alignment mark of the bar and its
gusset plate (a simple kerf sufficient in most cases);
- removing fastening rivets of the bar on its gusset
plate and any element that may interfere with their
relative movement;
- checking that there is no gusset plate-bar relative
movement, if not adjust the force in the temporary
device to realign the landmarks.
By applying the same principles it is possible to
replace bar attachment brackets but these
generally ensuring the link between the three
bars (two diagonals and ribs for example), it is
either to set up a device which cancels efforts in
the two diagonal simultaneously (which is not
always easy to do) or in stages according to the
following phasing (Fig. 30) :
- recovery efforts in the diagonal A with a
temporary device;
- cutting the gusset into two parts along the
bisector of the two diagonals;
- Removing the half gusset attaching the
diagonal A;
- setting up a new semi-gusset;
- same operations to the diagonal B;
- welding the two half-pockets between them.
To limit the stresses due to the thermal
contraction of welding, the neighboring
rivets will be introduced after the completion
of welding.

If this is not possible, the weld will be

replaced by a splice plate riveted or bolted.
 2. Added material

It is easy to reinforce a metallic structure by increasing the

section of its weakest elements by addition of a profile or
sheet. This facility should not forget the precautions to take to
achieve such strengthening.

Except for special cases where the forces due to the own
weight are zero or very low (suspension bridges and
removable metal viaduct for example), it is advisable to
relieve forces in the structure before the reinforcement, so it
participates at least partially to the resistance under own
weight.
 To do this, three methods are commonly used :
- installation work on temporary supports. But this method, simple
and effective, is rarely possible for obvious reasons related to the
site;
- implementation of a provisional prestress. When it comes to
reinforce a diagonal or an amount, the installation and anchoring
of prestressing bars do not pose major problems in the current
case. When it comes to reinforce a beam frame, anchoring bars or
tendons poses technological problems (difficulty to anchor a
concentrated effort in routine part of a chord, congestion
problems around beam supports);
- use gradients of support: This method is easy to implement in
many cases, sees its scope limited by the resistance of the
sections requested by the efforts transfers.
The increase of the sections of the elements alters the
rigidity and structure and the law of inertia, which causes a
change in the curve of the bending moments which must be
taken into account in the calculation.

Do not forget to check and possibly strengthen the

attachment brackets.

There is no need for steel reinforcements high strength,

stress is not exceeded in normal operation is limited by the
quality of steels in place.
 As regarding the constructional arrangements, it is
necessary :
a) avoid stress concentrations and parasitic efforts at the ends
of the reinforcing parts, in grinding the ends of the weld
seams, by making the attachment of stiffeners in areas
where the force is as low as possible, respecting the layout
diagrams of lines, etc. ;

b) avoid creating "water traps"; this requirement is sometimes

inconsistent with maintaining the position of the centers of
gravity. Figure 31 illustrates this contradiction
The reinforcement of the upper chord changes the
position of center of gravity of the frame but does
not hamper the discharge of rainwater.

The reinforcement of the bottom chord has the

opposite default. In case it is not possible to
reconcile the two requirements, it is necessary to
prevent water traps and perform a calculation
model taking into account the eccentricities of the
centers of gravity.
Figure 32 shows the reinforcement of the bridge
Douarnenez by rectangular bars positioned under
the frames, between the rivets lines.
In many cases, the resistance of a bar is
limited not by its elastic limit but its critical
buckling strain.

In such a case, the problem is greatly

simplified since it is not necessary to cancel
(or reduce) the stresses or to ensure the
attachment of reinforcements at the ends of
the bar.
However, it should take the following basic
precautions :
- Avoid that the reinforcement is a water trap;
- maintain the position of the centers of gravity;
- prevent stress concentrations by avoiding too
abrupt sectional changes;
- take account of the new law of inertia in the
case of reinforcing an element.
The material addition can also be made by
adding flat elements to the webs and
flanges.

The assembly may be made by welding, by

riveting or bolting.

Figure 33 presents different plate reinforcing

provisions.